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Contents
03 06 29
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
India: Location and India: Structure and India: Drainage
Extent Physiography
52 70 97
Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
India: Climate India: Vegetation, India: Natural
Wildlife and Soils Disasters and
Management
1
115 135 145
Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Previous Year
India: Agriculture India: Minerals and Questions
Energy Resources
2
CHAPTER - 1
3
the West. Tripura and Mizoram.
• The Standard Meridian of India passes
37’ 6˚ N through 5 states of India, namely: Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
82’ 30˚ E
HIMACHAL
PRADESH
PUNJAB
UTTARAKHAND
India’s Neighbours
L 97’ 25˚ E
HARYANA HA
AC H
UN ES
AR RAD
SIKKIM P
UTTAR PRADESH
RAJASTHAN ASSAM ND
LA
GA
BIHAR MEGHALAYA NA
UR
NIP
MA
UR
A
• International borders: Bangladesh
JHARKHAND
MIZORAM
IP
WEST TR
ODISHA
CH
ARABIAN
SEA
MAHARASHTRA
KARNATAKA
TAMIL NADU
Lanka and the Maldives.
• States with International borders:
KERA
4
Nepal 1751 5 Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Sikkim
NORTH JAPAN
KORIA
ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TOKYO
TURKMENISTAN
TURKEY SOUTH
CHINA KORIA
SYRIA AFGHANISTAN
IRAQ IRAN
PAKISTAN
JORDAN
ISRAEL DELHI
KUWAIT NEPAL
BHUTAN
KARACHI
HONGKONG
EGYPT BANGLA TAIWAN
DESH
UNITED
SAUDI ARABIA ARAB EMIRATES KOLKATA
MYANMAR HANOI
OMAN MUMBAI LAOS
PHILIPPINES
THAILAND
SUDAN
YEMEN
ERITREA CHENNAI
BANGKOK VIETNAM
CAMBODIA
DJIBOUTI
SRILANKA
ETHIOPIA
COLOMBO
IA
AL
MALAYSIA
M
SINGAPORE
SO
INDONESIA
INDIAN OCEAN
Air Routes
Sea Routes
AUSTRALIA
5
CHAPTER - 2
INDIA:
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
Introduction: beneath the sea.
• Peninsular block being a part of Indo-
Australian Plate, it has been subjected
• Indian Subcontinent is the result of
to various vertical movements and
interplay of endogenic and exogenic
block faulting. The rift valleys of the
forces and lateral movement of
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi
plates through which the geomorphic
and the Satpura block mountains are
processes and geological structure of
some examples of it.
the subcontinent came into being.
• Peninsula consists mostly of relics and
• Based on the different geological
residuals like Aravali ranges, Nallamala
structure and formations, India is
hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills,
divided into three geological divisions,
Palkonda range and Mahendragiri hills.
as follows:
• Many rivers flow through this Peninsular
» The Peninsular Block block. Most of the east flowing rivers
» The Himalayan and other Peninsular like Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
Mountains form delta before entering into the Bay
of Bengal.
» Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains
• The west flowing rivers like Narmada,
Tapi etc do not form any delta because:
Peninsular Block » Due to the steep slope of Western
• The northern limit of peninsular block Ghats, the west flowing rivers generally
is the Kutch region, running along the have a rapid flow. Because of this, the
western flanks of the Aravali range rivers carry their silt into deep sea.
and then runs parallel to Yamuna and » There is very less silt deposition.
Ganga to as far as Rajmahal Hills and Concurrently, the Narmada and Tapi
Ganga delta. rivers flow via the rift valleys and while
• In North-East India, the Karbi Anglong doing so the eroded material carried by
and the Meghalaya Plateau are also an them gets deposited in the fractures of
extension of this block. the fault zones. Thus, they do not form
deltas.
• This north eastern part of the block is
separated from the main block by the » Moreover, the tides are also one reason
Malda Fault in West Bengal from the that the rivers of western side do not
Chota Nagpur Plateau. form deltas. The west flowing rivers
form estuaries instead.
• Parts of Rajasthan desert are also an
extension of this peninsular block.
• Peninsular block is formed by ancient The Himalayan and other
gneisses and granites and has been a
rigid mass of block standing since the
Peninsular Mountains
cambrian period except for the western • These mountains are young fold
part, where a part of it is submerged mountains, and their geological
6
structure is much weaker and more during the third phase of Himalayan
flexible than the old and stable mountain formation.
peninsular block.
Geosynclines
• The exogenic and endogenic interplay • A geosyncline is large troughlike or basinlike
results in the formation of different downwarping of the crust in which thick
kinds of folds, faults and thrust plains. sedimentary and volcanic rocks accumulated.
• These mountains are the result of • These are major structural and sedimentation
all units of the earth’s crust. They are elongated
tectonic activities.
trough-like depressions submerged beneath
• In fact, these mountains lying on the the sea water.
zones of convergence along the tectonic • They are potential sites of mountain building
plate boundaries are still undergoing activity. These basins become filled with
the tectonic activities and are still in great thickness of sediments and along with
the accumulation of pile of sediments; there
their process of formation.
occurs progressive subsidence of the basin
• The rivers cut across these mountains floor resulting into plain formation at a much
during their youthful stage resulting later geological stage.
into marvellous features like gorges, • The plain was the result of sediments
V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc. brought and filled by Himalayan and
before they descend into the plains. Peninsular rivers.
• The several Himalayan rivers like • These plains are mostly formed of
Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra etc. cut alluvial deposits and therefore are
across the lofty Himalayas as very fast extremely fertile and the depth of
flowing streams in their upper reaches. deposits vary between 1000-2000 m.
Such fast movement of running water
causes more vertical erosion that lateral
erosion and causes valleys to deepen. India - Physiography
• The rivers of Western Ghats too form
spectacular gorges and V-shaped
• Physiography of a region is the outcome
of the geologic structure, geomorphic
valleys which are the result of
processes, and stage of development of
the vertical erosional activities
landforms. India has great diversity in
of peninsular rivers like Krishna,
terms of physical features. The north is
Ghataprabha, Tungabhadra, Periyar
characterized by the rugged mountain
etc. Many waterfalls like Dudhsagar,
topography with high peaks, beautiful
Sivasamudram, Jog are the resultant
valleys, and deep gorge. The southern
erosional features of Western Ghats.
part is the solid block of rigid landmass
which is very stable and is dissected by
plateaus, denuded rocks, and resultant
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra scarps. The middle part is characterized
Plains by vast rolling plains.
• As the name suggests, the floodplains • India is divided into 6 physiographic
of the three most important Himalayan divisions:
rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus
forms the third geological division.
» The Northern and the Northeastern
Mountains
• The floodplain was originally a geo-
synclinal depression.
» The Northern Plains
• The plain reached its peak development » The Peninsular Plateau
approximately 64 million years ago, » The Indian Desert
7
» The Coastal Plains of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian
» The Islands Plate.
• Himalayas are the highest mountain
INDIA ranges in the world and have the
PHYSIOGRAPHIC highest peaks, deep valleys, gorges and
DIVISIONS
glaciers.
NORTHERN • They form an arc over the Indian
MOUNTAINS
(BROWN) subcontinent, which covers a distance
GREAT
DESERT of around 2,400 km. in length and
(YELLOW)
NORTHERN varying width from 400 km. in Kashmir
PLAINS
(GREEN) to 160 km. in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The altitudinal variations of Himalaya
DECCAN are greater in the eastern part than
PLATEAU
(ORANGE) those in the western part.
• These mountains act as a physical
COASTAL barrier between Central and East Asian
PLAINS
(BLUE) countries and India and protect the
Indian subcontinent from the icy cold
winds of Central Asia.
I M A G E 2.1: P H Y S I O G R A P H Y INDIA
OF
• They act as climatic, drainage and
cultural divide.
8
(They are the inner most mountain originate from this Himalaya.
ranges) Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
» Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
(they are the middle Himalayas) • Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas
or Himachal is the middle section of the
» Shivaliks or the Outer Himalayas vast Himalaya Mountain.
• The general orientation of these • The range lies between the Great
mountains is northwest to southeast in Himalayas to the northeast and Shivalik
the north western side of India, towards range to the southeast.
east-west direction in the North Bengal • The average height of these mountains
and Sikkim and towards southwest to is 3700 – 4500 m. and average width is
northwest direction in the Arunachal 50 km.
side and North-south direction in
• Himachal extended for some 2,400
Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur
km. northeast to southeast across
region.
the northern limit of the Indian
• The Himalayan mountains from North- subcontinent.
east to Nepal are covered with lush
• Areas included are Nepal, Bhutan,
green thick forest but the forest cover
Indian states of Himachal, Uttarakhand,
decreases west from Nepal following
and Sikkim and UTs of Kashmir and
the general pattern of rainfall which
Ladakh.
decreases east to west.
• Pirpangal, Nag Tibba, Dhauladhar,
Mahabharat are some of the important
Greater Himalayas or Himadri ranges.
• The Greater Himalayas run for 2400 • The Middle Himalayas are famous for
km. from west to east and their width is their valleys like Kulu, Kashmir, Kangra
about 120-190 km. etc.
• The average height of these mountains • Most popular hill stations are in these
is 6000 m. and average width is around mountains are Shimla, Ranikhet,
120 – 190 km. Darjeeling, Nainital etc.
• They are the most continuous range
consisting of the loftiest peaks and Shivalik or the Outer Himalayas
contain all the prominent Himalayan
peaks. The core of this Himalayan part • Shivalik ranges are the southernmost
is composed of granite. hills of the Himalayas.
• They are perennially snowbound, and • It is separated from the Lesser
a number of glaciers descend from this Himalayas at some places by flat-
range. bottomed Valleys.
• Mount Everest (8850 m.) – the highest • The ancient name of this range was
peak in the world, Mt. Kanchenjunga ‘Upgiri’.
(8586 m.), Mt. Makalu (8481 m.), Mt. • The Outer Himalayas makes almost a
Dhaulagiri (8172 m.) are some of the continuous chain of more than 2400
important peaks of this mountain range. km. from the Indus gorge in northwest
• Other prominent ranges include Kamet, to the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Nanga Parbat and Annapurna. • The width of Shivaliks is 10-50 km. and
• The Ganga and the Yamuna, rivers the height seldom exceed 1300 m.
9
• In Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, the • The northern slopes are gentler, bare
southern slopes of Shivalik ranges are and show plains with lakes, while the
nearly lacking of forest cover. These southern slopes are steep, rugged and
slopes are extremely dissected by forested.
seasonal streams called Chaos. • Siachen and Baltoro glaciers are part
• There exist many longitudinal valleys of Kashmir Himalaya.
between the Shivaliks and Himachal, • The world-famous valley of Kashmir
running parallel to the mountains and and the famous Dal Lake are located
are called ‘Duns’, like Dehradun, Kotli between the Great Himalayas and the
Dun, Patli Dun. Pir Panjal range.
Formation of ‘duns’ and 'duars' in Shivalik Hills: • It is also well-known for their Karewa
• Shivalik Hills were formed by the formations, which are useful for growing
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
silt, gravel, debris etc.). These conglomerates,
in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed • This region also contains some of the
the courses of the rivers draining from the most important freshwater lakes, such
higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed as Dal and Wular, as well as saltwater
temporary lakes.
lakes, such as Pangong Tso and Tso
• With the passage of time, these temporary Moriri.
lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were well • Famous pilgrimage sites such as
settled at the bottom of the lakes. Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-
• When the rivers were able to cut their courses e-Sharif, and others are also located
through the lakes filled with conglomerate here, and a large number of pilgrims
deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving visit these sites each year.
behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the
west and ‘duars’ in the east. • Zojila, Rohtang, Baralacha la and Shipki
La are important passes.
• This area has the beautiful valleys of
On the basis of alignment of ranges, relief,
Kullu, Kangra and Lahaul and Spiti.
and similar geomorphological features, the
Himalayas are divided into the following • It is also home to the beautiful Kashmir
subdivisions. Valley and the Dal lake.
• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas • The Dal lake presents a very unique and
interesting physical feature. The Jhelum
• Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas river in the Kashmir valley is still in its
• Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas youth stage and yet it forms meanders.
• Arunachal Himalayas Meanders
• Eastern Hills and Mountains • Meanders are a physical feature which is
associated with the mature stage of evolution
in the formation of fluvial landforms.
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas: • In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum
river are caused by the local base level
• Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal, provided by the erstwhile larger lake of which
and Dhaola Dhar are the main ranges the present Dal Lake is a small part..
of this section
• The Kashmir Himalayas' northeastern The Himachal and Uttarakhand
region is a cold desert located between
Himalayas:
the Greater Himalayas and the
Karakoram ranges. • This region is roughly located between
10
the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a Indian tribes.
tributary of Ghaghara) in the east and • Instead of Shiwaliks, the ‘duar
drained by two of India's major river formations' are significant here, and
systems, the Indus and the Ganga. have also been used for the growth of
• The rivers Ravi, Beas, and Satluj tea gardens.
(tributaries of Indus), and the Yamuna • This region is also known for their
and Ghaghara (tributaries of Ganga) scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
flow through this area. particularly various types of orchids.
• All three Himalayan ranges, namely the
Great Himalaya, the Lesser Himalayas
The Arunachal Himalayas:
(locally known as Dhaoladhar in
Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in • These extend from the east of the
Uttarakhand), and the Shiwalik range Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass
from north to south, are prominent in in the east in southwest to northeast
this section. direction.
• The Bhotias are the majority of the • Kangtu and Namcha Barwa are
people who live in the valleys of the important mountain peaks of the
Great Himalayan range. These are region.
nomadic groups that migrate to the
• The fast-flowing rivers from the north to
'Bugyals' (summer glasslands in the
the south dissect this region and form
higher reaches) in the summer and
deep gorges.
return to the valleys in the winter.
• Ex: Bhramaputra flows through a deep
• The Valley of Flowers is also situated in gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
this region.
• Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang
• This region is famous for the formation and Lohit are some of the important
of Duns. Dehradun1 is the largest and
rivers of this region.
the most famous dun in this region.
• These rivers have hydro-electric power
• The region is also known to have potential because of their perennial
five famous Prayags. The places of
flow with the high rate of fall.
pilgrimage like Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath and Hemkund Sahib are • Numerous ethnic tribal groups,
situated in this region. including the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi,
Nyishi, and Nagas, live in these areas
from west to east.
The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas:
• Most of these communities practise
• They are bounded to the west by the Jhumming, known as shifting or slash
Nepal Himalayas and to the east by the and burn cultivation.
Bhutan Himalayas.
• This Himalaya is renowned for its The Eastern Hills and Mountain:
fast-flowing rivers, such as Tista, high
mountain peaks such as Kanchenjunga • These are part of the Himalayan
(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. mountain system and have alignment
from north to south direction.
• The higher reaches of this region are
inhabited by Lepcha tribes, whereas • In the north, they are known as Patkai
the southern portion, especially the Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and
Darjiling Himalayas, is populated by a in the south as Mizo or Lushai hills.
mix of Nepalis, Bengalis, and Central • This region is also inhabited by
11
numerous tribal groups practising Jhum between India and Tibet.
cultivation. • Nathu La Pass: It connects the Indian
• The majority of these ranges are state of Sikkim with China’s Tibet
separated by numerous small rivers. Autonomous Region. This pass is of
The Barak River (tributary of Meghna) strategic importance in Indo-China
is important in Manipur and Mizoram. relations.
• Manipur's physiography is characterised • Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu
by the presence of a large lake known as valley with Lahaul and Spiti valleys
'Loktak' lake in the middle, surrounded of Himachal Pradesh. Manali-Leh
by mountains on all sides. Mizoram, Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses
also known as the 'Molassis basin,' Rohtang Pass.
is composed of soft unconsolidated • The Atal tunnel, the world's longest
deposits. highway tunnel (9.02 km) above a
height of 3,000 metres, was recently
built in Rohtang. It links Solang Valley in
the Manali district to Sissu in the Lahaul
and Spiti district.
• Shipki La Pass: It is located in Himachal
Pradesh and border post on the India-
Tibet border. The river Satluj enters
India from Tibet through this pass.
12
The Trans-Himalayan in the Indian UT of Ladakh.
Mountains • The average height is about 6000 m.
• This range separates Zanskar from
• The Trans Himalayas are the ranges Ladakh.
immediately to the north of the Great
Himalayan Range. Kailash Mountain Range
• It includes the mountain ranges of • Kailash range is one of the highest
Karakoram, Zanskar, Ladakh and and most rugged parts of the Trans
Kailash ranges. Himalayas. It is located in the
• It is also called the Tibet Himalayas southwestern part of the Tibet.
because most of it lies in the Tibet • Mount Kailash is an important holy site
region. for both Hindus and Buddhist.
• It stretches 1000 km. from east to west • It is the origin of the river Indus.
and average height is about 3000 m.
Karakoram Range
• These range forms India’s frontier
with Afghanistan and China. It is the
northernmost range in the Trans-
Himalayan Mountains.
• The average width of this range is 120
– 140 km. Most peaks hardly ever fall I M A G E 2.4: T R A N S -H I M A L AYA N M O U N TA I N S
below 5,500 m. Some of the peaks have
height more than 8,000 m above sea
level. The Purvanchal Or Eastern Hills
• K2 is the 2nd highest peak in the world and Mountains
& the highest in India. It is also known
as Godwin Austen.
• After crossing the Dihang gorge
(Brahmaputra gorge) in Arunachal
Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges
Ladakh Range suddenly turn southward. It forms the
series of comparatively low hills running
• This part of the Trans Himalayan in the shape of a crescent with its
Ranges lies to the north of Leh. convex side pointing towards the west.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north- • Collectively these hills are called as
east of the Karakoram Ranges. It is the Purvanchal because they are
dissected into a number of plains and located in the eastern part of the
mountains. It is the highest plateau of country. Purvanchal hills extends from
Indian Union and has many plains like the Arunachal Pradesh in the north
Soda plains and Aksai Chin. direction to Mizoram in the south
• This range merges with the Kailash direction and forms a border between
range in Tibet. Myanmar and India.
• From north to south the elevation of
the Eastern Hills decreases. The region
Zanskar Range: is categorized by rough terrain, dense
• This part of Trans Himalayas is situated forests, and hasty streams. These
13
Ranges are usually 2,000 m. or less in which is made up of soft unconsolidated
elevation. deposits.
• This region receives the most of
monsoonal rainfall and therefore is
covered with lush dense green forests.
• Such green cover in the hills often
makes them inaccessible.
• Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji
in Meghalaya is the wettest place on
earth, receiving the highest annual
rainfall.
• These hills are inhabited by tribal
groups who practice Jhum cultivation.
• The Indo-Burma mountain range is a
part of Arakan Yoma Suture zone which
stretches south via Andaman– Nicobar
island chain to Sunda.
I M A G E 2 .5: P U R VA N C H A L H I L L S
14
and northern branch. The southern resources. The tertiary rocks have vast
branch entering India plays an potential of mineral oil. Coal is found
important role in carrying the monsoon. in Kashmir. The minerals like Cobalt,
• Source Region of Rivers: Himalaya Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Lead, Antimony,
is the plentiful reservoir of Great Tungsten, Limestone, Gypsum and
Indian rivers such as Indus, Ganga, Magnetite are also present in the
and Brahmaputra. The snow liquefy Himalayan locality. The Silver, Gold,
in summer and precipitation in winter and other semi-precious and precious
makes them perennial rivers (Rivers stones are also found in the region of
having water all over the year). The Himalaya.
ample rains, massive snowfield and • Tourism: The beautiful landscapes
huge glaciers nourish these drainage on Himalayan mountain offer a great
systems. Himalayan Rivers give life to tourist spot. The the cool climate,
northern India. winter sports and snowfall and, attracts
• Fertility of Soil: The Himalayan Rivers millions of tourists from the neighboring
carry slits on their way down and places which are under the scorching
deposit in the northern plain. In this heat of summer and different parts of
way the entire northern plains were the world. Hill stations such as Mussouri,
made by the Himalayas. These alluvial Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Chamba,
deposits are the reasons behind the Ranikhet, Darjeeling, Almora, Gangtok,
high fertility of this land. Hence, it is Mirik, etc provide huge scope of tourism
often said that northern great plain is a due to their scenic natural beauty as
gift of Himalayas. well as healthy environment.
15
Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra and their • The area is unsuitable for agriculture
tributaries from the Himalayas. and only big trees with large roots
• The rivers which were flowing into thrive in this belt.
Tethys sea in very early period (Before Terai
Indian Plate collided with Eurasian
Plate) deposited enormous amount of • South of the Bhabar belt is the Terai
sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline. belt.
• It is around 8-16 km. wide running in an • Most of the Terai land, particularly in
east-west direction along the foothills Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand,
(alluvial fans) of the Shivaliks. is turned into agricultural land which
yields good crops of sugarcane, rice
• Descending rivers from the Himalayas and wheat.
deposit their load alongside the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans. Alluvial Plains
These alluvial fans merged together to • The south of Terai belt is characterized
form Bhabar belt. by deposits of new and old alluvium
• The porosity of Bhabar is the very deposit. Now alluvial plains are divided
unique feature. This porosity is because into Bhanger and Khadar.
of deposition of large number of • These plains have characteristic
pebbles and rock debris through the features of mature stage of fluvial
alluvial fans. erosional and depositional features
• The streams fade once they reach the such as sandbars, meanders, oxbow
Bhabar region due to this porosity. lakes, and braided channels.
Hence, the area is noticeable by dry river • The Brahmaputra plains are famous
courses excluding in the rainy period. for the riverine islands and sandbars.
• The Bhabar belt is reasonably narrow in These regions are very prone to floods
the east, however extensive in the west and shifting river courses.
and north-west mountainous region.
16
Himalaya
• The UT of Delhi and State of Haryana
Bhabar
forms a water divide between the Indus
and the Ganga river system.
Terai
Bhangar
• Due to soil fertility and thriving
Khadar agriculture in this region, it supports a
large population.
River valley
Bhanger
• Bhangar is the older alluvium beside
the riverbeds forming terraces higher
than the floodplain.
• The terraces are often saturated with
calcareous stone like pebbles termed
as ‘Kankar’.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the delta region
of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
the regional variants of Bhangar.
• Bhur represents an elevated piece of I M A G E 2.7 : N O R T H R N P L A I N S
land situated along the banks of the
Ganga river, especially in the upper
Ganga- Yamuna Doab. This is formed On the basis of region, the
due to accumulation of wind-blown Great Plains may be classified
sands during the hot dry months of the
year.
into three divisions
Khadar The Punjab plain drained by the
Indus
• Khadar is made up of novel alluvium
and makes the flood plains alongside • Western portion of the Northern plain is
the riverbanks. called as Punjab plain.
• A new stratum of alluvium is deposited • This plain is drained by the Indus and
by river floods almost every year. her tributaries, like the Satluj, Beas,
and Ravi. Only a fragment of the Indus
• This makes them the most fertile soils basin lies in India.
of Ganga region.
• The plain slopes lightly down towards
the south-west; hence the rivers follow
• It is in these plains that the world’s the slope of the land.
largest delta is formed. The Sundarbans • The plain is mostly made of silts. The soil
delta is one of the most important is porous. The plains that are shaped by
examples. the accumulation of new alluvium near
• Apart from these features, the Northern the riverbanks is termed as Bet.
Plains are overall very featureless with
general elevation of only 100-150 m.
above the mean sea level.
17
The Ganga plain drained by the included in the tentative list of World
Ganga Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
• The green Brahmaputra valley is
• It is spreads from the east margin of renowned for tea plantation.
the Punjab in the west to Bangladesh
border in the east. This is a widespread Significance of Northern Plains:
plain encompassing state like Uttar • This one fourth region of the country’s
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. land hosts half of the Indian population.
• It is divided into Rohilkhand Plains, • Flat surface, fertile alluvial soils, slow
Awadh Plains and Bihar Plains. moving perennial rivers, and favorable
• It is drained by the rivers like Yamuna, climate facilitate the intense agricultural
Ghaghara, Ganga, Gandak, Kosi and activity in this region.
Tista from the Himalayas in the north • The extensive use of irrigation and
side and Chambal, Betwa, Son and intensive agriculture practice has made
Damodar from the plateau in the south. the Punjab, Haryana and western part
The entire region slopes towards south of Uttar Pradesh became the granary
and south- east. of India.
Divisions of the Ganga Plains
• The entire plain has a close network
• Upper Ganga plain: It extends from the of roads and railways which has led
Yamuna river in the west to Allahabad to large scale industrialization and
city in the east. urbanization.
• Middle Ganga plain: It stretches from • There are many religious places
Allahabad in the west to Rajmahal hills present along the banks of the sacred
in the east. rivers of Ganga and Yamuna which are
• Lower Ganga plain: It extends from very sacred to Hindus. The religions of
Rajmahal hill to the Bay of Bengal. Buddha and Mahavira flourished here
and the movements of Bhakti and
Sufism. This makes northern plains as
The Brahmaputra plain drained by destination for the cultural tourism.
the Brahmaputra
• This region is located in the north-
eastern part of the country and is edged
The Peninsular
between the Arunachal Himalayas in
the north and the Meghalaya Plateau
Plateau
in south. • Peninsular plateau is triangular in shape
• Ranges of mountains are found & encircled by hills, composed of oldest
standing on both sides of the river. rocks as it was formed from the drifted
• Innumerable Sandbars and islets are part of Gondwanaland.
found on the Brahmaputra and the river • It is a tableland made up of old
flows out in different channels avoiding crystalline, igneous and metamorphic
obstacles of sandbar. rocks.
• Majuli Island is the India's First island • The broad & shallow valleys and
district and biggest inhabited riverine rounded hills are the characteristic
islands in the world located in the river features of this plateau.
Brahmaputra. It is the nerve centre of • The Peninsular plateau stretches from
Neo-Vaishnavite culture. It has been the Aravali range till the southern tip
18
of India. This peninsular plateau is Mewar or Marwar Plateau
bordered by Western Ghats in the west,
Eastern Ghats in the east. • It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan.
• Plateau can be broadly categorized into • Note that Marwar Plain is to the west of
two regions, viz. the Central Highlands Aravalis and Marwar plateau is to the
and the Deccan Plateau. east.
• The average altitude is 250-500 m
above sea level, and it slopes down
Central Highlands: eastwards.
• The Central Highlands situated to the • The Banas river, along with her
north of the Narmada River & covers tributaries (Berach river, Khari rivers)
the major portion of the Malwa plateau originate in the Aravali Range and flow
which lies in Madhya Pradesh between towards the northwest into Chambal
Aravali and Vindhyas. river.
19
bounded by the Aravali Range in the the plateau and joins Ganga river.
west side and Madhya Bharat Pathar to • Average altitude of the plateau is 700
the north and Bundelkhand to the east meter above the sea level.
side.
• This plateau is composed mostly of
• The plateau has two drainage systems: Gondwana rocks.
one towards the Arabian sea (Narmada,
Tapi and Mahi), and the another in the • The plateau is drained by various rivers
direction of Bay of Bengal (Chambal and streams in different directions and
and Betwa, joining the Yamuna). presents a radial drainage pattern.
• In the north it is drained by the Chambal • Rivers like Damodar, Subarnrekaha,
and many of its right bank tributaries North Koel, South Koel and Barkar have
like the Kali, Sindh and the Parbati. developed extensive drainage basins.
It also includes the upper courses of • Damodar river flows over middle of this
Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa. region in a rift valley from west to east.
• It is made up of extensive lava flow and • Gondwana coal fields which provide
is shielded by black soil. most of coal in India are located in this
• It is a rolling plateau dissected by region.
rivers. In north direction, the plateau is • North of the Damodar river lies the
noticeable by the Chambal ravines. Hazaribagh plateau with an average
altitude of 600 m above mean sea level.
This plateau has isolated hills.
Baghelkhand Plateau
• Ranchi Plateau lying south of the
• North of Maikal Range is the Damodar Valley rises to near 600 m
Baghelkhand. above mean sea level. Most of the
surface is rolling in nature.
• It is made of limestones and sandstones
on the west and granite in the east. • At places it is interrupted by
Monadnocks (isolated hill of bedrock
• Son rivers makes the boundary in the
standing conspicuously above the
North side.
general level of the surrounding area)
• Central part of plateau act as a water and conical hills.
divide between the Son drainage system
in the north side and the Mahanadi
• The Rajmahal Hills form the north
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur
river system in the south direction.
Plateau and it is mostly made up of
• The general horizontal nature of the basalt rocks.
strata displays that this area has not
underwent any major disturbance.
• They run in a north-south direction and
rise to average elevation of 400 m.
Chotanagpur Plateau
Deccan Plateau
• Chotanagpur plateau characterizes the
north-eastern projection of the Indian • It is the largest plateau in India, making
Peninsula. up most of the southern part of the
country, lies to the south of the Narmada
• It is located mostly in Jharkhand,
River & shaped as downward-pointing
northern part of Chhattisgarh and
triangle.
Purulia district of West Bengal state.
• Son river streams in the north-west of • Surrounded by Satpura hills, Mahadeo
hills, Maikal range, Amarkantak hills
20
and Rajmahal hills in the north, Western extremely beneficial for the growth of
Ghats in the west side and the Eastern cotton.
Ghats in the east side.
• It is made up of horizontal layers of
solidified lava of volcanic origin forming
Karnataka Plateau
trap structure with step like appearance. • Karnataka Plateau is also identified
Sedimentary layers are too found in as the Mysore plateau and lies to the
between the layers of solidified lava, south of the Maharashtra plateau.
making it inter-trapping in structure.
• The area has an average altitude of
• The average altitude of Western Ghats 600-900 meters.
is 900 – 1600 meters; compared to 600
• It is highly dissected by various rivers
meters in case of Eastern Ghats.
rising from the Western Ghats.
• It is the home of thick dark soil (called • The plateau is separated into two parts
regur), suitable for cotton cultivation.
called Malnad and Maidan.
• Dissection of the plateau by different • The Malnad in Kannada stands for hill
rivers has further created subdivisions
country. It is divided into deep valleys
in the Deccan Plateau. They are as
covered with dense forestry.
follows:
• The Maidan is formed of rolling plains
with low granite mountains.
Maharashtra Plateau • The plateau tapers between the
• It forms the northern most part of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
plateau. in the south and merges with the Nilgiri
hills there.
• As a result of the fissure eruptions
millions of years ago, basaltic rocks of
lava origin dominate most of the area. Telangana Plateau
• The region is exposed to intensive • The Telangana plateau consists of
weathering and due to this the region
Archaean gneisses1.
looks like a rolling plain.
• Its average altitude is 500-600 m.
• The broad and shallow valleys of
Godavari, Bhima and Krishna are • The southern part is upper than its
flanked by flat-topped sharp sided northern counterpart.
mountains and ridges. • The region is drained by 3 river systems:
Deccan Trap Godavari, Krishna and Penneru.
• The Deccan Traps are a Large Igneous • The complete plateau is divided into
Province i.e., an extremely large accumulation Ghats and the Peneplains.
of igneous rocks, including volcanic rock
formations, arising when hot magma extrudes
from inside the Earth and flows out.
Chhattisgarh Plains
• The term "trap" has been used in geology
since 1785–95 for such staircase like rock • It is a saucer shaped depression drained
formations. They consist of multiple layers by the upper Mahanadi.
of solidified flood basalt. Deccan Trap is
prominent on the Maharashtra Plateau,
1 Peninsular Gneiss is a term coined to highlight the older gneis-
Western India. sic complex of the metamorphic found all over the Deccan
Plateau. Archean Gneiss and schists are the oldest rock in this
• The entire area is shielded by black region. Archean is one of the four geologic eons which occurred
about 4000 million years ago. The archean gneiss is a meta-
cotton soil known as Regur which is morphic rock that was formed during that period.
21
• The whole basin lies between the Maikal • The Western Ghats and the Eastern
Range and the Odisha hills. Ghats mark the western and the
• The basin consists of with almost eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau
horizontal beds of limestone and shales. respectively.
I M A G E 2.8: P E N I N S U A L A R P L AT E A U OF INDIA
They stretch from river Tapi in the north to They stretch from Mahanadi valley in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, running parallel to the Nilgiris in the south, following the east coastline.
west coast of India.
Most peninsular rivers have their origin in the No major river has their origin in the Eastern ghats.
Western Ghats.
They are uninterrupted and can be crossed only They comprise of discontinuous and low hills.
through passes.
Average elevation: 900-1000 m. Therefore elevation Average elevation: 600 m. Therefore, elevation is
is higher. lesser than western ghats.
Western ghats receives orographic type of rainfall. Eastern ghats lie parallel to the direction of
The South-west monsoon coming from the Arabian monsoons of Bay of Bengal branch and therefore
sea brings heavy rainfall. does not cause much rainfall.
Western Ghats are locally known as Sayhadris Eastern ghats are known as Maliya and Madugula
(Maharashtra), Nilgiri (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) Konda ranges in Odisha, Nallamalai and Palkonda
Annamalai and cardamom hills (Kerala). ranges in Andhra Pradesh.
Southwards they are presented as detached low
hills like Javadi, Chevroy, Panchaimalai, Sirumaial,
Varushnad hills.
22
Highest peak: Anai Mudi. Highest peak: Jindhagadha.
• Thar Desert, also known by the name • The name Thar is basically derived from
Great Indian Desert, is an arid region Thul, the general name for the region’s
of rolling sand hills on the Indian sand ridges.
subcontinent. It is located partly in • The surface consists of aeolian (wind-
Rajasthan, northwestern India, and deposited) sand which is collected over
partly in Punjab and Sindh provinces, the last 1.8 million years.
eastern Pakistan and covers some • The desert consists of an undulating
200,000 sq. km. surface, with high and low sand dunes
• This region receives scanty rainfall which parted by sandy plains and low barren
is less than 150 mm in a year, Hence the mountains, or Bhakars, which rise
climate is arid, and vegetation is scanty. suddenly from the adjacent plains. The
• These physical conditions lend it the dunes are in frequent motion.
name of Marusthali. • Older dunes, however, are in a semi-
• It is believed that during the mesozoic stabilized or stabilized condition, and
era this entire region was submerged 2 Barchans are crescent shaped sand dunes. They face the wind,
under the sea corroborated by the fact appearing convex and are produced by wind action predomi-
nantly from one direction. They are a very common land form in
that wood fossils and marine deposits sandy deserts all over the world and are arc shaped.
23
many rises to a height of almost 150 parallel to the Arabian Sea and the
meters above the adjacent areas. Bay of Bengal. On the basis of location
Several Playas (saline lake beds), and active Geomorphic processes, it
locally called as Dhands, are scattered is divided into Western and Eastern
throughout the region. Coastal Plains.
• Soils are predominantly coarse- Eastern Coastal Plains:
textured, well-drained, and calcareous
(calcium-bearing). A thick buildup of • The east coastal plain originates from
lime often occurs at varying depths. The the north with the plains designed by
soils are generally infertile and because the Subarnarekha River to the south
of severe wind erosion, are overblown up to Kanyakumari. It thus expanses for
with sand. nearly 1500 km., with nearly a breadth
of 100 km.
• The desert vegetation is mostly
herbaceous or stunted scrub; drought- • To the east of this lies the extensive
resistant trees are generally found in blue waters of Bay of Bengal and in the
the east side. On the hills, gum arabic west of the plain lies the Eastern Ghat
acacia and euphorbia may be found. hills. Compared to the Western Coastal
The khajri tree grows throughout the Plain, the East Coastal Plain is wider.
plains. • The deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari,
• Rajasthan Desert comprises the three Krishna and Kaveri rivers have formed
cities - Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur nearly 25% of the area of this plain. The
which is commonly known as the desert soil of the deltas is very fertile therefore
triangle. agriculture is very productive. Specially
and delta of the river Krishna is very
• Based on orientation, the desert is fertile and is known as the ‘Granary of
divided into northern (sloping towards South India’.
Sindh) and southern part (sloping
towards Rann of Kutch). • The East coastal plains show the
presence of many sand dunes, lagoons
and varieties of marshland. They are
24
• It is also very susceptible to cyclones. (a narrow, sheltered waterway such as
• In this region, rice, coconut and banana an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a
are widely cultivated. marsh) and a few estuaries.
• The estuaries of Narmada and Tapi are
the major ones.
Andhra Coastal Plain: • The Kerala coast has some lakes,
• Andhra coast spreads between Kolleru lagoons and backwaters, the largest
Lake and Pulicat Lake. being the Vembanad Lake.
• The area is a basin area of two • The western coastal plain is an example
particularly important rivers- Krishna of submerged coastal plain. Because of
and Godavari. Due to this, the region is this submergence, it is a narrow belt
very fertile. and offers natural conditions for the
development of ports and harbours.
• These coastal plains are very wide.
25
very narrow and broken. like the 80 km. long Vembanad Kayal
• The Konkan coast is marked by near Kochi and the Ashtamudi Kayal
subduction and erosional features. near Kollan (Quilon) are famous.
• The lowlands in the region are • The kayals receive the water from a large
characterized by low hills parted by number of rivers before discharging to
river courses which end in creeks and the sea with which they are linked with
estuaries near the sea. narrow openings.
• In this area, rice and cashew are • There has been a slight emergence in
important crops. this part of the western coast.
• Through the northern part of this coast • Comparison between the two types of
flows the Baitarani River. coastal plains:
26
• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features of emergence.
• The east coast of India, especially its
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence. The
west coast of India, on the other hand,
is both emergent and submergent.
• The northern portion of the coast is
submerged as a result of faulting and
the southern portion, that is the Kerala
coast, is an example of an emergent
I M A G E 2.10: C O A S TA L P L A I N S AND C OA ST S O F coast.
INDIA
Significance of Coastal Plains
Region
The Islands
• These plains are very productive for
agriculture. Western coast produces • In the physiography of India, there are
specialized tropical crops while eastern two major Island groups. They are in
coasts witnessed a prompt growth in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
rice production.
• There are numerous small and large
• Coastal plains are source of salt, islands, some of which are of volcanic
monazite (used for nuclear power) and origin, while some are of coral origin.
mineral oil and gas as well as centres of
• The coastal line of these islands has
fisheries.
coral deposits and beautiful beaches.
• Although lacking in adequate natural
• They have equatorial type of vegetation
harbours, with a number of major and
and receive convectional rainfall.
minor ports, coastal plains are centres
of commerce and have attracted dense • These islands are mostly flat and hardly
human settlements. a few meters above sea level.
• The coastal regions of India are noted
for tourist centres, fishing and salt
making. The Bay of Bengal Islands
• Coconut trees grow all alongside the • They are situated between 6°N-14°N
coast. and 92°E-94°E and consists of 572
• The whole length of the coast is dotted islands.
with big and small ports which help in • Andaman and Nicobar Islands have
carrying out trade. volcanic origin. The northern part is
called Andaman and the southern part
is called as Nicobar.
Coastline of emergence and • They are separated by Ten Degree
Submergence Channel.
• Coastline of emergence is formed • The two principal groups of islets
either by an uplift of the land or by the include Ritchie’s archipelago and
lowering of the sea level. Coastline of Labyrinth Island.
submergence is an exact opposite case. • These islands are elevated portions of
27
submarine mountain. • They are built completely on coral
• Barren Island is the only active volcano deposits.
in India and is situated in the Nicobar • Out of the 43 islands, Minicoy is the
Islands. largest one.
• The entire group of islands is broadly
separated by Eleven-degree Channel,
The Arabian sea Island Group north of which is Amini island and to
the south is Cannanore islands.
• They are known as Lakshadweep and
Minicoy Islands. • Islands of this archipelago have storm
beaches consisting of unconsolidated
• They are located near the Malabar
pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and
coast (280-480 km. off the Kerala coast)
boulders.
between 8°N-12°N and 71°E-74°E.
28
CHAPTER - 3
INDIA: DRAINAGE
• The texture is governed by soil
Introduction infiltration, and the volume of water
available in a given period of time to
• Drainage: The flow of water through well enter the surface.
defined channels is known as drainage.
• Drainage system: The network of such
channels (rivers and their tributaries) is
called a drainage system.
Antecedent
• River basin: A river basin is the portion Drainage
of land drained by a river and its
tributaries. It encompasses the entire • Rivers which existed before the
land surface dissected and drained upheaval of the Himalayas and cut
by many streams and creeks that flow their courses southwards by making
downhill into one another. gorges in the mountains are known as
antecedent rivers.
• Water divide: The line which separates
two adjacent drainage basins is known • A section of a river slope and the
as water divide. It is generally marked surrounding area gets uplifted and the
by an elevated area like a mountain or river sticks to its original slope, cutting
a plateau. from the uplifted portion like a saw
and forming deep gorges: this kind
• Watershed: The catchment area
of drainage is known as Antecedent
for rainfall that is delineated as the
drainage.
drainage area producing run-off is
called watershed. Generally considered • Example: Indus, Brahmaputra, Satluj,
as the area contained within a divide and other Himalayan rivers which are
above a specified point on a stream. older than the Himalayas.
ANTECEDENT
RIVER
Drainage Patterns A
29
land surface. In different words, the of entirely different characteristics.
consequent streams follow the regional • When a river flowing on a softer rock
slope. These are also called dip streams. stratum reaches the harder basal rocks
• Rivers following the general direction and still continues to follow the initial
of slope are known as the consequent slope, it seems to have no relation with
rivers. the underlying harder rock bed. This
• Longest stream of the complete system type of drainage is called superimposed
of consequent streams is called master drainage.
SUPERIMPOSED
consequent. RIVER
Subsequent Drainage B
Superimposed
Drainage
TR
• Superimposed
I
stream means a
BU
TA
30
Trellised Pattern • Second point of difference within these
two patterns is related to the spacing
• This drainage pattern is formed by of streams i.e., the rectangular pattern
the network of tributaries and master is characterized by widely spaced
consequent streams which follow the tributaries while trellised pattern
regional slope and are well adjusted to has a dense mesh of closely spaced
the geological structures. tributaries.
• Such patterns are developed in the • Ex: Streams found is the Vindhyan
area of simple folds characterized by Mountains of India.
parallel anticlinal ridges alternated by
parallel synclinal valleys.
• Several streams develop on both flanks ER
RIV
of the ridges and join the longitudinal
synclinal streams at right angle. These
tributary streams are called lateral
ER
consequent streams. RIV
• As such, the resultant network of
numerous longitudinal streams and
transverse or lateral consequents is
I M A G E 3.5: R E C TA N G U L A R P AT T E R N
called trellised pattern.
LOGITUDINAL CONSEQUENT
Radial Pattern
• Radial drainage pattern, also known
RIDG E as centrifugal pattern, is formed by the
streams which diverge from a central
higher point in all directions.
SYNCLINE • The streams begin at the central point
of the above mentioned reliefs and
CONSEQUENT
31
of the master consequent streams
500m
are developed in the form of a circle.
Such pattern is developed over a
mature and dissected dome mountain
characterized by a series of alternative
DOME
bands of hard and soft rock beds.
MOUNTAIN 400m
Centripetal Drainage
• Centripetal or inland drainage pattern DOME 500M
400M
32
• On the base of mode of origin, nature Evolution of the Himalayan
and characteristics, the drainage system
in India is classified into the Himalayan Drainage
Drainage and the Peninsular Drainage
system. • The geologists believed that there
was once a mighty river called Indo-
Brahma or Shivalik that traversed the
The Himalayan entire length (longitudinal extent) of the
Himalayas from Assam to Punjab Plains
Drainage System onwards to Sindh and finally discharged
into Gulf of Sindh during the Miocene
• Himalayan drainage system have period (5-24 million years ago).
evolved through a long geological • The remarkable continuity of Shivalik
history. and its lacustrine (associated with lakes)
• Most of the Himalayan river system are and alluvial deposits consisting of sand,
perennial in nature (rivers are fed by clay, boulders support this viewpoint.
melting of snow and precipitation) which • It is said that in due course of time this
means they have water throughout the mighty Indo-Brahma river dismembered
year. into three main drainage systems: Indus
• They receive water through melted with its five tributaries in the west, the
snow from the Himalayas and also from Ganga with its several tributaries in the
abundant rainfall. central part and the Brahmaputra in
the eastern part.
• Two major Himalayan Rivers, i.e., the
Indus and the Brahmaputra originates • This dismemberment was due to the
from the north of the mountain ranges Pleistocene upheaval in the western
(trans-Himalayan Rivers). Himalayas, including the uplift of the
Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which
• They cut through the mountains making
acted as the water divide between the
gorges.
Ganga and Indus drainage systems.
• The Himalayan Rivers have extensive
courses from their source to the sea.
• Similarly, the down-thrusting of the
Malda gap area between the Rajmahal
• These rivers pass through giant gorges hills and Meghalaya plateau during
carved out by erosional activities mid- Pleistocene period, separated
carried on simultaneously with the the Ganga river system from the
uplift of the Himalayas. Brahmaputra and diverted these two
• Other erosional features like V-shaped river flow towards Bay of Bengal.
valleys, rapids and waterfalls are
formed. Depositional features like
oxbow lakes, flood plains, braided The River Systems of the
channels are formed in the middle and Himalayan Drainage
lower courses of these rivers.
• The Himalayan Rivers have a very Indus River System
winding and rapid course in the • Area: 11,65,000 sq. km. (in total). In India,
upper reaches, but they show strong it is 321,289 sq. km.
meandering tendency and shift in their
courses in the plain regions1. row of Bihar’. The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from
its upper reaches and deposits them in the plains. In this way,
1 The Kosi river (Ganga River System) frequently changes it due to overdue of sediments its course gets blocked and conse-
course causing floods all over Bihar, earning the title of ‘sor- quently the river changes it course.
33
• It flows for a total length of 2880 km. It is formed by two streams Chandra
(1114 km. in India). and Bhaga which joins at Tandi near
• The river originates in the Bokhar Keylong in Himachal. Chenab or
Chu glacier in Mt. Kailash range near Chandrabhaga flows for 1180 km.
Mansarovar Lake in Tibet at an altitude before entering Pakistan.
of 4164 m. • The Ravi rises west of Rohtang pass
• It is termed as Singi Khamban or lion’s in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh.
mouth in Tibet region. It flows through the Chamba valley of
Himachal. It enters Pakistan and joins
• It flows towards west and enters India in the river Chenab at Sarai Sindhu and
Jammu and Kashmir (between Ladakh drains the area lying between the
and Zanskar ranges), further flows south eastern part of Pir Panjal and the
through Himachal Pradesh, Punjab Dhauladhar ranges.
and enters Pakistan near Chillar in the
Dardistan region. • The Beas originates from Beas Kund
near Rohtang pass at an elevation of
• It cuts across the Ladakh range and 4000 m. It flows through the Kullu valley
forms a spectacular gorge at Gilgit in and develos gorges at Kati and Largi
Jammu and Kashmir. in Dhauladhar range. It enters into the
• It has huge number of tributaries both Punjab plains where it meets with the
in India and Pakistan and has a total Satluj river near Harike.
length of about 2880 km. from the • The Satluj originates near the Rakas
source to the point near Karachi where lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of
it drains into the Arabian Sea. 4555 m in Tibet, where it is known as
• It crosses the Himalayas through a Langchen Khambab. It flows parallel
5181-meter-deep gorge near Attock, to Indus for 400 km. before entering
which lies north of the Nanga Parbat. India and comes out of a gorge at
• In the Kashmir region, it links with many Rupar. It passes through Shipki La
tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the pass and enters the Punjab plains. It
Nubra and the Hunza (left bank) and is an antecedent river just like Indus
Khurram, Tochi, Sangar and Gomal and is a very important tributary. This
(right bank). river feeds the canal system of Bhakra
Nangal Project.
• River flows southwards to meet
Indus Water Treaty
‘Panchnad’ i.e., Satluj, Ravi, Beas,
Chenab and Jhelum, a little above • It is a water distribution treaty between
Mithankot. India and Pakistan.
• The Indus river system consists of the • The treaty was signed in Karachi on
following rivers: Satluj, Ravi, Beas, 19th September 1960.
Chenab and Jhelum, Zanskar, Nubra • Treaty was signed by Jawaharlal Nehru
and Shyok and Hunza. from India and President of Pakistan
• Jhelum is an important tributary of Ayub khan.
Indus rising from a spring in Verinag • According to Indus Water Treaty,
in South-east Kashmir valley. It flows India can utilize 20% of total water
through Srinagar and Wular Lake discharged by Indus river system.
before entering Pakistan through a
deep narrow gorge. It joins Chenab • According to treaty, three “eastern”
near Jhang in Pakistan. rivers were given to India while control
over the three “western” rivers was given
• Chenab is the largest tributary of Indus.
34
to Pakistan.
• Beas, Ravi and Satluj — was given to
India.
• Indus, Chenab and Jhelum — to
Pakistan.
IN
DU
S
M
E LU
N
PAKISTA JH CHEN
AB
S
BEA SAT
LUJ
RAVI
SATLUJ
S
DU
INDIA
IN
I M A G E 3.9 : I N D U S R I V E R S Y S T E M
• This basin is shared by 10 states. These • At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the
states are Uttarakhand and Uttar Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the
Pradesh (34.2%), Madhya Pradesh Ganga.
and Chhattisgarh (23.1%), Bihar and • After travelling 280 kilometers from its
Jharkhand (16.7%), Rajasthan (13.0%), source, the Ganga reaches Haridwar,
West Bengal (8.3%), Haryana (4.0%) debouches from the hills and enters
and Himachal Pradesh (0.5%). The plain area.
Union Territory of Delhi holds 0.2% of • From here it flows in south and south-
the total area of the Ganga Basin. east direction for 770 km. to reach
• Ganga rises as Bhagirathi from the Allahabad. Here it is joined by the
35
Yamuna which is its most important plateau (e.g., Son which originates in
tributary. Amarkantak i.e., in peninsular India.)
• It sweeps another 300 km. eastwards to • Right bank tributaries of Ganga are the
reach the Bihar plain. Near Rajmahal Yamuna (which is a major tributary),
Hills it turns to the southeast and south and Son.
of Farakka, it ceases to be known as the • The rivers of Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak,
Ganga. Kosi and Ramganga join Ganga on left
• It bifurcates into Hugli and Bhagirathi bank.
in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in • River Yamuna is the largest and the
Bangladesh. most important tributary of the Ganga.
• After navigating 220 km. further down It originates from the Yamunotri glacier
in Bangladesh, Brahmaputra (or the on the Bandarpunch Peak in Garhwal in
Jamuna as it is known in Bangladesh) Uttarakhand. Its source is very close to
joins it at Goalundo and after meeting that of the Ganga itself. Main tributaries
Meghna 100 km. downstream, the joining the river include the Hindon,
Ganga drains into the Bay of Bengal. Ken, Betwa, and Chambal. Tons is the
• Before entering Bay of Bengal, the largest tributary of Yamuna
Ganga with Brahmaputra, forms the • The catchment area of the river covers
largest delta of the world between two the states of, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
arms: the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Padma/Meghna covering an area of Madhya Pradesh and UT of Delhi.
58,752 sq. km. • The Chambal river rises near Mhow
• The delta of the Ganga river is a highly in the Malwa Plateau of Madhya
indented area of about 400 km. The Pradesh. It flows northwards through
delta is made of a web of dis-tributaries a gorge upwards of Kota in Rajasthan
and islands and covered by dense where the Gandhisagar dam has been
forests called as the Sunderbans. A constructed. From Kota, the Chambal
significantly large part of the delta is a river traverse down to finally meet the
low-lying swamp, which is waterlogged river Yamuna.
by marine water at the time of high tide. • Chambal is well-known for its badland
• Total length of the River Ganga from topography called the Chambal
its source to its mouth (measured along Ravines.
the Hugli) is 2525 km., of which 310 km. • Gandak is a major left bank tributary
in Uttarakhand, 1,140 km. lies in Uttar originates near the Tibet-Nepal
Pradesh, 445 km. lies in Bihar and 520 border receives a large number of
km. lies in West Bengal. tributaries in Nepal Himalaya, the most
• The remaining 110 km. section of the outstanding being the Kali. Others are
Ganga forms the boundary between the Mayangadi, Bari and Trishuli. The
the states Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Gandak comprises of two streams-
river flows magnificently from Gangotri Kaligandak and Trishulganga and
gacier to Bay of Bengal with an average enters the Ganga plain in Champaran
gradient of 9.5 cm per km. district of Bihar and joins Ganga at
• Ganga is joined by numerous tributaries Sonpur near Patna.
both from the right as well as from the • River Ghaghara originates near the Gurla
left side. Majority of them originate from Mandhata peak, south of Mansarovar
the Himalayan ranges but few of them in Tibet. Obviously, it is a river of trans-
have their sources in the Peninsular Himalayan origin and brings sufficient
36
water. It is known as Karnaili in Western land into waste land in Bihar. As a result
Nepal. It first flows south-east and then of this, the river is often named as the
south-southwest cutting across the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’. In order to tame this
Great Himalaya through a succession river, a barrage was constructed in
of steep defiles. Its major tributaries are 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
Tila, Seti and Beri. Embankments for flood control have
• The Kali River rises in the of snow- been constructed as a joint venture of
covered region of Milam glacier of India and Nepal.
Trans-Himalaya. It has several feeders • The Ramganga River originates in the
in the high ranges and forms the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand at an
boundary between Nepal and Kumaon altitude of 3,110 m and enters the Ganga
for most of its transit across the Plain near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga
mountains. It is known as the Sarda or at Kannauj after traversing a distance
Sarayu or Chauka once it reaches the of 596 km. The Khoh, Gangan, Aril,
plains near Tanakpur. Below this point Kosi, and Deoha (Gorra) are important
it takes a south-easterly course and tributaries which join the Ramganga.
joins the Ghaghara. • Damodar occupies the eastern margins
• The Kosi River is an antecedent river of the Chota Nagpur plateau where it
with its source to the north of Mt. Everest flows through a rift valley and finally
in Tibet and consists of seven streams joins the river Hugli. Barakar is its main
and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki tributary. Once Damodar was known
or Saptakoshi. These streams flow as the Sorrow of Bengal because of
through a great part of eastern Nepal frequent floods. But with Damodar
which is known as the Sapt Kaushik Valley Corporation, a multi-purpose
region. Just after debouching onto project, the problem of flooding by
the plain the river becomes sluggish Damodar has been addressed.
and large-scale deposition of eroded • The Mahananda is another tributary of
material takes place. The channel Ganga rising in the Darjeeling hills. It
of the river is braided, and it shifts its joins Ganga as its left bank tributary in
course often. This resulted in frequent West Bengal.
devastating floods and has converted
more than 10,000 sq. km. of cultivable • The Son is another important right
bank tributary of Ganga originating in
TSANGPO
A
TR
U
P
A
AK
M
I
V
H
ND
KOS
BA
AM
I
A
A
R
MT HR
A
CH AG
B
G
GO
S
GH
NA
BA N
JAMUNA
SO
A
TW
PADMA
BE
R
DA
MO
DA MEGHANA
I M A G E 3.10: G A N G A R I V E R S Y S T E M
37
the Amarkantak plateau. After forming with the river Padma.
series of waterfalls at the edge of the • It discharges into the Bay of Bengal
plateau, it joins Ganga at Arrah, west TSANGPO
of Patna.
SUBNSIRI
LOHIT
TE
PU
MA
AH
ES
BR
TA
• The Brahmaputra originates in the
A
Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
UN
JAM
• It is slightly longer than the Indus, but
most of its course lies outside India. BENGAL
BAY OF
• It flows eastward, parallel to the I M A G E 3.11: B R A H M A P U T R A R I V E R S Y S T E M
Himalayas.
• Reaching Namcha Barwa (7757 m),
it takes a U-turn around it and enters The Peninsular River
India in Arunachal Pradesh and known
as Dihang. System
• The undercutting done by this river is • Majority of the Peninsular Rivers flow
of the order of 5500 meters. In India, eastwards and enters into the Bay of
it flows through Arunachal Pradesh Bengal, following the general slope of
and Assam, and is joined by several the land.
tributaries.
• Only Narmada, Tapti and Sabarmati
• The river is called as the Tsangpo in rivers flow westwards.
Tibet. It receives less volume of water
and has a smaller amount of silt in the • They are important for generating
Tibet region. The Rango Tsangpo is the hydro-power because these rivers form
main right bank tributary in Tibet. rapids and waterfalls.
• The river passes through a region of • They are not perennial in nature unlike
heavy precipitation inside India, and the Himalayan Rivers.
as such, the river carries large amount • The main peninsular rivers are
water during rainfall and a significant Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
amount of silt. Kaveri.
• It is notorious for creating the calamity
in Assam and Bangladesh. NARMADA
INDRAYATI
A
R
D
A
CAUVERY
Lohit, Kameng, Tista (right bank
HASSAN
DELTA
ERODE
tributaries).
• The river then enters Bangladesh under
the name of Jamuna where it merges I M A G E 3.12: P E N I N S U L A R R I V E R S
38
Evolution of Peninsular into the Bay of Bengal.
Drainage • About 50 per cent of the Godavari
basin area lies in Maharashtra.
• Three major past geological events • Important tributaries of Godavari
have shaped the present drainage
are Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra,
system of peninsular India:
Wainganga and Penganga.
» Subsiding of western flank of the • It is a seasonal river which is dried during
peninsula leading to its submergence the summers and widened during the
below the sea during early tertiary monsoons.
period which has disturbed the • River creates a fertile delta at
symmetrical plan of the river on either Rajahmundry.
side of the watershed.
• There are many pilgrimage sites on
» Upheaval of the Himalayas when the the banks of this river like Nasik,
northern flank of peninsular block Bhadrachalam, and Trimbakeshwar.
was subjected to subsidence and
consequent trough faulting. Narmada
and Tapi flows through these trough Krishna River Basin
faults and fill the original cracks with
detritus (waste) material. Hence, there • River Krishna rises from a spring near
is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats.
in these rivers. • Drainage basin of this river is shared by
» Slight tilting of the peninsular block Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
from northwest to southeastern Pradesh.
direction gave the orientation of the • It flows around 1,401 km. and finally
entire drainage system towards the Bay drains into Bay of Bengal.
of Bengal.
• Tungabhadra, Koyna, Ghataprabha,
Musi and Bhima are some of its
tributaries.
Rivers of Peninsular Drainage
• River Tungabhadra is the main tributary
System which itself is formed by the Tunga and
Godavari River Basin Bhadra rivers those originate in the
Western Ghats.
• Godavari rises in Trimbakeshwar in
the Western Ghats in Nasik district of
Maharashtra. Cauvery/Kaveri River Basin
• It is the longest peninsular river. Its • The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagiri range
length is about 1500 km. of the Western Ghats.
• Drainage basin of Godavari is the • Total length of the river is around 800
largest among the peninsular rivers. km.
• It is also known as 'Dakshin Ganga' or • Its drainage basin lies in Karnataka
Vridha Ganga because of its large lenth (41%), Kerala (3%) and Tamil Nadu
and large area coverage. (56%).
• It flows in southeast direction across • At last, it reaches the Bay of Bengal in
south-central India through the states of the south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu.
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, and drains • The river Kaveri makes the second
39
biggest waterfalls in India, known as • The river flows through the states of
Sivasamudram. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
• The upper catchment area receives Gujarat.
rainfall during the summer season • It drains into the Arabian Sea in the
(southwest monsoon), and the lower Bharuch district of Gujarat.
catchment area receives rainfall during • The Narmada River Valley Project is
the winter season (northeast monsoon). composed of 3,000 small, 135 medium
So, the river carries water throughout and 30 large dams. The Sardar Sarovar
the year with less fluctuation than the Project, the Indira Sagar Project and
other Peninsular rivers. the Maheshwar Dam are mega dams.
• The river has many tributaries called • Local citizens formed the Narmada
Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada
Amaravati, etc. Movement), a grassroot coalition of
farmers, fisherfolks, landless farmers
and urban citizens in India. The
Mahanadi River Basin movement strongly opposed to the
• Mahanadi is a river in the eastern India. projects and political agenda on water
It originates from the Satpura mountain and energy of the governments of the
range of central India. three Indian States.
• It flows through Odisha and discharge
its water into the Bay of Bengal. Tapi River Basin
• Total length of the river is 851 km. and
has catchment area over 1.42 lakh sq. • It is one of the major west flowing
km. peninsular river.
• Rivers drainage basin consist of the • It rises in the Eastern Satpura Range (at
state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Multai in the Betul district) of southern
Jharkhand and Odisha. Madhya Pradesh.
40
Difference Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers
These rivers are young and in a youthful These are old rivers with graded profiles
stage. Active and deepening in the valleys. and have almost reached their base levels.
41
Smaller Rivers Flowing the Bay of Bengal. The river originates
in the hill ranges of Keonjhar District
Towards the East of Odisha at an elevation of about
Damodar River 900 m. The basin is surrounded by the
river Brahmani on the south and west,
• This river rises in the Palamau hills of the Subarnarekha on the North, the
Chota Nagpur plateau at an elevation Burhganbalang and the Bay of Bengal
of about 609 m. on the east. The river is flashy in nature
• It flows in a south-eastern direction having a whole length of 355 km., with
entering the deltaic plains below the upper reach up to Anandpur in the
Raniganj. hilly region.
• Catchment area of the river above the • The Brahmani is a main inter-state east
confluence is fan shaped and therefore flowing river amongst the peninsular
it is susceptible to the concentration of rivers in India. The basin is surrounded
flood flows but the catchment below in the North by Chota Nagpur plateau
the confluence is narrow. in the South by the Mahanadi basin
and in the West and in the East by the
• There are no irrigation facilities in the
Bay of Bengal. The basin consists of
upper catchment and the cultivation is
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Odisha
solely dependent on monsoon rains.
and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• The river is famous all over the world for
the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Subarnarekha River Smaller Rivers Flowing towards
• The Subarnarekha basin extends the West
over states of Jharkhand, Odisha and • The rivers flowing towards Arabian Sea
comparatively smaller part in West have smaller and short courses.
Bengal having a total area of 29,196 sq.
km. with a maximum length of 297 km. Sabarmati River
and width 119 km. • The Sabarmati basin extends over
• Situated in the north-east corner of states of Gujarat and Rajasthan with
Peninsular India, the basin is bounded an area of 21,674 Sq. km. with length
by the Chota Nagpur plateau on and width of 300 km. and 150 km.
the north and the west, by the ridges respectively.
separating it from Baitarani basin on • The basin is surrounded by Aravalli hills
the south, by the Bay of Bengal on the on the north and north-east side, by
south-east and by the Kasai Valley of Rann of Kutch on the west and by Gulf
Kangsabati River on the east. of Khambhat on the south.
• The Subarnarekha River originates • The basin is roughly triangular in shape
near Nagri village in the Ranchi District with the Sabarmati River as the base
of Jharkhand at an altitude of 600 m. and the source of the Vatrak River as
• It flows for 395 km. before falling into the apex point.
the Bay of Bengal. • Sabarmati rises from Aravalli hills at an
altitude of 762 m in Rajasthan.
Baitarani - Brahmani Rivers • The total length of the river from origin
to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
• Baitarani is an important east flowing and its principal tributaries joining from
river of peninsular India and joining left are the Wakal, the Hathmati and
42
the Vatrak whereas the Sei joins the • The Sharavati originates in Shimoga
river from right. district of Karnataka and drains a
• The Shetrunji is one such river which catchment area of 2209 sq. km.
rises in the Dalkahwanin Amreli district. • Mandovi and Juari are two important
• The river Bhadra originates near Anaiali rivers in Goa.
village in Rajkot district. • Bharathapuzha rises in the Annamalai
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village hills in Kerala. Also known as Ponnani, it
in Panchmahal district. This river rises drains a catchment area of about 5397
from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district sq. km.
at an elevation of 670 m. • The Periyar is the second largest river
• Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district in Kerala with catchment area of 5243
and falls in the Karwar Bay. sq. km.
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli • Another Important river is Pamba
Dharwar and transverse a course of 161 which drains into Vembanad lake after
km. traversing a course of 177 km.
Lakes of India
1. Wular Lake
2. Dal Lake
3. Mansar Lake 1 25
4. Bhimtal Lake
5. Naini
3
2
26 Lakes of India
6. Sambhar 27
7. Pushkar 28
8. Pachprada 4
9. Dhebar 5
6 26
10. Rajsamand
7
11. Wular Lake
12. Dal Lake
8
13. Kankaria 9 24
14. Bhimtal Lake 10
15. Naini 11 23
16. Sambhar
17. Pushkar 14
12 13
18. Sholavaram
19. Pulicat
20. Kallen
15 22
21. Osman Sagar
22. Chilika
23. Loktak 21
24. Nokrek
25. Pangong 20
26. Tsomori
27.Chandratal
28. Suraj tal 19
43
• Wular Lake in Kashmir is India’s largest • Usman Sagar - Artificial lake of
freshwater lake, formed by tectonic Hyderabad, by creating a dam on river
activities, forms Delta with river Jhelum. Musi.
• Dal Lake, Kashmir – Freshwater lake in • Kolleru Lake - Freshwater lake, Situated
Srinagar. Contains Char Chinar & Nami between deltas of Godavari & Krishna,
islands. A bird sanctuary & a wetland under the
• Mansar Lake, Jammu – On the Katra Ramsar list.
highway, freshwater lake, Natural lake • Pulicat Lake - Salt water lagoon
used mainly for fishing located at the coast of Andhra Pradesh,
• Naini Lake, Uttarakhand – Freshwater Separated from the sea by Sriharikota
lake. island.
44
River Regimes
June. The maximum flow is attained
in monsoon months of August and
September. After September there’s
• The pattern of flow of water in a river a steady decline in the flow. The river
channel over a year is known as its thus has a monsoon regime during the
regime. rainy season.
• The climatic condition of any place or • There is a striking difference between
region controlled the flow of the river the river regimes of eastern and western
system. The River Regime is the pattern parts of the Ganga basin. Right after
of the seasonal flow of water in any the winters in the early parts of summer,
river. In other words, the geographical when the snow melts, there is sizeable
pattern of rivers like width, depth, flow in Ganga, before the monsoon
slope, distribution, and its flow and rains begin.
deposition characters all together can
• The maximum discharge of the Ganga
be considered as river regimes.
is at Farakka which is about 55000
• The rivers in North India originating from cusec while the minimum discharge is
the Himalayas are perennial as they are only 1300 cusec. This contrast is due
fed by melting snow from glaciers and to maximum discharge being noted
also due to adequate rainfall during the right after monsoons and the minimum
monsoons. discharge during the hottest summer
• The rivers in South India which originate months.
in the peninsular region see more • The rivers of Peninsular India are also
fluctuations in terms of pereniality. interesting in their pattern of river
They receive water only through rainfall regime. The Narmada has a very low
during the monsoons. Therefore, river volume of discharge from January to
regimes in South India see different July and it suddenly rises in August
river regimes which vary from one part when the river has maximum flow.
of the plateau to the other depending The water flow again suddenly falls
on rainfall. during the month of October once the
• The river discharge is the volume of monsoon is over.
water that flows through the river in a • The river Godavari has a minimum
particular time period. It is measured discharge in the month of May and
either in cusecs (cubic feet per second) maximum in the months of July-August.
or cumecs (cubic metres per second). After August, the flow of the river
• The river Ganga has its minimum declines but it is still steady and more
flow during the months of January to than that of January-May.
Difference between Peninsular River regime and the Himalayan River regime
Basis of
Reason
differences
The Peninsular rivers rise at much lower heights in the Western Ghats
Origin
whereas the Himalayan river originates at high elevations.
45
The Himalayan rivers are perennial which means they receive water
Source from glacier and rainfall whereas the Peninsular rivers are non-
perennial which means they are seasonal- dependent on monsoon.
The Peninsular river flows from the rocks of peninsular region which
Supply of are hard and impermeable, where supply of groundwater is limited
Groundwater whereas Himalayan rivers pass through plains whose alluvial soils
act as a huge reservoir of groundwater.
46
channels start shrinking. As much Some Important Irrigation and
as built up area increases near the
streams and channels, the groundwater Multipurpose Projects
retention reduces, and the channels • Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It
begin to dry up and shrink. is basically a multipurpose project
containing of a masonry dam on
Narmada river in the Jabalpur district
Irrigation Projects and a left bank canal.
• Beas Project (Joint venture of Haryana,
• Irrigation projects having Culturable Punjab and Rajasthan): It comprises
Command Area (CCA) of more than of Beas-Satluj Link and Beas Dam at
10,000 hectares are classified as major Pong.
projects. Those having a CCA between • Bhakra Nangal Project (Joint project
2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares fall of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan):
under the category of medium irrigation India’s biggest, multipurpose river
projects. And the projects which have valley project comprises a straight
a CCA of less than 2,000 hectares are gravity dam across the Satluj river at
classified as minor irrigation schemes. Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal
• For the purpose of analysis, the major hydel channel, two power houses at
and medium irrigation projects are Bhakra dam and two power stations at
usually grouped together. These Ganguwal and Kotla.
projects include a network of dams, • Chambal Project (Joint project of
bunds, canals, and other such schemes. Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The
Such projects require substantial project comprises Gandhi Sagar dam,
financial outlay and are, therefore, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and jawahar
constructed by The Government or any Sagar dam.
other agency which may draw financial
assistance form The Government and • Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal
financial institutions. and Bihar): A multipurpose project for
the unified development of irrigation,
• The minor irrigation projects, on the flood control and power generation in
other hand, encompass all ground West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises
water development schemes. Minor multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya,
irrigation projects or the groundwater Maithon and Pancher; hydel power
development schemes are essentially stations at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon
people’s programmes implemented and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur;
primarily through individual and and thermal power houses at Bokaro,
cooperative efforts with finances Chandrapura and Durgapur. The
obtained mainly through institutional project is administered by Damodar
sources. Valley Corporation.
• Creation for irrigation potential of 10 • Dulhasti Power Project (Jammu &
million hectares was targeted under Kashmir): It is a 390 MW power project
Bharat Nirman during 2005-06 to 2008- in Kishtwar region of Jammu & Kashmir
09. As per information provided by on Chenab river. Work for this project
State Governments, the total irrigation started in 1981. The foundation stone
potential created during the period is was laid on April 15, 1983 by the then
7.31 million hectares against the target Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Work
of 10 million hectares. on this project was suspended due to
threats of kidnapping and killings by
47
Kashmiri militants resulting in long lies on the Krishna river near Nandikona
delay in completion of project. village (about 44 km. from Hyderabad).
• Farakka Project (West Bengal): The • Parambikulam Aliyar Project (Joint
project was taken up for the maintenance venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala): The
and preservation of Calcutta and port integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six
and for improving the navigability of in the Annamalai Hills and two in the
the Hoogly. It comprises a barrage at plains.
Jangipur across the Bhagirathi and • Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important
a feeder channel taking off from the hydro-electric project located on Beas
Ganga at Farakka and tailing into the river.
Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage.
• Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi
• Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar Canal- Rajasthan): The Project utilizes
and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives water released from Pong dam and
irrigation and power benefits from this provides irrigation facilities to the
project. north-western region of Rajasthan, i.e.,
• Ghataprabha Project (Karnataka): A a part of the Thar desert. It consists of
project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first
and Bijapur districts. 167 km. in Punjab and Haryana and the
• Hirakund (Odisha): One of the longest remaining 37 km. in Rajasthan) and 445
dams and it is located on the Mahanadi km. Rajasthan main canal entirely in
River. Rajasthan.
• Mahi Project (Gujarat): A two –phase • Rihand Project (Uttar Pradesh and
project, one across the Mahi river near Madhya Pradesh): It is the biggest
Wanakbori village and the other across man- made lake in India on the borders
Mahi river near Kadana. of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
with a capacity of 300 MW yearly.
• Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): It
48
• Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam • A National Water Development Agency
through Sabarmati river near Dhari (NWDA) was set up in July 1980 to carry
Village in Mehsana district. out further studies.
• Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir): With • The project visualizes linking 26 major
the successful accomplishment of rivers of India by building 30 different
the 2.5-km. long tail race tunnel, the link canals. The National Perspective
690-MW Salal (Stage I and II) project Plan as well as the NWDA studies
in Jammu and Kashmir became fully have two constituents of the project
operational on August 6, 1996. - Himalayan Rivers Development
• Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): A Component and Peninsular Rivers
barrage through the river Ghaghra, Development Component. The two can
a link channel, a barrage across River be linked on the river Mahanadi.
Sarda and a feeder channel of two • There are many smaller river and
main aqueducts over rivers Gomti and canal linkage schemes, which are very
Sai. important from agricultural, economic
• Sharavathi Project (Karnataka): It is and environmental points of view. They
situated at the Jog Falls with a capacity are as follows:
of 891 MW. It mainly feeds Bengaluru
industrial region and Goa and Tamil
Nadu as well. Periyar Diversion Scheme
• Tehri Dam Project (Uttarakhand): Earth Periyar Valley Irrigation scheme in
and rock-fill dam on the Bhagirathi river Ernakulam district envisions the use of
in Tehri district of Uttarakhand. the discharge from the completed Hydel
scheme in the Muthirapuzha tributary of
• Ukai Project (Gujarat): A multipurpose
river Periyar together with the controlled
scheme on the Tapi river near Ukai
release from Ennackal dam constructed
village.
by the Kerala State Electricity Board under
Hydel scheme across the Idamalayar
tributary and the reliable run off from the
Interbasin Linkages uncontrolled catchment of Periyar river.
49
bank of Periyar, the scheme also population, enhanced inter and intra
enables in the right bank of Periyar, community interaction and quicker
supply of water to the state, supply of diffusion and adoption of technology
minimum quantity of water through the of irrigated farming.
river to check the interloping of salinity » Control over drought conditions.
at lower reaches as well as to meet
the necessities of many lift Irrigation » Alteration in the fauna of the area and
scheme of river Periyar. introduction of fisheries.
• Supply of water for drinking, industrial » Improvement in the micro-climate and
purposes etc are met by a portion decrease in the incidence of sandstorms.
of storage water by the barrage of » Rise in ground water table at the rate
Bhoothathankettu. of 0.8 meter per year. But it is also to be
noted that excessive use of canal water
in certain areas is causing the problem
Indira Gandhi Canal Project of salinity and water logging.
50
Rao in 1950s. • The planned Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal
• The project aimed at reducing the was 2,640 km. long, withdrawing 60,000
impact of floods in the Ganga basin cusec from the flood flows of the Ganga
and supply water to central and eastern for about 150 days annually and would
parts of the country which suffer from have involved a lift of a substantial part
lingering problem of water shortage. of water over 450 meters.
• Flood waters of the Narmada and • The scheme has been systematically
Godavari might also be utilized. examined and found impractical due
Nevertheless, it was pleaded that water to the huge financial costs and very
from the Ganga for the inter-basin large energy necessities. Furthermore,
transfer could be drawn only in the environmental matters put great
course of four months of rainy season interruptions in the way of this project.
from July to October when the flow • Nevertheless, the idea continues in the
of water in the Ganga river exceeds popular mind and comes up whenever
1,00,000 cusec. water scarcity is felt, and conflicts (such
as Kaveri dispute) become acute.
51
CHAPTER - 4
INDIA: CLIMATE
52
oceanic influence reduces the seasonal
variations. In the Polar Regions, there
are only two seasons i.e. long winters
and short summers.
Weather Vs Climate
Weather Climate
It is experienced in some small areas of a country. It is experienced over large areas of the continent.
53
have extreme temperatures. » On-shore winds passing over a warm
» Places which are far from the seashore current transfer warm air to the interior
have higher diurnal (daily) and annual and increase the temperature of the
temperature range. inland region. Similarly, the winds
blowing over cold current carry cold air
» Mumbai has comparatively lower to the inner side and generates fog and
temperature and greater rainfall than mist.
Nagpur, even though both are situated
on the same latitude approximately. » Port Bergen in the Norway is free from
ice in winter too, because of the warm
• Nature of Prevailing Winds: North Atlantic Drift, however, Port
Quebec in Canada stay frozen during
» The onshore winds bring the moisture winter because of the chilling effect of
from the sea and cause rainfall on the the Cold Labrador Current in spite of
area through which they pass. The off- the fact that Port Quebec is situated in
shore winds coming from land are dry much lower latitude than Port Bergen.
and helps in vaporization.
• Direction of Mountain Chains:
» In India, the on-shore winds of summer
monsoon bring rains and on the other » The mountain chains act as a natural
hand off-shore winter monsoon winds barrier for the wind. On-shore moisture
are generally dry. laden winds are forced to go up after
striking the mountain; and contribute
• Cloud Cover:
to hefty rainfall on the windward side.
» In areas of cloudless sky such as deserts, These winds descending on the leeward
temperature is very high because of the side results in very low rainfall.
day-time sunshine. » The giant Himalayas stops the moisture
» In the night, this heat radiates back laden monsoon winds from crossing
from the ground rapidly. It results in a over to Tibet. This mountain chain also
large diurnal range in temperature. checks extremely cold polar winds
from entering into India. This is the
» On the other hand, under cloudy skies and reason behind the northern plains of
heavy rainfall at Thiruvananthapuram India getting rains but Tibet remaining
(Kerala) the range of temperature is a perpetual rain shadow area with
very small. slighter quantity of rainfall.
• Ocean Currents: • Slope and the Aspect:
» Water in ocean move from one place » As the concentration of heat is more
to the other partially as an attempt to on the gentler slope, it increases the
balance temperature and density of temperature of the air above them.
water. Ocean currents are in general The lesser concentration of heat
large movements of water typically along sharper slopes depresses the
from a place of warm temperature to temperature.
that of cooler temperature or vice-
versa. » At the same time, mountain slopes
fronting the sun are warmer than the
» Warm ocean currents increase slopes that are away from the sun-
the temperature of the coast and rays. For example, southern slopes of
sometimes bring rainfall, while the cold Himalaya are warmer than the northern
currents lower the temperature and slopes.
create fog near the coast.
54
• Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover: coming from oceans have a moderating
effect on temperature and the coastal
» The nature of soil depends upon its places experience lower range of
texture, structure and composition. temperature, both diurnal and seasonal
These qualities vary from soil to soil. in comparison to places of interior or
» Stony soils are good conductor of continental location away from the
heat while black clay soils absorb the oceanic influence.
heat of the sun’s rays quickly. The bare • Winds: The climate and associated
surface radiates the heat effortlessly. weather conditions in India are
The deserts are hot during the day and governed by the following atmospheric
cold at nighttime. conditions:
» The forest areas have lesser range of
temperature all over the year in contrast » Pressure and surface winds
to non-forested areas. » Upper air circulation
» Western cyclonic disturbances and
tropical cyclones
Factors Affecting » The effect of the monsoon winds in India
India’s Climate is extraordinary. In Arabic language
the word `Mausim’ stands for season
The climate of a country depends on and if the wind changes its direction
several factors like location, latitude, seasonally, then it is termed as a
altitude, size, wind, distance from the sea, monsoon wind. India remains under the
location of hills and mountains etc. The effect of a humid oceanic South- west
influence of these factors on climate of monsoon in summer and comparatively
India is concisely described below: dry North-east Monsoon of land origin
in winter.
• Location: The Tropic of Cancer passes
through middle of India and the country » Besides, in winter some cyclones of
north of the tropic of cancer lies in the the Mediterranean, called Western
temperate belt and south of it lies in the Disturbances, enter India from the
tropical belt. However, the northern wall north-west via Iran and Afghanistan
of the Himalaya mountains prevents and travel eastward causing a small
the influx of cold northern wind. As a amount of rainfall in North India.
result, the temperature does not fall
• Alignments of hills and mountains: The
appreciably on North Indian Plains
moisture laden South-west Monsoon
even during winter months. India is
wherever faces a mountain is forced to
usually treated as a hot country.
rise and brings about heavy relief rain
• Size: Being a vast country, it is natural on the windward slope of the mountains.
that South India lying closer to the As for example, the South-west
equator is warmer than the northern Monsoon is forced to ascend the south
counterpart, especially in winter. facing steep slope of the Meghalaya
• Altitude: Even though average plateau. This factor combined with the
temperature remains generally high funneling action of the wind caught
throughout India, owing to altitudinal between the Meghalaya Plateau and
effect the Himalayas and other high the Indo- Burmese Bordering Hills make
mountains have lower temperatures the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram area the
even in summer. wettest corner of the world with average
annual precipitation of about 1100 cm.
• Distance from the sea: The winds
55
But Shillong, which is situated in the shearing action, which is thought to
rain shadow area of the southern face be largely responsible for clear air
of the Meghalaya Plateau, experiences turbulence.
a much lower rainfall of 225 cm. • First discovered by airmen during World
War II, the jet streams have speeds of
up to 90 m/s (200 miles per hour) along
Factors Related to hundreds of kilometers at their centers,
but velocities decrease very sharply
Air Pressure and both laterally and vertically, that's why
Wind
the high speeds are limited to narrow
bands at heights between 6 to 14 km.
(20,000 ft and 45,000 ft).
• To understand the differences in local • The jet stream develops from
climates in India, the mechanism of the
horizontal differences in temperature
following three factors are needed to
that exist over a substantial vertical
be understood.
distance through the troposphere. The
» Distribution of air pressure and winds temperature differences result in a
over the surface of the earth. horizontal pressure gradient that brings
geostrophic and gradient winds. With
» Upper Air flow generated by factors the increasing horizontal temperature
leading global weather and the inflow difference, the jet stream becomes
of various air masses as well as jet stronger.
streams.
• Jet streams flows in circles around the
» Inflow of western cyclones called as Earth in meandering paths, shifting
disturbances during the winter season position and speed with the seasons.
and tropical depressions during the In winter, their positions are nearer
southwest monsoon period into India, the equator and the speeds are higher
creating weather conditions favourable than that during the summer. There
to rainfall. are often two, fewer times three jet-
stream systems in each hemisphere.
One is related to the Polar Front, which
Jet Streams lies in mid-latitudes where the air-
mass contrast (the fronts) advance
• Jet streams are proportionately narrow the formation of squalls, storms, and
bands of strong winds in the upper cyclones.
levels of atmosphere. The winds flow • Another separate system, the
from west to east in jet streams, but the Subtropical Jet Stream, which lies above
flow often shifts to the north and south. the subtropical high-pressure belt and
Jet streams follow the boundaries is often associated with fair weather.
between hot and cold air. In the summer season, a third system
• Since these hot and cold air boundaries occurs over Southeast Asia, India, the
are most pronounced in winter, jet Arabian Sea, and tropical Africa. This
streams are the strongest for both the tropical jet stream characterizes the
northern and southern hemisphere formation and duration of Indian and
winters. African summer monsoons.
• Jet streams are represented by wind
motions that generate strong vertical
56
Western Cyclonic Bhutan and parts of Southeast Asia.
• Along with the monsoons, the Indian
Disturbance climate is majorly influenced by two
more factors. The Himalayas provide
• During the winter season, the a continental nature to the climate,
subtropical jet (STJ) is bisected into two recognized by land winds, dry air, large
branches due to physical obstruction diurnal range and scanty rainfall as
of the Himalayas as well as Tibetan well. On the other hand, the Indian
Plateau. One branch flow to the south Ocean, contributes a tropical character
of the Himalayas, while the second to the Indian climate characterized by
branch is positioned to the north of the regularity of temperature throughout
Tibetan Plateau. the year, short diurnal range, damp air,
and frequent rainfall as well.
• The ridge of the jet stream creates anti-
cyclonic (with clockwise air circulation) • The monsoon system of the Indian
situations over North-West India. subcontinent distinguishes considerably
Therefore, the winds tend to descend from that of the rest of Asia. the
over the north-western parts of India, Indian monsoon is different from other
resulting into the development of monsoon in the centres of action, air
atmospheric stability and dry conditions masses involved, and the mechanism
(anticyclonic condition = no rainfall). of precipitation.
57
they avert the penetration of the cold caused by the earth's rotation. Now,
polar air masses from Siberia into the the originally south- east trade winds
subcontinent, and while in summer, the become south-west monsoons blowing
Himalayas do not allow the equatorial towards the north- east.
maritime air masses to cross the • At this point, the Inter- Tropical
Himalayas and force them to curve Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves
round the north-west. northwards. The ITCZ is the theoretical
• The mighty Himalayas cause hydro- line where the north-east trade winds
dynamic effects that characterize the from the northern hemisphere and
type of precipitation in India. the south-east trade winds from the
• As per the thermal concept, after the southern hemisphere meet. The south-
Spring Equinox (March 23), the sun west winds that approaching the Indian
starts its northward shift. Subsequently, peninsula have to cover the distance on
the areas in the north of the equator the Indian Ocean.
(tropics and sub-tropics)- get a high • In their long travel, these winds
incidence of solar radiation. absorb large amounts of moisture and
• The effect of this on the Indian when they reach India, they are over
subcontinent is observed in the form of saturated. Hence, they are known as
intense heating of the great northern the south-west monsoons which get
plains and the adjoining highlands. diverged into the Arabian Sea Branch
Therefore, a massive low-pressure and the Bay of Bengal Branch caused
trough is created extending from the by the shape of peninsular India. There
Punjab plains in the north-west to the moisture-laden winds produce heavy
Bengal delta in the east. rainfall on the windward sides.
58
at almost 90 degrees. The windward continue till Kashmir without causing
slopes of the Western Ghats encounter rain anywhere on their way. Actually, an
heavy orogenic precipitation. However, east-to- west line drawn near Karachi
the western currents of the monsoon in Pakistan practically marks the limit
spike further into the Indian mainland of the monsoon rainfall.
the rainfall starts weakening on the
leeward side.
• Although the windward slopes of the Bay of Bengal Branch
Western Ghats are the regions receiving
• Likewise, the Western Ghats of India
the highest rainfall, the leeward slopes
in the case of the Arabian Sea branch,
form a well-marked rain-shadow belt
the windward slopes of the West Coast
which is drought-prone. For example,
Mountains of Myanmar (Arakan and
the average annual rainfall at Mumbai
Tenasserim mountains) get heavy
and Pune is 188 cm and 50 cm
rainfall when the main monsoon
respectively, despite the fact that they
currents of this branch strike the
are only 160 km. apart.
Myanmar coast. Like the case of the
• After traversing the Western Ghats, the leeward sides of the Western Ghats in
rain- bearing air currents descend India, here also the rain shadow effect
the eastern slopes where they get is noticeable on the leeward side.
warmed up adiabatically. This causes
• A northern current of the branch attacks
a pronounced rain-shadow area. The
the Khasi hills in Meghalaya and results
higher the mountains, the larger the
in very heavy rains. Mawsynram (near
rain-shadow effect. In the north, where
Cherrapunji), located on the southern
the Western Ghats are not so very high,
slopes of Khasi hills, has the distinction
the difference in the amount of rainfall
of recording the highest annual average
between the windward as well as the
precipitation in the world.
leeward side is rather negligible.
• This is because of its peculiar
• Why there is no Precipitation in Kutch geographical location. Mawsynram
and Western Rajasthan?
is surrounded all sides by the Garo,
» There is no mountain barrier to trap the Khasi and Jaintia hills except for a gap
advancing winds. As the Aravalis have through which the rain- bearing winds
an almost north-south axis, they fail to enter and are simulated to rise, hence
block the passage of these monsoon yielding the heaviest rainfall. Shillong,
currents (which rather blow parallel to just 40 km. away on top of the Khasi
the Aravalis) and uplift them. hills, observes only about 140 cm of
rainfall between June and September.
» The monsoon currents going towards
Rajasthan are rather shallow and are • The other current of the Bay of Bengal
superimposed by stable anti- cyclonic branch turns left at the eastern end of
air. the low-pressure trough (roughly the
Bengal delta). After reaching here, it
» These conditions are not good for blows in a south-east to north-west
precipitation in Kutch and western direction by the orientation of the
Rajasthan where desert conditions Himalayas. This current results in the
prevail. rainfall on the northern plains.
» However, a few air currents from the • The monsoon rainfall on the northern
main Arabian Sea branch are diverged plains is served by west moving
northward in the direction of Kutch monsoon or cyclonic depressions
and the Thar Desert, these currents known as 'Westerly Disturbances’.
59
INDIA
These are created in the Bay of Bengal DATES OF ONSET OF
and travel along the southern fringe of SOUTH WEST MONSOONS
the northern plains resulting in copious
rains there which are important for the
15
L
JU
rice crop. JU
L1
HI
MA
to disintegrate and eventually moves
LA
YA
S NE HILLS to the equatorial region. The cyclonic
conditions are restored by anti-cyclonic
ones. Therefore, winds start blowing
away from the northern region. Similar
WES
S
AT
ian
Arab highlands and beyond.
ER
Sea BAY OF
ST
GHA
ch BENGAL BRANCH
EA
Bran
• This is also the time when the sun
TS
60
INDIA
RETREATING MONSOONS PROCESS winds cause dry and fine weather.
Although certain areas in the north get
winter precipitation from sources far
away.
GRADUAL
• The north-western parts of India—
WEAKENING OF
LOW PRESSURE Punjab and Ganga plains—are invaded
by shallow cyclonic disturbances moving
TROUGH
Disturbance
• The stable and dry anticyclonic winds I M A G E 4.5: R E T R E AT I N G M O N S O O N S
persuading on the subcontinent after
the retreat of the south-west monsoons
is unable to cause precipitation since
they are free of moisture. Instead, these
61
INDIA
eastwards to the coast of northern South
RETREATING MONSOONS America. The central and eastern Pacific
areas warm up for over six months
and result in an El Nino condition. The
temperature of the water could rise up
to 10 degrees Fahrenheit above normal.
• Warmer surface waters increase
precipitation and bring above-normal
rainfall in South America, and droughts
to Indonesia and Australia.
• This change of wind direction leads
* Arrows represent
Retreating Monsoons
to warmer winters and summers
and a decrease in rainfall during the
of Arabian Sea
Branch
* Arrows represent
Retreating Monsoons winds
monsoon. Most of the time, it also leads
of Bay of Bengal Branch
to drought.
• There is also an opposite of an El Nino,
I M A G E 4.6: R E T R E AT I N G M O N S O O N S called La Nina. This refers to times when
waters of the tropical eastern Pacific
are colder than normal and trade winds
El Nino/La Nina (ENSO) and blow more strongly than usual.
62
• Over India, the El Nino has usually been • Tamil Nadu coast stays dry during the
the harbinger of drought and the La monsoon season because it is located
Nina of rain. parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
• Effect on monsoon due to El Nino is southwest monsoon.
always adverse. Due to changing wind • The Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon
patterns, the rainfall reduces a great moves towards the eastern part of India
deal and monsoon winds are also and causes heavy rainfall. North- east
weakened leading to a poor monsoon India receives heavy rainfall during the
and often a drought like condition. monsoon season.
For India, where the entire agricultural • Cherrapunji as well as Mawsynram
and allied industry is dependent on (two places of Meghalaya) are world’s
monsoon rainfall, a poor monsoon is wettest place.
extremely harmful.
• However, there are great spatial
• During La Nina years, rainfall is variations in India; the average annual
abundant, and it is considered a good rainfall in India is 125 centimeters.
monsoon year. Therefore, La Nina is
beneficial for Indian monsoons. • The entire India has a monsoon type
of climate, but because of the regional
variations, there are various types of
climate in India.
Interesting Facts about
Monsoons/Pre-Monsoon
• The rains causing coffee flowers Seasons in India
blossom in Kerala and nearby areas is
known as blossom shower. • The monsoon type of climate is classified
• Norwesters are the dreaded evening by a distinct seasonal pattern.
thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam. • The weather conditions greatly change
• The notorious nature of NorWesters from one season to the other. These
can be understood from the local changes are particularly noticeable in
nomenclature of Kalbaisakhi, meaning the interior parts of the country.
a calamity of the month of Baisakh. • The coastal areas do not experience
• In Assam, Norwesters are called as much variation in temperature though
Bardoli Chheerha. there is variation in rainfall pattern.
• Hot, dry, and oppressing winds flowing • Four main seasons can be identified in
in the Northern plains from Punjab to India:
Bihar are called as Loo.
» The cold weather season.
• The rain in the southwest monsoon » The hot weather season.
season starts rather abruptly.
» The advancing monsoon.
• During the south-west monsoon, the
period after rain for a few days, if rain » The retreating monsoon with some
fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is regional variations.
known as break in the monsoon.
• Sudden onset of the moisture-laden
winds along with violent thunder and Winter Season
lightning, is often termed as the “burst” • Winter is the season from autumn to
of the monsoon. spring. By the end of the monsoon the
63
temperature falls, and it is the coldest • A common phenomenon during winters
season of the year. is “Western Disturbances” that causes
• Meteorological winter is the season rains in winters. The main cause behind
that witnesses shortest days and the Western Disturbances is the prevailing
lowest average temperatures. of low pressure near Mediterranean
Sea. These winds then move towards
• The year’s coldest months are December India. These winds cause heavy
and January. precipitation towards the Southern
• In winter, temperatures average around Himalayas especially in the states
10–15 °C in the northwest; temperatures of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand,
rise as one proceeds towards the Himachal Pradesh. Also, the two
equator, peaking around 20–25°C in Himalayan states of Assam and Sikkim
mainland India's southeast. also witness heavy snowfall.
General
Duration Temperature Wind Disturbances Rainfall
Characteristics
Mid Clear skies, fine Mean daily High pressure Westerly disturbances
November to weather, low temperature over northwestern cause rainfall in northern
February humidity below 21°C in India. Winds blow plains. Rainfall decreases
North India. Some from northwest to from west to east in plains
parts experience southeast. Around but increases in north-
temperatures four or five westerly east again as it catches
below freezing disturbances are water from Bay of Bengal.
point. Temperature carried by westerly Northeast monsoon
increases from north jet stream. causes winter rainfall in
to south. southern Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu etc.
64
Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It hits Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to
the Indian mainland around 1st June Odisha, twists to the northwest towards
near the Malabar Coast of Kerala. It the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Arabian
reaches Mumbai around 9th-10th June. Sea branch advances northeast
It reaches to Delhi by 29th June. towards the Himalayas. In the first week
• The Bay of Bengal branch, which in of July, the entire country experiences
the beginning tracks the Coromandel monsoon rain.
General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
June – Whole of India June is the hottest Winds are India receives its
September. under southwest month. Temperature southwesterly 80% precipitation
monsoon. India faces remains low during July over mainland in this season. There
severe cyclones, and August which rises India. is decline of rainfall
thunderstorms etc. high in September with from east to west in
decreasing amount of plains.
precipitation.
General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
October - Monsoon winds are Day temperature is Winds are Southern Peninsular
November retreating gradually high, and the nights northeasterly. region (Tamil Nadu,
and sudden rise of are cool and pleasant. Clear skies and Kerala, and Southern
temperature with The average minimum gentle breeze are Andhra Pradesh)
October heat. temperature falls characteristics of receives rain. Cyclonic
below 20°C. this season. activities are more
frequent in Peninsular
region.
Seasons
weather phenomena.
• However, this system does not match
with the seasons of south India where
• In the Indian tradition, a year is divided there is little variation in the seasons.
into six two-monthly seasons.
• This cycle of seasons, which the
common people in north and central
India follow is based on their practical
65
Months According to Indian Months According to English
Season
Calendar Calendar
India
Annual Rainfall
Distribution of 50
-1
RF
less
Annual Rainfall
00 than
cm 50 cm
RF
• On the basis of the distribution of 100-200
cm
rainfall, India can be divided into the
following regions as shown. Rain fall
100-200 cm
RF
more Rain fall
than less than
200 cm 50 cm
I M A G E 4.7 : A N N U A L R A I N FA L L D I S T R I B U T I O N IN
INDIA
Heavy rainfall More than 200 cm Western coast, western ghats, sub-Himalayan region of north-
east, Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. In some parts,
rain exceeds 1000 cm
Moderate rainfall Between 100-200 The isohyet extends from Gujarat to south up to Kanyakumari
cm parallel to western ghats. Northern Andhra Pradesh, eastern part
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, some parts of Jammu
and Kashmir
Low rainfall Between 60-100 Maximum parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
eastern Rajasthan, southwestern Uttar Pradesh
Isohyet - an imaginary line on a map connecting points having the same amount of rainfall in a given
period of time.
66
» A very large part of India falls in
Variability of Annual the category of 15 to 30 per cent
67
• Koeppen, on the basis of his scheme » E – Polar Type
of Climatic classification on monthly » Et – Polar type with no true summer
values of temperature and precipitation,
identified five major climatic types. » Bshw – Steppe
They are: » BWhw – Hot Desert type
Polar
Type
(E)
Hot Dessert Cold Human Winters
Type (Et) Polar Type With Short Summer
with No True
(Bshw) Summer
(Bwhw) Dfc
pe
ep
Monsoon Type
St
Tropical Savannam
Type
(Aw)
Steppe
(Bshw)
(Amw)
(As) Monsoon Type
Monsoon
Type with with Dry
Short Dry Summer Season
Season
I M A G E 4.9: C L I M AT I C Z O N E S A C C O R D I N G TO K O E P P E N C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
68
India
Agro-Climatic Zones
1
6
5
14
4 2
8
13 3
7 1. Western Himalayan
9 2. Eastern Himalayan
3. Lower Ganga Plains
4. Middle Ganga Plains
11 5. Upper Ganga Plains
12 15 6. Trans-Gangetic Plains
10 7. Eastern Plateau and Hills
8. Central Plateau and Hills
9. Western Plateau and Hills
10. Southern Plateau and Hills
15 11. Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills
12. Western Coastal Plains and Hills
13. Gujarat Plains
14. Western Dry Region
15. Island Region
69
CHAPTER - 5
70
Mean Annual Average Mean Temperature in
Vegetation Zones Remarks
Temp (° C) Jan (° C)
Natural Vegetation
in India
• Soil, topography and climate are the
primary factors which influence Natural
Vegetation of a region.
• The main climatic factors are
temperature and rainfall. The annual
rainfall pattern has a great influence on
the type of vegetation.
• Temperature is the major factor in the
Himalayan region and other hilly areas
I M A G E 5.1: V E G E TAT I O N & A LT I T U D E
where an elevation is more than 900
meters. As the temperature declines with
71
- Rainfall 100-200 cm. • Natural Vegetation of India is primarily
» Dry Deciduous Forests - Rainfall 50 - classified based on spatial and annual
100 cm. variations in rainfall. Temperature, soil
and topography are also considered.
» Mountain Forests.
• India’s vegetation types can be divided
» Littoral and Swamp Forest. into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as
» Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations - given below.
Rainfall 25-50 cm.
72
Tropical Deciduous Forests Tropical Thorn Forests
• These forests constitute most • Tropical thorn forests found in the
widespread forests in India. These are regions where rainfall is less than 50
also known as the monsoon forests. cm.
They spread over regions with rainfall • These consist of a variety of shrubs and
between 70-200 cm. These forests grasses. It includes semiarid areas of
are again divided into moist and dry south west Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana,
deciduous depending on the availability Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
of water. Pradesh.
• The Moist deciduous forests are more • Plants are leafless for most part of the
predominant in the areas with rainfall year and appears like scrub vegetation.
between 100- 200 cm. These forests are
found in eastern slopes of the Western • Important species found are Ber,
Ghats and Odisha, the northeastern Babool, and Khair, wild date palm,
states along the Himalayan foothills. Khejri, Palas, Neem. A grass known as
Tussocky grows up to a height of 2 m.
• Sal, Teak, Hurra, Shisham, Mahua, Amla, as the undergrowth.
Semul, Sandalwood and Kusum etc. are
the primary species of these forests.
• Dry deciduous forest spans vast areas Mountain Forests
of the country, where rainfall is between
70-100 cm. • In mountainous areas, due to the
fall in temperature with increasing
• On the wetter sides, it transitions altitude, natural vegetation changes
towards the moist deciduous, while on
correspondingly.
the drier sides thorn forests are found.
• Mountain forests can be divided into
• These forests predominate rainier parts two broad types, the southern mountain
of the Peninsula and the plains of Bihar
forests and the northern mountain
and Uttar Pradesh.
forests.
• In the higher rainfall areas of the • The Himalayan ranges represent a
northern Indian plain and the
succession of vegetation from the
Peninsular plateau, these forests
tropical to the tundra, with altitudinal
represent parkland landscape with
change in.
open stretches where Teak and other
trees interspersed with patches of grass • Deciduous forests are found in the
are commonly found. Himalayan foothills. It is followed by
the wet temperate forests between
• With the beginning of dry season, the the altitudes of 1,000 to 2,000 m. In
trees shed their leaves completely and
the higher hill ranges of northeastern
the forest appears like a vast grassland
region, hilly areas of West Bengal and
with leafless trees all around.
Uttarakhand, evergreen broad-leaf
• Palas, Tendu, Amaltas, Bel, Axlewood, trees such as Oak and Chestnut are
Khair, etc. are the commonly found predominant.
trees. In the southern and western
• Between 1,500-1,750 m., Pine forests are
regions of Rajasthan, vegetation cover
also well-developed in this region, with
is very scarce because of less rainfall
Chir Pine as a very useful for commercial
and over usage of land for grazing.
species. Deodar which is a highly
also utilized timber for construction purposes as it acts as an
valued endemic tree grows primarily in
insulator of heat. the western Himalayan range. Deodar
73
is mostly used in construction activity. grasses (Graminoids) and Babul are
Similarly, the Walnut and the Chinar found in this zone. The Indian wild date,
belong to this zone which is used in known as “Khejur” is most common in
various types of Kashmiri handicrafts. these desert areas.
• Spruce and blue pine appear at altitudes • These plants grow far away from each
of 2,225 to 3,048 m. At many places, other. They have deep roots and thick
temperate grasslands are also seen. fleshy stems in which they store water
• But at the higher altitudes there is a to survive during the long drought.
transition towards Alpine forests and • These vegetations are found in
pastures. Rajasthan and parts of Karnataka,
• Junipers, silver firs, Pines, rhododendrons Punjab and Gujarat. The leaves of short
and birch etc. found between 3,000 trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses that
to 4,000 m. These pastures are used are found in Thar Desert have high
widely for transhumance by tribes like nutritional values.
the Bakarwals, the Gujjars, the Gaddis • Thorny Shrubs grow where rainfall is
and the Bhotiyas. low the soil is dry.
• Because of relatively higher rainfall • Plants growing in such dry soil absorb
than the drier north-facing slopes the water from the soil after a lot of search
southern slopes of the Himalayas carry and great difficulty. To conserve
a thicker vegetation cover. At higher this water, plants in dry areas adapt
reaches, lichens and mosses represents themselves by not growing large leaves,
the tundra vegetation. as transpiration or loss of water occurs
• The southern mountain forests include through them mainly; or the leaves
the forests in three distinct regions of are small in size or thorns occur. These
Peninsular India viz; the Nilgiris, the thorns act as leaves and at times
Vindhyas and the Western Ghats. protect it from herbivorous animals.
• As they are nearer to the tropical areas, • In arid areas the natural vegetation
and only 1,500 m above the sea level, is mainly of Cacti, Babla, Date, Palm,
vegetation is temperate in the higher Khair, Babul, Acacias, etc. In India
areas, subtropical on the lower regions the distribution of thorny bushes and
of the Western Ghats, especially in scrubs are found in areas where rainfall
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. is low, average annual rainfall varying
between 25-50 cm and temperatures
• The temperate forests are known as are high.
Sholas in the Palani hills, Anaimalai
and Nilgiris. Some other trees of this • E.g., the semiarid regions – near desert
forest of economic significance include areas of Rajasthan, Kutch – Kathiawad
Laurel, magnolia, wattle and cinchona. areas of Gujarat, rain- shadow area of
Such forests are also found in the Maikal the Deccan, i.e., interior of the Peninsula.
and the Satpura ranges.
74
• Two sites- Chilika Lake (Odisha) and shelter to a wide variety of birds.
Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur)
are protected as water-fowl habitats INDIA
under the Convention on Wetlands TYPE OF FOREST
of International Importance which is
also known as Ramsar Convention of MONTANE
FOREST
Wetlands.
• The wetlands of country have been
grouped into eight categories, viz.:
TROPICAL TROPICAL
DECIDUOUS EVERGREEN
» The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in FOREST FOREST
southern region;
» The vast saline expanses of Gujarat and
the Gulf of Kutch and Rajasthan; TROPICAL EVERGREEN
FOREST
75
too wet nor too dry type climate3. 27°C, the relative humidity is about 75
• Lofty: The trees more or less reach 45 – %. The dry season is not short like in
60 meters in height. tropical evergreen forests.
• Thick Canopy: From the space, the • Such type of forest is found on the
tropical rain forest looks like a thick Western coast of India, Assam, lower
canopy of foliage, broken only if it is slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha
intersected by large rivers or cleared for and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
cultivation. • The semi-evergreen forests are less
• All plants struggle upwards for dense. They are more gregarious (living
sunlight which forms a peculiar layer in colonies or flocks – more pure stands)
arrangement. When viewed from than the wet evergreen forests.
above the entire morphology looks like • These forests are characterized by many
a green carpet. species. Trees usually have buttressed
• Less undergrowth: The sunlight cannot trunks with abundant epiphytes4.
reach the ground due to thick canopy. • The important species are Rosewood,
The undergrowth is formed mainly of Laurel, Mesua, thorny Bamboo –
Bamboo, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc. Western Ghats, White Cedar, Indian
• Such type of forests are found in Chestnut, Champa, Mango, etc. –
Western side of the Western Ghats (500 Himalayan region.
to 1370 meters above sea level), some • Hardwood or timber is similar to found
regions in the Purvanchal hills and in in tropical evergreen regions except
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. that these are less dense with more
• The timber of these forests is fine- pure stands (timber industry here is
grained, durable and hard. more viable as compared to evergreen
forests).
• Though it has high commercial value
it is challenging to exploit due to the
dense undergrowth, absence of pure Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
stands and lack of transport facilities.
• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall 100
• The important species of these forests to 200 cm, mean annual temperature of
are Canes, Mahogany, Mesua, Jamun, about 27°C, the average annual relative
Bamboo, White Cedar etc. humidity ranges between 60 to 75 %.
Summer and spring (between winter
and summer) are dry.
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
• The trees shed their leaves during the
• They are transitional forests between spring and early summer when there is
tropical deciduous forests and tropical a decrease in moisture.
wet evergreen forests. They are
comparatively drier regions compared • The appearance is generally bare in
to tropical wet evergreen forests. extreme summers (April-May).
76
large tracts under these forests have building purposes and construction.
been cleared for cultivation. • The important tree species found
• Found in the stretch running along the in these forests are agar, Sundri,
Western Ghats surrounding the stretch rhizophora, screw Pines, palms and
of evergreen forests, a stretch along Canes.
the Shivalik range including bhabar
and terai from 77° E to 88° E, Mizoram
and Manipur, hills of Chhattisgarh Dry Tropical Forests
and eastern Madhya Pradesh, most
of Odisha, Chota Nagpur Plateau, Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Andaman and Nicobar islands and • Climatic Conditions: Annual
parts of West Bengal. precipitation of 100 cm mostly from the
• These provide valuable timer like Teak. north-east monsoon winds in October –
The main tree species found in these December), mean annual temperature
forests are sal, Teak, Laurel, Rosewood, is about 28°C; the mean humidity is
amla, Bamboo, Jamun. about 75 %.
• It is comparatively easier to exploit • They are found along the coasts of
these forests as pure strands gives high Tamil Nadu. The growth of evergreen
volume of wood. forests in such low rainfall region is a
bit strange.
• Short trees, up to 12 m height, with
Littoral and Swamp Forests complete canopy cover.
• They can survive and grow both • Bamboos and grasses are not
in brackish water (The mixture of conspicuous. The important species are
seawater and fresh water in estuaries Jamun, Neem, Tamarind, etc.
is called brackish water and its salinity
can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt) as well as
• Most of the lands under these forests
have been cleared for agriculture or
fresh water.
casuarina plantations5.
• Occur in and around the estuaries,
creeks and deltas which are under tidal
influence (tidal or delta forests). Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
• Littoral forests grow at several regions • They are similar to moist deciduous
along the coastal stretches. forests and shed their leaves in the dry
• Swamp forests are majorly confined season. The major difference is that
to the deltas of Mahanadi, Ganga, these can grow in comparatively less
Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna. rainfall regions. Annual rainfall is 100-
• Dense mangroves can be found all 150 cm.
along the coastline in tidal creeks, • They represent a transitional type –
sheltered estuaries, salt marshes, thorn forests on the drier side and moist
mudflats and backwaters. It provides deciduous on the wetter side.
useful fuel wood. • They have closed but uneven canopy
• The densest and the pronounced is the cover.
Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
5 Casuarina is the most famous farm forestry in Andhra Pradesh,
the predominant species is Sundri. Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and
• Mangroves provide durable and hard Karnataka. They are rapid-growing, carefree species and cli-
mates as varied as high mountain slopes, coastal sand dunes,
timber which is used for making boats, semi-arid regions and hot humid tropics. They fix the atmo-
spheric nitrogen. It reaches 15 to 25 meters in height on average.
77
• The forests consist of a mixture of a • The important species are Cactii, Babul,
few species of deciduous trees rising as Neem etc.
high as 20 meters.
• Undergrowth: Enough sunlight reaches
the ground to permit the growth of Montane Subtropical Forests
grass and climbers. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
• They occur in an irregular wide stretch Forests
running from the foot of the Himalayas
to Kanyakumari except in Western • Climatic conditions: Mean annual
Ghats, West Bengal and Rajasthan. precipitation is 75 cm to 125 cm, average
annual temperature is 18°-21°C, and
• The important species are Axlewood, humidity is 80 %.
Teak, Rosewood, common Bamboo, red
sanders, satinwood, Laurel. • Found in the Eastern Himalayas to
the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes
• Large spans of this forest are cleared varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
for agricultural purposes.
• Forests of evergreen tree species.
• These forests have suffered from Commonly found species are Chestnuts,
overgrazing and fire.
Evergreen Oaks, Ash, Beech, Pines and
Sals.
Tropical Thorn Forests 6
• Epiphytes [any plant that grows non-
parasitically on a tree or other plant]
• Climatic Conditions: Annual and climbers are common.
precipitation less than 75 cm, humidity
is less than 50 %, mean temperature is • These forests are not so distinctive
25°-30°C. in the southern regions of India. They
occur only in the Palni hills and Nilgiri
• The trees are small (6 to 10 meters) at 1070- 1525 meters above sea level.
and widely scattered. Euphorbias and
Acacias are prominent. • It is a “stunted rain-forest” thus it is
not so luxuriant like the true tropical
• The Indian wild date is most common. evergreen forests.
Some grasses also thrive during the
rainy season. • The higher regions of the Western Ghats
such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits
• Found in south-western Punjab, of the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
Rajasthan, Kutch and neighbouring highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the
parts of Saurashtra, western Haryana. Aravali Range carry sub-types of these
• In this region they degenerate into forests.
desert type in the Thar desert.
• Such forests also grow on the leeward
Subtropical Moist Pine Forests
side of the Western Ghats covering
large areas of Karnataka, Maharashtra, • Found in the Western Himalayas
Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Andhra between 73°E and 88°E longitudes
Pradesh. at elevations between 1000 to 2000
meters above sea level.
Reduces damage in the event of natural disasters. Shelter belts
in the coastal areas helps to break the winds. Because of its
ornamental appearance, it is also used for tourism purposes. It
• Spread across some hilly regions of
is a source of high quality firewood. The wood is used for paper Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga
pulp and is useful raw material for the manufacture of paper for Hills and Khasi Hills.
printing, writing, and wrapping. It has some medicinal values
as well. • Chir or Chil is the most dominant
78
species occurs in pure stands. Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
• It provides valuable timber for buildings, • Annual precipitation varies from 150
boxes and furniture and also used for cm. to 250 cm.
producing resin and turpentine.
• They occur in the temperate zone of
the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300
Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forests meters and cover the entire length of this
mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal
• Climatic Conditions: Annual Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and
precipitation is 50-100 cm. (15 to 25 cm. Sikkim.
in December-March), the summers are
sufficiently hot and winters are very • These forests are mainly composed of
cold. coniferous species and these species
occur in mostly pure strands.
• Found in the western Himalayas up to
about 1000 meters above sea level, • Trees are 30 to 50 meters high.
Bhabar, the Shivaliks regions. • Pines, cedars, spruce, silver fir are most
• Low scrub forest in which small significant species.
evergreen stunted trees and shrubs are • They are high but fairly open forest
found. with shrubby undergrowth including
• Pistacia, Acacia Modesta and Olive are rhododendrons, oaks and some
the most common trees. Bamboos.
• It provides fine wood which is used for
construction, timber and railway sleepers.
Montane Temperate Forests
Montane Wet Temperate Forests Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
• Climatic Conditions: Grows at a height • Rainfall is below 100 cm and is mostly
of 1800-3000 m. above mean sea level, in the form of snow. Temperatures are
mean annual rainfall is 150 cm. to 300 below 10°C.
cm., mean annual temperature is about
• Coniferous forests with xerophytic
11°C to 14°C and the average relative
shrubs in which Oak, Deodar, Ash, Olive,
humidity is over 80%.
etc. are the main trees.
• Higher hills of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, • Such forests are seen in the inner dry
in the Eastern Himalayan region.
ranges of the Himalayas where south-
• These are closed evergreen forests west monsoon is very less.
regions. Trunks develop large girth.
• Areas like Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba,
• Branches are clothed with ferns, mosses Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim consist of
and other numerous epiphytes. these forests.
• The trees rarely reach a height of more
than 6 meters.
• Chilauni, Deodar, Indian Chestnut, Alpine Forests
Birch, Plum, Machilus, Cinnamomum, • Altitudes ranging from 2,900 to 3,500.
Litsea, Magnolia, Blue Pine, Hemlock,
Oak, etc. are important species.
• These forests can be divided into: (1)
sub- alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and
(3) dry alpine scrub.
• The sub-alpine forests found in lower
79
alpine scrub and grasslands. during surgery comes from a tropical
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad- vine. Similarly, Quinine is used to treat
leaved trees in which the coniferous Malaria which is derived from the
trees attain a height of about 30 m while ‘Cinchona Tree’.
the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m. • Forests provide timber, which is used
• Firs, rhododendron, spruce, etc. are for building houses, furniture.
significant trees. • Forests are the most important part
• The moist alpine scrub forest is a low of earth’s ecosystem. It prevents soil
evergreen dense growth of birch, erosion, maintains water cycle, check
rhododendron which occurs at 3,000 global warming etc. Without all these
meters and reaches up to the snow- roles performed by forests, the earth
line. would be uninhabitable.
• The dry alpine scrub represents the • Wildlife tourism generates lots of
uppermost limit of dwarf shrubs, scrub capital, which in turn increases the
xerophytic, over 3,500 meters above sea revenue of The Government.
level and found in dry zone. Artemesia, • Forests still harbor various species of
honeysuckle, juniper etc. are important living organisms which are still being
species. discovered. Each animal insects and
plants contain its individual genetic
material that has been evolving for
Importance of thousands of years.
• Protecting the forests not only preserves
Forests a process of life that started billions of
years ago but it also gives us missing
• The trees are extremely significant clues to various riddled aspects of life
and have always been necessary for itself.
improving the human life – both during
its lifetime and after harvest. It is not a
strange to believe that without trees we
humans would not exist on this beautiful
Forest Cover in India
planet.
• India has recorded a one percent
• Forests are commonly known as the increase (8,021 sq. km.) in overall forest
lungs of the earth. It is majorly because and tree cover between 2015 and
of the variety of plants produce massive 2017 despite population and livestock
amount of Oxygen which sustains pressures, even as the green footprint in
the other species. Forests of one acre the northeast region shrunk by 630 sq.
provides over 6 tons of Oxygen every km., according to the latest India State
year. of Forest Report, 2018.
• Forests provide home to diverse fauna • Based on satellite data, the biennial
and plant species, which not only assessment – conducted by the Forest
provide biodiversity on earth, but each Survey of India (FSI) and released by
species has a vital role to perform in the the Ministry of Environment, Forest
ecosystem. and Climate Change (MoEFCC) – has
• About 25% of all the medicines are put the total forest and tree cover at
produced from rainforest plants. For 802,088 sq. km., which is 24.39 percent
example Curare (toxic plant) is used of the geographical area of the country.
as an anesthetic and to relax muscles • India’s goal is to bring 33 % of its
80
geographical area under forest cover. INDIA
Almost 15 states and union territories TYPE OF FOREST
have forest cover more than 33 % of
4
their geographical area. Among these,
seven states have more than 75 percent 1
forest cover while eight states have 1
forest cover between 33 percent and 75 5 1
percent. 4 2
• Three southern states have attributed to 3 4 1
the overall increase in forest cover. They
are: Kerala (1,043 sq. km.) Karnataka 2
(1,101 sq. km.) and Andhra Pradesh (2,141
3 Forest Cover
sq. km.). According to report much of
1. More than 75%
the expansion is due to plantation and 2. 60 - 75 %
conservation activities both within and 3. 30 - 60%
4. 15 - 30%
outside the recorded forest areas. 5. Less than 15%
• In terms of area, Madhya Pradesh has
the largest forest cover of 77,414 sq. km.,
followed by Arunachal Pradesh with
66,964 sq. km. and Chhattisgarh with I M A G E 5.3 : F O R E S T C OV E R IN INDIA
55,547 sq. km. However, these states
have reported decline in forest cover.
• The biodiversity-rich northeast region
(NER), which accounts for 25% of India’s Medicinal Plants
forest cover, has shown decline in forest
cover. In Mizoram, the loss is due to • India is famous for its spices and herbs
“shifting cultivation and developmental since ancient period. Some 2,000 plants
projects”. Rise in forest cover in certain have been mentioned in Ayurveda while
pockets is due to “regeneration of at least 500 are regularly used. Red list
Bamboo and other plantations”. In of the World Conservation Union has
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, named 352 medicinal plants among
the loss has also been due to “shifting which 52 are critically endangered and
cultivation and developmental 49 are endangered. The commonly
projects”. Shifting cultivation, rotational used herb plants in India are:
felling and developmental projects are
the factors influencing the decline in » Sarpagandha: Used to treat
forest cover in Meghalaya. hypertension (blood pressure); Only
India is home for Sarpagandha.
» Jamun: The juice of ripe Jamun is
used to make vinegar which is diuretic
and carminative, and has digestive
properties. The powder of its seeds is
used for controlling diabetes.
» Arjun: The fresh juice of leaves is used
to cure earache and to regulate blood
pressure.
» Neem: Has high antibiotic and
antibacterial properties.
81
» Babool: Leaves are used to cure sore available to rural population dependent
eyes. Its gum is used as a tonic. on forests and encourage the
» Kachnar: It is effective in treating substitution of wood; creating a massive
asthma and ulcers. The roots and buds people’s movement involving women
are good for digestive problems. to encourage the tree plantation, stop
deforestation, and hence, reduce the
» Tulsi Plant: Is used to cure cough and pressure on existing forest.
cold.
• Based on the forest conservation policy
following initiatives have been taken:
Forest Conservation • Social Forestry:
82
balance with proper utilization of with other farm operations. Farm
farm resources. It provides efficient forestry is any sustainable land-use
conservation of water and soil and system that maintains or increases the
utilize wasteland and degraded lands. total yields by combining food crops
It helps to reduce pressure on natural with tree crops and/or livestock on the
forests. same unit of land, either alternately or
» Urban forestry improves the air quality at the same time, using management
and can mitigate the heat island effect practices that suit the social and
by giving green lungs to cities. Urban cultural characteristics of the local
forests can sequester huge quantity of people and the economic and eco-
carbon by capturing carbon dioxide logical conditions of the area.
from the atmosphere. Urban forests
play major roles in supporting water
management in and around urban Wildlife in India
settlements.
» Social forestry, just like urban forestry • India’s Wildlife is a great natural
also provides employment opportunities heritage. It is estimated that about
to the rural people. 4-5 % of all known animal and plant
species on the earth are found in India.
» Urban forestry helps to check haphazard
urbanization bringing about aesthetic • As per the International Union for
benefits. Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as
» Social Forestry helps to increase in levels follows-
of farm income due to improved and
sustained productivity. It also helps to » Normal Species: Species whose
achieve an all-round rural development population levels are normal for their
as a part of integrated rural survival, such as sal, Cattle, Rodents,
development programme. Participation Pine etc.
of different rural communities provide
social cohesion. Biofuel, biogas and
» Endangered Species: These species are
in danger of extinction. The survival of
other sources of renewable energy can
these species is difficult if the negative
be extracted out of social forestry.
factors responsible for their decline
» Urban forestry offers significant benefits continue to operate. The examples of
in reducing energy consumption. such species are Crocodile, Black Buck,
Social and Urban forestry is, in effect, Indian Wild Ass, Indian Rhino, Lion
an integral part of the Gandhian Tailed Macaque, Sangai (Brow Antlered
philosophy of economic growth and Deer in Manipur) etc.
community development.
» Vulnerable Species: Population of
• Farm Forestry: such species has declined to such
levels from where it is likely to become
» Farm forestry is the name attributed endangered in the distant future if the
to the programmes which promote negative factors continue to influence.
commercial tree growing by farmers The examples of such species are Nilgiri
on their own land. Farm forestry was Langur, Barasingha, Nicobar Flying Fox,
defined by the National Commission etc.
on Agriculture (1976) as the practice of » Rare Species: Species with very
forestry in all its aspects in and around few population may move into the
the farms or village lands integrated endangered for vulnerable category
83
if the negative factors continue to hills. 42 wetlands are registered under
operate. The examples of such species the Ramsar Convention.
are Wild Asiatic Buffalo, the Himalayan • As India is home to a number of rare
Brown Bear, Hornbill and Desert Fox. and threatened animal species, wildlife
» Endemic Species: These species are management in the country is essential
only found in some particular areas to preserve these species.
usually isolated by geographical or • India is one of the seventeen mega-
natural barriers. Examples of such diverse countries.
species are Nicobar pigeon, the
Andaman teal, Andaman Wild Pig, • According to one study, India along
Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh. with other 16 mega diverse countries is
home to about 60-70% of the world’s
» Extinct Species: These species are not biodiversity. India, lying within the Indo-
found after searches of known or likely Malaya ecozone is home to about 7.6%
areas where they may occur. A species of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian (bird),
may become extinct from a local place, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering
region, country, continent or even the plant species.
entire earth. Examples of such species
are the pink head duck, Asiatic cheetah. • There are eighteen biosphere reserves
in India. Four out of these, Nanda
• There are more than 89,000 animal Devi in Uttarakhand, the Sunderbans
species in India. in West Bengal, the Gulf of Mannar in
• There are more than 1200 species of Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala,
birds in India. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have
been included in the world network of
• Elephants are more commonly seen in Biosphere reserves.
the hot wet forests of Kerala, Karnataka
and Assam. • The eighteen biosphere reserves are:
Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiris,
• One-horned rhinos are found in the Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great Nicobar,
swampy and marshy lands of Assam Manas, Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang,
and West Bengal. Dibru Saikhowa, Agasthyamalai,
• Wild asses and camels are found in the Kanchenjunga, Pachmari, Achanakmar-
Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. Amarkantak, Cold Desert, Panna, Rann
• Indian Bison, Nilgai, Chousingha, Gazel of Kutch, Seshachalam.
and many other species of deer and • Project Rhino, Project Tiger, Project
some other animals are found in India Great Indian Bustard and many other
• India is the only country in the world eco-developmental projects have been
which has both tigers and lions. introduced.
• India boasts a variety of species and • In past few decades, encroachment
organisms. by human has threatened our wildlife
extensively. To reverse this trend,
• The region’s diverse and rich wildlife the national parks and protected
is preserved in 120+ national parks, areas, first established in 1935, were
18 Bio- reserves and 500+ wildlife comprehensively expanded.
sanctuaries in the country. India has
some of the most biodiverse regions of • India enacted the Wildlife Protection
the world and hosts three of the world’s Act in 1972 and Project Tiger to
36 biodiversity hotspots – or treasure- safeguard crucial habitat; further
houses – that are the Western Ghats, federal protections were promulgated
the Eastern Himalayas and Indo-Burma in the 1980s.
84
• Wildlife conservation has become an
Extinction of Species increasingly significant practice due to
the negative effects of human activity
• The exploitation of forest and land on wildlife.
resources by humans along with
capturing and trapping the animals for
sport and food has caused extinction of The Wildlife Protection Act,
many species in India in recent decades.
1972
• These species include mammals like
the Indian wild zebu, Indian/Asiatic • The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 enacted
cheetah, Northern Sumatran rhinoceros by Indian Parliament for the protection
and Javan Rhinoceros. of plants and animal species. Before
• While some of the large mammal 1972, India had only five National Parks.
species are confirmed extinct, there • The Act established schedules of
have been many smaller plant and protected animal and plant species;
animal species whose status is difficult harvesting or hunting these species was
to ascertain. largely prohibited.
• Gir forest in Gujrat has the only surviving • The Act provides for the protection
population of Asiatic lions in the world. of wild plants, birds, and animals. It
• Some species of birds have gone extinct extends to the whole of India, except
in recent period, including the pink- Jammu and Kashmir which has its
headed duck and the Himalayan quail. own wildlife act. The act contains
six schedules which provide varying
• A species of Warbler known earlier from degrees of protection.
a single specimen collected by Allan
Octavian Hume from near Rampur in • Schedule I and part II of Schedule II
Himachal Pradesh, was rediscovered gives absolute protection - highest
after 139 years in Thailand. penalties are prescribed for offenses
under this schedule.
• Species listed in Schedule III and
Wildlife Schedule IV are also protected, but
lower penalties are prescribed.
Conservation • Schedule V includes the animals which
may be hunted.
• Wildlife Conservation is the practice • The endemic plants specified in
of protecting wild animals and plants Schedule VI are prohibited from
and their habitat in their pristine planting and cultivation.
form. Wildlife plays significant role
in balancing the environment and • The Enforcement agencies have the
provides stability to various natural power to compound offenses under this
processes of nature. Schedule (i.e. they can impose fines).
85
» Establishment of protected areas and • The Indian government has established
management of zoos. 18 Biosphere Reserves in India,
» Regulate and control the trade in parts (categories roughly corresponding to
and products made from wildlife. IUCN Category V Protected areas),
which protect larger areas of natural
» The act provides for several categories habitat (than a National Park or Wildlife
of Protected Areas/Reserves: Sanctuary), and often include one or
more National Parks or reserves, along
− National Parks and Tiger Reserves,
with buffer zones that are open to some
Conservation Reserves and
community and economic activities.
Community Reserves.
• Protection is granted not only to the
− Wildlife Sanctuaries.
fauna and flora of the protected region,
but also to the human communities
who inhabit these regions, and their
National Parks and Tiger ways of life.
Reserves
INDIA
• National parks and Tiger Reserves are BIOSPHERE RESERVES
more strictly protected under the law, COLD DESERT
86
Convention which adopts decisions are able to implement its objectives.
(Resolutions and Recommendations) to • There are 42 wetlands listed under the
administer the work of the Convention Ramsar Convention in India.
and improve the way in which the Parties
87
wind and glaciers.
• The soil is categorized on the basis of
the proportion of particles of different LITTER
O (ORGANIC)
HORIZON
sizes.
HUMAS A HORIZON
• If soil contains greater proportion of (SURFACE)
BEDROCK
Soil Profile
I M A G E 5.6: S O I L P R O F I L E
• A vertical section consisting of different
layers of soil is known as soil profile.
• Each layer differs in texture, colour, Major Soil Types of India
depth and chemical composition. These
layers are referred to as Soil Horizon. • Geologically, Indian soils can broadly
• A soil horizon is a layer normally parallel be classified into soils of peninsular
to the soil surface, whose physical India and soils of extra-peninsular India.
characteristics differ from the other • The soils of Peninsular India are formed
layers. due to the in situ decomposition of
• Horizons are defined in most cases by rocks, i.e. directly from the underlying
physical features, majorly texture and rocks. Peninsular Soils are transported
colour. and re-deposited to a limited extent
and are called as sedentary soils.
• The uppermost horizon is normally dark
in colour as it is rich in minerals and • The Extra-Peninsular soils are formed
humus. The humus increases the soil due to the depositional function of wind
fertility and provides nutrients to plants. and rivers. They are very deep. They
are often referred to as transported or
• This layer is generally porous, soft and
azonal soils.
can retain more water. It is called as the
A-horizon or the topsoil. • Major groups:
• The next layer contains less quantity of » Alluvial soils,
humus but minerals occur in sufficiently
large quantity. This layer is normally » Black soils,
harder and more compact and is called » Red soils,
the middle layer or the B-horizon. » Laterite soils,
• The third layer is known as the » Forest and Mountain soils,
C-horizon, which is made up of small
lumps of rocks with cracks. » Arid and Desert soils,
» Saline and Alkaline soils,
» Peaty and Marshy soils.
88
Alluvial Soil • They are best suited for irrigation and
respond well to well/tube-well and
• Alluvial soils are formed mainly canal irrigation.
because of silt deposited by Ganga,
• They yield splendid crops of wheat, rice,
Brahmaputra, Indus rivers and their
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
tributaries. In coastal areas some
oilseeds, fruits and vegetables.
alluvial deposits are formed because of
wave action. • Geologically, the alluvium of the Great
plains of India is divided into newer or
• Rocks of the Himalayas constitute younger khadar and older bhangar
the parent material. Thus the parent
soils.
material of these soils is of transported
origin.
• They are the largest soil group covering Black Soils
about 46 per cent of the total area
which is roughly 15 lakh sq. km. • The parent material of most of the
black soils is the volcanic rocks that
• They support more than 40% of India’s
were formed on the Deccan Plateau.
population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands. • In Tamil Nadu, schists and gneisses
form the parent material. The former
• These are not mature and contains
are sufficiently deep while the latter are
weak profiles as they are formed very
mostly shallow.
recently.
• Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. • These are the areas of low rainfall and
high temperature. It is, thus, a soil group
Kankar (calcareous concretions) layers
typical to the dry and hot regions of the
are present in some regions along the
Peninsula.
river terraces.
• The soil is porous as it is loamy (equal • A typical black soil is highly argillaceous
(of rocks or sediment) consisting of
proportion of clay and sand) nature.
large clay, 62 % or more.
• Porosity and texture provide good
drainage and other conditions
• Generally, black soils of valleys have
high fertility while those in the uplands
favorable for agriculture.
are less fertile.
• These soils get constantly replenished
because of the recurrent floods.
• The black soil is highly hygroscopic. It
swells greatly on absorbing water. Lots
• They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic- of efforts are required to work on such
Brahmaputra plains except in a few soil in the rainy season because it gets
areas where the top layer is consisting very sticky.
of desert sand.
• In summer, with loss of moisture, the soil
• They also occur in deltas of the shrinks and develops deep and broad
Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and cracks. The lower layers can still have
Kaveri, where they are called deltaic moisture. The cracks allow oxygenation
alluvium or coastal alluvium. of the soil to sufficient depths and the
• Some alluvial soils are found in the soil has extraordinary fertility.
valleys of Tapi, Narmada and Northern • The black colour is because of the
areas of Gujarat. presence of a small proportion of iron
• They are generally flat and regular soils or Titaniferous Magnetite and black
and are best suited for agriculture. constituents of the parent rock material.
89
• Various shades of the black colour like enclosed within the rocks remains intact
deep black, shallow black, medium with other forms of insoluble materials.
black, a mixture of red and black may • In presence of oxygen, oxidation takes
be found in this group of soil. place and rust or iron oxide forms in the
• Extend over 46 lakh sq. km. (16.6 per soil. It gives characteristic red color to
cent of the total area) across Madhya the soil when the soil is present above
Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of the water table.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, • These soils mostly occur in the low
Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. rainfall regions.
• These soils are best suited for cotton. • They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq. km.
Hence these soils are called black (10.6%) of the total geographical area
cotton and Regur soils. of the country.
• Other major crops sown in the black • In almost whole of Tamil Nadu these
soils include Jowar, Wheat, Linseed, soils can be found.
Virginia Tobacco, Castor, Millets and
Sunflower. • Other regions with red soil include
south-east of Maharashtra, parts of
• Sugarcane and rice are also preferred Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
where irrigation facilities are present. Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Chota
• Large varieties of fruits and vegetables Nagpur plateau, Odisha; parts of south
are also successfully cultivated on the Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; parts
black soils. of North-Eastern states, Aravalis and
• This soil has been utilized for cultivating the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
a variety of crops for centuries without Marwar Plateau).
adding manures and fertilizers, with • The red soils are generally loamy and
little or no exhaustion of soil. hence cannot absorb water like the
cotton soils.
• The red soils, with the proper dosage
Red Soils of fertilizers and irrigation techniques,
give good yield of cotton, wheat, rice,
• Red soils along with its minor types
pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds,
constitute the India’s second largest
potatoes and fruits.
soil group (about 18%) after alluvial soil.
• The primary parent rocks are crystalline
and metamorphic rocks like quartzite, Lateritic Soils
gneisses and granites.
• The texture of these soils can range • Laterite soils are generally the end
from sandy to clay, the majority being products of weathering process.
loamy. • They are formed in regions of heavy
• In the upland regions, the red soils are rainfall with alternate wet and dry
poor, porous, and gravelly. But in the periods and high temperature.
lower regions these are rich, deep dark • Heavy rainfall results into leaching
and fertile. (nutrients are washed away by water)
• The red colour develops because of of soil whereby lime and silica are
presence of iron oxide in diffused form. leached away and a soil rich in oxides
of iron and aluminium compounds are
• When granites, limestone, quartzites left behind.
and gneisses are eroded the clay
90
• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden chiefly controlled by the type of organic
greatly on losing moisture content. content derived from forest and their
• Laterite soils are red in color because of character changes with parent rocks,
little clay and more gravels of red sand- ground-configuration and climatic
stones. conditions.
• Laterite soils extends over an area of • As a result, they vary greatly even if they
2.48 lakh sq. km. occur in close proximity to one another.
• Continuous belt of laterite soil is seen on • In the Himalayan area, such soils are
the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 chiefly seen in valleys, less steep and
to 1500 m above sea level, the Rajmahal slopes facing north side. The south
Hills, Eastern Ghats, Vindhyan, Malwa facing slopes are very steep and
Plateau and Satpuras. exposed to denudation and hence do
not support soil formation.
• They also found at lower levels and in
valleys in several other regions of the • Forest soils occur in Western and
country. Eastern Ghats also.
• They are well developed in parts of • The forest soils are heavily rich in humus
Karnataka, south Maharashtra etc. and content.
are widely scattered in other regions. • They are suitable for plantations of
• Laterite soils infertile due to intensive coffee, tea, tropical fruits and spices in
leaching. peninsular forest area.
• When manure is applied and soil is • Wheat, maize, barley and temperate
irrigated, the soil becomes suitable for fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest
growing plantation crops like coffee, tea, region.
rubber, cinchona, arecanut, coconut.
• In some regions, these soils support
grazing grounds and scrub forests.
Arid – Desert Soils
• Laterite soils provide valuable building • The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand
material like soil for brick making. (90 to 95%) and clay (5 to 10%).
• These soils easily cut into cakes but • They span a total area of 1.42 lakh sq.
when exposed to air hardens like iron. km. (4.32%).
• Since it is the end-product of weathering • The presence of sand inhibits humus
process, further weathering is nearly growth. Desertification of adjoining
impossible which makes it durable soils is common because of intrusion of
material. desert sand under the influence of wind
(Aeolian sand).
• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
Forest – Mountain Soils Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. The
sand is blown from the Indus basin and
• These soils cover nearly 2.85 lakh sq. the coast by the prevailing south- west
km. or 8.7% of the total land area of monsoon winds.
country.
• Sandy soils without clay are also
• They are primarily heterogeneous soils common in coastal regions of Kerala,
occur on the hilly slopes covered by Tamil Nadu and Odisha.
forest.
• They are usually poor in organic
• The development of these soils is content.
91
• Some desert soils are alkaline with improper or excess irrigation),
varying proportions of soluble salts Maharashtra and Rajasthan have this
such as calcium carbonate. type of soil.
• Phosphates and nitrates make this soil • The accumulation of these salts renders
fertile if moisture is present. the soil infertile and makes it unfit for
• These soils can be reclaimed if proper cultivation.
irrigation facilities are employed. • In Gujarat, the regions around the Gulf
• In large areas, only the salt tolerant and of Khambhat are influenced by the sea
drought resistant crops such as cotton, tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast
barley, millets, pulses and maize are areas comprising the estuaries of the
cultivated. Tapi, Narmada, Sabarmati and Mahi
are infertile.
• Along the coast, saline waters infiltrate
Saline – Alkaline Soils into coastal areas during storm surges
(when cyclone makes landfall) and
• In Alkaline and Saline Soils, the top-soil makes the soil unfit for agriculture. The
is impregnated with alkaline and saline low lying regions of coastal Tamil Nadu
efflorescence’s (become covered with and Andhra Pradesh face this kind of
salt particles). soil degradation.
• Undecomposed rock fragments, Peaty – Marshy Soils
on weathering, give rise to calcium,
magnesium and sodium salts and • These are soils with large amounts
sulphurous acids. of organic content and considerable
• Rivers also transport some of the salts quantity of soluble salts.
from one region to other. • The most humid areas develop this
• In areas with low water table, the salts type of soil.
percolate into sub soil layer and in areas • They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
of good drainage patterns, the salts are • In Alappuzha and Kottayam districts of
washed away by river water. Kerala it is known as Kari.
• However in areas where the drainage • Also occur in the coastal areas of Tamil
system is poor, the water with high salt Nadu and Odisha, Sunderbans of West
concentration becomes stagnant and Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of
deposits all the salts in the topsoil once Uttarakhand.
the water evaporates.
• Most of the peaty soils are under water
• In regions with high subsoil water table, during the rainy season but as soon the
injurious salts are transferred from rains cease, they are put under paddy
below by the capillary action as a result cultivation.
of evaporation in the dry season.
• Alkaline and Saline Soils occupy nearly
68,000 sq. km. of area.
• These soils are found in canal irrigated
regions and in regions of high subsoil
water table.
• Parts of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of
92
Characteristics and
INDIA
Soil Types
1
Problems of Indian
1 5 Soils
6 2 1
238.407 mm
4
45 • Most soils are mature and old. Soils
2 4 of the great northern plain are much
3 younger than the soils of the peninsular
5 4 plateau.
3
5 • Indian soils are largely deficient in
5 mineral salts, humus, nitrogen and
Types of Soils
1. Forest Soil (Green) other organic contents.
2. Alluvial Soil (Pink)
4
5 3. Black Soil (Purple)
4. Laterite soil (Orange)
• Valleys and plains have thick layers
4 5. Red & Yellow Soil (Blue) of soils while plateau and hilly areas
6. Arid/desert Soil (Brown)
represent thin layer of soil.
I M A G E 5.7: M A J O R S O I L T Y P E S IN INDIA • Some soils like black and alluvial soils
are more fertile while some other soils
such as Alkaline, desert and desert soils
lack in fertility and the yield is very low.
• Indian soils have been used for
agriculture for hundreds of years and
have lost much of their fertility.
• Problems:
• Issue of Soil erosion. Ex: In Chambal
Ravines.
• Deficiency in fertility in Red, lateritic and
other soils,
• Increase in desertification around Thar
desert and rain-shadow regions like
parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.
• Issue of waterlogging, increased salinity
and alkalinity in excessively irrigated
regions of Punjab-Haryana plain,
Karnataka etc.
• Over exploitation of soils due to increase
in population, wasteland, and rise in
living standards and encroachment
of agricultural land due to urban and
transport development.
I M A G E 5.8: P I C T U R E S O F D I F F E R E N T K I N D OF
SOILS IN INDIA
93
Soil Erosion and Soil 1
INDIA
SOIL EROSION
Conservation 3
12
• Removal of topsoil is called soil erosion. 4
Intense farming, grazing, construction 3
activities and other human activities; 3
along with deforestation has led to soil 3
erosion. 5
5
• Soil erosion if not checked promptly Soil Erosion
1. Glacial Erosion (Brown)
can even result into desertification. 2. Shifting Cultivation Erosion (Green)
5 3. Gully & Sheet Erosion (Pink)
5
• Soil erosion is a natural process that 5
4. Desert Erosion (Yellow)
5. Sheet Erosion (Blue)
Soil Conservation
through processes linked with farming
activities like tillage, weeding.
• Erosion, whether it is by wind, water or • Soil conservation is vital to prevent soil
tillage, consist of three different actions erosion.
» Soil detachment • “Soil conservation is the prevention
of soil loss from erosion or reduced
» Movement fertility caused by overuse, salinization,
» Deposition acidification or any other chemical
contamination of soil.
• Topmost layer of soil, which is high in
organic content, fertility, is transported • Slash-and-burn farming and other
elsewhere “on-site” where it builds up unsustainable subsistence farming
over a period or is transported “off-site” methods are employed in some lesser
where it fills up the drainage channels. developed regions. Deforestation leads
to typically large scale erosion, loss
• Soil erosion reduces productivity of soil nutrients and sometimes total
of cropland and contributes to the desertification.”
pollution of nearby water bodies, lakes
and wetlands. • The adoption of various soil conservation
methods checks soil erosion due to
• Soil erosion can be sometimes a very tillage, wind and water.
slow process that cannot be noticed or
occur at such rate, causing huge loss of • Cropping and tillage methods and land
soil cover. management practices, directly affect
the soil erosion process.
• Soil compaction, low organic matter,
poor internal drainage, loss of • When rotation of crops or changing
soil structure, salinization and soil tillage practices are not sufficient
acidity problems are other serious to check the erosion on a field, a
soil degradation conditions that can combination of approaches or more
accelerate the soil erosion process. extreme measures might be necessary.
• For example, contour plowing, strip-
cropping or terrace farming can be
preferred.
94
• In concentrated runoff areas, it is • These trenches also filter out and trap
necessary to include structural controls. most of the suspended soil particles,
Controls such as grassed waterways, keeping them from being washed out
drop pipe and grade control structures, of the field.
rock chutes and water and sediment
control basins as part of the overarching
solution. Afforestation
Terrace Farming • Plantation of trees along the edges of
the fields, the wastelands and on steep
• On the hilly slopes, terraces act as slopes to prevent soil erosion.
bunds and prevent the soil erosion.
• Also it enhances the capacity of the soil
• Cultivation is practiced on a unique to retain water.
step like structure which slows the force
of running water.
• Terraced farming is mostly common on Shelterbelts
small farm lands and in underdeveloped
countries, since mechanized equipment • A line of trees or shrubs planted to
is difficult to deploy in this setting. protect an area; especially a field of
crops, from fierce weather is called
shelterbelts.
Contour Ploughing • Farmers plant trees in number of rows
to check soil erosion through wind.
• Land should never be ploughed up &
down as it increases erosion. • Shelterbelts are also known as
windbreaks.
• Ploughing along contours on a slope
prevents soil being washed away by
rainwater or by surface runoff.
Cover crops/Crop rotations
• Contours act like bunds and thus
prevents soil erosion by allowing water • Cover crops such as legumes, white
to slowly penetrate the soil. turnips, radishes and other species are
rotated with cash crops to blanket the
• Terraces are leveled into step like small soil year-round
fields with even slope.
• Act as green manure which replenishes
nitrogen and other important nutrients.
Contour barriers/Contour • Also help suppress weeds & increase
trenching soil fertility
95
• Also increases organic matter retention Construction of Dams
and cycling of nutrients in the soil.
• Rivers have major role in soil erosion.
• Keeps soils anchored in place rather
than having bare ground exposed to • Dams are constructed in the upper
wind and water. course of rivers to control erosion of soil.
• This would check the speed of water
and thereby save soil from erosion.
Strip Cropping
• Crops are sown in alternate strips of
field to reduce the impact of the winds.
• It is used when a slope is too steep or
when there is no alternative method of
preventing soil erosion.
• Contour strip cropping → Cultivation of
soil protecting crops in strips alternating
with erosion permitting crops. The strips
should be across the slope.
• Field strip cropping → Plants are
cultivated in parallel strips across the
slopes.
Mulching
• Mulches are placed over the soil to
retain moisture and improve soil fertility.
• A protective layer of a material that is
spread on top of the soil.
• Mulches can either be organic — such
as grass clippings, straw, bark chips,
and similar materials or inorganic —
such as stones, brick chips, and plastic.
I M A G E 5.10: P I C T U R E S S H OW I N G D I F F E R E N T
M E T H O D S TO C O N S E R V E S O I L A N D P R E V E N T L A N D
D E G R A D AT I O N
96
CHAPTER - 6
INDIA: NATURAL
DISASTER AND MANAGEMENT
Introduction and floods), climatological(extreme
temperatures, drought and wildfires),
meteorological (cyclones and storms/
• Disaster is an unwanted occurrence wave surges) or biological (disease
resulting from forces that are largely epidemics and insect/ animal plagues).
outside human control, strikes quickly
• Technological or man-made hazards
with little or no warning, which causes
(complex emergencies/conflicts,
or threatens serious disruption of life
famine, displaced populations,
and property including death and injury
industrial accidents, and transport
to a large number of people.
accidents) are events that are caused
• Natural Disaster is a catastrophic by humans and occur in or close to
incident that is caused by nature or human settlements. This can include
the natural procedures of the earth. environmental degradation, pollution,
E.g., volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and accidents. Technological or man-
tsunamis, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, made hazards (complex emergencies/
and other geological processes. conflicts, famine, displaced populations,
• It affects the rural society the most, industrial accidents, and transport
as they are vulnerable to economic accidents)
changes, and have no alternate means • There are a range of challenges
of living. The destructive capability like climate change, unplanned-
of any natural hazard is estimated urbanization, under-development/
basically by its spatial extent and poverty as well as the threat
severity. of pandemics that will shape
• Natural disasters in India have always humanitarian assistance in the future.
posed a challenge for The Government. These aggravating factors will result in
With the advent of high-end research increased frequency, complexity and
and development in the area of severity of disasters.
environment and disaster management • Natural Hazard is a natural disaster
it is now possible to predict such which has not yet happened. There is
natural calamities and also mitigate a potential possibility that the disaster
the adverse effects of such calamities. might strike. Thus, hazards are potential
natural events which might negatively
affect the society, through damage of
Natural Disaster Vs property and loss of life.
• Related to natural hazards, natural
Hazard disasters are comparatively sudden and
cause large scale widespread death,
• Natural Disasters are basically naturally loss of properties and disturbances
occurring physical phenomena caused to social systems and life over which
either by rapid or slow onset events people have little or no control.
which can be geophysical (earthquakes,
landslides, tsunamis and volcanic
• There has been a change in perception
of natural disasters and hazards.
activity), hydrological (avalanches
97
Regions susceptible to natural hazards into man-made and natural disasters.
were more vulnerable to disasters. As per severity, disasters are categorized
Therefore, people avoided tampering as minor or major (in impact).
with the delicate balance that existed • Natural disasters are sudden ecological
in a given ecosystem. But now, disruptions or threat that go beyond the
technological advancements have adjustment capability of the affected
given a larger capacity to human community and require external
intervention in nature. support.
• Now with intensified activities even • Natural disasters can be broadly
in fragile ecosystems, human beings categorized into categories involving
are making disaster prone areas more geophysical like earthquakes and
vulnerable. volcanic eruptions; hydrological such
as floods; meteorological such as
hurricanes; climatological such as heat
Disasters: Natural and cold waves and droughts; and
biological like epidemics.
Or Man Made • Man-made disasters can consist
of hazardous material spills, fires,
• Earlier it was thought that disasters groundwater contamination,
were a result of natural events and transportation accidents, structure
caused due to mighty forces of nature. failures, mining accidents, explosions
• However, natural forces are not the only and acts of terrorism.
causes of disasters. Some disasters are • Atmospheric Disasters: This type of
also caused by human activities. natural disaster has its own natural
• Some activities like Bhopal Gas characteristics, geographic area where
Tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disasters, it occurs (areal extent), time of year
wars, Nuclear attack on Japan, release it is most likely to occur, severity, and
of chlorofluorocarbons, an increase associated risk. In most cases, a natural
in greenhouse gases, environmental disaster or event involves multiple
pollution like oil spills etc. are activities hazards: severe thunder-storms
carried out by humans. spawn tornadoes; wind is a factor in
• While some activities of humans are thunderstorms, severe winter storms,
directly responsible for the disasters tropical cyclones, and hailstorms;
there are others are indirectly snowfall from a severe winter storm can
responsible and they often aggravate prompt avalanches. Few of atmospheric
the process of disaster. Landslides natural hazards are:
and floods are often intensified due
» Blizzards
to unrelenting human actions like
deforestation, unscientific land use, » Thunderstorms
construction activities in the fragile » Lightening
ecosystem etc.
» Tornadoes
» Tropical cyclone
Types of Disasters in » Drought
»
India »
Hailstorm
Frost, Heat, wave
• Disasters are classified as per the origin, » Cold Wave
98
• Terrestrial Disasters are those which in upper and middle course of rivers
occur on the land surface and may and groundwater depletion.
be quite violent in nature. They are as » Developmental Procedure:
follows: Exploitation of land use, development
of infrastructure, technological
» Earthquakes
development and rapid urbanization
» Volcanic eruptions have caused increasing pressure over
» Landslides the natural resources.
» Avalanches » Political problems: There is rising
aspirations for nuclear power,
» Subsidence
competition among countries to
» Soil Erosion become superpowers, and conquest
of land, sea, and skies. These have
• Aquatic Disasters are related to water resulted in a variety of catastrophe
and often are quite large scale. incidents, such as the Syrian civil war,
the Hiroshima nuclear explosion, and
» Floods
increased militarization of the oceans
» Tidal Waves Ocean and outer space.
» Storm surge » Industrialization: Rapid industrialization
» Tsunami has resulted into warming of earth and
frequency of extreme weather events
• The Government and World agencies has also increased.
are working to develop technology for
disaster management for early warning • Different parts of India is vulnerable,
system, efficient rescue operations; in varying degrees, to a large number
relief operations; rehabilitation; and of natural and man-made disasters.
long range planning. Close to around 59% of the landmass
is prone to earthquakes of moderate to
very high intensity.
Natural Disasters in • About 12% of its land is prone to river
erosion and floods.
India • Close to around 5,700 km., out of the
7,516 km. long coastline is prone to
• India is massive and diverse in tsunamis and cyclones.
terms of socio-cultural and physical
attributes. It is largely because of its • Nearly around 68% of its cultivable
vast geographical area, environmental area is vulnerable to droughts; and the
diversities and cultural pluralities. Large hilly regions are at risk from avalanches
population along with different social and landslides.
attributes enhances the vulnerability to • Additionally, India is also vulnerable to
natural disasters. chemical, biological, radiological and
• Causes for Occurrence of various nuclear (CBRN) crises and other man-
Disaster made disasters.
• Disaster threats in India are
» Environmental degradation: Removal further compounded by increasing
of forest cover and trees from a vulnerabilities related to changing
watershed zone have caused, soil demographics and socio-economic
erosion, expansion of flood plain region conditions, unplanned urbanization,
99
and development within high-risk volcanic eruptions, rock fall, landslides,
areas, climate change environmental subsidence etc. having limited area of
degradation, geological hazards, influence and scale of damage.
epidemics and pandemics.
• Clearly, all these factors contribute to
a situation where disasters seriously
Earthquakes in India
threaten India’s economy, its population • The Indian plate is shifting towards the
and sustainable development. north and the north-eastern direction
at a speed of around one centimeter
per year and the movement of this
Earthquakes plate is continuously being obstructed
by the Eurasian plate from the north.
• An earthquake (also known as a quake,
tremor or tremblor) is the shaking of the • As a result of this, both plates are said
surface of the Earth, resulting from the to be locked with each other resulting
sudden release of energy in the Earth's in accumulation of energy at different
lithosphere that creates seismic waves. points in time. Extreme accumulation
of energy results in building up of stress
• The release of energy happens along a which ultimately leads to the sudden
fault. A fault line is a sharp break in the release of energy causing earthquakes
crustal rocks. Rocks beside a fault tend along the Himalayan arch.
to move in opposite directions.
• National Geophysical Laboratory,
• As the overlying rock strata press Department of Meteorology, Geological
them, the friction locks them together. Survey of India, Government of India
However, their tendency to move apart along with the National Institute of
at some point of time overcomes the Disaster Management have divided
friction. As a result, the blocks get India into the following five earthquake
deformed and eventually, they slide zones.
past one another abruptly. This triggers
a release of energy, and the energy » Very High Damage Risk Zone.
waves travel in all directions.
» High Damage Risk Zone.
• The point where the energy is released » Moderate Damage Risk Zone.
is known as the focus of an earthquake.
The energy waves travel in different » Low Damage Risk Zone.
directions to reach the surface. The » Very Low Damage Risk Zone.
point on the surface, nearest to the
focus is called the epicenter. • Very High Damage Risk Zone: It includes
the region of the Western and Central
• The intensity of the earthquake
Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the
will be highest in the epicenter and
North-East Indian region, Kashmir, the
decreases as one moves away. All-
Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and
natural earthquakes take place in the
Nicobar group of islands. Usually, the
lithosphere.
regions having trap rock or basaltic
• Earthquakes are highly unpredictable rocks are prone to earthquakes.
and destructive among all the natural
disasters.
• High Damage Risk Zone: It includes Part
of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
• Tectonic earthquakes are the most Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, the
devastating as compared to the parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (North
earthquakes which are associated with Punjab- Chandigarh, North Bengal-
100
Sundarbans, Western Uttar Pradesh- • There are also environmental impacts.
Terai) and the capital of the country Earthquakes can cause landslides.
Delhi. In Maharashtra, the Patan area It is very dangerous, especially for
(Koynanagar) and in Bihar the northern buildings in unstable area on hillsides
part of the state like Raxaul, near the or mountains where soft soils can be
border of India and Nepal is also in this liquefied by the tremors of earthquakes.
zone. During an earthquake, buildings can
• The remaining part of the country falls in fall down hills with soil and bury people
the moderate or low damage risk zone. under the soil. People will be buried
Most of these areas can be considered alive. In addition, aftershocks are also
safe. Deccan plateau which is the most effects of earthquakes. Aftershocks are
stable landform in our country is also small tremors which disperse it to other
free from the risks of earthquakes. places and other people can feel it after
the main shocks of an earthquake. Loss
of trees and vegetation also has a long-
INDIA standing effect on the environment and
5 4 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD surrounding.
ZONES
5 • Apart from social and environmental
5 impacts, earthquakes also have
negative effects on a nation’s economy.
3 2 4
5 5 Earthquakes cause infrastructure to
3 collapse; reservoirs, dams, stores, and
5 4 1 2 hospitals are all damaged after an
1 earthquake. Restoring those take a
3
1 3 Seismic Zones long time. So, earthquakes often cause
2
4
Zone 1. Very Low Damage loss of job opportunities and affect
3 Risk Zone (Purple)
3 Zone 2. Low Damage the country's income resulting into a
1 Risk Zone (Green)
Zone 3. Moderate Damage unstable economy.
Risk Zone (Blue)
Zone 4. High Damage
3 2 Risk Zone (Brown)
Zone 5. Very High Damage
Risk Zone (Pink)
Earthquake Mitigation Hazards
I M A G E 6.1: E A R T H Q U A K E H A Z A R D Z O N E INDIA
IN
• Mapping of more earthquakes prone
regions in India:
Socio-Environmental
» Himalayan belt – Collision between
Consequences of Earthquakes different lithological plates i.e. collision
• One of the biggest effects of between Indo-Austral plate with
earthquakes is the social impact on Eurasian plate; and Burma Plate with
survivors. Earthquakes have short term Java Sumatra plate. These collisions
impacts as well as long term impacts. amongst two continental plates
A powerful earthquake can destroy produce lots of strain in underlying
buildings, factories, shops, roads, rocks and this strain is released in form
bridges and schools. As a result, many of earthquakes.
people become homeless. Furthermore, » Andaman and Nicobar Islands- Sea
earthquakes can cause disruption floor displacement and underwater
to various public services such as volcanoes disturb the equilibrium of
transport systems and communication earth’s surface.
connections.
• According to seismologists, the
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earthquake itself is not the killer, vulnerable areas.
however it is the unpreparedness
amongst the society, in terms of • National Centre for Seismology launches
inadequate infrastructure, which kills ‘India Quake’ – An App for Earthquake
thousands. Parameter Dissemination. National
Centre for Seismology (NCS) operates
• Measures Required: national seismological network with 84
» Risk recognition – The reality that there stations. These stations are connected
is a risk, needs to be recognized. People to NCS headquarters through VSAT for
need to be made informed of this threat. real time data communication. In the
event of an earthquake NCS locates
» Risk mapping – Under this, risk mapping them using data from its network and
of the areas in the region and separate disseminate earthquake parameters
them into zones depending upon the to all the concerned government
total amount of risk involved. department and other stakeholders
» Risk mitigation – It required investment through SMS, email, and fax.
in R&D to build cost effective quake-
resistant designs. As this cannot be
taken up commercially, public funding Tsunami
is very crucial. Indigenous knowledge
and understanding should also be • Tsunamis and earthquakes take place
used and disseminated. E.g.- Assam after centuries of energy built up within
type house or Ikora style– these houses the earth. A tsunami (in Japanese ‘tsu’
are made with walls of Bamboo or implies harbor and ‘nami’ means wave)
reed mesh (Ikora) and plaster set in a is a series of water waves caused by the
wooden framework. They have light tin displacement of a large volume of a
roofs and wooden floors that are quake body of water, usually an ocean.
resistant. The buildings are light, flexible • Seismically generated tsunamis are
and able to move with the swaying the outcome of abrupt deformation of
caused by tremors, without there being sea floor causing vertical displacement
extensive casualties or damages. of the overlying water. Earthquakes
occurring underneath the sea level,
• Earthquakes damages are extremely the water above the reformed zone are
devastating. It is not possible to stop the displaced from its equilibrium position.
occurrence of an earthquake however,
disaster mitigation and curative • The release of energy generates tsunami
measures should be undertaken. waves which have small amplitude but
a very long wavelength (often hundreds
» Set up earthquake monitoring centres of kilometers long). It may be produced
(seismological centres) for frequent by a non-seismic event such as a
monitoring and fast dissemination of landslide or impact of a meteor.
information among the people in the • The speed of the wave in the ocean
disaster-prone region. depends on the depth of the water. It is
» Preparing a vulnerability map of the more in the shallow water as compared
region and then circulating awareness to deep sea.
and educating the people in such areas • Tsunami in the deep sea or ocean
about ways and means of minimizing may have very long waves length of
the adverse impacts of disasters. hundreds of kilometers and travels at
» Modifying buildings and house types about 800 km. per hour, but amplitude
to earthquake resistant designs suit the of only around 1 km. It remains
102
undetected by ships in the deep sea. app called ‘Sagar Vani’ to disseminate
But when it approaches the coast its ocean related information and alerts
wavelength diminishes, amplitude (like high waves and Tsunami early
grows enormously, and it takes very warnings) to the user community in a
little time to reach its full height. timely manner for their safety.
• After reaching the coastal region,
the tsunami waves release enormous
energy stored into them and water flows Tropical Cyclone
turbulently on to the lands, destroying
• Coastal regions of India are highly
everything coming in its way.
vulnerable to tropical cyclones and the
• Computer model can provide tsunami consequent recurrent loss of life and
arrival, usually within minutes of the property.
arrival time. Tsunamis have great erosion
• Tropical cyclones are caused by
potential, stripping beaches of sand,
atmospheric disturbances around
coastal vegetation and dissipating
a low-pressure region distinguished
its energy through the destruction of
by swift and often destructive air
houses and coastal structure.
circulation.
• Geographically, cyclones are
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation classified into: Tropical cyclones and
Extratropical/ Temperate cyclones.
• A preliminary risk assessment has been
done for the Indian Coast with respect • Tropical cyclones are of thermal origin
to tsunamis taking into account the because it owes its genesis to the
seismo- tectonic setting, historical warmness of ocean water. It takes place
seismicity and past tsunami events. in between the Tropic of Capricorn and
the Tropic of Cancer. On the other side,
• The east and west coasts of India the temperate cyclone is of frontal
and the island regions are likely to be origin.
affected by Tsunamis generated mainly
by subduction zone related earthquakes • India with a long coastline of 7516.16
from the two potential source regions, km. is one of the worst affected regions,
viz., the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra where it is exposed to around 10% of
Island Arc and the Makran subduction tropical cyclones in the world.
zone north of Arabian Sea. • Approximately 5700 km. out of around
• Depending upon the location of the 7516 km. of India’s coastline, it is the
Earthquake, the response time for flat coastal terrain and high population
evacuation of coastal population could density is very vulnerable to tropical
range between 10 minutes to a few cyclones.
hours. • Recurrent cyclones account for a large
• The mitigation hazards created by number of deaths, loss of public and
tsunamis are difficult because of the private property, severe damage to
fact that losses are on a much larger infrastructure and loss of livelihood
scale. It is beyond the capacity of opportunities.
the individual states to mitigate the • Tropical Cyclones are linked with Strong
damage. Therefore, combined efforts at Winds, Torrential rains and inland
the international levels are the possible flooding and Storm Surge.
ways of dealing with this calamity. • Cyclones occur in the months of May–
• In India, The Government launched an June and October–November, with
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their primary peak in November and Effects of Tropical Cyclones
secondary peak in May.
• When a tropical cyclone approaches
• 13 Indian coastal states and Union to coast, a threat of serious loss or
Territories (UTs), encompassing 84 damage arises from heavy rainfall,
coastal districts, are impacted by storm surges, severe winds, and river
tropical cyclones. floods. The impact of a storm surge is
• 4 states (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil most pronounced in wide and shallow
Nadu, and West Bengal) and one UT bays exposed to cyclones for example in
(Puducherry) on the east coast and one the northern part of the Bay of Bengal.
state (Gujarat) on the west coast are • Strong winds/Squalls: Through high-
more vulnerable to hazards associated speed winds, tropical cyclones cause
with tropical cyclones. severe damage to the infrastructure.
• On an average, around five or six Dwellings, communication system and
tropical cyclones develop in the Bay installations etc. get destroyed resulting
of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the in loss of property and life.
coast every year. Out of these, two or • Torrential rains and inland flooding:
three are severe1. Constant rainfalls cause floods resulting
in loss of shelter. Also, heavy rainfall due
to cyclone cause soil erosion, landslides,
1 INDIA and weaken the embankments.
5 TROPICAL CYCLONE HAZARD
ZONES • Storm surge: An unusual rise in water
level in sea along the coast due to
severe tropical cyclone results in the
3 3 2 drowning of low-lying regions in the
1 coastal area. It results in, destruction of
5 vegetation cover loss of lives and the
2 5
4 2 salt content in seawater decreases the
4 4 Cyclone Hazard Zones soil fertility.
Zone 1. Very High Damage
6
Risk Zone - A (Dark Green)
Zone 2. Very High Damage
• Apart from these disturbances, cyclone
2 Risk Zone - B (Blue)
Zone 3. High Moderate
causes great loss of lives and properties,
3 Risk Zone (Light Green) rendering people homeless, without
Zone 4. Moderate Damage
5 Risk Zone - A (Yellow) shelter and often without jobs. There
Zone 5. Moderate Damage
Risk Zone - B (Orange) is dearth of drinking water and living
Zone 6. Low Damage
Risk Zone - B (Pink)
conditions are extremely dismal.
I M A G E 6.2: T R O P I A L C YC L O N E H A Z A R D Z O N E
Cyclone Hazard Mitigation
• Though it is not possible to completely
avoid natural disasters, but their effects
1 How are Cyclones named?
In the beginning, storms were named arbitrarily. The tradition of
can be reduced by taking some known
naming cyclones started with hurriCanes in the Atlantic Ocean, long and short term structural and non-
where tropical storms that reach sustained wind speeds of 39
miles per hour were given names. In 1953, the US weather service
structural mitigation measures like:
officially adopted the idea and created a new phonetic alpha-
bet (international) of women's names from A to W, leaving out Q, » Developing appropriate early warning
U, X, Y and Z. Male names were included in 1978. The procedure
of naming cyclones includes several countries in the region and systems,
is done under the aegis of the World Meteorological Organi-
zation. For the Indian Ocean region, deliberations for naming » Generating awareness at all levels in
cyclones began in 2000. A formula was adopted in 2004. the concerned populations,
104
» Afforestation near coastal region, risk management, construct major
» Construction of embankments, dikes, infrastructures including multi-purpose
Coastal roads, bridges, shelters and cyclone shelters and embankments.
canals, etc., » Integrated Coastal Zone Management
» Through better preparedness, Project (ICZMP): It is a World Bank
mitigation measures and improved assisted project which aims at
response mechanisms. national capacity development for
implementation of comprehensive
• Awareness Generation: it is necessary coastal management in India. Broad
to prepare communities to deal with objectives of the project are Cyclone
various disasters in a manner that forecasting, Tracking and warning
people’s lives and properties are systems, Cyclone Risk Mitigation and
safeguarded, and to ultimately become Capacity Building, Major infrastructure
resilient. Public awareness generation to be constructed under multipurpose
will serve to empower individuals with cyclone shelters, access roads,
knowledge regarding the role and underground cabling and saline
responsibilities of the state. Focus On embankments, Disaster Mitigation,
schools, colleges and all educational Lowering loss of lives, property in
institutions is a very vital part of vulnerable states.
awareness generation. It has to be » Natural Disaster Management
sustained through continuous updating, Authority (NDMA) is mandated to deal
upgrading and mock drills. with the disaster management in India.
• Management of Cyclones: Structural It has prepared National Guidelines
measures like construction of cyclone on the Management of Cyclone. In
shelters, construction of cyclone 2016, a proposal of National Disaster
resistant buildings, road links, bridges, Management Plan was unveiled to
canals, drains, saline embankments, tackle disaster. According to the
communication, and power transmission blueprint, Ministry of Earth Science will
networks etc are important. be responsible for disaster management
of tropical cyclone. With this plan, India
• Non-structural measures such as
joined the list of nations which follow
management of coastal zones, early
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
warning dissemination systems,
Reduction 2015-20302.
awareness generation and disaster risk
management and capacity building of
all stakeholders involved is also equally
necessary. Floods
• These types of measures are being • India is one of the highly flood prone
adopted and tackled on State-to- nations across the world. The primary
State basis under National Cyclone reasons for flood lie in the very nature
2 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030)
Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) being is an international document which was adopted by UN mem-
implemented with the help of World ber states between 14th and 18th of March 2015 at the World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan
Bank Assistance. and endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015. The
• Government Initiatives: Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action:
• Understanding of disaster risk;
• Strengthening disaster risk governance to handle disaster
» National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project risk;
(NCRMP) aim to upgrade cyclone • Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
• Improving disaster preparedness for effective response,
forecasting, tracking, and warning and to "Build Back Better" in recovery, rehabilitation, and
systems, build capacity in multi-hazard reconstruction.
105
of natural ecological systems in this amount of rain absorbed by the
country, namely, the monsoon, the highly surface. This runoff raises the flash
silted river systems and the steep and flood potential. Sometimes, streams
highly erodible mountains, particularly through cities and towns are channeled
those of the Himalayan ranges. underground into storm drains. During
• A flood is associated with overflow heavy rainfall, the storm drains can
of water that submerges land that is become overwhelmed and flood
usually dry. roads and buildings. Low spots, for
example underground parking garages,
• The floods in India are caused by underpasses, and basements can
either one or multiple factors which become death traps.
may be topological climatological/
meteorological, or man-made: • Flood affected regions in India:
106
tracts of sandy waste. This area covers as the accumulation of fertile silt over
the states of Haryana, Rajasthan, agricultural fields, which is beneficial to
Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts crops, are also a result of flooding.
of Himachal Pradesh. Indiscriminate
consumption of water for irrigation and INDIA
development of low-lying ragions and FLOOD HAZARD
depressions has established problem of ZONES
drainage congestion and waterlogging
over vast areas.
• The Central India and Deccan Region:
The region does not have serious flood
problem except that some of the rivers
in Odisha State namely Mahanadi,
Brahmini, Baitarani, and Subarnarekha
are prone to floods every year. The
delta and coastal areas of the states on
the east coast periodically face flood
and drainage problems in the wake
of monsoon depression and cyclonic
storms.
I M A G E 6.3 : F L O O D P R O N E Z O N E IN INDIA
Consequences of Flood
• Loss of lives and livelihoods of the Flood Hazard Mitigation
population.
• Flood mitigation strategies consist of
• Damage of basic infrastructural the following factors:
capacities like sanitation and
transportation leading to risk of spread » Floodplain zoning by the respective
of diseases and isolation. government of states. Even after the
• Risk of violence against vulnerable suggestions of the Rashtriya Barh Ayog
sections of society, especially women. (RBA) in 1976, only three such states
have passed these acts - Rajasthan,
• Destruction of biodiversity and ecology Manipur, and Uttarakhand and even in
of a region that may take years and these states, the implementation is lax.
even decades to recuperate.
» RBAs suggestions on identification
• Floods destroy not only many valuable and assessment of flood-prone regions
crops every year but also physical have been overlooked to a large extent.
infrastructure like roads, rails, bridges, These can be followed to allow for
and human settlements. superior flood forecasting.
• Hundreds of people are rendered » Planting of the tree and mangrove belts
homeless and are washed down along near the riverbanks and coastlines.
with their cattle during the floods.
» Planned settlement expansion and
• The spread of diseases like cholera, economic empowerment of the poor
gastroenteritis, hepatitis and other people so that they can build back
water borne diseases in the flood better structures. Housing for All
affected regions. scheme includes the disaster resilience
• However, positive contributions such component.
107
» Shared flood warning mechanisms need to enact floodplain zoning act.
with both downstream and upstream » National Water Policy (NWP-2012): The
neighbours across international aim of this Policy is to take cognizance
frontiers. of the existing condition, to propose a
» Recharge and rejuvenation of wetland framework for formation of a system
regions and prevention of any of laws and institutions and for a
encroachment upon their areas. plan of action with a unified national
» Structural measures like Dams & perspective. It had recommended that
Reservoirs – Flood Cushion/ storage reservoir operation processes should be
of flood waters, Embankments, Sea evolved and executed in a manner so as
Walls - restricting flow of water, Natural to have flood cushion and to decrease
Detention Basins - retarding & absorbing trapping of sediment during flood time.
flood waters, Channel Improvement -
increasing flood carrying capacity of
rivers, Drainage Improvement, Flood Droughts
Ways/ Spill Channels - diversion of flood
• Droughts are consequence of variability
water from one channel to another etc
of climate. Though drought causes
should be undertaken.
small structural damage and has
» Non-structural measures like Flood slow onset, it is considered as natural
Forecasting & Warning, temporary hazard. Drought in India is related to
evacuation, Flood Plain Zoning/ both water resource management and
management – regulation of land use, scarcity of rainfall.
Flood Proofing & removal of flood
• IMD defines Drought as situation
prone structures, Public Awareness
occurring in any area when mean
campaigns & people participation
annual rainfall is less than 75% of the
drills, Financial Mechanism - Disaster
normal rainfall. It is a dry situation
Relief, Rehabilitation & Flood Insurance.
characterized by deficit rainfall, lack of
• Government Initiatives: water for household use or agriculture,
or a deficiency of surface or subsurface
» National Flood Risk Mitigation water leading to an acute shortage of
Project (NFRMP): It aims at ensuring water.
that arrangements are in place to • Following are the kinds of droughts:
mobilise the resources and capability
for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction, » Meteorological drought: It is the
and recovery from disasters besides general lack of moisture in the weather
creating awareness among vulnerable like insufficient precipitation, and the
communities. play of other weather conditions for
» Flood Management Programme: The example high temperatures and dry
scheme provides financial assistance to winds etc.
the state governments for undertaking » Agricultural drought: This drought
flood management works in critical occurs when atmospheric moisture is
areas. lowered to an extent that soil moisture
» National Commission for water is affected. This affects crops, animals
resources 1999: It had also noticed that and also evapo-transpiration. It is also
storage dams and embanks provided known as soil-moisture drought.
effective protection to large flood prone » Hydrological drought: It takes place
regions. It also proposed the urgent when there is a deficiency in the
108
surface and groundwater supply in a aggravates the situation in the long run
region, often due to less precipitation, as ground-water withdrawal exceeds
unrestrained reliance on surface water replenishment; in the peninsular region
for farming, energy, and other needs. availability of surface water itself
» Ecological Drought: When productivity becomes scarce in years of rainfall
of a natural ecosystem fails due to insufficiency.
shortage of water and as a consequence » In India, per capita availability of water
of ecological distress, damage is is steadily declining.
induced in the ecosystem.
• In India, the distribution of drought can
» Socioeconomic drought: It takes
be categorized under three heads:
place when the supply of some goods
and services such as food, drinking » Conditions of extreme drought: This
water and energy are threatened or category includes around 12% of total
diminished by changes in hydrological drought prone region i.e., Gujarat,
and meteorological conditions. Western Uttar Pradesh, North-West
Sometimes it is even made worse by Madhya Pradesh, Western Rajasthan.
growing populations and excessive
demands of such goods, to the point
» Conditions of severe drought: It covers
around 42% of total drought prone
that it creates stress on the little water
region i.e., leeward side of Maidan
available. It takes a very long time for
plateau, Rayalaseema and Telangana
this kind of drought to get into full gear,
regions of Andhra Pradesh and
and a long time to recover from it.
Marathwada and Vidarbha regions of
Maharashtra.
Drought Prone Areas in India » Conditions of moderate drought: It
prevails over around 46% of total
• Drought issues in India have their own drought prone region i.e., Central-north
peculiarities requiring appreciation of
Madhya Pradesh, Chhota Nagpur,
some basic facts. Some of the important
Odisha, Jammu and Kashmir and
facts are:
central- east Tamil Nadu.
» India has an average annual rainfall
of nearly around 1150 mm; no other
nation has such a high annual average, INDIA
however, there is considerable annual DROUGHT PRONE ZONES
variation.
» Over 80% of rainfall is received in less
than 100 days during the South- west 3
1
monsoon and the geographic spread is
uneven. 2 3
» 21% area receives less than 700 mm 2
rain annually making such areas the 3
hot spots of drought.
» Inadequacy of rains coupled with Drought prone Zones
2 Zone 1. Extreme
adverse land-man ratio compels the Zone 2. Severe
farmers to practice rain-fed agriculture Zone 3. Moderate
Rest of India - Drought free
in large parts of the country. 3
» Irrigation, using groundwater
I M A G E 6.4 : D R O U G H T P R O N E A R E A S IN INDIA
109
Impact of Drought makes them more prone to various
infections and diseases. It affects their
• Impacts of drought on Farmer health and education since migrations
community: The crops are damaged, take them away from school and health
and there is a shortage of fodder and camps that also provide vaccinations.
water to feed their cattle. School- dropouts most often become
• Drought affects Poor Families: Constant wage earners, leading to higher child-
drought season reduces agricultural labour.
production. This leads to inadequate
availability or supply of crops in
the market. Food- grains become Drought Hazard Mitigation
expensive, and poor people suffer due • There are a few strategies to overcome
to inadequate purchasing power. drought. They are as follows:
• Drought affects Women: Even today,
particularly in rural India, women do » Periodical assessment of water
not have the similar status as men in shortage.
society. This implies that they are not » Individual state specific drought
given their fair share in access to good proofing methods to be devised.
living conditions, education, health,
and nutritious food etc. In a drought
» Crop diversification, farm pond
construction, adoption of micro
condition, when there is a dearth of
irrigation.
food, women who are generally the
last to eat at home, eat the least, and » Promotion of water storage,
therefore suffer from issues related to conservation and rejuvenation.
malnutrition. Drought situation also » Incentivize solar pumps for irrigation
increases their work burden because
they have to work for longer time to
» Harvesting rainwater, recharging
ground water, desiltation of irrigation
earn the same wages, and often travel
tanks.
longer to fetch water, fodder and fuel
wood. » Check dam’s maintenance, prevention
of leakage and pilferation of water from
• It affects people living in a desert region:
distribution network.
People in desert area depend more on
animal husbandry than on agriculture. » Reviving traditional and historical step
Severe shortage of fodder and water wells.
and degradation of vegetation leads » Availing crop advisories to farmers
to their dependence on support from with the help of mobile app in their
outside, in some areas. language.
• It affects employment: A fall in » Locating ground water resources using
agricultural production also leads to different satellite technology and
a fall in employment opportunities remote sensing.
for rural populations who depend on
agricultural labour for a living. It also » Promotion of alternate livelihood such
causes individuals to migrate to other as dairy, poultry, beekeeping. Timber
locations in search of employment. farming and floriculture.
These are called ‘distress migrations’. » Crop Insurance against drought.
• Drought affects Children: Lack of • There are a few drought Mitigation
nutritious food in drought affected schemes adopted by The Government
areas results in malnutrition, which of India. They are as follows:
110
» India has managed droughts through • Landslides primarily affect the
measures such as Desert Development Himalayan area and the western ghats
Programme (DDP), Integrated of India. Landslides are also common in
watershed Development Programme the Nilgiri mountain range.
(IWDP), the National Watershed • It is estimated that around 30% of
Development Programme for Rainfed the world’s landslides occur in the
Areas (NWDPRA) and Drought Prone Himalayas. The Himalayan Mountains,
Areas Programme (DPAP) etc. which constitute the youngest and
» The Integrated Watershed most dominating mountain system in
Management Programme (IWMP) is the world. Due to its unique nature, the
a very comprehensive initiative which Himalayas have a history of landslides
brings under it DPAP, DDP, and IWDP that has no comparison with any other
together. mountain range in the world.
» Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchai Yojana: • Landslides are also common in Western
This is introduced so that more land is Ghat.
irrigated and ensure water supply to • It happens when the consequence of a
farmers round the year. complex field of forces (stress is a force
» Krishi Amdani Beema Yojana: This per unit area) active on a mass of rock
scheme is introduced so that farmers or soil on the slope. It happens because
don’t bear any financial burden if their of geological causes, morphological
produce gets destroyed because of causes, physical causes and human
unexpected weather or for any reason. causes.
» Soil health card scheme is introduced • There are two parameters that
to determine the existing status of soil determine the landslides are as follows:
health and to determine changes in soil
health and suggest nutrients for farms » Increase of shear stress: It happen due
to enhance productivity. to the removal of lateral and underlying
support; increase of lateral forces
» Pradhan Mantri Fasal Beema Yojana: as well as load; transitory stresses
The Central Government has approved
like blasting, earthquakes etc. and
a cheaper crop insurance scheme
geological movement.
known as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana (PMFBY) on 13th January 2016. » Decrease of material strength: It
The Government’s move came in an happens due to weathering, pore water
effort to check the problem of rising pressure and changes in structure.
cases of suicide by the farmers.
• The different causes of landslides are:
» Central ground water board and Natural factors:
Central water commission to monitor
water storage, hydrological data, and • Landslides are usually associated with
ground water level. natural calamities like earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, floods, and
cloudburst, etc.
Landslides • Long spell of rainfall
• It refers to the movement of mass of • Sloping terrain and loose soil cover
rock, debris or earth down the slope, • Anthropogenic factors like:
once the shear stress exceeds the shear
strength of the material. • Rapid urbanization process and
changes in land use patterns.
111
• Widespread deforestation and mining » Hazard mapping by demarcating
activities like blasting and quarrying, regions prone to landslides and avoiding
etc. stress on those areas for settlement.
• Growing industrialization leading » Construction of retention walls to
to climate change and weather prevent land from slipping.
disturbances. » Increasing afforestation and vegetation
• Change in river flow because of cover.
construction of dams, barriers, etc. » Exercise various measures to check
soil erosion such as terrace farming,
contour ploughing, etc.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones
» Implementing surface drainage control
• Very High Vulnerability Zones: These which works to control the movement
areas are highly unstable, relatively of landslides along with rainwater and
young mountainous areas in the spring flows.
Himalayas and the Andamans and
Nicobar Islands, high rainfall regions
» Proper planning of developmental
processes following sustainable
with steep slopes in the Western Ghats
techniques.
and the Nilgiris and the North-east
hills. These areas experience frequent • Other remedial steps for landslides
ground shaking due to earthquakes
and intense human activities. » Modification of Slope Geometry: In
• High Vulnerability Zones: Areas that order to improve the stability of the
have similar conditions to those of unstable or potentially unstable slopes,
the very highly vulnerable zone are the profile of the slope is sometimes
also included in this category. The altered by excavation or by filling at the
only difference is the combination, toe of the slope.
intensity and controlling factors. All the » Control of drainage: The existence of
Himalayan states including Assam are water in joints or in soil slope has a
included in this high vulnerability zone. fundamental influence on the slope
• Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: stability.
This zone receive less precipitation » Internal Slope Reinforcement Systems:
and it includes region such as Trans- The purpose of rock slope stabilization
Himalayan regions of Ladakh and with structural elements is to assist the
Spiti, undulated yet stable relief and rock mass to support itself by applying
low precipitation areas of Aravali, external structures which are not part of
rain shadow areas of Western and the rock mass but support it externally.
Eastern Ghats and the Deccan Plateau
» Retaining Walls: Construction of wall
experience occasional landslides.
along the problematic slopes area.
Landslides due to mining activities are
also common in states like Jharkhand,
Odisha, Chattisgarhh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Disaster
Management
Landslide Hazard Mitigation
• Disaster Risk Management refers to
• Different measures required to mitigate the systematic procedure of using
landslides are- administrative decisions, operational
112
skills, organization, and capacities to Disaster Prevention and
implement strategies policies, and
coping capacities of the communities Mitigation
and society to decrease the impact • Mitigation measures besides proper
of natural hazards and associated planning of developmental work in
environmental and technological the risk prone area, would prevent
disasters. hazards like earthquakes, floods and
• These consist of all forms all activities cyclones turn into disasters. These are
involving structural and non- structural the important areas which should be
methods to avoid (prevention) or to limit addressed to accomplish this objective:
(mitigation and preparedness) adverse
effects of various hazards. » Risk Assessment and Vulnerability
Mapping: Hazard zonation, mapping
• There are three important stages of and vulnerability analysis in a multi-
activities in disaster management: risk structure will be conducted
utilizing Geographic Information
» Prior to a disaster: to reduce the potential
System (GIS) based databases like
for human, material, or environmental
the National Database for Emergency
losses triggered by hazards and to make
Management (NDEM) and National
sure that these losses are minimized
Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI).
when disaster strikes.
The NSDI established by the Survey of
» During a disaster: to make sure that the India, to collect, compile, analyze and
requirements and provisions of victims prepare value-added maps for use by
are met to alleviate and minimize various agencies in the area of DM
overall suffering; and for management of natural resources,
» After a disaster: to attain rapid and industrial applications etc.
durable recovery which does not » Increasing Trend of Disasters in Urban
reproduce the original vulnerable Areas: Unplanned urbanization should
circumstances. be prevented and the action plan to
meet this end should be given the
• Disaster management Act, 2005 defines top priority. UTs/State Governments
Disaster Management as an integrated concerned on the other hand focus on
process of planning, organizing, urban drainage systems with special
coordinating and implementing attention on non-obstruction of natural
measures which are necessary for: drainage systems. Urban mapping
of infrastructure of spatial resolution
» Prevention of risk of any disaster
should be initiated for development
» Reduction of threat of any disaster or of Decision Support System (DSS) for
its consequences managing the urban challenges.
» Readiness to deal with any disaster » Critical Infrastructure: Critical
» Promptness in dealing with a disaster infrastructure like roads, dams, flyovers,
irrigation canals, bridges, power stations,
» Assessing the severity of effects of any
railway lines, water storage towers, delta
disaster
water distribution networks, ports and
» Rescue and relief river and coastal embankments should
» Rehabilitation and Reconstruction be continuously checked for safety
standards with respect to worldwide
safety benchmarks and fortified where
lacking.
113
» Environmentally Sustainable Development: frequency and intensity of natural
Environmental considerations and disasters like cyclones, floods and
developmental efforts should be droughts should be tackled in a
handled simultaneously for ensuring sustained and effective manner with
sustainability. promotion of strategies for climate
» Climate Change Adaptation: The change adaptation and disaster risk
challenges of an increase in the reduction.
114
CHAPTER - 7
INDIA: AGRICULTURE
115
crops of this season are Rice, Maize, employment. Mechanisation of farming
Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Sesarnum, is prevalent mostly in the Northern
Groundnut, etc. states like Punjab, Haryana, West UP,
» Rabi season– It starts with the onset etc. Farm mechanism- in packing up in
of winter and harvest in the summers Uttarakhand, Gujarat and Maharashtra
Major crops of this season are Wheat, as well.
Barley, Jowar, Gram and Oil Seeds such DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE
as Linseed, Rapeseed, etc. The following are the factors which determine
» Zaid season– It refers to summer the cropping pattern, yield of crops and overall
crops and mainly includes fruits and agricultural development:
vegetables. Recently, some pulses have • Physical factors – Topography, Climate and
also been grown during this season. Soil
• Institutional factors – size of farm holdings,
Cropping Major Crops Cultivated
land tenure, land reforms.
season Northen States Southern States
• Infrastructural factors – Irrigation, Electricity,
Roads, Storage
• Technological factors – High Yielding Variety
(HYV) seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
farm machinery
116
enacted by almost all the states, it has excessive use of fertilizers in these states
been implemented only in few states has resulted in the issues of water-
e.g. Punjab and Haryana logging, salinity and alkalinity.
117
system in such remote areas in India. Priority Areas for Support
» All India Rural Credit Survey Committee
• Enhancing agricultural productivity,
showed that in 1950’s the share of money
competitiveness and rural growth:
lenders stood at as high as 68.6 per cent
of the total rural credit and in 1970’s » Major reform and strengthening of
their share declined to 43 per cent of the India’s agricultural research and
credit needs of the farmers. Hence even extension systems is one of the
if it is decreasing, moneylender’s hold in most crucial needs for agricultural
rural India is still strong. development.
• Tradition Bound: » Modernizing Irrigation and Drainage
Departments to integrate the
» Despite some breakthroughs, Indian participation of farmers and other
agriculture remains tradition bound even agencies in managing irrigation water.
at the dawn of 21st century. Established » Improving cost recovery.
centuries ago, the structures of a self-
contained rural economy, founded in » Streamlining public expenditures, with
caste- drain occupational laud tenure, priority to completing schemes with the
made complex by absentee and highest returns;
parasitic landlords still continues. The » Allocating sufficient resources for
tradition bound institutions have been operations and maintenance for the
the greatest hindrance in the way of sustainability of investments.
modernization and Indian agriculture
» Encouraging cultivators to diversify
has been rather slow in responding to
to higher value commodities will be a
new innovative ideas.
significant factor for higher agricultural
• Primitive Technology: growth, particularly in rain-fed areas
where poverty is high.
» Only in a few states such as Punjab and » Promoting high growth commodities:
Haryana use of modern technology can Some agricultural sub-sectors have
be seen. But in most states, reliance on particularly high prospective for
primitive technology is still prevalent. expansion, notably dairy. The livestock
This harm both production and sector, primarily because of dairy,
productivity. contributes over a quarter of agricultural
GDP and is a source of income for
• Lack of Crop Diversification: around 70% of India’s rural families,
» Crop diversification means growing a mostly those who are poor and headed
large number of crops and reducing by women.
dependency on a single crop. Even » Developing markets, agricultural credit
though in India mixed cropping is done, and public expenditures.
it is mainly biased towards food crops
and as a result other crops like pulses • Poverty alleviation and community
lose out. actions:
» This is harmful for balanced growth of » While agricultural growth will provide
agriculture. This is evident from the fact the base for increasing incomes, for
that just around 4% of area is under rural people that are below the poverty
fodder crop cultivation, despite having line, additional measures are needed to
the largest population of livestock in make this growth inclusive.
the world.
» For instance, a rural livelihoods
118
program that empowers communities » This kind of agriculture depends upon
to become self-reliant has been found monsoon rainfall, natural fertility
to be particularly effective and well- of the soil and suitability of other
suited for scaling-up. This program environmental situations to the crops
encourages the formation of self-help grown.
groups, increases community savings, » It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture in
and promotes local initiatives to which cultivators clear a patch of land
increase employment and incomes. and produce cereals and other food
» These self-help groups are particularly crops to sustain their family. When the
effective at reaching women and soil fertility reduces, the farmers shift
impoverished families. and clear a fresh patch of land for
farming.
• Sustaining the environment and future
agricultural productivity:
» This kind of shifting permits Nature to
replenish the soil fertility with the help
» In parts of India, the over-pumping of of natural processes; land productivity
water for agricultural use is leading to in this type of agriculture is low as the
falling groundwater levels. Conversely, farmer does not use fertilisers or other
water-logging is leading to the build- type of modern inputs. It is identified by
up of salts in the soils of some irrigated different names in different parts of the
regions. country.
» In rain-fed regions on the other hand, JHUMMING
where most of the rural population live, • The ‘slash and burn’ farming is called as
agricultural practices need adapting ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’
to reduce soil erosion and increase the in Central Africa, ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and
Central America, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia, ‘Ray’
absorption of rainfall.
in Vietnam.
» The most comprehensive is through • In India, this primitive form of agriculture is
watershed management programs, called ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
where communities participate in ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh, ‘Pama
land planning and adopt agricultural Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
practices that protect soils, increase • ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern area
water absorption and raise productivity of Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt,
‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, ‘Kumari’ in Western
with the help of higher yields and crop
Ghat region, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-
diversification. eastern states.
119
seeds, insecticides, and pesticides to » This refers to growing of number of
obtain higher productivity. crops one after the other in a fixed
» The degree of commercialization of rotation to maintain the fertility of the
agriculture fluctuates from one area to soil.
another. E.g., rice is a commercial crop
• Terrace Cultivation:
in Punjab and Haryana, however in
Odisha, it is a subsistence crop. » In this type of cultivation, the hill and
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE mountain slopes are cut to form terraces
and the land is used in the same way as
• Plantation is also a kind of commercial
agriculture. In this type of cultivation, a in permanent agriculture.
single crop is cultivated on a large area. The » Due to terrace formation on hill slopes,
plantation agriculture has an interface of
soil erosion can be checked.
agriculture and industry sectors. Plantations
cover huge tracts of land, utilizing capital
intensive inputs, through migrant labourers.
All the produce is utilized as raw material in
respective industries. Agriculture Land use
• In India, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, tea,
banana, etc., are valuable plantation crops.
in India
Tea in North Bengal and Assam, coffee in Land resource is more important to the
Karnataka is some of the major plantation livelihood of the people depending on
crops grown in these states.
agriculture:
• Since the production is primarily for market,
a well- developed network of transport and • Agriculture is a solely land based
communication connecting the plantation activity unlike various secondary and
fields, processing industries and markets tertiary activities. In other words, role
plays a significant role in the development of
plantations. of land in agricultural output is more
as compared to its contribution in the
• Dry Agriculture outputs in the other sectors. Therefore,
lack of access to land is directly
» Dry farming or dry-land farming may correlated with incidence of poverty in
be defined as a practice of growing rural regions.
crops without irrigation in areas which
receive an annual rainfall of 750 mm – • Quality and fertility of land has a direct
500 mm or even less. bearing on the productivity of agriculture,
which is not true for other activities.
» Key elements of effective combat with
perils of Dryland agriculture: • In rural regions, aside from its value
as a productive factor, land ownership
» Capturing and Conservation of Moisture has a social value and serves as a
» Effective Use of Available Moisture security for credit, natural hazards, or
life contingencies, and also adds to the
» Soil Conservation
social status.
» Control of Input Costs
• For a land scarce but labour abundant
• Mixed and Multiple Agriculture: nation like India, a high cropping
intensity is desirable not only for fuller
» Denotes the practice of growing two or utilization of land resource, but also for
more crops together. reducing unemployment in the rural
economy.
• Crop rotation:
120
50
45.5 around 187.7 million tons in 2018-19 and
Changes in Shares of Land-use Categories in India
registered a growth rate of about 6.5%
41.7
40 1950-51 and 2014-15
20 17
attained a level of 394 grams/day
13.4 during 2018-19.
10 8.7
6.9 8
5.5 6.1
4 4.9
3.2 2.3 3.3 3.63 .7
1.0
0
Forest Area under Barren and Permanent Area Under Culturable Fallow other Current Net Area
non- unagriculturable pasture Misc. Waste than fallow Shown
agricultural waste and Tree crops Land Current
use Land grazing land and groves fallow
1950-51 2014-15
I M A G E 7.1: L A N D - U S E IN INDIA
Allied Sectors:
Animal Husbandry, I M A G E 7.2: M I L K P R O D U C T I O N IN INDIA
121
» India has rich and diverse fisheries » Accelerated Irrigation Benefit
resources. The marine fisheries resources Programme (AIBP): being implemented
are dispersed along the country’s vast by Ministry of Jal Shakti.
coastline region and 2.02 million sq. km » PMKSY- Har Khet Ko Pani: being
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and 0.53 implemented by Ministry of Jal Shakti
million sq. km. continental shelf area.
» PMKSY- Watershed: being implemented
» The overall fish production in the country by Department of Land Resources.
stood at around 13.42 million metric
tonnes (provisional) during 2018-19. Of • National Mission for Sustainable
this, the marine fisheries contributed Agriculture (NMSA):
around 3.71 million metric tonnes and
the inland fisheries contributed 9.71 » It is envisaged as one of the eight
million metric tonnes. Missions mentioned under National
Action Plan on Climate Change
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT FUND
(NAPCC) and it aims at promoting
Sustainable Agriculture through climate
• To address the gaps in fisheries infrastructure,
change adaptation measures.
The Government has created the Fisheries
and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development » The major thrust is enhancing
Fund (FIDF) during 2018-19 with a total fund agriculture productivity particularly in
size of 7,522.48 crore.
rainfed regions focusing on integrated
• The FIDF provides concessional finance/ loan farming, soil health management, and
to the Eligible Entities (EEs), including State
synergizing resource conservation.
Governments/Union Territories (UTs) and
State entities for development of identified Besides, NMSA also a committed target
fisheries infrastructure facilities. to fulfill National and International
• The concessional finance under the FIDF is commitments on Sustainable
provided by the Nodal Loaning Entities (NLEs) Development Goals (SDG) &Intended
namely (i) NABARD, (ii) National Cooperatives Nationally Determined Contribution
Development Corporation (NCDC) and (iii) All (INDC).
scheduled Banks.
» All the components of NMSA such
Some of the recent Important as Rainfed Agriculture, Soil Health
Government initiatives Management, Organic Farming, etc.
have significant role in achieving SDGs
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana & INDC.
(PMKSY): » NMSA as a programmatic interference
» The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee caters to Mission Deliverables that
Yojana (PMKSY) was launched during emphasizes primarily on conservation
the year 2015-16 with the motto of ‘Har agriculture to make farm sector more
Khet Ko Paani’ for providing end-to end productive, sustainable, remunerative
solutions in irrigation supply chain, viz. and climate resilient by promoting
water sources, distribution network and location specific integrated/composite
farm level applications. farming systems; soil and moisture
conservation measures; comprehensive
» The PMKSY not only focuses on soil health management and
creating sources for assured irrigation, mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
but also creating protective irrigation
by harnessing rainwater at micro level » NMSA has one of the components of
through ‘Jal Sanchay’ and ‘Jal Sinchan’. Rainfed Area Development.
122
» It was Launched in 2015 and it has Value Addition Infrastructure, Creation/
been introduced to support State Expansion of Food Processing &
Governments to issue Soil Health Cards Preservation Capacities, Infrastructure
to all cultivators in the country. for Agro-processing Clusters, Creation
» The Soil Health Cards give information of Backward and Forward Linkages,
to farmers on nutrient status of their Food Safety and Quality Assurance
soil along with recommendation on Infrastructure, Human Resources and
appropriate dosage of nutrients to be Institutions, and Operation Greens.
utilized for improving soil health and its
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
fertility.
(PMFBY):
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana » Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PKVY):
(PMFBY) is The Government sponsored
» PKVY is implemented with a view to crop insurance scheme that integrates
encourage organic farming in the multiple stakeholders on a single
country. platform.
123
processing sector needs to be scaled
up to create an additional source of Major Crops
market for agricultural commodities.
• Different variety of food and non-food
• As the overall proportion of small and crops are cultivated in different parts
marginal holdings is significantly large,
of the country dependent upon the
land reform measures like freeing
climate, variations in soil, and cultivation
up land markets can help farmers in
practices. Main crops grown in India are
improving their income. Small holdings
Rice, Wheat, Pulses, Millets, Tea, Coffee,
of India can be better harnessed through
Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Cotton,and Jute
appropriate use of farm mechanization
etc.
as the degree of farm mechanization
is low as compared to the other major » The major crops can be divided into
developing countries like Brazil and four main groups depending on their
China. usage.
• The coverage of irrigation facilities » Food Crops (Rice, Wheat, Maize,
requires to be extended while ensuring Pulses,and Millets, etc.)
an efficient water conservation
mechanism. An inclusive method to » Cash Crops (Sugarcane, Tobacco,
provision for agricultural credit has to Cotton, Jute and Oilseeds etc.)
be undertaken to address the issue of » Plantation Crops (Coffee, Coconut, Tea
skewness in its regional distribution. and Rubber etc.)
• There is a requirement to give increased » Horticulture crops (fruits and vegetables)
focus on exploring global markets for
agricultural commodities to give another
source of market for the surplus of Rice
agricultural produce India currently has.
• Climatic condition:
• There is also a need to reallocate labour
resources to other sectors. Though, the » Rice is a Kharif crop which needs high
structural transformations involved temperature, (above 25°C) and high
a falling share of agriculture sector humidity with annual rainfall above 100
and rising share of services sector cm.
jobs, more needs to be done to create
manufacturing jobs to absorb the large
» Rice grows best in areas of warm, humid
climate, fertile soil.
pool of workers
• The rates fixed under the National Food » Delta and valley soils are the most
suitable.
Security Act (NFSA) initially for a time
of three years have not been revised » Soils with higher clay content are
since 2013, resulting in burgeoning food preferred for its cultivation due to their
subsidy. The rates under NFSA and the better moisture retention capacity.
coverage require to be revisited. » In the regions of less rainfall, it grows
with the help of irrigation.
• Techniques Used:
» Transplantation technique, Japanese
Transplantation technique, new SRI
technique.
124
• Major producers: Wheat
» It is cultivated in the plains of north and • Climatic condition:
north-eastern India, coastal regions
and the deltaic areas. » It is a crop of temperate climate.
» West Bengal (highest producer), Uttar » It needs a cool growing season and a
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
(highest per hectare yield), Bihar, » It needs around 50 to 75 cm of annual
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil rainfall evenly distributed over the
Nadu, Haryana. growing season.
» Expansion of dense network of canal » It can be grown in the drier areas with
irrigation and tube-wells have made the help of irrigation.
it possible to grow rice in areas of less
rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and
» Well drained loamy and clayey soils are
ideal.
western Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Rajasthan. • Major producing areas:
» In West Bengal and southern states,
the climatic circumstances permit » There are two important wheat- growing
cultivation of two or three crops of rice areas in the country – the Ganga-Satluj
in an agricultural year. In West Bengal plains in the northwest and black soil
cultivators grow three crops of rice region of the Deccan.
known as ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. » The main wheat-producing states are
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
• Important varieties: Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
» Aman, Sali, Afghani, Aus, Boro, and » Around 14% of the total cropped area in
Palua. the country is under wheat cultivation.
» The yield level of wheat is very high
INDIA
RICE (more than 4,000 kg. per hectare)
in Punjab and Haryana while, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan have
moderate yields. The states such as
Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu and Kashmir cultivating
wheat under rainfed conditions have
low yield.
125
» Maharashtra state alone produces
INDIA more than half of the entire jowar
WHEAT production of the country. Other
prominent producer states of jowar are
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
» In southern states, it is sown in both
Kharif and Rabi seasons. However, it is
a Kharif crop in northern India where it
is mostly cultivated as a fodder crop.
South of Vindhyachal it is a rainfed
crop and its yield intensity is very low
MAJOR AREA in this zone.
MINOR AREA
Bajra:
I M A G E 7.4: R E G I O N OF W H E AT C U LT I VAT I O N
• Climatic condition:
» It develops well on sandy soils and
shallow black soil.
Millets » It needs an annual rainfall of around 45
• Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the valuable cm and temperature ranging between
millets grown in India. Though, these are 25 to 30°C.
identified as coarse grains, they have » It is sown in hot and dry climatic
very high nutritional value. For instance, circumstances in northwestern and
Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other western parts of the country.
micro-nutrients and roughage. » It is a hardy crop which resists repeated
dry spells and drought in this region.
Jowar: • Major producers/area covered:
• Climatic condition:
» It is grown alone as well as part of mixed
» Jowar is main food crop in semi-arid cropping. This coarse cereal occupies
regions of central and southern India. around 5.2% of total cropped area in
the country.
» This crop requires moderate rainfall
of 30-100cms and high temperatures » Prominent producers of bajra are the
ranging from 20 to 32°C. states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
» Both excessive moisture and prolonged
Being a rainfed crop, the yield intensity
drought are harmful.
of Bajra is low in Rajasthan and varies a
• Major producers/ area covered: lot from year to year.
» Yield of this crop has improved during
» The coarse cereals together occupy recent years in Haryana and Gujarat
around 16.50% of total cropped area because of introduction of drought
in the country. Amongst these, jowar resistant varieties and expansion of
or sorghum alone accounts for nearly irrigation under it.
around 5.3 per cent of total cropped
area.
126
Ragi » It is a kharif crop which needs
temperature between 21°C to 27°C.
• It is a crop of dry areas and grows well
on red, black, loamy, sandy, and shallow » In some states such as Bihar maize is
black soils. also grown in Rabi season.
Foodgrain Carbohydrates (g) Protein (g) Fat (g) Energy (Kcal) Calcium(mg) Iron(mg)
127
year to year. Gram and tur are the the country. It is also known as pigeon
major pulses cultivated in India. pea or red gram. It is cultivated over
• Important pulse producing states marginal lands and under rainfed
in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar conditions in the dry areas of central
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and and southern states of the country.
Karnataka. • This crop uses only around 2% of total
cropped area of India. Maharashtra
alone contributes nearly around one-
third of the total production of Tur.
(million tonnes )
• Other top producer states are Uttar
Year Production Imports Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and
Madhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of
Tur is very low and its performance is
inconsistent.
128
Sugarcane farming/industry in north and south India
North India South India
• The yield per hectare is low because of • The yield per hectare is high because of tropical
unfavorable climatic conditions. climatic conditions.
• The crushing season is small in northern India. • The crushing season is longer than northern
India.
• The factories are old and obsolete machineries
are used • Most of the mills in the south are new which are
equipped with modern machinery
• During British-Raj, North India used to cultivate
indigo as cash crop but then invention of • In South India, farmers have better cash-crop
synthetic dyes and farmers switched to alternatives e.g., cotton, tobacco, coconut,
sugarcane. groundnut etc. so you do not see a large sugar
belt unlike UP.
• Sugar industries are mostly cooperatives
and cooperatives are more successful in the • The co-operative sugar mills are good
Southern states. managed in Sorth India.
Oilseed
Some Important Oilseeds:
• In 2008, India was the 2nd largest
groundnut producing country in Groundnut
the world after china. In rape seed • India produces around 16.6% of the
production India was third largest total groundnut production in the world
producer in the world after Canada (2016). It is primarily a rainfed kharif
and China in 2008. crop of dryland regions. However, in
• Different oil seeds are grown covering southern part of India, it is cultivated
approximately around 12% of the total during rabi season as well. It covers
cropped area of the country. Major nearly around 3.6% of total cropped
oilseeds produced in India are mustard, area in India.
groundnut, sesamum (til), soyabean, • The leading producers are Gujarat,
castor seeds coconut, cotton seeds, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana,
sunflower and linseed. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
• Most of these are edible and utilized as Maharashtra.
cooking mediums. But some of these • Yield of groundnut is relatively high in
are also used as raw material in the Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.
production of cosmetics, soap, and However, its yield is low in Andhra
ointments. Pradesh Karnataka and Telangana.
129
yields have improved and stabilized to » Important tea producing states are
some extent. Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri
• Around two-third of the cultivated area districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and
under these crops is irrigated. These Kerala.
oilseeds together occupy only around » Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh,
2.5% of entire cropped area in the Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra
country. Pradesh, and Tripura are also tea-
• Rajasthan state contributes around producing states in the country. In 2008,
one-third production while other India was the 3rd largest tea producing
leading producers are Haryana and country in world after China and Turkey.
Madhya Pradesh. Yields of these crops » In India, tea plantation began in 1840s
are relatively high in Haryana and in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which
Rajasthan. still is a main tea growing area in India.
After some time, its plantation was
introduced in the sub-Himalayan region
Other Oilseeds of West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri
and Cooch Behar districts).
• Sunflower and Soyabean are other
important oilseeds cultivated in India. • Tea is a labor-intensive industrial sector.
Soyabean is largely cultivated in It requires abundant, cheap, and skilled
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. labour because Its leaves are to be
• These two states together produce plucked numerous times in a year. Tea
nearly around 90% of total output of is processed within the tea garden to
Soyabean in the country. restore its freshness.
• Cultivation of Sunflower is concentrated
in the states of Karnataka, Andhra
Coffee
Pradesh, Telangana, and adjoining
regions of Maharashtra. Sunflower is • It is a tropical plantation crop. Its seeds
a minor crop in northern parts of the are roasted, ground and are utilized
India where its yield is high because of for preparing a beverage. There are
irrigation. three important varieties of coffee i.e.
Tea arabica, liberica and robusta.
• India mainly grows superior quality
• Climatic condition: coffee, arabica, which is in great
» Tea is grown over undulating topography demand in global market. However,
of hilly areas and well drained soils in India produces only around 3.7 per cent
humid and sub-humid tropics and sub- coffee of the world and ranks seventh
tropics. after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia,
Indonesia, Ethiopia and Honduras in
» The tea plant grows well in deep and 2016.
fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus
and organic material. Tea bushes need • It is grown in the highlands of Western
warm and moist frost-free climate all Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
through the year. Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for
higher than two-third of total production
» Regular showers evenly distributed over of coffee in the country.
the year ensure continuous growth of
tender leaves. • The coffee plant was grown for the
first time on the Baba Budan Hills
• Major tea producing states: (Karnataka) in India.
130
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
INDIA
COFFEE MARKET-KEY DATA
» India ranks 2nd across the world in the
production of cotton following China.
Cotton occupies nearly around 4.7% of
entire cropped area in the country.
» There are three cotton growing zones
in India, i.e., parts of Punjab, Haryana,
and northern Rajasthan in north-
west, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the
west and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh,
100% Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu in south.
80%
60%
40%
20% INDIA
0% COTTON AND JUTE
Karnataka KeralaT amil Nadu
I M A G E 7.6: C O F F E E G R OW I N G A R E A S IN INDIA
Non-Food Crops
Cotton:
• Climatic condition:
» It grows well in drier portions of the JUTE
region.
» It needs high temperature, light rainfall, I M A G E 7.7 : C OT TO N A N D J U T E C U LT I VAT I O N IN
or irrigation, around 210 frost-free days INDIA
and bright sunshine for its growth.
Jute:
» It is a Kharif crop and requires 6 to 8
months to mature. • Jute is also known as the golden fibre.
It produces well on well-drained fertile
» Cotton requires clear sky during
soils in the flood plain areas where
flowering stage.
soils are renewed each year. High
• Major producers: temperature is needed during the time
of growth.
» During partition, India lost a large • It is utilized for making coarse cloth,
proportion of cotton growing region to bags, sacks and decorative items.
Pakistan. But its acreage has increased Jute is a cash crop in West Bengal
considerably during the past 50 years. and adjoining eastern regions of the
India produces both short staple country.
(Indian) cotton as well as long staple
(American) cotton known as ‘Narma’ in • India lost significant jute growing
north-western parts of the country. regions to East Pakistan (Bangladesh)
during partition. At present, India
» Important cotton-producing states produces about three- fifth of entire jute
are– Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya production of the world. West Bengal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, accounts for around three-fourth of the
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, production in the country.
131
• Bihar and Assam are other important • Over the last decade, the total area
jute growing areas. Being concentrated under horticulture increased by 2.6%
only in a limited state, this crop accounts per annum and annual production
for only around 0.5% of entire cropped increased by around 4.8%.
area in the country. • India witnessed the shift in area from
• Because of its high cost, it is losing food grain towards horticulture crops
market to synthetic fibers and packing over last five years (from 2012-13 to
materials, particularly the nylon. 2017-18).
Operation Green
Operation Greens was revealed in the Budget
Rubber: speech of 2018-19 with an outlay of Rs 500 crores
to stabilize the overall supply of Tomato, Onion
• Rubber is an equatorial crop, however and Potato (TOP) crops and to ensure availability
under special circumstances, it is also of TOP crops throughout the country round the
grown in tropical and sub-tropical year without price volatility.
regions. It requires moist and humid Objective:
climatic condition with rainfall of more
• Improving value realization of TOP farmers
than 200 cm. and temperature above by targeted interventions to strengthen
25°C. TOP production clusters and their Farmer
• It is a crucial industrial raw material. It Producers Organizations (FPOs) and linking
them with the market.
is primarily grown in Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Andaman and Nicobar • Price stabilization for consumers and
producers by proper production planning in
Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. the TOP clusters and introduction of dual use
• In 2010-11 India ranked fourth among varieties.
the world’s natural rubber producers. • Decrease in post-harvest losses by formation
of farm gate infrastructure, development of
Horticulture Crops suitable agro-logistics, creation of appropriate
storage capacity linking consumption centres
• In 2008, India was the 2nd largest fruits to increase shell life.
and vegetables producing country
• Growth in food processing capacities and
of the world after China. India is a value addition in TOP value chain with firm
producer of both tropical as well as linkages with production clusters.
temperate types of fruit. • Setting up of a market intelligence network.
• Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Some Important Fruits
Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas
of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, and • Mango: Alphanso of Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Lichi and Guava of Uttar Banganpalli of Andhra Pradesh,
Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Dashehari & Langra of Uttar Pradesh,
Meghalaya, apples, pears, apricots and Malda of W. Bengal are some famous
walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and varieties.
Himachal Pradesh, grapes of Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra are » Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer
in huge demand the world over. followed by Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, and Maharashtra.
• India produces around 13% of the
world’s vegetables. India is an important • Banana: India is the second largest
producer of cauliflower, onion, cabbage, producer after Brazil. The chief
tomato, pea, potato and brinjal. producers are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
132
Gujarat, M.P. and Kerala. initial learning curve to develop the
• Grape: India is the highest producer of required skills.
the famous variety “Anab-e-Shahi. • High cost of inputs that burdens the
farmers.
» The chief producing areas are Coorg
district of Karnataka, Wayanad • Low benchmark productivity adds to
in Kerala, Nilgiri, Sholapur and unit cost of produce.
Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra. • Large scale prevalence of old and senile
orchards impacts productivity. Majority
• Citrus: Maharashtra ranks first in citrus of the orchards also have low planting
production; Nagpur Mandarins is density.
considered to be the best in the world.
• Availability of quality seed and planting
• Apple: North-west Himalayan region material impacts quality of produce.
covers 95% of the total area and 85%
of the total production • Poor tree canopy management.
• Pineapple: The chief producers are • Rainfed cultivation, with majority of
Kerala and North Eastern states. the horticultural cultivation having no
access to irrigation. •
Apple
• Initial cost constraints in adoption of
Others
18%
3%
improved technologies.
• Facilities for post-harvest management
Papaya
Banana
32% have not kept pace with production
6%
growth.
• Unorganized supply chain, not suitably
integrated for managing perishable
produce.
Mango
21% Grapes
3%
Guava
Total Citrus
4%
• Lack of appropriately trained extension
services for horticulture.
13%
development
5%
Others
r
27%
5%
Okra
• Close gaps in post-harvest handling
Tomato
11% Peas
4%
and integrated cold chains.
• Market intelligence to promote market
3%
Potato
26%
led production.
I M A G E 7.8 : F R U I T S AND V E G E TA B L E S P R O D U C T I O N • Quality seeds and planting material.
IN INDIA
• Capacity building programmes on
latest technologies at farmers’ field.
Challenges in horticulture • Adoption of better varieties and
The main challenges facing those wishing rejuvenation with improved cultivars.
to start work in horticulture sector are • Hi-tech horticulture and Precision
access to capital, technology, and the farming
133
• High Density plantations. • We should have a calendar of
• Enhanced water uses efficiency (micro- production for the different crops and
irrigation and fertigation). analyze their condition likewise.
134
CHAPTER - 8
135
• The South-Western Plateau Region: minerals can be subdivided into ferrous
This belt stretches over Karnataka, Goa and non-ferrous minerals.
and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Ferrous e.g. Iron
ore, Maganese,
Kerala. This belt has abundant of ferrous chomite, pyrite etc.
metals and bauxite. It also comprised Metallics
Non-ferrous e.g.
of high-grade iron ore, manganese and Copper, Bauxite
etc.
limestone. This region packs in coal Minerals
deposits except Neyveli lignite. Region Fuel mineralse
e.g. Petroleum
does not have as diversified mineral Coal etc.
deposits as the North-Eastern belt. Non-Metallics
Other non-
Some area of Kerala has deposits of metallics e.g.
Mica, Iimestone
monazite and thorium, bauxite clay.
Goa region has iron ore deposits. I M A G E 8.1: T Y P E S OF MINERALS
• The North-Western Region: This belt
stretches along Aravali in Rajasthan
and part of Gujarat and minerals are Ferrous Metallic Minerals
linked with Dharwar system of Rocks. Ferrous minerals account for about 3/4th of
Copper, zinc have been major minerals the total value of the production of metallic
of this region. Rajasthan region is minerals. Ferrous Metallic Minerals are the
prosperous in building stones i.e., most important mineral group after fuel
granite, sandstone, and marble etc. minerals. They include iron, manganese,
Gypsum and Fuller’s Earth deposits are pyrite, and chromite etc. These minerals
also extensive. Dolomite and limestone give a strong base for the development of
are the important raw materials for metallurgical industries, particularly iron,
the cement industry. Gujarat is known steel, and alloys.
for its petroleum deposits. Gujarat and
Rajasthan both have plentiful sources
of salt. Iron-ore
• India is rich in high quality Iron ores.
Other important belt It has magnetite ore which contains
a very high content of Iron up to 70%
• Outside of the above mineral belts, and magnetite has excellent magnetic
upper Brahmaputra valley is a properties and can be used in Electrical
significant petroleum producing area. industry.
• The Himalayan region is another • Hematite ore is the most significant
mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, industrial iron ore in terms of the
cobalt, and tungsten are known to quantity used, but it has slightly lower
occur. They exist on both the eastern iron content than magnetite (50-60%).
and western parts. Limonite iron ore contains 30 – 50% of
Iron content.
• Hematite and Magnetite are mainly
Types of Minerals found in India.
• Currently Chhattisgarh is the largest
• Based on the chemical and physical producer of Iron in India followed by
properties, minerals may be divided Karnataka. The Iron ore mines exist
into two main categories of metallics in close proximity to the coalfields in
and non-metallics. Further, metallic the North-Eastern plateau belt of the
136
country which adds to their advantage. • Odisha is the largest producer of Iron-
• Largest iron ore reserve is found in India ore in India.
amongst other Asian countries. • The major Iron ore belts are as
mentioned below:
Mayurbhanj
Durg
Chandrapur
Ratnagiri
Bastar
of some other imp things like bleaching
Sandur
Hospet powder, insecticides, and paints.
Goa
Shimoga Chikmagalur
India’s manganese deposits found
Chikmagalur
Salem in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh.
• Odisha is the leading producer of
I M A G E 8.2: D I S T R I B U T I O N OF IRON ORE Manganese.
• Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Jharkhand
are other minor producing region of
Manganese Ore manganese.
• Its sources lie near to the region of
Iron ores in India. Manganese deposits
137
years old) and is linked with laterite
INDIA
Rocks found extensively either on the
MANGANESE-ORE plateau or hill ranges of peninsular
India and also in the coastal tracts of
the country.
• India’s bauxite deposits are primarily
found in the Maikal Hills, the
Chhindwara
Sundergarh Amarkantak plateau and the plateau
region of Bilaspur- Katni.
Durg
Nagpur Cuttack
Bolangir
Koraput
Pannji Dharwad
bauxite deposits.
Chitradurga
Shimoga
Tunkur
138
in India but only a few of these are for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.
commercially significant. They are • Major limestone producing states in
limestone, dolomite, mica, kyanite, India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha,
sillimanite, gypsum and phosphate Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
which are used in a different variety of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.
industries such as cement, fertilizers,
refractories and electrical goods.
Problems associated with
Mica mining
• Mica is type of a mineral made up of a There are several problems posed by
various type of plates or leaves which mineral extraction. The major problems
are tough and flexible. It fragments are as:
easily into thin sheets. • Depletion of Mineral:
• Its color can be clear, black, green,
red, yellow or brown. Because of its » Because of the excessive exploitation, a
excellent dielectric strength, low power lot of minerals are going to be depleted
loss factor, insulating properties and in near future. Therefore, it calls for
resistance to high voltage, mica is one conservation and judicious utilization.
of the most crucial and indispensable Ex: Coal reserves.
minerals used in electric and electronic
industries.
• Ecological Problems:
• Mica deposits mainly found in » Mineral extraction has led to very
Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and serious environmental problems.
Rajasthan. Rapidly growing mining activities
• Mica reserves are found in the Northern have rendered large agricultural tracts
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. almost useless.
Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh region of » Natural vegetation has been detached
Jharkhand is the leading producer. In from vast tracts. Such regions suffer
Rajasthan, the major mica producing from regular floods and due to improper
region is around Ajmer. drainage system, they have become
• Nellore mica belt situated in Andhra breeding grounds for mosquitoes
Pradesh is also significant producer in spreading malaria with vengenance.
the country. » In mountainous mining areas landslide
• India occupies the top position, and it is are a common phenomenon taking toll
the largest producer & exporter of mica of life, cattle, and property. In numerous
in the world. mines, miners have to work under most
hazardous circumstances.
» Hundreds of lives are lost every year by
Limestone fire in coal mines and due to occasional
flooding etc. Existence of poisonous gas
• It is mainly found in association with
in pockets of mines is a great enemy of
rocks composed of calcium carbonates
miners.
or calcium and magnesium carbonates.
It is occurred in sedimentary Rocks of • Pollution:
most geological formations.
• Limestone is the essential raw material » Many mineral producing zones lead
for the cement industry and essential to water and air pollution in the
139
neighboring region which in turn lead in minerals, therefore the tribal people
to various health hazards. of this region are most affected.
Industrialization of such regions has
• Social Problems: badly shattered their economy, values
and lifestyle.
» New findings of minerals often lead to
displacement of people, particularly • Strategies for Resource Conservation:
tribes. As various tribal areas are rich
Strategies
Reclamation: Recycling: More efficient use: Substition:
Remote sensing satellite Reuse of waste in a E.g. engineering and Due to advancement of
has rendered a great help production process e.g. construction processes technology and new needs
in identifying mineral The waste papers, rags, which make automobiles have lead to many changes
resources. used bottles, tins, plastic more energy efficient and in the use of minerals.
waste material can all aerodynamic. Products of petro-chemical
be recycled to produce industry have replaced
paper, newsprint, plastics traditional brass or clay
glass wares, packing tin jars. Plastics now compete
materials etc. with copper for uses such
as piping and with steel in
car bodies.
I M A G E 8.4: R E S O U R C E C O N S E R VAT I O N S T R AT E G I E S
Limited, Non-
renewable, Costly,
Cause Pollution &
Exhaustible
Conventional sources
coal, petroleum,
natural gas
Sources of Energy
Renewable, Cheap,
Pollution free &
Inexhaustible
Non-Conventional
sources
sun, wind, tides, hot
springs and bio-mass.
140
Important conventional Source of Types Of Coal
Energy Types of coal (based on carbon, ash and moisture
content)
Coal
Peat:
• In India, coal is a most important and • Decaying plants in swamps produce peat.
abundant mineral. It gives a substantial
• First stage of transformation and it contains
part of the Nation's Energy needs. Coal less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon, more
is occurred in variety of forms based impurities, high moisture contents and low
on its degrees of compression and the heating capacity.
depth and time of burial. Lignite
• Coal in India found in two important • 40 to 55 per cent carbon and found in
types of coal fields i.e., the Gondwana Intermediate stage
coal fields (a little over 200 million • A low-grade brown coal, which is soft with
years in age) and Tertiary coal fields high content of moisture. The principal lignite
(about 55 million years old). Out of the reserves are found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu
entire coal reserves and production in and are used for generation of electricity.
India, Gondwana coal fields contribute Bituminous
98 percent and the rest 2 percent is • It contains around 40 to 80% carbon,
produced by tertiary coal fields. Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40%)
• Gondwana coal fields are distributed • Dense, compact, and is usually of black in
chiefly in the river valleys of the Damodar colour
(Jharkhand - West Bengal); the Son • It is the most prevalent coal in commercial use.
(Madhya Pradesh–Chhattisgarh); the Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous
coal which has a special value for smelting
Mahanadi (Odisha), the Godavari iron in blast furnaces.
(Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha
(Maharashtra). Anthracite
• It is the highest quality hard coal.
• Tertiary coalfields majorly find in the
extra-peninsular regions which consist • It contains around 80 to 95 per cent carbon
of Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal • Very little volatile matter.
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu & Kashmir, • Negligibly small proportion of moisture.
and Sikkim.
• Besides brown or lignite coal are found Nichotom
INDIA
MAJOR COAL FIELDS
in coastal zones of Gujrat, Tamil Nadu, kalakot
Palamau district.
Ramapur
Korba
Wardha Talcher
are located.
• About 80% of the total coal deposits Neyveli
141
Petroleum INDIA
Bombay high
non-porous layers.
• Petroleum also occurred in fault traps
between porous and non-porous rock Natural Gas
materials. Natural Gas, being lighter • The Gas Authority of India Limited
usually occurs above the oil and crude (GAIL) was established up in 1984 as a
petroleum occurs in sedimentary type public sector undertaking to transport
of Rocks. and market natural gas.
• About 63% of India’s petroleum • Natural gas is a significant clean energy
production is from Mumbai High, 18% resource exist in association with or
from Gujarat and 16% from Assam. without Petroleum. It is utilized as a
• Ankleshwar (in Gujrat) is the most source of energy as well as an industrial
significant oil field. Assam is the oldest raw material in the Petrochemical
oil producing state and Digboi, Moran- industry.
Hugrijan and Naharkatiya are the • It is considered as an environment
important oil fields in the state. friendly fuel because of low carbon
dioxide emissions.
• Large number natural gas reserves have
been found in the Krishna- Godavari
basin. Along the western coast the
reserves of the Mumbai High and allied
fields are supplemented by finds in the
Gulf of Cambay.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also
significant areas having large reserves
of natural gas.
• The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur -
Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline
connects Mumbai High and Bassien
with the fertilizer, power, and industrial
complexes in western and Northern
142
India.
• This route has provided an impetus to
India’s gas production. The fertilizer
and power industries are the important
users of natural gas.
Gorakhpur Delhi
Narora
country. Tarapur
Mumbai
Kovvada
Jaitapur
Kaiga
143
• Solar energy is tapped through the source of biological energy in big cities
process of Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) and industrial centres. These materials
cells. The thermal heating system can can be used for electricity or biogas.
be utilized for water heating, solar The process of work in this direction is
cookers for cooking meals and drying still in its initial stage. Such plants have
food grains etc. been installed in Delhi and few other
• Solar energy can be developed in cities in India.
almost every part of the country but Tidal Energy
mostly in hot, dry and cloud free region
like Rajasthan. • Energy can also be generated with
the help high tidal waves. Some of the
• Important solar power plants in significant sites identified for generating
India: Bhadla Solar Park (2,250MW), tidal energy are located in the Gulf
Rajasthan, Ultra Mega Solar Park of Kuchch and Cambay in Gujarat
(1,000MW), Andhra Pradesh, and Rewa state and the coast of Kerala. 150 MW
Solar Power Project (750MW), Madhya capacity plant has been installed on
Pradesh. the Kerala coast.
144
PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS
145
Mains Prelims
1. How will the melting of Himalayan 1. Consider the following statements:
glaciers have a far- reaching [2005]
impact on the water resources of 1. The forest cover in India constitutes
India? 2020 around 20% of its geographical
2. Account for the present location area. Out of the total forest cover,
of iron and steel industries away dense forest constitutes around
from the source of raw material, 40%.
by giving examples. 2020 2. The National Forestry Action
3. The interlinking of revivers can provide Programme aims at bringing one
viable solutions to the multi-dimensional third of the area of India under tree
inter-related problems of droughts, forest cover.
floods, and interrupted navigation. Which of the statements given above
Critically examine. 2020 is/are correct?
4. Account for the huge flooding of million (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
cities in India including the smart ones
like Hyderabad and Pune. Suggest (c) both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
lasting remedial measures. 2020
5. India has immense potential 2. Consider the following statements :
of solar energy though there [2005]
are regional variations in its 1. Area-wise, Chhattisgarh is larger
developments. Elaborate. 2020 than West Bengal.
6. Examine the status of forest resources 2. According to the population Census
of India and its resultant impact on 2001, population of West Bengal is
climate change. 2020 larger than that of Chhattisgarh.
7. Why is Indian Regional Navigational Which of the statements given above
Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How is/are correct?
does it help in navigation? 2018
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
8. “The Himalayas are highly prone
to landslides.” Discuss the causes (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
and suggest suitable measures of
mitigation. 2016
3. Match List-I with List-II and select the
9. There is no formation of deltas by rivers correct answer using the code given
of the Western Ghat. Why? 2013 below the lists. [2005]
10. Bring out the causes for more frequent List-I List-II
landslides in the Himalayas than
(Atomic Power Plants/Heavy Water
in Western Ghats 2013
Plants) (State)
A. Thal 1. Andhra Pradesh
B. Manuguru 2. Gujarat
C. Kakrapar 3. Maharashtra
D. Kaiga 4. Rajasthan
5. Karnataka
Codes:
146
(a) A-2; B-1; C-4; D-5 least population.
(b) A-3; B-5; C-2; D-1 (d) Pondicherry has the highest sex
(c) A-2; B-5; C-4; D-1 ratio among the Union Territories.
(a) Bihar has the highest percentage of (d) Anamalai Hills–Nilgiri Hills–Javadi
the scheduled castes of its population. Hills– Nallamalai Hills
147
(c) Nilgiri (d) Panchmarhi the Silent Valley National Park.
3. The Kunthi river originates in Silent
12. Which one of the following is the Valley's rainforests.
correct sequence of Indian cities in Which of the statements given above
the decreasing order, of their normal is/are correct?
annual rainfall? [2005]
(a) Kochi–Kolkata–Delhi–Patna (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
(b) Kolkata–Kochi–Patna–Delhi (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Kochi–Kolkata–Patna–Delhi
(d) Kolkata–Kochi–Delhi–Patna
16. Match List-I with List-II and select the
correct answer using the codes given
13. Which of the following states border below the lists: [2005]
Uttar Pradesh? [2005] List-I List-II
1. Punjab 2. Rajasthan
(National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary)
3. Chhattisgarh 4. Jharkhand (State)
Select the correct answer using the A. Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary
codes given below: 1. Odisha
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 B. Kangerghat National Park
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 2. Assam
C. Orang Sanctuary
3. Chhattisgarh
14. Match items in the List-I with List-II D. Ushkothi Wildlife Sanctuary
and select the correct answer using 4. Goa
the codes given below the lists. [2005] Sanctuary 5. Tripura
List-I List-II
Codes:
(Power Station) (State)
(a) A-2; B-1; C-5; D-3
A. Kothagudem 1. Andhra Pradesh
(b) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
B. Raichur 2. Gujarat
(c) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1
C. Mettur 3. Karnataka
(d) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
D. Wanakbori 4. Tamil Nadu
Codes: 17. Consider the following sites/
(a) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3 monuments: [2005]
(b) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2 1. Champaner-Pavagadh
Archaeological Park
(c) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
2. Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway Station,
(d) A-1; B-2; C-4; D-3 Mumbai
3. Mahallapuram
15. Consider the following statements:
[2005] 4. Sun Temple (Konark Temple)
1. Silent Valley National Park in the Which of the above are included in the
Nallamalai range. World Heritage List of UNESCO?
2. Pathrakkadavu Hydroelectric (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4
project is proposed to be built near
148
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Centre of Handicrafts)
(State)
18. Consider the following statements A. Mon 1. Arunachal Pradesh
concerning the Indian Railways. [2006] B. Nalbari 2. Assam
1. The Head Quarters of the North
Western Railway are located at C. Naisghat 3. Meghalaya
Jodhpur. D. Tura 4. Nagaland
2. "Indrail Pass" –a travel as you please Codes
ticket has been created especially for (a) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3
freedom fighters and sportspersons
who have represented India in any (b) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2
games/sport. (c) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
3. Fairy Queen is a train using the (d) A-1; B-2; C-4; D-3
world's oldest working engine and
the Indian Railways conducts a
21. Consider the following statements:
journey of wildlife and heritage sites
[2006]
on it.
1. Petronet LNG Ltd. is setting up
Which of the statements given above another LNG terminal at Mangalore.
is/are correct?
2. The Head Office of the Dredging
(a) 2 only (b) 3 only Corporation of India is at
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None Vishakhapatnam.
3. The Narwapahar Mine is operated
19. Consider the following statements: by the Uranium Corporation of India
[2006] Limited.
1. Sikkim has the minimum area Which of the statements given above
among the 28 Indian States (Delhi are correct?
and Pondicherry not included).
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
2. Chandigarh has the highest literacy
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
rate among Pondicherry, National
Capital Territory of Delhi and other
Union Territories. 22. Consider the following statements:
[2006]
3. Maharashtra has the highest
1. Appellate Tribunal for electricity
population after Uttar Pradesh
has been established by each state
among the 28 Indian States (Delhi
government in India.
and Pondicherry not included).
2. One of the component of the
Which of the statement(s) given above
Accelerated Power Development
is/are correct?
and Reforms Programme (APDRP)
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 is up gradation of sub-transmission
(c) 1 only (d) 3 only and distribution system for electricity
in India.
20. Match List-I (Centre of Handicrafts) Which of the statement(s) given above
with List-II (State) and select the is/are correct?
correct answer using the codes given (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
below the lists: [2006]
(c) Both l and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
List-I List-II
149
of the following is the correct sequence
23. Match List-I (Valley) with List-II (State) of the given rivers in India? [2006]
and select the correct answer using (a) Shyok-Spiti-Zaskar- Satluj
the codes given below the lists: [2006] (b) Shyok-Zaskar-Spiti-Satluj
List-I (Valley) List-II (State)
(c) Zaskar-Shyok-Satluj- Spiti
A. Markha Valley 1. Sikkim
(d) Zaskar-Satluj-Shyok-Spiti
B. Dzukou Valley 2. Himachal Pradesh
C. Sangla Valley 3. Jammu & Kashmir 27. In which one of the following districts,
D. Yumthang Valley 4. Nagaland have large reserves of diamond-
Codes: bearing Kimberlite been discovered
in the recent past? [2007]
(a) A-2; B-4; C-3; D-1 (a) Hoshangabad (b) Raipur
(b) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4 (c) Sambalpur (d) Warangal
(c) A-2; B-1; C-3; D-4
(d) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1 28. With reference to the steel industry
in India in the recent times, consider
24. Which one of the following statements the following statements: [2007]
is not correct? [2006] 1. Vizag Steel Plant (RINL) has been
declared a Mini Ratna.
(a) Mahanadi River rises in Chhattisgarh 2. Merger of IISCO with SAIL has been
completed.
(b) Godavari River rises in Maharashtra
Which of the statements given above
(c) Kaveri River rises in Andhra Pradesh is/are correct?
(d) Tapti River rises in Madhya Pradesh (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
25. Match List-I (National Park/Wildlife
Sanctuary) with List-I) (Nearby Town)
and select the correct answer using 29. The Stilwell Road, built in 1940s, which
the codes given below the lists: [2006] was recently in news, connects which
List-I List-II of the following? [2007]
(a) Agartala in India and Yangon in
(National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary) Myanmar via Bangladesh
(Nearby Town)
(b) Ledo in India and Kunming in China
A. Chandra Prabha 1. Jaipur via Myanmar
B. Karera 2. Jhansi (c) Kalimpong in India and Lhasa in
C. Jaisamand 3. Agra Tibet via Bhutan
D. Nahargarh 4. Varanasi (d) Imphal in India and Bangkok in
Thailand via Myanmar
5. Udaipur
Codes:
30. Which one of the following is also
(a) A-4; B-4; C-1; D-1 known as Top Slip? [2007]
(b) A-5; B-2; C-3; D-1 (a) Ismlipal National Park
(c) A-4; B-2; C-5; D-1 (b) Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
(d) A-5; B-1; C-3; D-2 (c) Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary
26. From North towards South, which one
150
(d) Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary eastward located? [2007]
and National Park (a) Hyderabad
(b) Bhopal
31. Where are Shevaroy hills located? [2007] (c) Lucknow
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Karnataka
(d) Bengaluru (Bangalore)
(c) Kerala (d) Tamil Nadu
151
Peak located? [2007] achieve population stabilization? [2008]
(a) Rajasthan (b) Gujarat (a) 2025 (b) 2035
(c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Maharashtra (c) 2045 (d) 2055
41. Match List I with List II and select the 45. What is the approximate percentage of
correct answer using the code given persons above 65 years of age in India’s
below the lists: [2007] current population? [2008]
List-I List-II (a) 14-15% (b) 11-12%
(Town) (River Nearer to it) (c) 8-9% (d) 5-6%
A. Betul 1. Indravati
B. Jagdalpur 2. Narmada 46. Amongst the following States, which
one has the highest percentage of rural
C. Jabalpur 3. Shipra population to its total population (on
D. Ujjain 4. Tapti the basis of the Census, 2001)? [2008]
Code: (a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Bihar
152
(a) 7 (b) 8 Select the correct answer using the
(c) 9 (d) 10 code given below:
Code:
52. Which of the following hills are found (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
where the Eastern Ghats and the (b) 1 and 3 only
Western Ghats meet? [2008]
(a) Anamalai Hills (b) Cardamom Hills (c) 2 and 4 only
(c) Nilgiri Hills (d) Shevaroy Hills (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
53. Consider the following pairs: [2008] 57. On which one of the following rivers
Tributary River Main River is the Tehri hydropower complex
located? [2008]
1. Chambal Narmada (a) Alaknanda (b) Bhagirathi
2. Sone Yamuna (c) Dhauliganga (d) Mandakini
3. Manas Brahmaputra
Which of the pairs given above is/are 58. Which of the following pairs are
correctly matched? correctly matched? [2008]
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) l and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only Waterfalls River
1. Kapildhara Falls: Godavari
54. Consider the following statements: 2. Jog Falls: Sharavathi
[2008] 3. Shivasamudram Falls: Kaveri
1. Salt-water crocodile is found in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
2. Shrew and Tapir are found in the
Western Ghats of the Malabar Code:
region. (a) 1 and 2 only
Which of the statements given above (b) 2 and 3 only
is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
59. Which of the following pairs are
55. In which one of the following states correctly matched? [2008]
are Namchik Namphuk coalfields Irrigation Project State
located? [2008] 1. Damanganga: Gujarat
(a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Meghalaya
2. Girna : Maharashtra
(c) Manipur (d) Mizoram
3. Pamba: Kerala
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
56. Which of the following minerals
found in a natural way in the state Code:
of Chhattisgarh? [2008] (a) 1 and 2 only
1. Bauxite 2. Dolomite
(b) 2 and 3 only
3. Iron ore 4. Tin
153
(c) 1 and 3 only (a) Gujarat (b) Haryana
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Rajasthan
154
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 74. Consider the following statements:
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 [2009]
1. There are no east flowing rivers in
Kerala.
70. Consider the following statements:
[2009] 2. There are no west flowing rivers in
1. Between Census 1951 and Census Madhya Pradesh.
2001, the density of the population Which of the statements given above
of India has increased more than is/are correct?
three times. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
2. Between Census 1951 and Census (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2001, the annual growth rate
(exponential) of the population of
India has doubled. 75. Consider the following statements:
[2010]
Which of the statements given above 1. The boundaries of a National Park
is/are correct? are defined by legislation.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 2. A Biosphere Reserve is declared to
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 conserve a few specific species of
flora and fauna.
71. Which one of the following rivers 3. In a Wildlife Sanctuary, limited
does not originate in India? [2009] biotic interference is permitted.
(a) Beas (b) Chenab Which of the statements given above
(c) Ravi (d) Satluj is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
72. At which one of the following places (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
do two important rivers of India
originate; while one of them flows
towards north and merges with 76. Following are the characteristics of an
another important rivers flowing area in India: [2010]
towards Bay of Bengal, the other one 1. Hot and humid climate
flows towards Arabian Sea? [2009] 2. Annual rainfall 200 cm
(a) Amarkantak (b) Badrinath 3. Hill slopes up to an altitude of 1100
(c) Mahabaleshwar (d) Nasik meters
4. Annual range of temperature 15°C
73. Consider the following statements: to 30°C.
[2009] Which one among the following crops
1. India does not have any deposits of are you most likely to find in the area
Thorium. described above?
2. Kerala’s monazite sands contains (a) Mustard (b) Cotton
Uranium.
(c) Pepper (d) Virginia tobacco
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
77. With reference to the mineral resources of
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only India, consider the following pairs: [2010]
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Mineral 90% Natural sources in
1. Copper …… Jharkhand
155
2. Nickel …… Odisha (b) Beas and Ravi only
3. Tungsten …… Kerala (c) Chenab, Ravi and Satlej only
Which of the pairs given above is/are (d) Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satlej and
correctly matched? Yamuna
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 82. When you travel in certain parts of
India, you will notice red soil. What is
the main reason for this colour? [2010]
78. Consider the following pairs: [2010] (a) Abundance of magnesium
Protected area
(b) Accumulated humus
Well-known for
(c) Presence of ferric oxides
1. Bhiterkanika, Odisha ……
Salt Water Crocodile (d) Abundance of phosphates
80. With reference to, the river Luni, (a) Govind Sagar: Satluj
which one of the following statements (b) Kolleru Lake: Krishna
is correct? [2010] (c) Ukai Reservoir: Tapi
(a) It flows into Gulf of Khambhat
(d) Wular Lake: Jhelum
(b) It flows into Gulf of Kutch
(c) It flows into Pakistan and merges 85. If there were no Himalayan ranges,
with a tributary of Indus what would have been the most likely
(d) It is lost in the marshy land of the geographical impact on India? [2010]
Rann of Kutch 1. Much of the country would
experience the cold waves from
81. Rivers that pass through Himachal Siberia.
Pradesh are: [2010] 2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid
(a) Beas and Chenab only of such extensive alluvial soils.
156
3. The pattern of monsoon would be (b) Wheat and Jute
different from what it is at present. (c) Paddy and Jute
Which of the statements given above (d) Wheat and Cotton
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only 90. Which one of the following pairs of
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 islands is separated from each other
by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? [2011]
86. The latitudes that pass through Sikkim (a) Andaman and Nicobar
also pass through: [2010] (b) Nicobar and Sumatra
(a) Rajasthan (b) Punjab (c) Maldives and Lakshadweep
(c) Himachal Pradesh (d) Jammu and (d) Sumatra and Java
Kashmir
157
2. It has over 80% of its area under 2. The amount of annual rainfall in the
forest cover. northern plains of India decreases
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes from east to west.
Protected Area Network in this Which of the statements given above
State. is/are correct?
Which one among the following States (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
has all the above characteristics? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Assam 97. Consider the following pairs: [2013]
(c) Himachal Pradesh National Park River flowing through the
Park
(d) Uttarakhand
1. Corbett National Park: Ganga
94. With reference to the wetlands of India, 2. Kaziranga National Park: Manas
consider the following statements: [2012] 3. Silent Valley: National Park:Kaveri
1. The country’s total geographical Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
area under the category of wetlands matched?
is recorded more in Gujarat as
compared to other States. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only
2. In India, the total geographical area (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
of coastal wetlands is larger than
that of inland wetlands. 98. The Narmada river flows to the west,
Which of the statements given above while most other large peninsular
is/are correct? rivers flow to the east. Why?
[2013]
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. It occupies a linear rift valley.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. It flows between the Vindhyas and
the Satpuras.
95. When you travel in Himalayas, you will
see the following: [2012] 3. The land slopes to the west from
1. Deep gorges Central India.
2. U-turn river courses Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
3. Parallel mountain ranges
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
4. Steep gradients causing land-
sliding (c) 1 and 3 (d) None
Which of the above can be said to
be the evidences for Himalayas being 99. Which of the following is/are the
young fold mountains? characteristic/characteristics of Indian
coal? [2013]
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only 1. High ash content
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 2. Low sulphur content
3. Low ash fusion temperature
96. Consider the following statements: [2012]
1. The duration of the monsoon Select the correct answer using the
decreases from southern India to codes given below.
northern India. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
158
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
100. Which of the following statements (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
regarding laterite soils of India (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
are correct? [2013]
1. They are generally red in colour.
104. The seasonal reversal of winds is
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash. the typical characteristic of [2014]
3. They are well-developed in (a) Equatorial climate
Rajasthan and UP. (b) Mediterranean climate
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well (c) Monsoon climate
on these soils.
(d) All of the above climates
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
105. Consider the following rivers: [2014]
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 1. Barak
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 only 2. Lohit
3. Subansiri
101. Consider the following statements:
[2013] Which of the above flows/flow through
1. Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana Arunachal Pradesh?
beds. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
2. Mica occurs in abundance in (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Kodarma.
3. Dharwars are famous for petroleum. 106. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
Which of the statements given above Wetlands Confluence of rivers
is/are correct? 1. Harike Wetlands: Confluence of Beas
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only and Satluj/Satluj
(c) 2 and 3 (d) None 2. Keoladeo Ghana: Confluence of
National Park Banas and Chambal
102. Consider the following towns of 3. Kolleru Lake: Confluence of Musi and
India: [2014] Krishna
1. Bhadrachalam 2. Chanderi
3. Kancheepuram 4. Karnal Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
Which of the above are famous for the matched?
production of traditional sarees/ fabric? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1,3 and 4.
103. Consider the following pairs: [2014] 107. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
National Highway Cities connected Hills Region
1. NH 4 Chennai and Hyderabad 1. Cardamom Hills: Coromandel Coast
2. NH 6 Mumbai and Kolkata 2. Kaimur Hills: Konkan Coast
3. NH 15 Ahmedabad and Jodhpur 3. Mahadeo Hills: Central India
159
4. Mikir Hills: North-East India 3. Mizoram
Which of the above pairs are correctly In which of the above States do 'Tropical
matched? Wet Evergreen Forests' occur?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
108. If you travel through the Himalayas, 112.Which one of the following pairs of
you are likely to see which of the following States of India indicates the eastern
plants naturally growing there? [2014] most and western most State? [2015]
1. Oak (a) Assam and Rajasthan
2. Rhododendron (b) Arunachal Pradesh and Rajasthan
3. Sandalwood (c) Assam and Gujarat
Select the correct answer using the (d) Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat
code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only 113. Consider the following rivers: [2015]
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. Vamsadhara
2. Indravati
109. With reference to ‘Changpa’ 3. Pranahita
community of India, consider the 4. Pennar
following statements: [2014]
1. They live mainly in the State of Which of the above are tributaries of
Uttarakhand. Godavari?
2. They rear the Pashmina goats that (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
yield a fine wool. (c) 1, 2 and4 (d) 2 and 3 only
3. They are kept in the category of
Scheduled Tribes. 114. Which one of the following
Which of the statements given above regions of India has a combination of
is/are correct? mangrove forest, evergreen forest and
deciduous forest? [2015]
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (b) South-West Bengal
(c) Southern Saurashtra
110. In a particular region in India, the
local people train the roots of living (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
trees into robust bridges across the
streams. As the time passes, these 115. Which of the following has/
bridges become stronger. These unique have been accorded 'Geographical
'living root bridges' are found in [2015] Indication' status? [2015]
(a) Meghalaya (b) Himachal Pradesh 1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees
(c) Jharkhand (d) Tamil Nadu 2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma
3. Tirupathi Laddu
111. Consider the following States [2015] Select the correct answer using the
1. Arunachal Pradesh code given below.
2. Himachal Pradesh (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
160
(c) 1 only 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 an artificial lake? [2018]
(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)
116. In which of the following regions (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)
of India are shale gas resources (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)
found? [2016]
1. Cambay Basin (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)
2. Kaveri Basin
121.Consider the following statements: [2018]
3. Krishna-Godavari Basin 1. The Barren Island volcano is an
Select the correct answer using the active volcano located in the Indian
code given below. territory.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only 2. Barren Island lies about 140 km.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 east of Great Nicobar
3. The last time the Barren Island
117. At one of the places in India, if you stand volcano erupted was in 1991 and it
on the seashore and watch the sea, has remained inactive since then.
you will find that the sea water recedes Which of the statements given
from the shore line a few kilometers above is/are correct?
and comes back to the shore, twice a (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
day, and you can actually walk on the (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
sea floor when the water recedes. This
unique phenomenon is seen at [2017]
(a) Bhavnagar (b) Bheemunipatnam 122. With reference to the management
of minor minerals in India, consider
(c) Chandipur (d) Nagapattinam the following statements: [2019]
1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according
118. Consider the following statements: to the prevailing law in the country.
[2018] 2. State Governments have the power
1. In India, State Governments do not to grant mining leases of minor
have the power to auction noncoal minerals, but the powers regarding
mines. the formation of rules related to the
2. Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand do grant of minor minerals lie with the
no have gold mines. Central Government.
3. Rajasthan has iron ore mines. 3. State Government have the power
Which of the statements given above to frame rules to prevent illegal
is/are correct? mining of minor minerals.
119. Among the following cities, which (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
one lies on a longitude closest to
that of Delhi? [2018] 123. With reference to the cultivation of
(a) Bengaluru (b) Hyderabad Kharif crops in which in the last five years
(c) Nagpur (d) Pune consider the following statements: [2019]
1. Area under rice cultivation is the
highest.
120. Which one of the following is
161
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar 127. Consider the following minerals:
is more than that of oilseeds. [2020]
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more 1. Bentonite 2. Chromite
than that of sugarcane. 3. Kyanite 4. Sillimanite
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation In India, which of the above is/are
has steadily decreased. officially designated as major minerals?
Which of the statements given above (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 4 only
is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 128. Siachen Glacier is situated to
the [2020]
124. Consider the following pairs: [2019] (a) East of Aksai Chin
Famous Place River (b) East of Leh
1. Pandharpur: Chandrabhaga (c) North of Gilgit
2. Tiruchirappalli: Kaveri (d) North of Nubra Valley
3. Hampi: Malaprabha
Which of the pairs given above are 129. With reference to pulse production
correctly matched? in India, consider the following
statements: [2020]
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. Black gram can be cultivated as
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 both Kharif and Rabi crop.
2. Green-gram alone accounts for
125. What is common to the places known nearly half of pulse production.
as Aliyar, Isapur and Kangsabati? [2019] 3. In the last three decades, while the
(a) Recently discovered uranium production of Kharif pulses has
deposits increased the production of Rabi
(b) Tropical rain forests pulses has decreased.
(c) Underground cave systems Which of the statements given above
(d) Water reservoirs is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
126. Consider the following pairs: [2019] (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Glacier River
1. Bandarpunch: Yamuna 130. "The crop is subtropical in nature. A
2. Bara Shigri: Chenab hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at
least 210 frost -free days and 50 to 100
3. Milam: Mandakini centimeters of rainfall for its growth.
4. Siachen: Nubra A light well -drained soil capable of
retaining moisture is ideally suited for
5. Zemu: Manas
the cultivation of the crop." [2020]
Which of the pairs given above are Which one of the following is that crop?
correctly matched?
(a) Cotton (b) Jute
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) Sugarcane (d) Tea
(c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5
162
131. Which of the following Protected
Areas are located in Kaveri
basin? [2020]
1. Nagarhole National park
2. Papikonda National Park
3. Sathyamagalam Tiger Reserve
4. Wayanand Wildlife Sanctuary
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
ANSWER KEY:
1. B 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. D 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. C 11. B 12 C 13. B 14. B 15. C 16. B 17. D 18.
B 19. D 20. A 21. C 22. B 23. D 24. C 25. C 26. B 27. B 28. C 29. B 30. D 31. D 32. D 33.
C 34.D 35. D 36. C 37. C 38. C 39. B 40. D 41. A 42. B 43. B 44. C 45. C 46. A 47. A 48.
D 49. B 50. B 51. B 52. C 53. C 54. A 55. A 56. A 57. B 58. B 59. B 60. C 61. C 62. A 63.
A 64. B 65. D 66. B 67. B 68. B 69. A 70. D 71. D 72. D 73. A 74. D 75. D 76. C 77. C 78. B
79. C 80. D 81. D 82. C 83. B 84. B 85. B 86. A 87. A 88. B 89. B 90. A 91. B 92. B 93. B
94. A 95. D 96. D 97. C 98. D 99. A 100. C 101. B 102. B 103. D 104. C 105. B 106. B 107.
A 108. A 109. B 110. A 111. C 112. D 113. D 114. D 115. C 116. D 117. C 118. D 119. A 120. A
121. A 122. A 123. A 124. A 125. D 126. A 127. D 128. D 129. A 130. A 131. C
163
REFERENCES
References:
http://www.ibpsa.org/proceedings/BS2019/
Book: Geography of India by Majid Husain
BS2019_211159.pdf
164
AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary &
Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Indian Geography”. The purpose is
to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.
All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.
However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com
Nikhil Ganta, Mayur Kale, Suraj Singh and Rahul Patil have contributed to the creation
of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC and in
the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing of
the content in the notes.
We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.
Team UNACADEMY
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UPSC | Indian Geography