Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153

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Soil & Tillage Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Use of beryllium-7 to study the effectiveness of woody trash barriers

in reducing sediment delivery to streams after forest clearcutting
Paulina Schuller a,*, Desmond E. Walling b, Andrés Iroumé c, Alejandra Castillo a
a
Universidad Austral de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Fı´sica, P.O. Box 567, Valdivia, Chile
b
University of Exeter, Department of Geography, Amory Building, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 RJ, UK
c
Universidad Austral de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Instituto de Manejo Forestal, P.O. Box 567, Valdivia, Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Reliable information on the effectiveness of control measures in reducing soil erosion and sediment
Received 24 September 2009 delivery to streams resulting from clearcutting operations is needed to support the development of best
Received in revised form 19 May 2010 management practices for soil and water conservation in forest areas. To address this need, an
Accepted 4 July 2010
investigation of the efficiency of barriers (constructed by piling up woody trash along contours) in
reducing soil loss and sediment delivery was undertaken in an area experiencing prolonged highly
Keywords: erosive rainfall events immediately after final forest harvest. The study sites selected were located in
Soil erosion
south-central Chile and are characterized by a wet autumn and winter and mean annual rainfall of
Sediment delivery
2300 mm. Using a newly developed approach for employing 7Be measurements to quantify soil
Forest clearcutting
Woody trash barriers redistribution over an extended wet season, soil redistribution was documented at two sites located
7
Be 2 km apart, El Monumento (EM) and San Germán (SG), the latter exhibiting less compacted soil. For an
autumn period of 82 d in 2006 associated with 989 mm rainfall at EM, the observed net soil loss from two
plots bounded at the top and bottom by trash barriers with a 15 and 30 m spacing, respectively, was
0.4  0.1 and 0.75  0.08 kg m2 and the sediment delivery ratio 34 and 92%. Results obtained for the SG
site from three plots with 10, 15 and 30 m spacing, for a 58-d autumn period with 664 mm rainfall in 2008,
were 1.0  0.1, 0.7  0.1 and 1.8  0.1 kg m2 net soil loss, with associated sediment delivery ratios of
60, 55 and 88%, respectively. These results suggest that the shorter barrier spacings (15 m) are more
effective in reducing soil loss. At SG during a 149-d period in 2008, with an extremely high precipitation total
of 2089 mm, the net erosion varied only between 5.6  0.4 and 6.5  0.4 kg m2 and the sediment
delivery ratio between 70 and 86% for 10, 15 and 18 m barrier spacings. These results suggest that under
conditions of extreme rainfall and unconsolidated soils, the woody trash barriers are unable to retain the large
amounts of sediment mobilized upslope and that much of this sediment passes through the barrier,
increasing the net soil loss and sediment delivery ratio. Nevertheless, in the absence of the lower woody
barrier the soil loss increases. These results emphasize the benefits of installing barriers, and the need to
improve their design to maximize trapping efficiency.
ß 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction road construction and heavy rainfall combine to cause major

In many forest areas, the most important water-quality issue
associated with forestry activities is the increase in sediment
entering the stream system due to catchment disturbance
(Cornish, 2001; Swank et al., 2001). Forest harvesting and the
subsequent preparation of the site for replanting expose the soil to
degradation processes, increasing soil erosion and sediment
mobilization and the downslope transfer of sediment towards
the streams. Clearcutting harvest operations, poor standards of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 63 221585.
E-mail addresses: pschulle@uach.cl (P. Schuller), Walling@exeter.ac.uk
(D.E. Walling), airoume@uach.cl (A. Iroumé).
problems of soil degradation and water-quality deterioration
within forest plantation areas in south-central Chile.
Within the framework of the certification process for sustain-
able forest operations, Chilean forest companies are voluntarily
adopting management practices to reduce soil erosion and the
associated delivery of sediment to watercourses. The construction
of linear trash barriers along contour lines, using woody harvesting
residues, and the maintenance of riparian vegetation to act as a
sediment filter are the most common management practices.
However, in Chile, there have to date been few attempts to
evaluate the effectiveness of such practices in areas where
frequent erosive events occur and to establish guidelines for their
implementation (e.g. the optimum spacing of trash barriers), in
order to promote effective soil and water conservation practices.

0167-1987/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.still.2010.07.004
144 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153
To address the need for such information, a research project has
been undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of woody trash
barriers installed along contour lines in reducing soil erosion and
sediment delivery to streams on clearcut slopes exposed to highly
erosive rainfall events immediately after final forest harvesting.
Walling (2006) has highlighted the potential for using natural
tracers to investigate soil redistribution patterns and to quantify
rates of net soil loss. In this project emphasis has been placed on
the use of such tracer techniques. In plantation forestry, soil
erosion mainly occurs when the slopes are left bare during the
relatively short period of less than a year, extending from the final
harvest until the first stages of the development of the new
plantation. Under these circumstances, the naturally occurring
short-lived fallout radionuclide beryllium-7 (7Be) (t1/2 = 53.3 d)
was selected as the most suitable tracer for evaluating the soil
redistribution associated with the post-harvest period, due to its
short half-life. Under bare soil conditions there is no interception of
the wet fallout by the vegetation cover and the radionuclide input
across a small area can be treated as spatially uniform. In addition,
the lack of vegetation means that the radionuclide input is likely to
be rapidly and strongly fixed by the soil and measurements of the
areal activity density of 7Be at different points on a slope will
directly reflect soil redistribution processes. Attention focused on
quantifying soil redistribution and sediment transfer along
downslope transects within plots bounded by trash barriers.
The successful use of 7Be to document both the magnitude and
the spatial distribution of soil erosion and sediment redistribution
on bare agricultural soils associated with individual major storm
events or short periods of heavy rainfall has been documented by
Blake et al. (1999), Walling et al. (1999), and further reported by
Matisoff et al. (2002), Wilson et al. (2003), and Sepúlveda et al.
(2008). The successful application of the traditional approach
(Walling et al., 1999) to document short-term soil redistribution on
bare recently harvested (clearfelled) forest areas was reported by
Schuller et al. (2006). However, the traditional approach possesses
important limitations in terms of the short duration of the period
that can be studied (essentially one discrete event or a short period of
heavy rainfall) and the restriction of this period to the beginning of
the wet season and the first erosive event or period of heavy rainfall.
Because of the frequent erosive rainfall and the extended period
of several months over which erosion occurs in the study area, the
approach for using 7Be measurements employed in the present
study is based on that recently reported by Walling et al. (2009),
which represents a modification of the traditional methodology.
Since the modified approach enables a much longer period to be
studied, it provides more representative information on the
magnitude of the soil erosion and sediment redistribution occurring
after forest harvesting. Results presented by Walling et al. (2009)
indicated that use of the traditional approach over longer periods,
extending over several weeks or months, could result in underesti-
mation of soil redistribution by 50% or more. The potential to
quantify soil erosion and sediment redistribution over longer
periods encompassing several months is particularly valuable in
regions such as south-central Chile, where the wet season extends
over several months and periods of heavy rainfall occur regularly
during that period.
2. Using 7Be measurements to document soil redistribution
during extended periods with erosive rainfall
Beryllium-7 (Eg = 477.6 keV) is mainly formed in the strato-
sphere from cosmic-ray spallation of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei
(Lal et al., 1958; Lal and Suess, 1968; Kaste et al., 2002). According
to Gerasopoulos et al. (2003) and to Papastefanou and Ioannidou
(2004), the 7Be concentration in surface air is strongly influenced
by solar activity. Increased solar activity results in increased
deflection of cosmic rays from the solar system that decreases the
cosmic-ray flux to Earth, and in turn decreases 7Be production.
Beryllium-7 attaches to airborne particles and its deposition to the
Earth’s surface occurs continuously by wet and dry fallout (Olsen
et al., 1985). Wallbrink and Murray (1994) demonstrated that 7Be
deposition occurs predominantly as wet fallout, associated with
precipitation. When the 7Be fallout makes contact with the soil
surface, it is rapidly sequestered by exchange surfaces, and is
therefore rapidly and strongly fixed by the surface soil (Hawley
et al., 1986; Wallbrink and Murray, 1996; Kaste et al., 2002).
Existing evidence for the depth distribution of 7Be in soils (e.g.
Blake et al., 1999; Walling et al., 1999; Schuller et al., 2006; Sepúlveda
et al., 2008), indicates that in undisturbed soils the initial vertical
distribution of the areal activity density of the 7Be will be confined to a
shallow (e.g. ca. 1 cm) surface layer and characterized by an
exponential decrease with depth. Based on this premise, Blake
et al. (1999) and Walling et al. (1999) proposed a simple model for
converting measurements of the 7Be areal activity density into
estimates of soil redistribution. As reported by these authors, the
initial depth distribution of the 7Be in an undisturbed soil is
characterized by an exponential decrease, which can be represented
by Eq. (1):
 
x
AðxÞ ¼ Aref exp (1)
h0
In this equation, Aref, Bq m2, is defined as the total areal activity
density at an uneroded stable reference site in the study area, and
A(x), Bq m2, is the areal activity density of 7Be below mass depth x,
kg m2, of the soil measured from the surface (positive down-
ward). The relaxation mass depth, h0, kg m2, describes the shape
of the initial depth distribution of the areal activity density of the
7
Be in the soil. It represents the mass depth below which exp(1)
(i.e. 0.368) of the total areal activity density is found and thus 63.2%
of the total areal activity density of 7Be will be found within the
upper 0–h0 soil layer.
By coupling information on the decrease or increase in the 7Be
areal activity density relative to the reference value, Aref, represen-
tative of a stable site experiencing neither erosion nor deposition,
with information on the characteristic depth distribution of the
radionuclide within the surface soil, estimates of erosion and
deposition can be obtained. Both the conventional and the recently
developed modified approaches (Walling et al., 2009) for using 7Be
measurements to estimate erosion rates involve the following
assumptions:
(1) That the deposition of 7Be fallout associated with the erosive
event is spatially uniform. (2) That any pre-existing 7Be present
within the surface soil of the study area is uniformly distributed
across the area at the beginning of the study period. (3) That the
7
Be deposited during the events is rapidly fixed by the soil at its
point of receipt and can therefore only be subsequently
redistributed by movement of soil particles (Walling et al.,
1999, 2009; Schuller et al., 2006).
The modified approach for using 7Be measurements to estimate
erosion and deposition associated with multiple erosive events that
could extend over several months requires additional key factors to
be taken into account to modify the conventional model (see Walling
et al., 2009). These include:
(a) The effect of radioactive decay of 7Be during the study period.
(b) The temporal distribution of 7Be fallout during the period of
investigation to provide a continuous (daily) record of Aref.
(c) The temporal distribution of the relative erosivity index during
the study period.
(d) The potential for other key parameters involved in the
conventional model, such as the relaxation mass depth h0 to
vary through time.
 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153 145

In the modified model used in the present study, the daily Aref
values were derived by estimating the daily 7Be fallout input as the
product of the daily rainfall total and the mean 7Be concentration
in rainfall, Cm, Bq L1. Cm was estimated from the observed change
in the areal activity density at the reference site, Aref, Bq m2,
between the beginning of the study period at time t = 0, and the
end, at time t = T, and the record of daily rainfall, i.e.:
A ðTÞ  Aref ð0Þ expðlTÞ
C m ¼ RrefT ; (2)
0 IðtÞ exp½lðT  tÞ dt
where I, L m2, is the daily rainfall, l, d1, is the decay constant for
7
Be, and T, d, is the number of days in the study period. Where
measurements of Aref were available for additional occasions
within the study period, values of Cm were calculated for the
individual time intervals defined by those measurements dates.
In the modified approach, the temporal distribution of soil
redistribution within the study period is assumed to mirror the
temporal distribution of erosivity. A record of daily erosivity
values, estimated from the rainfall record, can therefore be used to
distribute the estimate of total erosion or deposition within the
study period. Only a value of the relative magnitude of erosivity for
each day is required. In this study, estimates of daily erosivity were
based on the E  I30 index (where E is the total kinetic energy of the
rainfall and I30 is the maximum 30 min rainfall intensity) of the
USLE and RUSLE (see Renard et al., 1997) and were derived from a
record of 30 min rainfall totals for the study site using the
procedure described by Brown and Foster (1987). Dimensionless
values of the relative erosion index for each day were calculated by
dividing the calculated values of E  I30 by the maximum value
occurring during the study period.
When considering a longer period than that associated with the
use of the conventional 7Be approach, it is important to recognize
that the relaxation mass depth h0 of the 7Be depth distribution may
vary through the study period, for example in response to the slow
downward movement of the 7Be input in the soil. Following
Walling et al. (2009), in the present study, the h0 values measured
periodically at the reference site during the study period were used
to synthesize a record of the daily variation of h0 by assuming a
linear trend of h0 with time during each measurement interval.
Further details of the calculations involved in applying the
modified conversion model, which enables 7Be measurements to
be used to estimate soil redistribution over a much longer period
than is possible using the conventional approach, are provided by
Walling et al. (2009).
3. Field and laboratory procedures
The investigations reported in this paper focused on two study
sites about 2 km apart, located within the Forest Research Centre of
the Universidad Austral de Chile (398440 S, 738100 W), near the city of
Valdivia, in south-central Chile. Soils in the research area are Typic
Paleudults (Ultisol) (CIREN, 2001), characterized by deep reddish
brown clayey soils with a final infiltration capacity of 20 cm h1
(Iroumé and Schäfer, 2000; Ulloa, 2007). Information on the mean
bulk density, particle size composition, and the organic C and N
content of the upper 2 cm soil layer at both sites is provided in Table
1. The study area experiences a temperate climate with a mean
annual rainfall of approximately 2300 mm y1 (Huber, 2008). Most
rain falls between late autumn and early spring, and this period
accounts for ca. 70% of the annual total (Huber, 2008). Digital rain
gauges installed at both sites provided a continuous record of
precipitation with a resolution of 0.2 mm which was used to produce
the 30 min and daily rainfall records.
At the first study site, El Monumento (EM), clearcutting of the
Pinus radiata plantation occurred during December 2005 (summer)
and the soil remained covered by forest residues until the
construction of the trash barriers, using the woody harvest residue,
in early March 2006. To investigate the influence of barrier spacing
on the effectiveness of such management practices in reducing soil
erosion and sediment transfer towards the drainage system, the
woody trash was gathered into rows running along the contour
lines, approximately 15 and 30 m apart. Two 7.5 m wide plots, one
15 m long and the other 30 m long were established between the
trash barriers, to assess the influence of barrier spacing on soil
redistribution. Soil redistribution, associated with the period of
heavy rainfall occurring between March 31 and June 21, 2006
(989 mm in 82 d, Table 1, Fig. 1A), was documented using the
modified 7Be approach. The main storm events during this period
occurred on April 11, 18 and 19, and had maximum 30 min
intensities of 19.8, 17.8 and 20.4 mm h1, respectively. Since the
2.5-month period preceding the commencement of the study
period on March 31 had been relatively dry (Fig. 1A) and there was
no evidence of significant erosion during this period, it was
assumed that the 7Be areal activity density was both relatively low
and, more importantly, spatially uniform across the study plots at

Table 1
Soil properties and characteristics of the study periods and sampled plots.

Site El Monumento (EM) San Germán (SG)

Soil characteristics
Bulk density (kg m3) 720  90 560  60
Sand >63 mm (%) 11  1 91
Silt 2–63 mm (%) 62  2 68  2
Clay <2 mm (%) 27  2 23  1
Organic N (%) 0.5  0.1 0.8  0.1
Organic C (%) 7.4  0.3 12  1
C/N 15  1 14  1

Study period March 31–June 21, 2006 April 28–June 25, 2008; April 28–September 24, 2008
Number of days 82 58; 149
Rainfall (mm) 989 664; 2089

Plot characteristics EM15 EM30 SG10A SG10B SG15 SG18

Surface (m2) 113 255 75 75 113 135
Lenght of the slope (m) 15 30 10 10 15 18
Slope (%) 29 30 28 25 38 28
Stumps grid (m  m) 3.0  3.0 3.0  3.0 3.0  3.0 3.0  3.0 3.0  3.0 3.0  3.0
Stumps diameter (m) 0.45 0.50 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
Number of stumps 15 27 9 9 12 15
Number of analyszed points 20 20 14 14 20 24
Grid (m  m) 1.7  2.5 3.3  2.9 1.67  5.12 1.67  1.00 1.67  4.82 1.67  5.11
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
146 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153
Fig. 1. Daily rainfall totals recorded from January 1 to July 1, 2006 at the El
Monumento study site (A) and from January 1 to October 1, 2008 at the San Germán
study site (B). In each diagram the left arrow shows the beginning of the study
period and the others the end of the periods investigated.
the beginning of the study period. The uniformity of the pre-
existing 7Be present within the surface soil at the beginning of the
study period is also supported by the fact that a dense layer of
forest residues covered the plots until the construction of the
barriers by piling up all the residues along contours in early March,
leaving then the soil of the plots bare and exposed to 7Be fallout.
This ensured that the study met requirement (2) identified above.
The two 7.5 m wide plots were oriented parallel to the
dominant flow direction and bounded up- and down-slope by
trash barriers. The key characteristics of the two plots, including
surface area, length, slope, number of stumps and sampled points,
and the spacing of the stumps and sampling grid are presented in
Table 1. To document the post-harvest erosion and soil redistribu-
tion occurring during the period of approximately 3 months
extending from late March 2006 until late June 2006, the study
plots were sampled for 7Be measurement on June 21. Shallow soil
cores (4 cm deep) were collected from two slope transects in each
plot at the intersections of a grid (Table 1), using 10.6 cm diameter
cylindrical plastic core tubes. The soil samples were collected at
points located away from the tree stumps, to avoid possible
unrepresentative values of 7Be areal activity density caused by
rainwater being intercepted by the stumps, resulting in localized
increases in 7Be input to the adjacent soil. At each grid intersection
three soil cores were collected and these were later truncated in
the laboratory to provide samples extending to the depth where
the 7Be activity concentration was estimated to fall below the
detection limit. The three samples obtained from an individual
sampling point were subsequently bulked to be assayed as a single
sample. An adjacent flat area located within the harvested EM
stand that showed no evidence of erosion or deposition was
selected as a reference site. The soil surface at the reference site
was subjected to the same treatment as the surface soil of the study
plots, using the same procedure for piling up the residues which
covered the area, in order to ensure that the initial 7Be areal activity
density measured at the reference site was representative of the
study plots. Two sets of eight cores were collected from this site on
several occasions, using the same plastic core tubes, in order to
determine the reference areal activity density and to characterize
the relaxation mass depth of the 7Be depth distributions. The cores
from the reference site were collected at the beginning of the study
period on March 31, 2006, and at approximately monthly intervals
(April 28, June 2) as well as at the end of the study period (June 21).
In order to define the depth distribution of 7Be, each set of eight
cores was sectioned into 2 mm increments in the laboratory and
the slices representing specific depth increments were bulked for
assay as a single composite sample. A special device designed and
successfully employed by Schuller et al. (2006) was used to extrude
the cores from the sampling tubes and to slice them at 2 mm
increments.
At the second study site, San Germán (SG), clearcutting of the
Eucalyptus nitens plantation occurred during the period December
2007–January 2008 (summer). The soil subsequently remained
covered by a dense woody trash until the construction of trash
barriers in late March 2008. After harvesting and during the
installation of the plots and reference site, the surface soil at SG
was observed to be considerably less consolidated than that at EM,
which is reflected by its lower bulk density (Table 1). In order to
document the effect of trash barrier spacing on soil erosion at this
site, four 7.5 m wide plots with lengths of 10, 15, and 18 m were
established by gathering the woody residue into rows along the
contour lines at the upper and lower boundaries of the plots (see
Table 1). The set of plots included a replicate 10 m plot, but it
proved impossible to replicate the 15 and 18 m plots, due to
constraints on the number of samples that could be analyzed for
7
Be before the activity decreased below the detection limit. All
plots were oriented parallel to the predominant direction of the
water flow and they were bounded up- and down-slope by trash
barriers. In addition, the results obtained from the upper parts of
the 15 and 18 m plots were used as a surrogate for 10 and 15 m
plots without a trash barrier at the lower boundary, in order to
provide further information on the impact of the trash barriers in
reducing net soil loss from the plots and thus sediment delivery
towards the stream network. Further information on the surface
area, length, and gradient of the plots as well as the sampling grid
for the four 7.5 m wide plots is provided in Table 1.
Soil redistribution on the plots at SG was documented for two
extended periods with heavy rainfall, both commencing on April
28, 2008. The first period terminated on June 25, 2008 (664 mm in
58 d, Table 1, Fig. 1B), and the second on September 24, 2008
(2089 mm in 149 d, Table 1, Fig. 1B). The main storm events that
occurred during these periods were recorded on May 17 and July
14, respectively, and these were characterized by maximum
30 min intensities of 20.3 and 21.5 mm h1, respectively. The
record of daily rainfall presented in Fig. 1B indicates that no heavy
rainfall was recorded during the 4 months prior to the
commencement of the study periods on April 28, 2008 and this
again ensured that the areal activity density of 7Be at the beginning
of the study period was both low and spatially uniform across the
study plots.
To document the soil redistribution occurring during the study
period of approximately 5 months, the plots were sampled for 7Be
measurement on June 25 and September 24, 2008. The sampling
procedure used along the slope transects and at the reference site
was identical to that described above for the EM site. An adjacent
flat area located within the harvested SG stand was selected as a
reference site, and this was sampled on April 28, June 25 and
 [(Fig._2)TD$IG]
P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153 147

September 24 to determine the reference areal activity density and

the relaxation mass depth at the beginning and end of the two
observation periods.
As indicated above, the three individual soil cores collected
from each point along the transects established within the study
plots were analyzed as bulk samples. In order to maximize the
gamma counting efficiency, it was necessary to determine the
portion of the core that should be analyzed. If the section analyzed
was too shallow, it would not include the full areal activity density,
and if it was too deep, the overall 7Be mass activity density of the
bulk core would be diluted by incorporating soil containing no 7Be.
The vertical distribution of the 7Be mass activity density observed
at the reference site at the time of sampling was used to determine
the depth down to which the 7Be concentration exceeded the
detection limit (referred to as the penetration depth). Soil from
above this depth, plus an additional 4 mm layer, was analyzed to
allow for the possible vertical extension of the 7Be depth
distribution, as a result of sediment deposition. Additional 4 mm
depth increments were analyzed for sampling points shown by the
7
Be assay to represent areas of aggradation, in order to ensure that
the total areal activity density was represented.
Prior to the measurement of their 7Be activity, the soil samples
were initially air dried and then oven dried for 48 h at 105 8C. After
drying the samples were disaggregated, ground, sieved to <2 mm,
and finally mixed for 25 min to homogenize the 7Be content. The
samples were transferred to 68.1 cm3 of 8.5 cm internal diameter
Petri dishes for gamma analysis. The gamma counting of the
samples collected during 2006 from EM was undertaken in the
Physics Institute, Universidad Austral de Chile, using a Canberra
high-purity Ge detector of 28% relative efficiency. The gamma
spectrometry of the samples collected during 2008 from SG was
undertaken in the Department of Geography, University of Exeter,
using similar low background high-purity Ge detectors. The
detectors were calibrated for the selected geometry (full Petri
dish) and the different soil densities using standards produced by
labeling soil with known amounts of certified mixed gamma-ray
standard solutions. The efficiency for the short-lived 7Be was
Fig. 2. The reduction of the 7Be areal activity density with increasing mass depth, in
estimated by interpolation for the 477.6 keV energy. Count times the surface soil of the El Monumento reference site measured for four sampling
were typically ca. 20 h and were set to provide a measurement dates during 2006 (A), and in the surface soil of the San Germán reference site
precision of better than 10% at the 95% level of confidence. With measured for three sampling dates during 2008 (B). The curves (continuous line)
the measuring geometry employed, the 7Be detection limit for this represent the best-fit exponential relationships based on semilogarithmic
regression analyses. The bars represent the estimated error of each measurement.
measuring time was estimated to be approximately 10 Bq kg1.

4. Results and discussion
4.1. Parameter values
Fig. 2A shows the vertical distribution of the mean 7Be areal
activity density for the two sets of sectioned cores collected from
the reference site EM on four occasions in 2006. Values for the
reference areal activity density and the relaxation mass depth (see
Eq. (1)) are also provided.
The estimates of mean Aref obtained for the soil cores collected
from the reference site in 2006, based on summation of the areal
activity (Bq m2) measurements of the individual 2 mm slices,
were 181  13, 513  30, 646  32 and 1093  55 Bq m2, for the
corresponding sampling dates, respectively. In view of the close
agreement between these measured values of the reference areal
activity density and the equivalent values derived from the linear
regression analysis applied to the 7Be depth distributions, using the
logarithmic form of Eq. (1) (Ln(A) versus x), the latter were used for
the soil redistribution calculations.
Similar procedures for estimating Aref and h0 were employed for
the cores collected from the SG reference site at the beginning and
end of the study periods. The results obtained are summarized in
Fig. 2B. The estimates of mean Aref obtained for the soil cores
collected from the SG reference site on June 25 and September 24,
2008, were slightly lower (i.e. ca. 4–5%) than the equivalent values
predicted by the regression lines. In this situation, the measured
areal activity density values of 1071 and 2678 Bq m2 were used as
the reference inventories for estimating soil redistribution on the
plots. The estimates of the mean 7Be concentration in rainfall, Cm,
obtained for the different time intervals using Eq. (2) and the
measured Aref values were:
March 31–April 28, 2006: 1.40 Bq L1
April 29–June 2, 2006: 1.75 Bq L1
June 3–June 21, 2006: 1.53 Bq L1
April 28–June 25, 2008: 2.25 Bq L1
June 26–September 24, 2008: 3.12 Bq L1
The Cm values listed above are significantly higher in the 2008
than in the 2006 periods. This Cm variation could reflect differences
in solar activity reported for the corresponding study periods
(NGDC, 2010). The relative low 7Be concentration in rainfall
associated with the 2006 study period is consistent with the high
daily sunspot number observed during this period (mean 22 daily
sunspots between April and June 2006 (NGDC, 2010)) as compared
148 [(Fig._3)TD$IG]
P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153

to the relative high Cm values obtained for the 2008 study period
which was characterized by a lower number of sunspots (mean 2
daily sunspots between April and September 2008 (NGDC, 2010)).
These trends are in close agreement with the conclusions of
Gerasopoulos et al. (2003) and Papastefanou and Ioannidou (2004)
concerning the influence of solar activity on 7Be production.
Using these Cm values, the record of the daily reference areal
activity density, Aref, was synthesized for the study periods in 2006
and 2008 and the results are shown in Fig. 3A and B, respectively.
Values of the dimensionless relative daily erosion index for the
study periods in 2006 and 2008 were calculated as reported above
and the results are summarized in Fig. 3A and B, respectively.

4.2. Estimates of soil redistribution on the bounded plots at El

Monumento during the 2006 study period

The estimates of soil redistribution (kg m2) provided by the

modified 7Be method for each sampled point along the study
transects at site EM for the study period in 2006 are summarized in
Table 2. Erosion is represented by negative values and deposition
by positive values and the uncertainty limits relate to the precision
of the gamma assay. Table 2 also provides information on the mean
erosion and deposition associated with the areas evidencing
erosion and deposition, respectively, the estimated fractions of the
plot surface affected by erosion and deposition, and the net erosion
and sediment delivery ratio estimated for each plot.
The results for the study period in 2006, which reflect the
impact of 989 mm of rain falling between March 31 and June 21, Fig. 3. The temporal distribution of daily values of the relative erosivity index based
on estimates of E  I30, and the synthesized record of the daily reference areal
2006, indicate that areas of erosion and deposition are randomly
activity density values produced for the El Monumento study site in 2006 (A) and
distributed along the slope transects, in response to the location of San Germán in 2008 (B).
the remaining tree stumps and the local microtopography. The
effect of the trash barriers in trapping sediment and thereby
inducing deposition towards the bottom of the 15-m plot is clearly points was 3.1  0.3 kg m2. Based on these values, the 82-day period
evident from the data presented in Table 2. of heavy rainfall resulted in a net soil loss from the plot of
On the 15-m plot, soil loss was documented for 15 out of the 20 0.4  0.1 kg m2. The overall sediment delivery ratio for this plot
sampling points, and these points were characterized by a mean was estimated to be 34%.
soil loss of 1.3  0.1 kg m2. Sediment deposition was documented Based on the 7Be measurements obtained for the 30-m plot, soil
at the remaining 5 sampling points, and the mean deposition for these loss occurred at 15 out of the 20 sampled points, and these were

Table 2
Estimates of soil redistribution for the El Monumento study site obtained using the modified 7Be method for the plots bounded at their upper and lower limits by woody trash
barriers during the study period in 2006.

Site El Monumento (EM)

Study period March 31–June 21, 2006
Aref (Bq m2); h0 (kg m2) 1117; 1.59

Plot EM15 EM30

Transect A B A B

2.4  0.4 1.7  0.3 2.0  0.4 0.7  0.3

1.3  0.3 1.0  0.3 0.5  0.3 0.3  0.3
1.1  0.4 0.4  0.3 1.7  0.3 2.6  0.4
1.9  0.4 1.9  0.3 1.0  0.3 0.2  0.3
1.4  0.3 0.7  0.3 0.7  0.3 0.4  0.4
0.1  0.4 2.2  0.4 1.7  0.3 0.1  0.4
0.7  0.3 0.2  0.3 2.1  0.4 0.4  0.4
2.2  0.4 2.4  0.4 1.2  0.3 0.5  0.3
2.9  0.5 0.2  0.3 0.3  0.4 0.3  0.3
9.6  0.7 6.7  0.8 0.3  0.3 2.0  0.4
Eroding zone
Mean erosion (kg m2) 1.3  0.1 1.1  0.1
Fraction of total area 0.78 0.72

Aggrading zone
Mean sedimentation (kg m2) 3.1  0.3 0.2  0.2
Fraction of total area 0.22 0.28

Total area
Net erosion (kg m2) 0.4  0.1 0.75  0.08
Sediment delivery ratio (%) 34 92
 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153 149

characterized by a mean soil loss of 1.1  0.1 kg m2, under
similar slope conditions (Table 1) to that for the 15-m plot. Sediment
deposition was documented at the remaining five sampling points,
and the mean deposition for these points was estimated to be
0.2  0.2 kg m2. For this plot the 989-mm rainfall associated with
the study period resulted in a net soil loss of 0.75  0.08 kg m2 and
the sediment delivery ratio for the plot was estimated to be 92%.
The results presented in Table 2 show that mean erosion is
similar in both plots, but they provide clear evidence of the effect of
extending the spacing of the trash barriers from 15 to 30 m, in
increasing net erosion from 0.4  0.1 to 0.75  0.08 kg m2 and
increasing the sediment delivery ratio for the plot area from 34 to
92%. This contrast primarily reflects a reduction in the magnitude of
the deposition occurring on the 30-m plot. This reduction in
deposition and the associated increase in net erosion and sediment
delivery ratio can be linked to the greater transport capacity of surface
runoff on the longer plot. This increased transport capacity may also
account for the limited deposition at the bottom of the 30-m plot,
which could also result from the runoff penetrating and passing
through the barrier and transporting sediment beyond the plot.
4.3. Estimates of soil redistribution on the bounded plots at San
Germán during the period April 28–June 25, 2008
Having observed the increased net erosion associated with the
30-m plot during the study undertaken at EM in 2006 and taking
account of the fact that the machines used to collect and place
woody residues to create trash barriers have a maximum reach in
opposing directions of about 7.5 m (i.e. a total reach of 15 m), the
distance between the barriers were reduced to 10, 15 and 18 m for
the plots installed at the SG study site during 2008. In addition, the
sampling points were located at a common fixed distance (1.7 m)
along all transects, rather than collecting a fixed number of
samples from each transect, irrespective of its length (Table 1).
The results obtained at the SG plots, during the period
extending from April 28 to June 25, 2008 (664 mm of rainfall in
58 days) are summarized in Table 3 following the same scheme
used for the EM results presented in Table 2.
The estimates of soil redistribution obtained for the two 10-m
plots (SG10A and SG10B, with slopes of 28 and 25%, respectively),
for the 58-day period were very similar. Soil loss was documented
at 11 and 12 out of the 14 points sampled on each plot and the
values of mean soil loss recorded for these points on the two plots
were 1.8  0.1 and 1.9  0.1 kg m2, respectively. Sediment
deposition was documented at two or three of the 14 sampled
points and the values of mean deposition for these points for the two
plots were 5.5  0.5 and 9.4  0.8 kg m2. Based on these values, the
58-day period of heavy rainfall resulted in a net soil loss from the two
plots of 0.9  0.1 and 1.0  0.1 kg m2, respectively. The sediment
delivery ratios for the two plots were estimated to be 63 and 56%,
respectively.
The 7Be measurements obtained from the 15-m plot (38% slope)
indicated that soil loss occurred at 15 out of the 20 sampling points,
and these were characterized by a mean soil loss of 1.7  0.1 kg m2.
Sediment deposition was documented at five of the sampling points
located close to the lower barrier and the mean deposition for these
points was estimated to be 2.7  0.2 kg m2. For this plot the 58-day
period of heavy rainfall resulted in a net soil loss of 0.7  0.1 kg m2
and the sediment delivery ratio was estimated to be 55%.
The estimates of soil redistribution obtained for the 18-m plot
represented a mean soil erosion of 2.1  0.1 kg m2 for the 22 out
of 24 sampling points along the transects experiencing erosion.
Sediment deposition occurred only at the border of the lower trash
barrier, providing a mean value of deposition for these points of
5.2  0.7 kg m2. The net erosion was estimated to be
1.8  0.1 kg m2 and the sediment delivery ratio 88%. The highest
values of mean erosion, net soil loss and sediment delivery ratio
associated with the 664 mm of rainfall falling in about 2 months were
provided by the longer 18 m plot, even though the slope of this plot
(28%) was less than that of the 15-m plot.
The higher net erosion and sediment delivery ratios observed at
SG in 2008 as compared to EM in 2006, for which both the length of

Table 3
Estimates of soil redistribution for the San Germán study site obtained using the modified 7Be method for the plots bounded at their upper and lower limits by woody trash
barriers during the study period April 28–June 25, 2008.

Site San Germán (SG)

Study period April 28–June 25, 2008
Aref (Bq m2); h0 (kg m2) 1071; 2.01

Plot SG10A SG10B SG15 SG18

Transect A B A B A B A B

2.0  0.4 0.5  0.4 2.5  0.4 0.1  0.2 3.3  0.5 2.4  0.4 4.0  0.6 8  1
1.5  0.3 1.5  0.3 1.3  0.3 1.2  0.3 1.0  0.3 1.1  0.3 2.7  0.4 1.1  0.3
0.3  0.3 2.9  0.4 2.5  0.4 1.7  0.3 1.6  0.3 1.4  0.3 1.5  0.3 2.5  0.4
1.4  0.3 5.0  0.7 3.6  0.5 1.1  0.3 2.8  0.4 1.7  0.3 1.8  0.3 0.8  0.3
1.4  0.3 2.1  0.4 1.9  0.3 2.9  0.4 2.0  0.4 0.6  0.3 3.3  0.5 2.0  0.4
1.3  0.3 0.3  0.3 1.6  0.3 2.4  0.4 1.1  0.3 2.1  0.4 2.6  0.4 2.6  0.4
9.5  0.6 6.5  0.5 9.2  0.5 9.5  0.6 3.7  0.5 1.5  0.3 2.5  0.4 0.01  0.27
0.3  0.3 0.9  0.4 3.2  0.5 2.8  0.4
0.6  0.3 0.6  0.4 1.4  0.3 2.8  0.4
10.2  0.5 7.8  0.5 1.5  0.3 1.1  0.3
1.6  0.3 1.0  0.3
5.8  0.4 4.7  0.5
Eroding zone
Mean erosion (kg m2) 1.8  0.1 1.9  0.1 1.7  0.1 2.1  0.1
Fraction of total area 0.88 0.92 0.78 0.95

Aggrading zone
Mean sedimentation (kg m2) 5.5  0.5 9.4  0.8 2.7  0.2 5.2  0.7
Fraction of total area 0.12 0.08 0.22 0.05

Total area
Net erosion (kg m2) 0.9  0.1 1.0  0.1 0.7  0.1 1.8  0.1
Sediment delivery ratio (%) 63 56 55 88
150 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153

the study period and the rainfall amount were 50% greater than for
SG in 2008, could reflect the differences in soil compaction
observed at the two sites after clearcutting, with the compaction
and bulk density at SG being considerably lower than for surface
soil at EM (Table 1). In addition, the silt, and organic carbon and
nitrogen content of the soil at SG was higher, and the clay content
slightly lower, than that for the soil at EM (Table 1). These
differences in soil characteristics could result in conditions that
were more favorable for surface runoff generation and soil
mobilization at SG than at EM.
4.4. Estimates of soil redistribution on the bounded plots at San
Germán during the period April 28–September 24, 2008
The estimates of soil distribution associated with the 2089 mm
of rainfall recorded at the SG study site over the 5-month period
(Table 4), indicate that the effects of barrier spacing on the
magnitude of soil redistribution is of limited importance for
extreme erosive events. The longer period now considered
extended from April 28 to September 24, 2008 and represents
almost the entire autumn and winter wet season. However, the
effect of the trash barriers in trapping sediment and thereby
causing deposition towards the bottom of all plots is clearly
demonstrated by the results presented in Table 4. On each of the
10-m plots (SG10A and SG10B) soil loss was documented at 12 out
of the 14 sampled points, and these points were characterized by
mean soil losses of 8.6  0.4 and 8.7  0.4 kg m2, respectively.
Sediment deposition was documented only at the two points located
at the bottom of the plots, adjacent to the lower barrier, and the
values of mean deposition for these points were 16  2 and
28  2 kg m2. Based on these values, the 149-day period of heavy
rainfall resulted in a net soil loss from the plots of 6.5  0.4 and
5.6  0.3 kg m2, with overall sediment delivery ratios of 83 and
70%, respectively.
The 7Be areal activity density values documented for the 15-m
plot indicate that soil loss occurred at 18 out of the 20 sampled
points, and these were characterized by a mean soil loss of
8.0  0.3 kg m2. Sediment deposition was documented at the
remaining two sampling points located close to the lower barrier and
the value of mean deposition estimated for these points was
19  2 kg m2. For this plot, the 2089 mm of rainfall resulted in a
net soil loss of 6.5  0.3 kg m2, with an overall sediment delivery
ratio of 86%.
Similar estimates of soil redistribution were obtained for the
18-m plot. Here, soil loss was documented at 21 out of the 24
sampled points, and the mean erosion for these points was
7.7  0.3 kg m2. For the remaining 3 points, situated adjacent to
the lower barrier, where deposition occurred, the value of mean
deposition was estimated to be 12  1 kg m2. The estimate of net
erosion for this plot was 5.8  0.3 kg m2 and the sediment delivery
ratio 84%.
When compared with the results presented above for the
shorter period (i.e. April 28–June 25), the results obtained for the
study plots at SG for the extended period encompassing almost the
entire wet season, demonstrate two important features. First, the
barrier spacing or plot length exerts minimal influence on the
magnitude of the high rates of soil redistribution estimated from
the 7Be measurements. Net erosion from the three plots varied
only between 5.6  0.3 and 6.5  0.4 kg m2. Secondly, the
efficiency of the trash barriers was relatively low, with the sediment
delivery ratios for the plots averaging 81%.
During the longer study period at SG, spells of extremely heavy
rainfall occurred in May, July and August 2008. The extreme nature
of the rainfall during these months is clearly demonstrated when
the monthly totals are compared with the values of long-term
(1960–2008) mean monthly rainfall for the same months for the
Meteorological Station at the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh),
located 14 km from the study site (see Fig. 4A). The rainfall
measured in May, July and August 2008 at SG exceeded the mean
monthly rainfall for the corresponding month at UACh by 52, 70
and 109%, respectively. Fig. 4B presents information on the rainfall
recorded at the UACh Meteorological Station from May 1 to August

Table 4
Estimates of soil redistribution for the San Germán study site obtained using the modified 7Be method for the plots bounded at their upper and lower limits by woody trash
barriers during the study period April 28–September 24, 2008.

Site San Germán (SG)

Study period April 28–September 24, 2008
Aref (Bq m2); h0 (kg m2) 2678; 3.04

Plot SG10A SG10B SG15 SG18

Transect A B A B A B A B

15  2 13  2 4.0  0.8 7  1 8  1 5.6  0.9 16  2 15  2

13  2 3.8  0.8 6  1 6  1 3.4  0.8 7  1 7  1 1.5  0.7
5.3  0.9 10  1 7  1 10  1 4.7  0.9 4.1  0.8 15  2 7  1
13  2 7  1 18  2 3.3  0.8 2.1  0.7 9  1 9  1 1.0  1.3
11  1 7.1  1 9  1 13  2 9  1 12  1 5.9  0.9 3.0  0.8
2.7  0.7 7.4  1 9  1 9  1 7  1 8  1 5.9  0.9 1.6  0.7
30  2 21 17  1 39  2 9  1 13  2 7  1 18  2
4.0  0.8 16  2 5.3  0.9 5.0  0.9
5.3  0.9 18  2 4.8  0.9 16  2
12  1 25  2 3.3  0.8 7  1
10  1 5.8  0.9
23  2 24  2
Eroding zone
Mean erosion (kg m2) 8.6  0.4 8.7  0.4 8.0  0.3 7.7  0.3
Fraction of total area 0.92 0.92 0.94 0.91

Aggrading zone
Mean sedimentation (kg m2) 16  2 28  2 19  2 12  1
Fraction of total area 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.09

Total area
Net erosion (kg m2) 6.5  0.4 5.6  0.3 6.5  0.3 5.8  0.3
Sediment delivery ratio (%) 83 70 86 84
[(Fig._4)TD$IG] P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153 151

4.5. Soil redistribution measured at San Germán for the two study
periods in 2008 on plots unbounded by woody trash barriers at the
lower limit

In order to investigate further the role of trash barriers in

Fig. 4. The mean monthly rainfall totals for Universidad Austral de Chile
Meteorological Station, Valdivia (398460 S; 738140 W) for the period 1960–2008
&, and the monthly rainfall registered at the San Germán study site (398440 S;
738100 W) during 2008 & (A). The 49-year rainfall record for the period May 1–
August 31 from 1960 to 2008 at the Universidad Austral de Chile Meteorological
Station (B).
31 each year, over the 49-year period 1960–2008 (Huber, 2008)
and further emphasizes the extreme nature of the high rainfall
received during autumn–winter month of 2008. The amount of
rain received during the May–August period in 2008 (1907 mm)
was only exceeded in 2 out of the 49 years. It can be suggested that
under extreme rainfall the trash barriers are unable to retain the
large amounts of sediment mobilized from the upper parts of the
plot and that much of this sediment passes through the barrier,
increasing the net soil loss and sediment delivery ratio. In this case,
however, it is likely that the amounts of sediment mobilized and
transported were particularly high, due to the unconsolidated
nature of the soil on the study plots.
trapping sediment mobilized from the slopes of the study area at
SG, the results provided for the same two periods in 2008 by plots
of similar surface, length and slope, as previously described, but
with a trash barrier only at the upper border of the plot (i.e.
without a woody trash barrier at the lower limit of the plot) were
compared with the results provided by the bounded plots
described above. For this purpose, the values of areal activity
density documented on the upper parts of the SG 15 and 18 m plots
described in Table 1 were used to provide surrogate information on
soil redistribution on 10 and 15 m plots without a trash barrier at
the lower limit. The results for the plots without a downslope trash
barrier are presented in Table 5 where the designation of the plots
includes the acronym WB, to distinguish these plots without a
downslope trash barrier from those considered previously.
The results for the period extending from April 28 to June 25,
2008 indicate a net soil loss from the 10-m plots without a
downslope trash barrier of 1.8  0.1 and 2.2  0.1 kg m2 and a
sediment delivery ratio for both plots of 100%. The equivalent values
for the 15-m plot without a downslope trash barrier were very
similar, with a net soil loss of 2.2  0.1 kg m2 and a sediment
delivery ratio of 100%.
For the longer period extending from April 28 to September 24,
2008 the net soil loss from the two 10 m plots without a downslope
trash barrier was estimated to be 7.2  0.3 and 7.3  0.3 kg m2,
with an overall sediment delivery ratio of 100 and 99%, respectively.
For the 15-m plot the net soil loss was 7.2  0.3 kg m2 and the
sediment delivery ratio 99%.
Comparison of the above results for the surrogate plots without
a trash barrier at their lower boundary with those for the bounded
plots presented previously provides clear evidence of the effects of
the downslope trash barrier in reducing net soil loss during the
shorter study period covering the autumn of 2008. In this case the
sediment delivery ratios associated with the plots with a trash
barrier at the lower boundary are characterized by 55–63% of those
documented for the plots without trash barrier at the lower
boundary. However, when the longer period, which includes the
winter period of heavy rainfall in July and August 2008, is
considered, the reduction is greatly reduced, with the values for
the bounded plots ranging between 70 and 86% of those for the
plots without a trash barrier at their lower boundary. These results
again emphasize that the effectiveness of the trash barriers is
greatly reduced during periods with very high rainfall.

Table 5
Estimates of soil redistribution for the San Germán study site obtained using the modified 7Be method for plots unbounded at their lower border by woody trash barriers
during the two study periods in 2008.

Site San Germán

Study period April 28–June 25, 2008 April 28–September 24, 2008
Aref (Bq m2); h0 (kg m2) 1071; 2.01 2678; 3.04

Plot SG10WB-A SG10WB-B SG15-WB SG10WB-A SG10WB-B SG15-WB

Eroding zone
Mean erosion (kg m2) 1.8  0.1 2.2  0.1 2.2  0.1 7.2  0.3 8.0  0.4 7.6  0.3
Fraction of total area 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.92 0.95

Aggrading zone
Mean sedimentation (kg m2) 1.0  1.3 1.0  1.3
Fraction of total area 0.08 0.05

Total area
Net erosion (kg m2) 1.8  0.1 2.2  0.1 2.2  0.1 7.2  0.3 7.3  0.3 7.2  0.3
Sediment delivery ratio (%) 100 100 100 100 99 99
152 P. Schuller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 110 (2010) 143–153
5. Conclusions
Under the normal climatic conditions characterizing the study
sites in south-central Chile, the mean erosion and net soil loss
documented from 25 to 38% slopes for trash barrier spacings of 10
and 15 m are of similar magnitude. Considering that barrier
spacing may need to reflect operational constraints imposed by the
available equipment and that machines used locally to collect and
place woody residues have a maximum reach of 7.5 m in opposite
directions, implementation of a 15-m barrier spacing is proposed.
When compared with a 10-m spacing, the 15-m spacing would
have the advantage of increasing the area available for the new
plantation.
Under extreme rainfall and unconsolidated soil conditions, the
results show that the woody trash barriers are unable to retain all
the sediments mobilized from the upper part of the slope and that
much of this sediment passes through the barrier, increasing the
net soil loss and sediment delivery ratio. Under this situation the
spacing between woody trash barriers exerts minimal influence on
the high amounts of soil redistribution and, additionally, on the
efficiency of the barriers in trapping sediment. Nevertheless, for
the same extreme rainfall situation and soil characteristics, but in
the absence of a barrier installed at the inferior border of the plots,
the net erosion increased by about 11% and the sediment delivery
ratio by about 15% for a 15-m barrier spacing. This demonstrates
that trash barriers can still have some effect in reducing net soil
loss and sediment delivery to watercourses, even under conditions
of extreme rainfall.
Because there is need for woody trash barriers to maintain their
efficiency during extreme erosive events, there is a need to direct
attention to improving their design and maximizing their trapping
efficiency, based on cost-efficiency criteria. Further investigation
and advice to forest companies on the construction of trash
barriers that maintain their sediment trapping efficiency under
conditions of high runoff are needed to meet this requirement.
Additionally, it can be suggested that only coarse debris should be
removed from the harvested soil surface and piled up along
barriers, whilst the smaller debris should be left in situ to protect
the surface and reduce soil erosion from the area between barriers.
The use of the modified 7Be conversion model to document soil
redistribution over extended periods offers important advantages
over the conventional 7Be approach and over more traditional
methods, such as erosion plots and the use of erosion pins. The
modified 7Be method provides the possibility of extending the
timeframe of the conventional approach to using 7Be measure-
ments to estimate erosion rates from a short period of heavy
rainfall, to a longer period of rainfall extending over several
months. A clear advantage over erosion plots is the ability to
provide spatially distributed information on erosion and deposi-
tion within the study site as well as information on gross and net
soil loss and the sediment delivery ratio, rather than only an
estimate of the net soil loss from the overall plot. An important
advantage over the use of erosion pins to collect spatially
distributed data is the fact that the 7Be method provides average
values of soil loss or gain for the surface area represented by the
cross-section of the sampling cores (three cores, 265 cm2), rather
than the essentially point value provided by a pin. The results are
therefore less influenced by microtopography and the problems
associated with the installation and presence of the pin influencing
the results obtained are avoided.
Acknowledgements
The work reported in this paper was undertaken as part of
research projects FONDECYT 1060119, 7060075, 7070073,
7080041, 1090574 and DID-UACh S-2006-12. It also represents
a contribution to IAEA CRP D1-50-08, through contracts CHI-12321
and UK-12094. The support provided by the Centro Experimental
Forestal, Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), and the Department
of Geography, University of Exeter, UK, are gratefully acknowl-
edged. The support of the co-authors Andrés Iroumé and Desmond
Walling in ensuring the continuation of the research reported after
the fire in late 2007 which totally destroyed the Science Faculty,
UACh, including the Instituto de Fı́sica and the Laboratory where
the 7Be measurements were performed and the results analyzed is
gratefully acknowledged. Andrés Iroumé hosted the research
group in the Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Recursos Naturales,
UACh, for about 1 year and Desmond Walling arranged for the 7Be
analyses to be undertaken at the University of Exeter and coped
with the problems associated with the limited timeframe for
sample analysis, caused by the short half-life of 7Be. The valuable
comments on the original manuscript provided by three anony-
mous referees and the editor greatly benefited this paper and are
gratefully acknowledged.
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