Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2005, 101, 421-433. © Perceptual and Motor Skills 2005 CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES FOR THREE VISUAL MEMORY TASKS IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN *? FH. SANTOS C.B. MELLO, 0. F. A. BUENO. Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP Universidade Federal de Sto Pauto G, DELLATOLAS Fastitut National de La Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Summary.—Norms for three visnal memory tasks, including Corsi’s block tapping test and the BEM 144 complex figutes and visual recognition, were developed for neu- ropsychological assessment in Brazilian children. The tasks were measured in 127 chil- dren ages 7 to 10 years from rural and urban areas of the States of Sd0 Paulo and Mi- nas Gerais, Analysis indicated age-related but not sex-related differences. A cross-cul- tural effect was observed in relation to copying and recall of Complex pictures. Different performances between rural and urban children were noted, In many countries tests of memory in children have been developed for use in educational and clinical contexts, for example, in aiding diagnoses of several learning difficulties (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993). In recent years, the number of Brazilian studies concerned with providing adequate norma- tive information for paediatric neuropsychological assessments increased (e.g., Brito, Alfradique, Pereira, Porto, & Santos, 1998; Pompéia, Miranda, & Bue- no, 2001; Santos & Bueno, 2003). However, norms for visual memory tasks are limited. Different paradigms have shown that visual memory is already present in the first days of life. Then complex characteristics such as sensitivity to context develop (Cohen & Gelber, 1975; Field, Cohen, Garcia, & Green- berg, 1984; Fagan, 1990; Walton, Bower, & Bower, 1992) and memorisation processes, which are more global than analytic (Mehler, 1982). Cotsi’s block-tapping task plays a role in spatial memory span (Milner, 1971) and visuospatial short-term memory (Kessels, van Zandvoort, Postma, Kappelle, & de Haan, 2000). Visuospatial short-term memory performance shows a slow and constant ‘improvement between 5 and 11 to 13 years, when adult performance is achieved (e.g., Logie & Pearson, 1997; Nichelli, ‘Financial support from Assaciacio Fundo ¢ Incentvo a Pricofarmacologia (AEP). Rs cially. thank, parents and ckildren, and acknowledge the cooperation of the Fundacio_ ve P and Orgio. Municipal de Educasiio de Brazépolis/MG. We also thank anonymous reviewers for useful remarks, “Address correspondence to Dr. Flavia Heloisa Dos Santos, Universidade Estadual Paulisea, 3P/Assis, Department of Experimental Psychology, Avenida Dom Anrénio 2100, 19806- 500, Assis SP, Brazil or e-mail Glaviahstassisnesp bri422 F. H. SANTOS, ET AL. Bulgheroni, & Riva, 2001). The average span increases by 4.1 to 5.6 blocks between 7 and 15 years {Issacs & Vargha-Khadem, 1989). Children with Williams Syndrome show impaired scores (Jartold, Baddeley, & Hewes, 1999) as do patients with right hemisphere lesions (Kessels, e¢ al., 2000). Thus, these studies indicate that even during, development visuospatial mem- ory depends on the integrity of the nondominant hemisphere so the task is sensitive to detect neuropsychological differences. Performance on this task ight also be sex-related as boys’ perform better (Orsini, Schiappa, & Grossi, 1981). - ‘Visuomotor skill development has been considered a fundamental com- ponent of a child’s academic readiness and success (Lehman & Breen, 1982). Tt develops gradually and progressively (Gesell, 1948). Copying a complex figure is a suitable task for following chronological and cognitive develop- ment (Jambaqué, Dellatolas, Dulac, & Signoret, 1991). It demands visual analysis, namely, location, form, and orientation of every element, as well as programming and re-organising components based on their relations (Mati- Zissi & Zafitopoulou, 2003). Jambaqué, Dellatolas, Dulac, Ponsot, and Sig- notet (1993) found children with partial epilepsy in the right hemisphere to be impaired in the recall of complex figures, suggesting this type of memory relies on the nonverbal hemisphere. Karapetsas and Kantas (1991) and Kara- petsas and Vlachos (1997) used the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure to inves- tigate visuomotor skills development and the influence of factors in perfor- mance such as sex and handedness, They observed developmental changes in that at age 10 adult performance is reached. Jambaqué, Dellatolas, and Nonnez (1993) validated the tests for recog- nition of visual abstract patterns and recall of a complex figure (Fig. 1) in L Fic. i. Complex picture of the BEM 144 (Signoret, 1991)VISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 423 348 French children of both sexes, ages 4 to 7 years. These tasks are part of the BEM 144--Memory Efficiency Battery (Signoret, 1991). Their objectives were to confirm the early capacities of visual recognition and to consolidate an assessment of visual memory in the young child. Recognition tasks indicate that episodic visual memory shows few changes over age in comparison to recall tasks (Jambaqué, ef al, 1991). Vi- sual recognition of abstract patterns has shown validity in clinical neuropsy- chology for detecting difficulties in children with epilepsy of the temporal lobe in the right hemisphere (Jambaqué, e¢ al., 1991; Jambaqué, Dellatolas, Dulac, Ponsot, & Signoret, 1993). Recently, this task was assessed in illiter- ate adults, who performed less well than some preschoolers (Dellatolas, Bra- ga, Souza, Filho, Queiroz, & Deloche, 2003). It signaled the value of formal education in development of episodic visual memory and cognitive limita- tions related to the absence of learning process. It is known that environmental and sociocultural background influences neuropsychological test responses (Orsini, et al., 1981; Brito, ef al., 1998; Dellatolas, von Aster, Braga, Meier, & Deloche, 2000; Pompéia, et al., 2001; Santos & Bueno, 2003). Therefore, local developmental norms have been im- portant in accounting for cultural differences. In Brazil attending first grade was expected to occur at age 7 and later at age 6. Most difficulties of visuospatial memory are not noticed before ele- mentary school, which raises the necessity of normative data for school chil- dren. ‘The academic program is the same for all government urban schools, but access to school for children from rural areas might occur later. In previous studies, the investigation of Brazilian children’s perfor- mance on semantic verbal fluency indicated urban children generated more exemplars than rural children. The difference was not related to sex, mater- nal education, and economic status (Santos, Mello, Xavier, & Bueno, 2001). In contrast, when the sample was compared on other measures of verbal skill—phonological memory, neither differences between rural and urban children nor sex were found (Santos & Bueno, 2003). In both cases, perfor- mance was more dependent on schooling than age. However, it is not clear whether nonverbal skills, such as visual memory, support the culwural differ- ences of semantic verbal fluency. ‘The present objective was to investigate age, sex, and cultural differ- ences on three visual memory tasks, Corsi’s block-tapping test, the BEM 144 complex figure, and visual recognition of abstract patterns of rural and urban children 7 to 10 years of age who lived in the states of Sdo Paulo and Minas Gerais States. Merxtop Prior to testing, informed written consent for both studies was obtained424 F. H, SANTOS, ET AL. from the children’s parents. It was explained to each child that participation could be discontinued at any time. The Ethics Committee of Universidade de Sao Paulo-USP gave approval for the study.- Participants ‘The participants were 127 children, 64 boys and 63 girls, ages 7 (23.6%), 8 (26.0%), 9 (25.2%), and 10 (25.2%) years. The children were from a tural region in the State of Minas Gerais (Rural, #=42), from an ur- ban area from the same region of Minas Gerais (Urban/MG, 7=42), and from the city of Sao Paulo, SP (Urban/SP, # = 43). The sample was varied in ethnic and economic status. The children, who were matched for age, sex, and mean IQ, were re- cruited in public schools from Grades 1 to 4. Further, the inclusion criteri- on was normal intellectual level as assessed by the Raven Coloured Matrices for school children (percentiles over 50). The mean percentile was 66.9 (SD =19.3) on the Raven Matrices. Children with history of frequent reproof and children with subnormal or noncorrected vision were not included in the study. Procedure A neuropsychologist (CBM or FHS) tested each child individually. The assessment was carried out at the child’s school in a quiet room. Tests were administered in a single session and in randomised order. Measures All children were administered four cognitive tasks. Corsi’s Block-tapping Test (Milner, 1971).-In this adapted version 10 blue cubes of the same size 3 x3 x 3) were irregularly arranged over a white wooden board (28x22 cm). The sides of the cubes facing the examiner were numbered from 1 to 10. The examiner tapped a certain number of blocks (minimum 2; maximum 8) in a particular sequence in the Corsi For- ward Span (Corsi Forward), and the child was required to tap out the same pattern immediately. In the Corsi Backward Span (Corsi Backward), the child had to repeat the sequence in reverse order. ‘Two sequences of cach se- ties were performed, the score being the maximum number of blocks per- formed in forward and in backward order. The sequences and procedures ‘were taken from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale-Revised (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1986). Forward and backward order scores were gener- ated, each span corresponding to the bighest number of blocks tapped cor- rectly in one of two trials. The Corsi Block-tapping Test was considered’ a span task, ie., the longest sequence repeated correctly by the child in both forward and backward orders. Visual Recognition of Abstract Patterns (Signoret, 1991) —The examiner presented to the child 24 nonsense figures at the rate of 1 per 5 sec. DuringVISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 425 presentation the child is asked not to speak but only to pay attention to the stimulus. Afterwards, on a recognition task the child was asked to point out the previously seen nonsense figure presented with three disiractors, ie., figures not seen, Each recognition attempt was scored 1 point when the sub- jects pointed to the correct nonsense figure and 0 when a distractor was pointed out (Jambaqué, ef a/., 1991; Dellatolas, et a/., 2003). Copy of the Complex Picture of the BEM 144 (Signoret, 1991).—Each child was seated at a table and presented the BEM Complex Picture. Each child was given a No, 2 pencil and a shect of 210- x 290-mm white paper and requested to copy the figure as best he could. The order in which each child copied every item was noted on his protocol sheet. The child was al- * lowed 1 min. to copy the complex picture from the model. After thar, the copying sheet was removed. Recall of the Complex Picture of the BEM 144 (Signoret, 1991)—Tmme- diately after copying the figure, the child was asked to reproduce the figure as faithfully as possible without the model. The task had no time restriction for execution. Both copying and reproduction were carried out without us- ing an eraser rubber or a ruler. Normative data are presented separately for copying and reproduction, since the two tasks tap different skills, respec- tively, constructive function and visual memory. ‘The picture coding was performed according to Signoret’s approach (1991). For each element identified, one point was given if its size (0.5) and its disposition (0.5) were correct. A maximum of 12 points could be pena- lised for imperfections in the design. In the analysis of the reproduction of the picture, the following were taken into account: size of the drawing (small, medium, and big), position of the reproduction in the sheet (left, half, and right), graphic reproduction of each one of the geometric pictures (square, triangle, base of the triangle, and rectangle) coded in four classes: (1) reproduction is absent or not recognisable, (2) recognisable but incom- plete, (3) complete but incorrect, and, (4) correct reproduction. The reproduction position on the sheet (left, middle, and right} was de- fined by the placement of the triangle in relation to the middle line of the sheet in the vertical plane. The triangle must be completely dislocated from this line to the left or right side. The tasks were scored for number of cor- rect responses. Statistical Analysis Analysis was performed using SAS software on data from both urban regions (Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais States) which were pooled, since ex- ploratory analyses of variance carried out for all tasks with three groups (ur- ban from Sao Paulo, rural from Minas Gerais, and urban from Minas Ge- tais) showed no differences between the two urban regions. The analyses of variance were carried out for all tasks. In all cases, the426 F.H. SANTOS, ET AL. between-subject factors were two groups (rural and urban), four age groups (from 7 to 10 years), and two sex groups (male and female). Logistic regres- sion analyses wete cattied ont on scored coping-of complex figures to inves- tigate specific characteristics of the figure, ie., position and presence or ab- sence of the main elements of the geometric figure. Correlations were calculated by the Pearson product-moment method among the six variables (all tests). The Duncan post boc test was used with a significant alpha level of p $.05. Resuirs On the Corsi Block tapping Test, analyses of variance for the total score on Corsi Forward and Backward Spans were carried out. Neither a sex nor a group effect was found. An age effect was observed on the Backward Spat. Fy,,=9.58, p<.0001) in that 7- and 8-yr.-old children performed worse than 9- and 10-yr-old children. For the Forward Span (Fy1:5=2.35, P <.076) only a nonstatistically significant performance with age was observed. No interaction was found (see Table 1). This table also shows the data ob- tained for the Visual Recognition of Abstract Patterns. No differences were found by sex or rural/urban regions; however, an age effect (Fy =5.25, P= 002) was obtained. The 7- and 8-yr-olds achieved lower means than 9-yr.- old children, No interaction was observed. “TABLE 1 ‘Mrans anp Staxbarp Deviations For Corsi Forwarp aNp BacKWwaRp Spans AND ‘Visuat. Recognition OF Austeact Parrenns ay Ar (N= 127} Measure M SD Mdn Range Corsi Block-tapping Test Forward Span Age 7 421 04 4 33 Age 8 457 0.90 5 63 Age 9 4.78 0.94 5 3 Age 10 4ad 0.62 45 33 Backward Span Age? 3.20 0.86 3 52 Age 8 3.21 0.86 3 52 Age 9 4.06 11 4 R Age 10 4.19 0.90 4 62 Visual Recognition Age 7 TST 270 18 23-11 Age 8 17.45 3.28 18 24d Age 9 20.12 3.25 at 24-10 Age 10 19.00 3.23 1» 2412 In Table 2 are means and SDs for the copying and recall tasks of the complex figure by age in rural and urban groups, respectively. A rural/urban effect was found (E,,.,=19.83, p<.0001), showing that children from the ru-VISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 427 ral region performed Jower than children from the urban settings, Younger children performed less well than their older counterparts (Fyn =4.64, p< .004). No sex effect and no interaction were found. The size of the copy was measured on a horizontal line from the left side of the square to the right side of the rectangle. Only an age effect was obsetved (F,.,=3.78, p<.01) as children age 8 drew smaller figures than children ages 9 and 10 years. Means and standard deviations are shown in ‘Table 2. TABLE 2 ‘Muans AND Stanparo Deviations For Comane ap Rucatt, of ComPLex Picton: by AcE oF Runa AND Uraan Groups Measure M sD Mdn Range. Rural Group (= 40) Copy Age 7 7.85 1.23 78 100-60 Age 8 8.27 143 8 10.0-6.0 Age 9 8.25 1.30 8 100-55 Age 10 9.01 118 85 12.0-8.0 Recall Age 7 5.95 24 6 952.5 Age 8 6.95 147 7 8545 Age 9 123 174 75 95-40 Age 10 691 170 65 95-40 Urban Group (#=85) Copy Age7 9.22 114 9 1207.5 Age 8 8.86 1.27 9 10.5-6.0 Age 9 955 137 9 120-80 Age 10 10.00 0.99 10 120-80 Recall Age 7 750 15 75 10.0-46.0 Age 8 7.02 157 65 1005.0 Age 9 154 153 7 105-6.0 Age 10 8.26 1.36 9 100-55 In Recall of the Complex Figure, effects for sex and age were not found. A rural/urban effect was obtained (Fya,=7.29, p-<.008) in that chil- dren from rural areas performed more poorly than those children from urban areas (see Table 3). Logistic regression analyses for the categorical variables such as position and presence of geometric figures were carried out for copying of complex figures. The drawing position indicated the child’s production type. The drawing may be placed from the left to right side of the paper, vice versa, or from the centre. The position percentages were left (31.5%), middle (60.6%), and right (7.9%), Position was sex-related (y?=4,98, p= 03), The428 FE. H. SANTOS, ET AL. ‘TABLE 3 MraNs ax Sranparp Deviarions For Size ox Come.ex Prcrvae on Figure Copyine Tass py Age (N= 127) Group M SD Age? 1779 34 Age 8 16.63 424 Age? 18.93 337 Age 10 19.61 3.7L left position was more frequent by boys (40.6%) than by girls (22.2%). Dif ferences related to rural/urban region or age were not observed. Presence of the four main elements of the figure is related to the skill of discriminating geometric forms. Table 4 shows the percentage of correct drawings of geometric forms in the copying of Complex Figures. Logistic re- gression indicated both rural/urban and age effects. Urban children produced more correct geometric forms than rural children. “TABLE 4 Peackwmes or Correct Gromernc Forms By Acr-crour tn Rupat anp Urean Groups 1” Square Triangle Base Rectangle Raral Group Age7 0 190 70.0 30.0 100 Age 8 ul 455 727 18.2 405 Age 9 10 30.0 90.0 30.0 100.0 Age 10 ul 5 909 364 100.0 Total a2 333 809 333 29 Urban Group Age 7 20 65.0 90.0 33.0 700 Age 8 22 713 955 54.6 864 Age 9 2 50.0 909 50.0 58.1 Age 10 21 905 92 661 81.0 Total 89 70.6 929 365 TAL Tocal 127 383 89.0 488 68 ‘The coefficients of the logistic regression were for square OR=4.9; 95% Confidence Limits 2.2 and 11.1 (p<.0001); for triangle OR=3.1, 0.98 and 9.6 (p=.05); for base OR=2.6, 1.2 and 5.6 (p=.02), and rectangle OR= 4.0; 1.8 and 9.1 (p=.0008). As for an age effect, significance was obtained only for the rectangle—95% CI OR=0.63; 0.44 and 0.89 (p=.01) in contrast to the square (p~.07). The significant interaction between age and rural/ur- ban region observed for the rectangle indicated that children age 7 from rural areas draw this geometric form less correctly than age 7 children from urban areas, but in contrast, for the age 9- and 10-yr.-old categories the op- posite was observed.VISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 429 Pearson correlations were calculated among all variables. These values and respective degrees of freedom (df) are suoumarised in Table 5. TABLE 5 Pearson Propuct-MOMENT Coerzations Amonc Tasks (N= 126) Measure 1 2 3 4 3 6 Complex Picture 1. Copy 2. Recall Alt Corsi Block-tapping Test 3. Forward Span 13 17 4. Backward Span 36+ 28t It 5. Visual Recognition of Abstract Patterns 09 14 06 27* 6. Raven Coloured Matrices 19 19 19 23" 23% Note.—df= 124. *p<.01. tp<.001 Discussion ‘The goal of this study was to investigate differences between rural and urban children and to present preliminary developmental normative data for three visual memory tasks in Brazilian children ages 7 to 10 years. Scores for copying complex figures, which might be considered a measure of construc- tive function (Lezak, 1995), were included. Performance was age-related in all tasks, except when a complex pic- ture was concerned, for instance, comparing Corsi backwards performance at age 7 (3.27 + 0.86) and age 10 (4.19 £0.90). This increase in an older age group is consistent with previous reports in at least two other languages (Is- sacs & Vargha-Khadem, 1989; Logie & Pearson, 1997; Nichelli, e a/., 2001). The Visual Recognition of Abstract Pattems has shown progressive im- provement by age in the French children (Jambaqué, e al., 1991). Those authors found some children age 6 achieved the maximum score (24 points). Brazilian children have shown, the same profile; however, the younger sub- jects did not score more than 20 at age 7. Brazilian children are less commonly in preschools between ages 3 and 6 than the French children (Dellatolas, ¢¢ al., 2000). There is evidence that under stimulation of school- ing young children can perform very high on this task (Jambaqué, Dellato- Jas, Dulac, Ponsot, & Signoret, 1993; Jambaqué, Dellatolas, & Nonnez, 1993). According to Dellatolas, e# al. (2003), some stimuli of the Visual Rec- ognition of Abstract Patterns (Signoret, 1991) resemble preschool drawings. ‘Thus, preschool children might take advantage of this scribbling-drawing ex- petience to perform better. Another point to be considered is that the chil- dren, mainly the younger ones, tended to name the figures, even whea they were instructed not to speak during the presentation of the stimuli. There- fore, across age groups the increase suggests that their information included both visual and verbal codes.430 F. H. SANTOS, ET AL. In general, the results indicated that age 9 is a developmental mark for the skills necessary to perform these visual memory tasks, since younger chil- dren performed lower than their older peers. In fact, the improvement in visuomotor ability with age is presented until age 10 when a plateau, ie., the adult scores, follows (Karapetsas & Vlachos, 1997). Then, the children aban- don a piecemeal approach and use a more configurational one. They then produce and place the figure details more accurately (Karapetsas & Kantas, 1991; Karapetsas & Vlachos, 1997). In contrast, younger children from 5 to 8 years old distinguish the elements of complex figures but did not organise and connect them in space (Karapetsas & Kantas, 1991), In our study, age also influenced the qualitative aspects of copying the complex figure, which was characterised by smaller drawings in the younger cohort. However, per- formance on the present visual memory tasks was not related to sex, but sex interacted with age and group in the recall of complex figure. Moreover, in the copying task, boys drew on the left side of the paper. Orsini, e¢ af, (1981) found sex differences in Italian children on the Corsi Forward Test, boys ages 9 to 10 (460+ 0.67) performed better than girls (4.34 + 0.57). Despite subtle changes in the task, for Brazilian children age 9, there were very similar scores between boys (4.62 +0.84) and girls (4.41 £0.75) in comparison to those for Italian children. Clearly, at this age, cross-culiural differences are not evident, since rural, urban, ‘Brazilian vs Italian’ scored similarly. On Visual Recognition Of Abstract Patterns, young French children did not show differences by sex (Jambaqué, Dellatolas, Dulac, Ponsot, & Signo- ret, 1993). But in another study, Jambaqué, Dellatolas, and Nonnez (1993) reported that boys, from both controls and children with epilepsy, had high- et visual memory scores than gitls. The present sample did not show sex dif- ferences even on verbal short-term memory tasks (Santos & Bueno, 2003). Another intriguing observation was that complex figures were the only task to detect differences between children from urban and rural areas, with a lower mean for the latter group. A possible explanation for this difference is school-grade related. Exploratory analyses indicated that both school grade and age group are strongly correlated. In the present sample, 70% of the children ate in the grade expected for their age, 10% present possibly hav- ing a small school delay, and 20% are probably in advanced placement. The delay or advance is related to rural and urban regions: delay is more fre- quent in rural areas whilst advance predominates in urban ones. ‘The rural school visited used the same academic program and books as the urban school (both from the same city in Minas Gerais State), and the number of students per room was similar. The delay may not be explained by the intellectual capacity of the child because the inclusion criterion was a percentile over 50 on the Raven test. We considered the regional difficultiesVISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 4BL of accessing the school at the appropriate age. For instance Santos, et al. (2001) found younger children in the same grade, eg. Grade 1 at age 7, performing better than older children (Grade 1 at age 8). It is possible, then, that younger children develop more flexibility on task-processing when stimulated by formal schooling during the earlier year. Given that the complex figure is a pencil-and-paper task, it may be more dependent on literacy experience. It is then possible for a rural child who experiences a delay in school entrance to have greater difficulty per- forming a drawing without a model. Therefore, in that case, environmental background was not associated with the performance difference, but early access to school must be taken into consideration. Children from rural areas usually do not attend preschool. In contrast, urban children generally attend preschool and kindergarten. They therefore have more readiness to manipulate stimuli with pedagogical purposes. Given that, by and large, urban parents have been exposed to more years of school- ing, in contrast with those in a rural setting, they tend to stimulate early drawing and reading in their children. In general, drawing correct geometric forms was not age-related. ‘The highest percentage of correct production was observed for triangles. Thus, drawing triangles, squares, and bases are easy tasks for children from 7 to 10 years old. On the other hand, rectangle drawing shows a developmental tnark in that older children perform better than younger ones, As for the cural/urban difference in drawing geometric forms, it is nec- essary to consider some qualitative aspects. Initially, every geometric form was classified as correct or incorrect or incomplete or absent. The procedure was similar to that used by Jambaqué, Dellatolas, Dulac, Ponsot, and Signo- ret (1993; Jambaqué, Dellatolas, & Nonnez, 1993), Qualitatively, the ‘incom- plete’ response of rectangle was observed in seven rural and six urban chil- dren, while the ‘incorrect’ response was similar in both groups, i.e, 16 from cach group. Then both groups had the same difficulty performing this task. Logistic regression, performed for correct and incorrect responses, suggested a raral/usban group effect. Considering that the rural sample was smaller, the significance might be due’ to individual differences. Since the difficulties were initially balanced in both groups, by chance, the rural sample may have included more outliners. Correlations indicated that these visual memory tasks are related to vi- sual reasoning, since Raven scores wete correlated with all task scores. As expected, the highest correlation was between tasks with similar instructions, such the Corsi Forward and Backward Spans and copying and recall of com- plex figures (r=.41, in both cases). Corsi Forward Span was less daunting than Corsi Backward Span, whereas the recall of complex figure was more difficult than copying. The Corsi Backward Span was also correlated with432 F. H. SANTOS, ET AL. scores on all visual tasks. This means that some skill or process necessary to perform the Corsi Backward Span was more common than that for the other tests. 7 ‘In summary, age effect was found for Corsi Forward Span, Visual Rec- opnition of Abstract Patterns, and copy of the complex figure in that the alder group performed better than the younger. The only sex difference was for drawing position in the copying of the complex figure; boys produced the figure mote frequently on the left side of the paper. The complex figure_-copy and recall—was sensitive for cultural differences in that the tu- ral group performed worse than the urban, It was related to school achieve- ment, some children from the rural area had later access to school and con- sequently a small school delay. This result hallmarks the relevance of early schooling stimulation in developing children’s readiness to use papet-and- pencil tasks as well as other academic activities. REFERENCES, Buro, G. N. ©., Atomaprous, G. M.N., Pessina, C. C. S., Porto, C. M. B, & Santos, ‘ER. 11998)" Developmental norms for eight instruments used in the neuropsychological as- Sesompent in chitdven: studies in Brazil Brazilian Journal of Medical Biologredl Research, 31, 399-412. Conny, 1, By, &Gatoer, E.R. (1975) Infant visual memory. In L. B, Cohen & P. Salapatek ‘Eds.), Infant reception frame sensation to cognition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pp. 347-403. DewiaTo1as, G., Braca, L. W, Souza, LN. Fiano, G. Ny Qustnoz, F., &Derocis, G, (2003) Cognitive consequences of eatly phase of literacy. journal of International Newropsychol- ony ard Sociology, 9, 171-782. Dauatoras, G., von ASTER, M., Baaca, I, W, Maren, M., & Dexocu, G. (2000) Number pro- ‘cessing and mental calculation in children aged 7 to 10 years: a wanscultural comparison. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, suppl. 2), 102-110. Facan, J. F (1990) The paired comparison paradigm and infant intelligence. Annals of the lou York Academie Seiences, 608, 337 364. een Firtp, T. M., Conpy, D., Garcra, R, & GREENBERG, R. (1984) Mother stranger face discrimina- ‘ion by newborn. Infant Bebavior and Development, 7, 19-25. Gnnmacons, §. B, éeBuopatse A D. (0993) Working memory and language, ve, UK! Edt um. Greets, A, (1948) Studies in child development. New York: Harper & Row. Isscs, EB, &eVanor Kinane, F (1988) Differential course of developmental components of ‘spatial and verbal memory span: normative study. Brizsb Journal of Developmental Psy- chology, 7, 377-380. . Jromagui, ly Dmasrosas, G, Dunas, O. Porson... &eStovonsr: JL. (1993), Verbal and vi ‘ual memory impaitment in children with epilepsy. Newropsychologia, 31, 1321-1337. Jawnagué, [, Deutarouas, G., Derac, On, & Sicsoner, J. 1. (1991) Validation de la batterie elficience mnésique BEM 144 chez lenfant cage scolaire, Approche Neuropsychologique Des Apprentasages Chez L’enfant, 3, 129-135. Jaunagué, L, Dastatoras, G., &Nowinz, G, (1993) Reconnaissance et rappel de figures chez Te jeune enfant. “pproche Newropsychologique Des Apprenuissages Chex L enfant, , 13-20. Jasrou, C., Baopauny, A. D,, &eHewss, A, K. (1999) _Dissociating working memory: evidence from Down's and Willins Syndrome, Newropsychologia, 37, 637-651 Kanaversas, A. B., & Kans, A. (1991) Visuomotor otganization in the child: a neuropsycho- fopical approach. Perceptiad and Motor Seills, 72, 211-217. Kanaortsas, AB, &Viacuos, F M, (1997) Sex and handedness in development of visuomotor skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 137-140.VISUAL MEMORY IN BRAZILIAN CHILDREN 433 Kessers, R. PC, van Zanpvooxs, M. J. E., Postma, A, Karveuus, L. J, & pe Haan, B. HE (2000) ' The Corsi block tapping task: standardization and normative data. Applied Neuro. psychology, 7, 252-258. Lemay, J. & Bueen, M. J. (1982) A comparative analysis of the Bender Gescalt and Betry/ Buctenica Test of Visual-motor Integration as a function of grade level for regular stu- dents, Psychology in the Schools, 19, 32-55, Lezax, M. D. (1995) Neuropsychological assessment. New York: Oxford Univer. Press. Loci, R. H., & Peaason, D. G, (1997) The inner eye and the inner scribe of visual working memory: evidence from developmental fractionation. Exropean Journal of Cognitive Psy. chology, 9, 241-257, Marr-Zisst, H., &Zarmoroutou, M. (2003) Visuomotor coordination and visuospatial seorking memoty of children with specific reading disabilities: a study using the Rey Oseerti Complex Figure. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97, 543-546, Momten, J. (1982) Studies and development of cognitive processes. In J. Mebler (Ed), U- shaped behavioural growth. New York: Academic Press. Pp. 271-294, Maxen, B, (1971) Tntethemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man. British Medical Bulletin, 27, 272-271. Nicusuut, E, Buucreron1, S., & Riva, D. (2001) Developmental patterns of verbal and visuo- spatial spans. Nezrological Science, 22, 377-384. Orsmu, A., Scrrapra, O., & Grossi, D, (1981) Sex and cultural differences in children’s spatial and verbal memory span. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 39-42. Pompéts, S., Mmanpa, M, C., & Bueno, O. FA. (2001) A set of 400 pictures standardised for Portuguese: norms for name agreement, femiliarity and visual complexity for children and adults. Arquivos Neuropsiguistria, 59(2-B), 330-337, Sastos, E H,, & Busno, 0. & A. (2003) Validation of the Brazilian Children’s Test of Pseudo- word Repetition in Porruguese speakers aged 4-10 years, Brazilian Journal of Medical Biol- ogy Research, 36, 1533-1547. Santos, EH, Matto, C. B., Xaver, G, B, &Bu=no, O. BA. (2001) Fluéncia verbal semantica ee rlangas de 4 a 10 anos. Tn XVI Reuniio Anual da Federactio da Sociedade de Biologia Experimental (FESBE), Caxambu SP. (Abstract 1355, p. 268) Stexoner, J. L, (1991) Batterie d'efficience mnésique-BEM. 144. Paris: Elsevier. ‘Trorwprxe, R. L., Hacen, E. P, & Sarrunr, J. M, (1986) Technical manual for the Fourth Edi- tion Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS-R). Chicago, TL: Riverside. ‘Warron, G. E., Bower, N. J. A., & Bower, T. G. R. (1992) Recognition of famaily faces by new- borns. Infant Bebevior and Development, 15, 265-269. Accepted September 6, 2005.