Neal Koblitz A Course in Number Theory and Cryptography Second Edition 6 Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris ‘Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona BudapestGraduate Texts in Mathematics. 114 ator Board LH Eving FW. Gebring PR Halesopen’ of Maen LH. Ewiag Ew, Geka Pa. Haines Depart of Degas Begum of Sitematce Semen Stes Indie Unenty unto Sint Carn Unni Ten Cine DTA TTT aati ea ce ~ 188 35080939 Cae ay 3 Comb Ta, Set re tans gale SY i, Fe che Wino se 8 aro at eSeSog tow ow ace {Boece ern a, ate me demas. bn Anas ye ade i a Mechanse Marts Ac may ergy Be Pesca may Hl Hei: fcing nied y Ce So 97340019 Spiga New Yr Bt ey ‘BentissScin Segccvoug bola adios New Yo Foreword both Gau and lamer mathematicians may be uted in xj {ng tht there oe sence ube theory a ny ete and tat {hal emo, whose very romances fom ordinary human ets Should ip ie eat and can. GH Hardy, A Mathematics Apolo 1980 GH. Hardy ould have boon suprised and probably dled with ‘heincrensing teres amber they fr sppcton “oda buna ests” sacha ifrmatin trtumiason (erocoreting Gods) aad ‘yplogrephy (ert code). Ls than 6 haley ar Hardy wrote he words quted above, 90 loge inconeable (though ie hast Tappan yt) that te NSA. (the agony for US. goverment wrk oa ‘cyptoprpiy) wil demand pie seview at leartce belrepubiation ef teeta earch popes on eta pes of mum theory. Tn pat ithe drama inn in computer power and mopbiticn. tion that has nBsencd me of the guetions being nadie by number ‘Ror, giving sto anew branch of he subject, called compustonal umber ear ‘This book presumes lost no background i algebra or umber the ‘on tsp rt intros the reader to arithet opi, bath cient ‘od very modern, whic have teen tthe cele of tees pletion, ‘Specialy i ceyplorapy: Forth ean we take algo approach, ‘emphasing timats oto efceney ft tacniqas tat ai fom he theory. A special fear fon renter i the ncsion (Camper V1) of soe very recent apploaton a te har flip curves lip cares Ive fora long tne rbd curl tpn several branches of theoreti‘mathematic; now the aihmetie of lipsic cures ha turd otto have potential practi! applations aswel. ‘Extensive exes hae bon Included inal ofthe chapters incre to enble sommone who i ving the material osseof oma couse ete to sy her/his endetanng “The Sst two capers provide a geoeral background. A student who shad no previous expaut to alge (od extensions, Hite Sls) ot flementary mimber thor (congruent) wil Sad the expstion eather fended abd abl conn more surely textbooks for deals, On the ‘ber baad, somone wth mare mathematic! background wuld probably ‘ran to ski trough the st two chapter, perhaps tying some ofthe Te amine erie Depending on the stent! bacaroun,t should be pssibe vo coer most he ist five chapters ina senter. Alterarly be book i wed favs soql to one-semeser ener i slomentry mer tary, then (Chapter II-VI wool ts sosmed semester couse "The dependence ration ofthe chapters i a follows fone overlooks some nesta vfencs to eater haps In Chapters V and V1} Chapter t (Chapter 1 SIN (Chapter I Chapter V Chapter VI Chapter IV ‘hiebook is based upon courses taught at the Univesity of Wah ‘ington (Stl a 1985-8 and nthe Itt of Mathenatieal Senos (Mids eda) in 187. mould He to hank Gary Neon and Dougie Ln for using tho manuscript and making hep eorections, ‘The fotspoe was drawn by Profesor A. T. Pome of Mosse State Unversity to ilutrate the thre of the book. Notice Unt the coded lecimal digs lng the wal of the bling are strands “This book is dedicated to the memory of the students of Vietnam, ‘Nicaragua and El Salvador who loc thei vein the sragleagnnt US. agaremin. The author rate fom alr ofthe book wil be ad ‘to buy mathematic apd slence books forthe universes and astute of howe tee count, Seale, May 1987 Preface to the Second Edition [As the feld of cryptography expands to cade now cnepes and tch- sigur, the cryptographic apleatios of number theory hae alo bread dn addition to mentary an nae number theory, resin ase te been made of slgerae amber theory (pial tenting with use ‘od Jacob mums cryptwytema ue nara ld, the out eld ‘po and arth algal rey (lite curv faction, cP- ‘oxjtems based an elie aad hypeeiptic curves, primal tess bated nelle eats nod abetian vat). Sone ofthe recat ppbeatons ff amber thar to cryptography — most notably, the number Bel hve ‘nehod for factoring large tes, which was developed since the apps Sic of Ue Bist dion — ae beyond the scope of this bok. However, by aligly craig the sae of he book, we mee able to include sone ‘nw topics that bp cantey more adequtly the ders of aplcatoas tf mmber thor to this exctingmulidlpliony subject. “Th along lt summaviaes the main changes inthe xcond ition. 1 Seer cretion and larfeatins have been made, apd ty refcnces have been ade "A new scion on aeokaowlge prot and obvious transfor has ee added to Chapter 1. =A section o te quadratic ove aetring method bas boo added to Chapter V. + Chapter VI now ecu ston 0 the use of lpi ares fo ily testing > Bee discussions of tho flowing concepts have been add: threshold schemes probabiitic socrption, haat unctions, the Choe [ives knapesck enpnatem, and the US. goveramea' mew Digital Sig ature Standard Sur, May 1968Contents Roerord Peta to the Secu Baton ‘Chapa I, Some Tope in Blanestary Number They 1. Time einai for dng athe 2 Dvihile ad the Bucan alrite 3 Congrsoces 4 Some appitions to et (Chapter I. Fate Feds and Quadratic Resides 1. Pte fle 2. Quadra resus ad eipocliy (Chapter IL Cryptography 1 Sows simple epost 2 ciphving tices (ChapeeV. Public Key Tha de of pubic ay crploray asa 4 Deeret og 4. Kapa 8 tarrknomidgy pts ad obvious trae (Chapter V. Primal and Factoring 1 Paewdoprimes 2 Tero metiod 3. erat factored ltr bass 0 a a o mu a 1% 1 184.The cota ection method 5. The quadratic seve method (Chapter Vi. Epic Curves Ta ft 2 Blip eave crypinestes 3. Blip are primal toe {Blip are factorization Anemos Execs Inder i Some Topics in Elementary Number Theory Mort of the topics review nhs chapter ae probably wel knows to mast Frade he pups ofthe caper sto rcll the notation and ffm ‘ementary mmberthary wich we wil eed to have at our fgets incur inter works Moot prof are omitted, ine ey ean be found ‘ost ny nodatory trtnak om suber teary. Oe top that wil ‘apa cet oe later —etinating the numberof it operation need {opera tatous number there tak by compar — ie ot yt a ard pat of slesetary name toy teebooks 50 we wil go ito Toor etl abot thebestof time eats, epoca i 1 Time estimates for doing arithmetic [Nubersin diferent bases A nonnegative step mweten to the ase b len notation form ofthe fom (dy idh-n~- dad), whe the eared, it abl forth ites beer and b= 1 hs potatin ans that debe de abe toed dy IE the it gt dy sot 20, TTecalin's kali bond munber. Any umber between and Bis Taig mer to the be We il mit the pene and sabre {Ci the cae ofthe ural dona ster (b= 10) and oeasoaly in ‘thse wl the ac of base ss fom the context, xpecily ‘then wee wing the binary system (b= 2) Since ts sometimes weal ork in bane tha 10, one shold get wo dong arithmetic ina ‘Sistray bao and to converting om one bao to athe. We ow review (by doing some amples.21 Some Topic lemettary Number Theory Remarks. (1) Factions can ko be expand in any ba, they can be open the frm (Seda yaaa (2) Whe 1S tow weutomary toe eter forte its beyond 9, One cou alo tw eer for al of he digs ‘ample (a) (1000101). = 201. (0) When B26 lt aw the letters ANZ for the digits 025, reapctvely Then (BAD) =87, wheres (B.AD)e = Tae ‘Penmple 2 up 10 and 100 lace base 7. Soliton: 6 0 154 1090. 161584 cumple 3. Divide (11001001), by (10011), and vie (HAPPY) by GAD) Solton: ror ri ed oo FOOT. aD |RAPPY sgoulL ome ono ‘oLy gous cal 10 MiP Brample 4, Convert 10" tothe bass 2, 7 and 26 (ing he Heters AT gt in he ater ease. Suto, To convert umber 0 the tae one ist get the ast ign eons! play dvi n by and aking the remand. Then replace bythe quiet and repent the proces to pet the coat {igdy ead avon Hee we Sad tat xo = (11201090100100000), = 1188811} = (CEXHO}, Brampl 5 Cont x = 31418028 to the bas 2 esi on he computation 15 place othe ik of he ol) a to the base 26 eying ‘ut pines ko the igh of hp) ‘Solton. Afr taking cae of the Intge par, te cto pat is coovrtt tot bse 6 hy matplying by taking te Ines pat af he esl ody then starting ne gun it be eetonal past of what 00 fw have, uceeely Hiding doy In this may one oa 241606» = (1.902001000011111 jp = (D.DRS) 1 Tine tina dag etme 3 amber of ig As mentioned bel, a latgu n satiffing A“ = no and ma he ammo that m 216 sod m'> a (ohich orally olin pac) hen te ler exresion ‘hn Ue relaced bythe mc sper log). This example shows at ‘hres geeraly no sing “ght answer” to the question a ing a bound ‘on the tne to tacit agen tale One mata neta ofthe bouns ‘Se the Imput dn (n this problem, my, my andr) which fay simple (ta the sun ine gies oo per bound which for moet ipa ta forsale the sane oder of nga a the nhmber of St operations {Gat tras otto be rue in pret. Th, oe example in Example tw wouldnt waa to replace eur bound by sy, 1°, acne fr ge Ih tha would give aie eta ty dee Of magnte 20 lege ‘Solr we ave worked aly with addition and multiplication of -bi dan Chi ntager Th ober te ariemeti operations subtraction and ‘vison — ave the mae tine etinates a aiton and multiplication, epoctviy: Tae(ebieat bi frm Ebie)2max(k, Timed F- [ly Citic A. More pec, trea barton me mast extend our ‘kSiton of «bt operation to inelode the operation of subeacting 8 O- Ur bit fom another Oo with poy “borrow” of 1 fom the ‘prvi clum). See Esse 8. ‘To nals dso i bay, lotus orient arsve by ooking tan stustrtion, ich ae te one i Euample 3. Suppose k > € (Ck < & then the vin eri, Le, the quaint aero abl thee ide isthe ‘enainger Finding the quotes ad riod rogues at mss k—E-+1 ‘brsetons. Hach subtraction eles of £1 bit operations ut the Titer ease ne Know that tho ltt clam of he erence Wil alae ‘bea i, nme canomi tha tit operation (thinking ft as bookoeping”| Iathor than clltng), We sil ignore oer administrative deal, ‘Sts the ne gue to compare binary integer (ake at enough ery 1 Tie ett dong thetic 7 its of the vided so tat che resting intger rete tha he vss), ary down digit, So our estimate = imply (E+ 1), wich SH ‘heample 8. ind an upper bound forte numberof bit operations i tales to compute the nomi coin (3). ‘Solton Sine (2) — (hq) whoo las of generality we may as sumo that ¢ (2, at ae the allowing procedure to compte (3) = ante tiGe-2). (acme }/(23.-m). Webavem-1 muplations fe ‘owed by mi vo In ech ease he slum pose sie othe Sst ‘umber nthe mltplestion or vn n(n 1K —2) (m= m1) < ‘mand a bouod forthe second beri Ths by those agent odie the alton to Example We see thal bound fo the total m= er of it peraton 2m Ij(lopol +1 whe or lage m ad ‘ely op. ‘We aw dct rycen tat fr marin te ta te wi eon ‘ur igOwtne appr that) and nae ection of she este lees nh eke ot (ot ot amy ng) ee Erato. Wey at fo) = Og) or sn =O) He ‘igen oan Cc Sa i) amastha €9) o ai, SEUSS Te eam twat bo prt he ee Meee tha) nsros ra owe hig mation are tutions wena nr neonate Nay ne shal allow TANS fston feel alan we sal mt be ocx TAZ etaton buen en Sl eo J 2a Sheth rn sal cb one Sige oo Deke, Lat mvt) andl.) be mo fe ow! tendons bt let en pete {So Supove tin he onan Bl Coch tt wher al See tPa shut than Be to fac a em poste aD nan) Galena om) at ese ey ak 7 Tesi ad te te =O) Wt ne sh ttn =O) shal be ht put cand We og sul eng esa “oe St nile” chap Let (ob ey pon or ae ding cut pave Tans lyons Fn) = OU). Mee Set Pe en sia f Of) sy en an 0/009 fOTaseintaln Coin ponte mer, mate ow eal ino “hat yn Oe) erg mth econ ae han ym facto oer hw al hp) tt floes Tae tn 0, mw an pre ipa ale1 Some Tapia lesan Number Tey (0) 40) dts the umber of ine tn ne i lime frm the be rn ht fn) = Olay). As oie tC ‘Sivan bli (teste ter of bad dit were {Syed bs. th ee and spp ta the ae nt Hep ed tot flo toner, and we let fm) dete the mer of base {Spin Thon we wold oo oe the ation fn) = OC) (2) We bv: Tine(a-m) = O(log log), wre he band ie seats te nme of i pra roi to mali mbm {els Berea 6 ca we Tne) = OU(n lp) {0 In Bere 7, we ave Tana(S a! Ob) = Ofna ley? + otmini a) Jn or wn the fens) 0 fst) wl afen sand fox th out of tue al pera tte tank wih the Into mo ith the tf reper, a opt. We wl wat Ao ctia ly smllosking fants pe) aur bon When me 9 ts, hoe, one watt obtaia non) ich ae math Inge han mcr, se hat wl gi an exgpented pein ‘ong the sk wl tae (lou om a ey alba pot ew, tat acre to replace) Uy any ge ution the ‘atoe f= 009) Roop eenking th ain fn) = fat) ell wth he fin ncawm apenas J power the aisle For eal, dS lw that bling nba he ef reine 87 shot altro The eso fo} = Olle) (me wi gn ten (Cag) Stes tn ct ene pty Ht 22 ower urbe onary digi Tat cae, oa const {elt mamber fs appoint To (amet want etn ogn/ton2 = Lat og) Par example fs) = Oa), {Sem arblng te umber fan (which myo cour, a mock more ‘ne nc the sw = than ely bing m) ae he incasing fy oar 8 ‘Net owen) =U) et at te anton bonded by ome etc amar We esr ha, if we wat oly tn numba of sont thee sy ec oe the eae Te(-b)“O(E). ‘Rotl'be stad tha mock wrk has bee doe nreuing the speed ‘mating evo toes when is re Ung ever igs ‘imipenem competed tha in gdesdicl Set we ane eng macabre en ablto n poe- ‘Eretormulppog two it ngs that oir ny O09 oo) titoprsioa Tht than OC) od eer tha OE) or Shy Ooo ar how soll Home watalor we sal ves be cootent to se the rougher eines above forthe te seeded for @ stultpleaton, Th gery whe estimating the number oft operons required to to wmthing, th at ep to decile upon and wre down an oulne ‘fa dialed procedure for peremlng the task. An explice se-tatep [procedure for dang cleulton ir elled an algontim. OF cure, thre ‘ay be many diferent lori fr ding tho sae hing. One may choose {lve the ote thi cat to wate dwn, oF one may caw 0 se the laste ove kowny or ee oe ay choot compromise and make a rade between spl and ype The slot sed above for malipling inty mi far fom heft one known But eet lot ser ‘ha septa ation (ding mt tlm times). "Example 10 atiate the ine rogzed to cover a bi integer its rpreaetatio ithe Base 1 “Botton: Letn bea hit integer witen in bioay. The conversion lecithin flows Divi 10 = (1010) ion The ender ~ whic SF be one of he eer I 10, 1, 10,101,110, 141 1000, of 101 el be the ene pt, Now place by th quotient and repeat the procs dividing that qotent by (1010), wing the emainds a8 dy and ‘ie qutent ste neat mur ato which to vide (1010). This proces It be rpeatd umber fines ogal to the uber of Gocima iis in snonbichie (Oh) Then we done (We might wast oaks our Ico decal digit, Le, of reminders rom al the visions, and caver ‘hem tothe more famine soon by eeplcig , 1, 10, 11. DDL by (07,2, 0; respectively) How any Bit operates dos tis al tale? Wel, wo bve O(8) dvszons each oqaing O(GE) operations (viding & umber wth at st bitsy the st au (100) But O(a) ithe Se a OU) constant factors oa ater in he Bg O notation), 0 me clo hat te fal suber oft operations x O(k)-O(8) = OU). (Towa to exes ths in ters om ater thea since k= O(n), ‘Timefeoaver nto decimal) = Oo". ‘ample 11 Etim he tine required to convert abi integer to seperation inthe se more bight be very ae ‘Scltion, Ug the sae nigitan as in ample 10, except viding ow bythe Cit intge hme Bd hat och vaso 0m tle ong 1 ars), samy, OCH) at operations How mary tes do we have to ‘vide! Here aie that he umber of base gts in O(h/€) (oe ‘Example 9), Th, the total sume of bit operation equed to all ofthe ecsary divisions ic O(8/)O(K2) = OU). Tie tno to be {he means an Exaile 10 That our timate forthe conversion ime doce nt depend upon te tae to which were converting (oo mater ow np i sy be). This is Bcaase the grater tine equi Bnd ech {hg lies ty the act that tere ae owe dts to be oud10 1 Some Topi in hmanary Number THioy Beample 12. Expres in terme of the O-notation the tne required to compat (8) (0) () (or Examples 6 nd 8). Salto. (0) (gn), (0) Omtog?) Tn conading ths eto, we make a definition tha is fundamental ‘compte scence and tho theory of agin ‘Desiton. An sgn fo perform a omptson invaving integers ment fee eps dob a oi ‘ine algiithin there integers dr dc sch hs he ou ‘at operations rogue to prot tapi O(APER 1) "Pn, the ual simi operations +, —y % are examples of polynomial tne ality ao reversion om one Base to ante. Gabe other hand, computation of loot. (oweve, fei tied Sth kauwing nt to only omtin aunber of wit ir, ‘es 100 ray digs then one can obtain that by 0 polynomial te ‘gilt sing Sting approximation fora form!) Bzercises 1. Matty 212) by (12. 2. Did (4012) by (128) 3 Multpy the boaty mutes 101101 and 1100, and vide 10013001 yon 44 Inthe boo 26, with digits AZ representing 0-25, (a) matpy YES ‘NO, and (b)evide JQVKH by WE. 5. Wetee = 2718518 ( io binny 1 places out othe ht of the Dns, nd (0) tothe ace 26 ot places beyond he pot. 6, By'a pure repeating” futon of period” fin the base b me men 8 Immbe betoee O a1 howe ane digs to the eight of tbe oi peat ie lnk off. For example, 1/9 pure repeating of period ‘SH 1/1 pare opting of period inthe deinal ye, Prove that ‘tacton fn kms eta) betwen Dad 1 is pre seeing of Detod fin the bee bi and only ~ 1 ntpe fd 1 (a) The Shsadoima!” system means = 16 with the Ite ALF ‘eoremnting the teh ehroagh SReeath digits, respectively. Divide (GS1BC ety (LAPP (6) Bevin how to convert back and forth Deween binary and hex fecal speseottins ofa iter, ad why the tne teqied & far em ta the general timate given In Example 1 for cometng ‘om nay to base 18, Dene a stectio-type it operation in the same way ws done loran sone it aeration inthe tx (the tof earn ties 2 a 4 6 (0) Using the big O soa, tina in terms ofa simple funtion of fe mune fit operations rgd to cmpate in inary (0) Do the awe for Eximate in terme of 9 imple faction of mand 1 the number of Wit peratne required compote N® “Foe lowing formula ole forthe sam ofthe est npc squares & nln + 1/6 (o) Using the bie © notation, tite (in tern of) the amber of [i operation regi to perm the computations in thee side of ‘his eal. (0) Edina the sumer of opatins gute to pertren the {Stopttaions othe rit ths egal ‘ang the big. statin, etinate the Ranber of bit operations re {tirel tovulipyanrxatixby an nxn, where all mate ‘The object ofthis xtc to estimate a function om he sumer bi operations sequel to compte the produto al pine num {fo an haw Hoe ww spp tat we ave lady comp ‘cent long it contain al pres up 10%. {@) Acowding tothe Pee Nunber Thoren, the sumber of pines {oth sr sl (ado) anaes ‘Ts gram tat the fllowing test appracien Lan n+ tim cif Using the Prine Nambee Tore, etna te manber of tay gin be product al ris ban than {@) Pda towed for be amr of operations noe of he a (teatice tha'roued i be computation of ths pode. (G'extimate the somber of be operation eared to compute the Srodoct ofl pie ues than. {Gy Suppo you wart tote lrge odd manbern is apie by {SAU by all oo umber yh Estimate te amber of Sperone thi wil ake {By par (0, spp ou awe ait of prime sunbers upto Vi ‘Eu yo tet pelmliy ty tion tytn pens (eto Boma Fncg though al 94 saber). Give tie einai ease. ee te Prine Neer Thre. Etna the te equed test» dvi by apne Sm ‘Scppoe that you ate ait fl pines mand gan se the Plne Number Torre. Tec boa very rg negerwlten in binary Find imple lgorthn ‘at compas [ya in Olay) Bc operations (here [| dente the retest nee ation)121 Soe Tepe a entry Number They 2 Divisibility and the Buclidean algorithm Divs and vsiity Give nogers nd 8, me ay that des (or "he dial bya) and we wrt bf hee ext a Integer d ach hat ‘dn tat cate wcll e = or of. Every integer b> 1a att ‘80 paste divisors 1 and b By proper disor of 6 we mean 8 poste. ‘var not equal to # al and by nora ior of we ran @ poate divaor no ia Lo 8A prime suse, by efnito, i at [Roger weno than one which fae uo postive divine ote ea td Saf wmambes called compote ha alent one sonal vs "The falawing properties of dvtbiy are easy to very det fom the Aiton and any ites, tea ade af and ba, ten le band al then ae Ip i» prime number and oe» sonnegatie Leger then we se the ‘otaton pst ean that te highest power ofp dividing b Le ‘haga 7B ata case we sa that 7 esatly dds ‘Phe Rndametal Theorem of Armes states that ay ata um ber can be ten unig (exept forthe order of factors) a product ‘fprne nambers It ecutomaryto wie this atrization asa pred of ‘tine pines to the sppopite powers, isting the peimes n ineasing nie Borexaple 200 P 35-7 “iwo cmseguee ofthe Findamental Thor (actualy, equimlet ‘asttons) ae the following properties of lity: 4 prime amber p divides a, than either loo 5. tft and nfo and i'm and m bave 20 visors greater than 1 in ‘como, then moa ‘Another commence of axiqe faction stat gv aaa tie metiod fr fing al vos on once mix writen a product of rime omen, Naty cy divisor dof mast be a producto hese ries aad to pomers 08 exsooing the power that eat divides ‘That is pn, then pfx some 9 satsvng 0 < 3 = a. To find the Avot of 20, fr example, oe takas 2 to the 2 on power, a= {inind ty 8 to the 0 or power, dines 5to the by 1 of power, mes ‘Father 1- pow. Te numberof pale dvs is tthe pode {ect ofthe male of pom reap Power, whic, fu, G41 That in asumbeen = pip sgee has (or tfon+1)°=-(ae+ 1) (iret divas Foe example thee ae #8 vis o 20, ‘Gives to nope an ot bth eo the pats common dior of assnd 8, denoted ge (o) or axis amply (a,)) te rest Integer dividing both a aad Ue noe ard to show that another equ ent deiston of gd) lhe flaming: the ely postive integer ‘Twiki «and 8 and evil ty any otberbumber which vids bth ond 2 Divahn and the Ben agithnn 13 you happen to have the pre actrination ofan Bin font f You, the i's wey eay to ws down gd (,0). Samp take al pees whch ‘ce In both factorization asd tothe man of the mo exponents For example comparing the fctacation LOT = 25°70 11 with te ‘ove factor of (00, we so hat ge €200, 1070) = 2 5.7 = 10. “Ooesiooctslonlly ines the Int common mile of «and by de otal em (0) Tes the sala postive ite th bot and ive Tt you ove the factorization oe al the ou can gt Lem (,8) by tak ing all ofthe pits which cou nie actrston ried oth ras mame th exponent es ary o pve that Lem (0) = ne "The Evelian algorithm. you's working mith very large number, \estely tat you wot Know th pie fctoraios In fat a mapore tant ava of oz in suber ty isthe sah fr quis methods of Fletoring ange itegers, Prenat here's a rntiely quik wy t find ‘red(a) even when 300 bave no eno the pe factors of ao I led te Bustdeor goin. "The Bacdou alge works allows To find gc (,8), hase > he int divide biota and rite down the quotient aad the femainds ry a = gub 7. Next, we perform seca dvon with b laying tho roo of and ry playing the role of 8 = ea tra. Next fre vide ry ito y= ara ry We continoe in his my, eh tne Civiing the le oad ito the soe tat remainder, tang ‘ew quotient and remainder, When we Bay ota remainder that ‘vide the peo remainder, we ae doce that Bal nono enalder ls the rete common dvr uf and ‘Brample 1. Find gc (154,56), Saution: ser = 2-400 4427 sio= 1-474 188 9148 w= 28421, wet a47 Since TL, we redone: gca(15, 560) ‘Propodtlon 12. The Budden aorih aay gies the gretet common sso na te amber of tps ation, ora > b ‘Toalfndng 22<(o,) bythe Hucdean algorithm) = Og") roo The poof of the fst aertion is gen ideals ean ole mentary nutes ocory tethonk 0 me merely arma the gure [Fen ie eauyt re tat th emaindr are tel decroaing orn oot Hep tothe next, and 0 mare every roc 2, To gs that the ast Tetminderis the ge, tv the econ detiniton of the ge. That i any ‘umber divider both aad est vider, and then, ice Givi141, So Taplin leentry Noe Theary ‘aud mst vie ands on, ut ou aa onl that i tno die thet mats rine On tb ther hed, woking fom Tela ow upon qui er ht te at seiner dre al tte previ enindery nds oand Th the ge, Deca the (red the ny mnie whch dvds bth awn ad at ie ae tine Sel pay other number ch der ad "We ne pov the sme ete The ain goin that mast be redid show many dvisons wens peoming, We et hat the fe Sindee not oly dee, but theyre decreing ete ail Moe prec ‘han 72 < fs Prot of can Pt ras rj then isinaly we bie ra < raya thy, So soppone tha Tas > fy ln at eg the woe dion rey ory ya and 9 yey Toot < ts alae "Woon wera soe pot fe in wate Ste very tw eps mate eating te Sf th reandr a le hal ad ice {Gove se gets now lst thea at mest oss {ivan Ts b Oo) Bask dvi lle mob wo ge ha Sands takes Og) oprtos Th the tot ne req ilps) Og) = Ola) Thi onl ae ra of th popetion "Remar: ove malts ere crit salon ofthe mmber ot perio taking it econ te dang an of he mame i he Stns dvs one crane he tine ete the Euan Moti to Olay). Proponon 122 Lt € = g(a.) wre «>, Then the xt inuge and ach that d= uss tr wor, the eof to tums cane eels ober combination of th ames wh ours lon, ding te tne onde de Ging) bt operations ‘ulin of prot proce ote saence of equi in tin Budo Reeth tow the tom ap at ech lage Wn in {Sh fa aden mainder aml ely you et oo an AL Sach tage you nnd © mulpleton ad a allon or src Sot iStag tose tnt the sunbur fb opens once nin Oo) eample 1 (otal). To expose a= ner combtion of and St we totaly compete ewp-1e21=28—11129-4.28) 28 1.8 = (21 9-198) —1- 18 5-427 16-131 8-427 14800 1-427) 21-427 ~ 16-580 = 210547 2-86) 16 500 ST 8-5, Definition. We say tha tm intgis and are relat prime (or tae ae pe to 8) Ae ged(a,0) = I, hey fey hae Bo common is 2 Divya he Hace lpm 15 vine grote than 1 “Coal. > bare relate prime neers tho con be urten as x integer eat combination ofan pom in, more precy, { O(tg) i operations Dedaltion, etm be a pase iatger. The Euler hifncion (nis eine to be the numberof sonagative integers bl han m wich ae ving0s¥ vt (Tia pat does Rot ‘equi n tobe oil) (G} Prove that here 140-1 coraspondonce betwen al oth ors om which re > vt ad al he way of wing a ilerence Fe two qoare of soniegatvetakeges (ir example 6 has ‘vo dvtors6, thalare> Vis and B= PI" =~) (Git al ofthe ways wig 48a ilence feo aaa of onoeate tees 4.) Sw ta the poner of peep wich exact vie nee {2 foie fe] = fre] te (Noe tha thse sn) (0) Fin the power ofeach pine 3,5, 7 that exactly vie 10, then woth tie rine ator 0ry 1, Sune Toi in Homey Nunber Theory (ee i) det san bed gi Pe a he Ce SO ie Gs tse) Fd and or SELFU tc cn yometan ey pep tr Fhe = p20) a wo wee: () ying he rie ce re to a dng te me eos SoS ty mma tte Ea ti eh eae psf tg die tet oman ae Eoin ante, a ogree ew ts ee ocean the tron (aioe ema Gach (aa an oes lpr oe ale agen yt ong See tolerant etm tates Tig are Se rg teal ters ve eRe. Ee Boar emo ce © whe abet IE han he tig prin ade = (6) in ily (Sipe Potency) = acco) oat ely nnn stasis ae ave Haan eee TTP iad = poate 0) Mane {ye ol te the oy 1) ee, th t= th ee cA oan wold dy ae un 0> 8 ase eines eaten 0. Fay ite = hema Sgn le noc os a heat ca he emer Syed pr to 9.40818,21) wring in Sharir a ‘9c (1010012010), (10001111011)) (e) Prove that the sgh in part a) takes only Olga) bit ope sna (wba a>) {hit lois nthe form presenta bore not noosarly referable othe Hadas ego ‘Bippne tate mur rete tha Finda gO time eatimate or pecd(at) tate btter than Oo). ‘Th pro thi pbs sto nd best poste exit forthe ‘Ranker or divsoe eget the Eucla alsin. The Fiona tromlers can be defied by the rue fy = 1, fa = 1 fost = fat Jan toe n> 2 o evel, by meas ofthe ma equation (ter bh =(E8)- BR tea)~ Go (6) Seppo ine «40, and tak visions to ind (8) {oie Baden sgt (the standard eon given a Ue tet, eh nonnegaive ean). Show that > fev 1. 2, a 2 Diy od the Bachem grin af (b) Using mtr deiito of fy prove tha ce as (6) Vaing pas (a) and (0), nd an upper bound for kn tem ofa ep hh ee at ms et Propo ‘Tha prone of this problem wo find» gener eit fo the ie requ to compute ed (a0) (whee >) chat better than the se ti ) the amber of it operations rege to perform a ion a= 9b +7 O(log) + Long). (©) Applying pat (oll oft Ole) dvison of he form 5-1 = ‘eit + ran, dese the time timate O{o)(oy8) ‘Seater plpaomine wih el content. (Te proba wil ply ‘swell opty with concent in any field) IC] andy are wo Dolyomials, we sy that fg if hae so paaomia such hat 9 = [Ph We dee cfg) metal these way fr ieee ‘aly, a6» payor of great degree which divin both f and 4. Tho polynomial ged (f.9) defined in he way is nt unig, since fre can eet another polyoma ofthe ae deg bi mpg by ‘iy sone constant Hower, we ean make # unique by eqn thor the ged. polynomial be moni, Le, have lading coeicont 1 ‘Wo say that fand 9 ate rately pine polynomials i thee 2d the "carta polynomial” Devise prove for ding ped of polyomil~ namely, Euclidean algorithm fr polynomials — which completely analogous to te Euclidean lg for integer, and sg ead ges 24) ad geet Get ag, 2 a! pa 1) men ca Bod patois (2) and (2) auch thatthe ged expend a (2) (=) + (2) From agers we know tats polyoma tas a multiple roo if and ony i has common factor with ts drat in that cave the ‘lpe vot of) are the ral get 7) Fad the alle foots ofthe plyoomil #42092 Fr (Beto doing his exc, rcall ow to do aimee wth compl umber Remerber hat se (24) 0M) st re amber a fw can vide by wring (e+ flab) = (e-(o~B (e+) ‘The Gaussian integers ae the complex sumbers whee real ad imag Inary pats ar integers. In the eoxplex plane they are te vertices of he nuars tat aia up the gi and 9 ae two Cat ine (er wea hat 9/3 of there Gunman tgs och hat 9 = 2 ‘Weedie yoda) to be Gaunan integer 6 ian acl value which vidos both and (eal tat the able valu [6 iste distance fom 0, Le. the sane oot ofthe sum of he squares (Fs real ad iagnary parts). ‘The ged ot unig, bone we1 Sime Token Eimear Number They cas rll it by #1 ori aod obtain ano of th se abate ‘Aue whih ae divides and. Tai ges four peste. In what [Ble we wil oer any aoe of those four polities tobe "te ged. vce that aty complex maser can be written 2 « Causan ite (br lus compen uber whe rel nad inainry pars are each fewer} and fh. Show tht thir eas that we can dvi ope (Ganmianinege by another one and obtain a Gaus ites (gon: long with rrsoder which em than in berate vate ‘Ue ts fot vo deve a Buriean agen which fds the ged of two Gaussian integers. Use this Kocdean egorthm to id (a) edly 3-2), and (0) ged(T Ll 81D), In each cae ex ro the gd woo hia ciation of the fra where Sod ay Caan integers ‘Tele problem canbe appl to obtain an ecient way to wete ‘Grain le pees a mh of fo squares, For ample, suppose that pia pte which des umber ofthe form 1, We want {ores pi the frm p= e+ fo sore ita ad This i enllt ofinding a sontsval Cian integer fcr ofp beens Pe eile, We can proc! allows. Notice chat Pere @ ene eD, and oe weap ae. By propery 4 of ivy, the eee p mast divide on ofthe to fates the ight ofthe est any 7B + 1 = (4 9)0— 9) then ou ll ind iat ged bs) wl gv ou the desire = IF pot oy = (21) 0) (G21) ~k then goin, (P—1)+4) tril gve you your e+ 4 Trample. The pits 12277 divider the scond factor inthe product, PL (AP +1)" 28 +1). So wed gcd (1277, 90 + 20) art = (at — 29000 +1) + (1924178, 90+ 206 = (-1 = (-182-+ 178) + (69-68), 190+ 178i (29(60+ 00, vo that the ged 89+ ibe 12277 = 89 088 (6) Using the fact that 190-41 = 2-19-181-T09 and the Bole a {rithm fr tbe Cassa otepe, express Tas a sum of to sare {b) Siar, expen the pine S97, which vies 15°+ 1 a8 2 sum of wo ae {c) Exp the prime 3477, which divas 2" +1, a8 «sum of to Scopes 19 3 Congruences Basie properties. Given thie insgr a,b and m, we sy that con [rue toh modulo mand wie @ = b mod mf the difeence a8 Avie ym mi alld the mains of the congruence. The bowing ‘pert are aly prove deci om the dean r modmy) a= 8 mad mf an oly 8 = & mod ms (i) ‘bod mand b= ¢ mod me, then a = mod m. For Sod, 2, Roe mea peter clas with aspect congroece duo ‘as one and onl one rpresetative between @ and m= I. (This I jst soother way of saying that any unger Cngront modulo ‘to one and nly on itger between Cand m ~ 1) The set of ‘unalene clas fled rsd ce) wil be denoted ZZ Any ‘ok epesntasoes fr the ede came ald complete at of resues modulo 3. He b mom and ed mad m, then ate = 6:4 mod m and ‘ac = bd mod mn other wors,cngroenes (with te sre od Tas) ean be add, serach ot map! One ny thatthe met of ‘tuimlene lawes Zi sa commatative ring, fedue eases (hse ade, subtracted oF mulled (withthe rst not depend lagon which representing of he eulaeac cases were we) ad thse operations say the fair axiom (wot, coms tig, adv er, 8 mad for any dis d ‘nod tat mand 7 realy pri, then mod mn, (So Property 5 vty 12) Propetion [21. The elements of Z/md hich hase wliicative snes are thous which ar relay prime 0, key the nanbers a for thik thee exite wi ab = 1nd mare precy those 0 for ‘ahich ge (em) 1 ation, 00.) =I, then uch an vere on he fond in Oop) it operations root Fiat, fd ged (0,0) mee estar than, we could not bare = Imad m for any Deca that would imply that divides ab 1 Sud hence dives 1 Conserody if gd (am) = 1 then by Property 2 ‘Shove we may suppor tata <'m.Thon, ty Proposition 122 there ext Integr wand stat ean be band in O(log") bi operon for whch tem =I Choong )= we se hat ml ua =I ~oh a desired ‘amark. If. (e,) = 1, tm by aogative powers 2" mad 7 wo roeas the th pom ofthe inverse reste ea Le, Forced By {hem th power af ay integer bbe which b= 1 mal ‘Example 1. Find 160" mad 64, the ave of 160 moda BL Sto. By Exerc 6) ofthe Inet sti, the anewe 216. Corollary 2 I pri amber, then enery nonzero redness asa mais ere which en e found in Oflohp) peraions201 Some Tope entry Nowhe Theory We say tht the ring Zp ea Bal We often denote this Fld Fy, He “Faldo pelements* Corallary 2 Suppose we wont to sate © near congrnct az = ‘sma, here vith! os of gery we may sume thal 0 <8 Se 9—Ifn—, we a2 =m dp- hips patie age: Tes sultan agen et Tod pain and ten ty o™ =e" mod p gi the exe Tales at a 2% Sue Lt p= ees ane wen via wypetneactoe fom apn oct matte core Proetne 39h Rem Thame). Sep wat toh on of once ort med 50; mat, =a; mal m, 54, mal my Serpe that each pir of ma i rainy prime: gm my) = 1 ort 2. Then thee exits «sian tation #10 al ofthe one ena yt ose or 0 oe ter eo "rou Fre prove ign mode M (he lt seen). Sup owe that and =" ae two ston Lt z= 22 Then st be ‘grit to odul each ma hence modulo Bf (by Popa 8 at the bain ft sc} We ex show baw to construct a ation = ‘etn, mse pac ol he modal eet ore ssh, Cleiy gly hf) = Yan thre a ing NY ohh canbe own by a of th Bole lg) sich that MN = 1 mdm ‘Now set z= 30a Town nc wes tat te terms the ss ethan inh tm are al dvb my, bese mt whenever S41 Tn rca we he: #2 MN 2 mod my, a eel ‘Conalary The Euler phcfinction iv "matte? meaning that soi) = plik) wheneser gdm) = ‘Proa f erty. We ra cout te nan of inte Betwoce and =| wih fv no common far with Por ech tat {ge j be set mnoeatveresduemodla m (2, 0-25. < m ind'j =) mod m) and let eb ts est sonegaiveridve modula n Uts.0 jy en and j= 2 adn), fom fom the Chinese Remainder ‘Tir tat rch a Peon an oly ej etme ad imn= for which = jrmodimg = fama, Notice tha ba coon Ector with mn if and oly thas common factor with m— which vn oj having no eomon fro with mand it has wo comamon ‘Seton with n-— which sult oJ having no coment wth st Tiny te Jo vic we me cat ain hol cpaokens oh Ue pus ji Jn or which O's jh em gedGum) = 0S hom221 Some Topi in etary Nbr Thetey ed(jnn) = 1. The umber of pole jm), and the munber of sible 3 on). So the mame f pales rn}. This powes the ‘orally ‘Soc every can be writen 8 product of pene pores, each of srhch tas go common factor withthe oes and nce we Koo the far Urals pr) = pry we can an the early to conc tha fx a oe ‘Ase consequence oft formula fr se, We bae the following ft, hich we shall ear toner when icaneg the RSA ste of pub key Crptorsy: Propuion LBs, Suppose tat nt oun tobe the pout of two int reo, Then owiege of he fo primes, 4 8 olen! fo Itnteje of io). More precy, one can compa gs) from p ¢ i (Otlonn) tit options and one cam compute pag from and) Otay) be operations ‘rool. The poposton is trivial fn evn, beaten tha case we inmedely hone p= 2, ¢ = n/2, angle) = m/2 — 1; 50 we suppor that ni 08, By the mulipaiity of, fr n = py we have ol) = (on i)fq_t) =n 1~ (tg). Ths, pn) can be ound fom 7 ad @ wing ‘ho aliion and coe subtest. Convery, suppose hat we Kova ‘toh tat aot p oq. We rar p,q a wakowns. We know thr produce Qi thle sum, since pt geen +1 pe) Call te ter expresion De otce that iw ren). But oe smbers whose sun 2b and whose Drodact mt be the rt of the quadeatie equation 2° — he +» 0 ‘Foun p and q equal be yO =n. The nt tme-cnmuing tp the Slntion ofthe square rot, nd by erase 16 of ths ca be done fa O(a) bi operations, This completes the prot ‘We next discus generalization of Fermat's Lite There, dv to {ite Tore (Proportion L832). Suppose that tus for the (a= st poner ofp. Then 0” '-F* = 1g" or ome Itteger by the induction tumpion Rang both dw of this euation to the ih power and wing te fc hat the nora oan in (+2) tench va by p (xcept inthe 1 and 2” atthe en), mess that (=F eal 1p a um with each tr vile by 9 Th i AP = Lie dvable by 7, a dod, This prove te proportion ft rime powers 2 Conerameee 23 aly, by the maiietey of a la at 9%) = 1 mod g* (ply rae Sth ides oO") 1 mad 9” to the spropite power). Sioe this tue far uch pli, ai sinc the diferent pine ponets have ‘acu actors wth on ato, flows by Property 5 of congroenss foroiee tae Cora. 9.2, m) = 1 ond fn! the last nonneatio reside fw mao $n) then = dm Taco prod in these may the cooly of Proposition tan Remark. Asthe proof Propo 36 makes car, tha's smaller, overafe mith is ganranted wo ie Imad: the eat common mulpe (the pore tha give Lima p foreach pom. For ample, a” = ma 06 fro print 108, borne 12 a up of 31,51 and 11 Note that (105) = 48 Heres athe example ‘Baample 3. Compute 2° mod 7. Suton, Becne 3D i the int common mile of (7) = 6 and {11} = I bythe above omar we have 2 = Imo T. Sac 100000 = ‘0 388 +1 fla that 20° = = 25 mod 7- A cond ed of sltion would be fist to compute 2°89 mad 7 (since 1000000 = tee +, thie = 2) and abo 2" od 11 (ane 1000000 ‘viable by 11 1y thi 1, and then we th Chto Remainder There tovind an: teinon O sed 76 which ie 2 mod? and = med I Modular eponestation by the repeated squring method. A to- sic computation one often sacounter ia modular rtunec Is finding 1 imal i nding the lt nocneptive rede) wen Both md fare vey lng Tere acer way f dong this that i ch leer than septa atpleaton of by fale In what Eaows we shall sue that bm, and that whenever me perfem multiplication we then i toate rodur mod me (se seplcethe prc by et nonnegative esd) In that nay we never encots any integer greater than mé We ‘ow devi the algo, ‘Use ato deaoe the paral product, When wee done, wel have & ul to the Inst nonnegative resdue of J" man Westar outwith PEL Lat no Meta denote the Dany dg of Ley a= tat ny tang tenet Atma. Bach my oF LW = Ty change tb (otherwise hosp a= 1). Ten sine and set = mad m (eb ‘heat wonangatie reir of 6 md my. If t = 1, mul aby by (an edoce mod m); otherwise ep a unchangod, Nex uae ya ee bys bf mad me Im = 1, mulpy by by; otherwise hep utchangd onngs inthis ay. Yo eta in the jth step you hve computed 1) P md mtn» 1, Se, 2 corr fa the Bany expansion ofr then you inl he pact foro (Is abent fromm, then yo Jo os) iensy to oe that afer he (k=) tap youll be the deed Tee mal24 Sume Tpit a Elementary Nuber Theory or many bit operas doe thi ta? In ach ep yo bt ee 1 or mlpicatn of tuner wt ae fe hn And the A tape Since nh step aes ley) = Olly) bt pean teead up wth te blowing etme Propelie 138 T= rod m) = O(log og) ena, Ty rg in Propet 1, you hs wast 10 see he ery of Propet 135, eplcng » y ogte ‘Sdn module thea th yeu know ee) do om ‘lm, if cm) = an ha yo cnn ele nb ea og Ae oe cl pn) thst ects on he tn Propantion Ta ca be raed by Olt. ‘Ar Ga ppcaton lth mpicty ofthe Baler ect, ss pve oo wl bet fh bing of Che I Propetn 122. Fy, 7d) = Prot Lat) det the esd of he quality nthe propio, Le Fn) is tne sam o saan over disor of (eng ad 15a sho in fe) = We ik ci that 70) aie Daehn fen} = fmf) wbsoeer gm) = 1. To hi ‘Se tht a dv ds cn be mtn (i one od cay ote 2) ie dd, ne mi Ste (Gd) = we ow jets) nea Uc igi of. We st al pole ie’ ene Uy tbing a pose ps de whee ct Sm ad yo ie of ha, fem) = Ea ean PEED) = (Cau ld) (Cayo) = fC, a me. Now to rove the propoen ea atm = fy the pine Strain of Hereby a foe Sa tat f(s) ott of ems of Be yt) Sota ior he topeion Pe, to pve ae tek y@ Bw he digua oy" we phn 0S 7 2 ela {ce at pre power Prove tn, =? = I mad m, then eer, (Prove that pe (a) alge abe ifm ia nota the orm 9 oF 2 fem e (6) Prove that sm Sano number which dvi by r drt Diss then the congracncn 2° = 1 mdm has 2” ila! solutions Coreen 0 and me row "Wikon’s Theron” which states that fo any pine (P=. Pino p. Prone that =I ot congrnat lmao pene Find 3g (ecinal) ounber which aes a remainder of € when vide by 7, 9,081 Fin the amulet pte lntger which leaves 0 reminder of when ‘vied by 1, a reader 02 when divided by 12, ada reraladet ‘3 when did by 1. Find the elle negation wlation ofeach of the fling ests ofcongrenes od 3 (b) #= 12 mod 31 (e) 85 = 108 mal G00 ofS 22ST mof 7 We = 511 mad sal Pa Amod i 2291 mod 255 nod 6 we ‘Suppose that St (act) pole Inege which leven a r- Taner of7 wen divided by 10 and 3 when vided by TL ges ely ito a ied satral maber ch aves a remainder of 8 tthe divided fy 9,7 when divided Uy 10, a1 hon divided by 2 Find the quotient, In he tution of Propaiion 133, suppose tat. 0 << my < Be lj nbere is some rg Bound onthe ine ofthe modal Seppose {hata leg, Fod a tina forthe sumer of it operations ‘eauted to solve the satem. Your ine timate sould be a function (Fan tad shoul allow fo the posit that re iher very lege or very ual coped wo the name of bits iB ‘oe the repented aqering method wo fad 38 mad 0h.1 is a 1. Sone Toi in Hamer Nunber Tay ect neg ait (rts than modular rithmic) doe the repeat auaing method soe toe? Explain, using bg-O tina Note in oar op a? a over of odal . Suppo that pis ey ge, Compare eng the repented squaring tbo for with te Eucden algorithm a an ficient means to fd (Cl md p when (oe waco many digs asp and (0) when SS mach sale than Find) for ll mom 01010. Make st showing all fr which p(n) < 12, nd prove ht our st i comple. ‘pps that nis ot a pert gue, and that n=1 > yn) > no Pro that mia product of wo distin prime. im 2 Sica power o2 show that the exponent In Proposition [35 am be replaced by 2 Tet mn rrssgnio T2000 an0 = 20-9°-52-7- 1 1819-31-87: 41 er 18 (a) Find tho lat nonnegative resid f 047 mam. {b) tere be a pov iter lee than m whichis prime to m Ft find «pine power of a than 80 which cain to ve fl mod. Next, dscbe an algorithm for Sading this power of ‘rorkng sd How mary multiplications and dvs are oped {Sreany out thi algeria? (Refacing a uber mod cout as (es aivison) What i the maximo maser of bts you cm ene unter inte integers tat you wok with? Flay, gv «god ete hate of the uber of bit operations ded to nd @" rad by {hs method. (Your anrwerthould be = specie ruber — domo we the i-O notation hee) (Give ante prot of Proposition 13,1 follows or ech divine dot site's deat the ser (aca a spelled “vubgwoup) of 2/1 ‘Coss of ll ipa ofn/4 Thus, Se has element. {a} Prove that Sy har g(d)diirntclements 2 whch generate Su, Ineaning iat the lipo of (cnadered ovo) ive alleen ote {b) Prove that every sement of generates one of the Sa, and Bence {hae the maser of temene Sn Zn eal fo te um (en one (Uvsors da the number sleet tat geverte ST ght of art. {j) eh girs Proponton 37 og the Fonnmental Theorem of Actietic prove tht ego ony (Bl ra ro thm fh ah | Same pletion o tring 27 (ein nga ppc 0 fr oh nya SD = sd a sequence n fe which im 22 0 24, Let bean exteonly ag cena wed to naka mine ap ten, Ley knowing V rol rb on font he nice Supe ers a commanding gel aod m iit Leta rc {eth cvent tnt tbe commode ental (hs bows) hepa ‘ated, ou nat the ests gna ah oh enh pti Inman sous Noth ay Crs often (ot mer moh) (aeapee toluene, {Gist ego be niles pial whch re eter thn al ch a than Ung te fy, Ont the paral Infomation hot tat shud be pe oe Mma eral {0 Gemlae Us tee fo the Stn where ou etsy at SPA GE'S 2) othe esac pra, wag top, to be ale (olntnd he mine (ht ce of To hem an tee io ‘Setynam), Such aap lt aed pom fr arg & 4 Some applications to factoring Propation 41. For any npr band any paso eer, = Gite by Dol wih qatiet Pots Prot We baa polynomial deatiy coming om the owing fat 1 lero of 2" = endothe ner arm 2-1 me dive =" 1 Nant, Pavnomil divin ges s*--1= (= I)er"tha™ hh. ate +l (aerate, we en derive tis living» by z*-V a2 eo Bote ino wiring Cea"? porta? +21, and Soaly ‘haiing 2" ater al the acting) Now we get the popasiion replacing = by & pes open “Asc proofs wo we etme nthe baw, Wetten othe bse 2, he suber D— 1 consists of» digits b~ 1 or example, oF = ‘iia On thn other band, Bs Pp np GT come of figs al. Malpyng 11-11 by the gt suber B= len =H ay) (= 0-190), = =I Carclry. For any integer > and oy poe integer mand, we ave pm = (Gm (omer mor pny Bm). Pret Simply replace ty 7 nthe lat prope, [Aran example a he we ofthis coralay, wesee that 2° sdivisble wy Hd a stand by FI = 121, Namely we set b= 2 and cer mas naTorckemaT nnd. Propaion LA2. Seppo Bat prime tom, anda and are positive ste S add id sd dm pode, on28 Some Tp in lontary Nur Thesry Proof, Using the Bucldeasagorithn, we can write d i the fom ‘wate meando ve itgas Te sey to se that ne ofthe £0 Imes uy potve ad the other agate orzo. Without lomo [awl me my suppor that > O,v'£ 0 Now rae both ies ofthe ngocnce # 2't mom tothe wth power, aad tie both sides ofthe Senger: = I mn the ("yh pom, Sg die he eg Cee can obaings Pc) 2 mad. Bat ae = a0 the ‘rpeation = proved. Propeon L43. Ip spine diding 1, then either ()p|04—1 Jor some proper sacar dof om eve (3) p= mod. Ifp> 2 adn (then neue (8) one has p= 1 mod 2 ‘Prost We ve Os 1 md pat alo, by Fermat's tle There, wwe have Bl I mat p By the above popston, ths meas that 2 Vinod p, where d= ged p= 1). Bastin, then ths sys that plo = tiara pope dior dm, cave) hols. On the other bad, d= nthe, lace ep me have p= 1 mad Final if pan mate both oi ann pL (any ein cs i), Hen obra 27 — ‘We now show bw this propotion ca bee to ator etn pes of ze integers Bramples 1, actor = 1 = 9047 Hp 217 — 1, by the tore we mas hve Tod 2. Than, we tet = 23,67, 8B. (atl we ned 2 to farther than Vt? ~ 45). We imately obtain the pre Factorization of 247; 2047 = 2580 In avery sil may, one ea (Gusy chow that 2 1A is prime. A pie ofthe frm = 1 Salsa “Menenne pene” 2. Racor 341 = SALAD. By th proposition abow, we fis ty the factors he mpc smaller mubers 1, $=, 3°, Ty and the locos of Pi = (2° 1°41) which do nt aed oc oT This ge we 5.718 Sine SGM/Z 5-718) = 73, ‘hich i pre, we ae done, Note cst as expecta say pre tha (Be aot coc in rd proper diva of 12 — nal, 13 ft be = ad 1 3. Fostor 2 — 1 SSS0TSH7 iat wo conser the factors of 24 for d= 1, 6,7 Things the prime fnvtors 31 and 127, Now (2% — Df 121) = SrzTON. Accuding to the propos, any reaning ue factor mut be = 1 mod 70.80 we check 7, 211, 28. looking for vos of T2701. At St, we whe be fai tha wel Bae to ek el such prime ean VSTPTIOT = 295, Howes me Inumatinely fd tha A77GOL = 71122021, andthe remains 10 ‘heck ony up to VERQUIT = 350. We find that 12221 pine Thos BT 20 7127-2201 isthe pre actrzation. Remark In Example bow ean one dothe arithmetic on weaeuatr Some appeatin ating 20 hat only tums sty, 8 dicimal plans? Simply break up the numbers oto Section, For exampia when we compute 2" we reach the init of our ‘nelator lapiay with 2 = TIOR4. To may his by 2 — 81, sree 2 = SL2- (67108. 100 + 4) = 34350206100 + 40368 = {Hrs Laer when we vide 2*—1 by 31-127 = SH, we it divide 207 to DASITSS, aking tbe tga pat ofthe quotient: [2] = fra, Nex, we wike SSG0798 = 047-727 + 530. Thee ‘MSSoTsaseT _ (B07 8727 +153) 1000+ 367 BT “ar «sero 188887 = sno. Brercises 1. Give two ignt proof that fm odd han P41 = (oe 10% — Fe ei) tone poo ea plgnonia Sen. La Ue ber profuse arithmetic tothe base 12. Prove that 21 prime then is prime and cst 2°41 ‘es pein, them sn power of2. ‘The frst type of pre called "Mee prime” at mentioned above, abd te soca ype sealed 4 *Farmat pre" The st ow Merce primes are 3,731,127; the fet fo Feat pines ae 3 517,250 3. Sapp that bi eine tom, where m > 2, and a and eae postive Integr, Prve tha f= "1 med m aad B= 21 mod mand if da gedave, thee = —1 mod m, and of io 4. Prove thts p+ 1 the ther (p41 for same proper dvr (dol fr which nf ho ole (0) p= 1 mod 2 5 Lemar = 67a (6) Fi Feat pine which vides m (8) Prone eat any oter prime = 1 mod 8 (c) Find the exmglae prime fatoraton of m 6 Futor a= Tand 31 1 Rata = 8. Rator 1 1, 10° — 1 and 1081 8. Factor 29-1 and 2 10, Factor 281, 2° — and 2° — 1, i (Fem td 2 edi) and «> 1 8 ng, ged(em— teh 1)me {Seppe you wat omy emo kit itagrs and where ‘ser ag, Let be a Bed stoger ch sal than Choe wae fm, etry aach that fc my €or al and gdm) = 1 for tj. Chow r= [4h] 1. Soppone that lrg integers a‘30 Some open Bantry Nomber Thasry is toed a an up (6s), whee a the east nonngaive idae af ¢ od 2-1. Brve that and ab are each unay (Erermined by the coepnding rope aed estimate the umber of ‘bt operations regu t Sad the rape comesponding to ab ost the rupli ccesponding to and References for Chapter 1 1. 4, Bala, D, H. Leber, J. L:Slfidge,B. Taken, and S.S. Wars Je, Factoztone of B= 2,856 7, 1061512, wp High Powers, Amer Mat, Society, 198. LB Delaoa, itary of te Theory of Numbers, thee volumes, Cate, 182 UK Guy, Dnsied Prides in Number Theory, Spinge-Verlg, 1082 Gr, Hacdy and B, M. Wight, An ftradution 1 the Theory of Nomar they Oxford Uaiersty Pres, 157 W.), Leveqoey Fundamentals of Number Theory Adion-Wisley, wor 6-H. Rademaees, Lectures on Blementay Number Thor, Kees, 1. KHL Rosen, Elementary amber Theory and Its Applizations, Se, ‘Addinoe Wes, 10. 8. MTL Saiomder, Number Theory in Seence and Commericaton, 2d a, Springer-Verlag, 1886. 9. D Shunk Sate and Usated Proms Number Theor ee, (Cla Publ Co, 1985 10, W, Sepia, A Settion of Poems in the Theory of Numbers Pee ‘eon Pr, 1964 11, Bed, Spennes, Computr in Number Theory, Computer cence Pres, 1962 aa Finite Fields and Quadratic Residues n this chapter we sal sue farility withthe basi ition and ova a We ow by el in "A felis ot Pith & aliption and edison operation which Siey the falar roles aciatvy and commutativity of bok ‘ton and maipletion, the dsteibtive lw, existence of an a. ‘hive idetty O and» muliplicativ entity I, tive inves and ‘lpleatve inverse fr eweything except 0. The flowing examples ‘lds reba n any aro of mathematics (1) tefl Q come Sting of al sina number; (2) the eld Rf ea numbers (3) the Feld of complex numbers (1) the Gold Z/y of intepes modo 3 ime maber 12. Neer ace ca be dfsd oer ay fd ¥ by the sae propecia hat are el to deine a vector space ver the real numbers. Ay ‘ecto space hat bug and the mamber of elents In bass Cole ite mension. An elem fl, gg Bld onining Fy isastoatcaly sector pare owrF. Weel tate extension f ‘isa nite amersioal eto space By the dae faite extensoo ‘remand ars eto epce One common way of otlning eos fel to adm an lemeat to F- we soy that K'= Fa) if iste eld eomstng of al tonal expesion ome wing aad ements fF 41. Similaty; the polyoma ing ea be dtd ver any Bld Pi de ote FX) coat ofa it ms of powers of X with coeicents {SF One ad and malities polyno in F(X] nthe ate way ‘ne doe nth plysominls ver the eal The degree d of polyolS21 Pe Patan Qudrate Rane ‘the lant per of X which once wih noner coon; 8 ‘monte pebyaoil the codes of Xl. Wesay that g des J, There fog € FIX) i thre ents «polypomial he FLX} sch that ih The seduce paynomias fe FLX] ae tho that are sot ‘bile by any pyaomia of lower degre expe for outa they ‘ly the ste attong the plyaomil tha the pete play among the Tepes The plpoomial ig bas wigue factorcaton meaing that ‘rey toe polyoma en be writen one ad nl oe way (except Forte one of factrs) ae «product of mole redeble paloma, {i sonmonicplyoomial cau be usin writen constant tines sche product) 4. An elect on sme extension fll K containing i ail o be erie onr Hsin ply with concent a Fn ‘Sit cae there a wie moni reduce lyon in FX] of ‘rich ie rot (and any oe polynomial which asta mist be “valley throne polyoma) If this one eee Dobromial ba degre den any element of Pa) (any rational ‘ipo involving power of and eles in) can actually be ‘opened as tnet combination ofthe powers 1,0," Ts, thors powers of firm a bass of Fla) over Fad co the degre of the evension obtained ty aining isthe Same asthe degree of ‘he sone eel polynomial af. Any other ota ofthe spe inedible pool called 9 congue of a oe. The felis Fle) and Fla) ae stomp by swans of the wap that tales any xpress same expression with a repaced by ‘The word “womecphie" means that we hae a to corespondene that peers dition and uliplestion. In some cums the fel lo) and Po) arethe stein wich eave ne btn ab automerpion tthe Bld For exampi, V3 bone cojugnte, arly ~V3, cre hl the nap at by/2 = 0 B/T isan automorpi of te Bld Q(V/2) {wich conto all real uber ofthe form a+b? with a and B sonal) fal othe oats of aren the Bd Fa), then a) {sealed Gaos extension of F {The deroatn of polynomial dele sing the nX"“ ue (aa ‘mi sac nite don't ake vena nF low there a eanept of ‘stance or topolgy ia F). A polynomial fof dg dy o may fut have aot Fy La swale wich gives O when suet in ‘ace of inthe polromia Ft doe, ten the degre plysomi Fer tes Jif (or) ithe ighest power of Xr whic dives J. tbe e say that 7 ook of matipiedy m. Base of unig {leonaton, te ttl sur of ots of fF, coming mali, ant enced dt polyol f F(X] bas 8 mile root the (Pa he a soo ofthe greatest aria dor of f aod its derive [ioe Exerc 13512) Given any polynomial f() € F(X] thee i an extension felt K of och shat f(X) spit into proc fea factors (quale, Thad rota in K, outing moti where dies degen) and wh {hat Kis the smallest extesion ld contain ne roots Kw eld the opting ldo fe oping Sd ier wp fo mri, Incaning tht if we bve any otr Bd with he sre popes, then these tat be Lor earenpondeace KIC whch preserves tion cod malipatie Fr example, Q() ite spitig ld (0X) = X2 —2, an to obtain the spliting elo 7(X) = X?=2 tne oa aint @ oth 9 and =. 1. Wading the wulipleativ ent 1c tsa in Fever vs Dy then trea) that Phas characterise in nt ce Ponti oP Tete bel of rattonal uers Otrwise, thre sa prime uber Duh that Ls Lt =-- +1 (p tines) equals and pis called the Thoratec the ld Fn tint ase Peontais copy ofthe ek ‘ip om Cordlary 1 of Propniton 1.1), when called te prime elt 1 Finite fields Lot Fy denote 8 eld which aa Site umber gf eermens init. Cty ‘ite ek cannot have characteristic ar, ot p be the characteris of ‘Fy Then Fy connie the pie fk Ry = 2p aa soa veto sce gece Gite densingal ort Fy. Lat denote is dtesion as ta Fyrvecor space lnc cooing a ba cubs ws to wt up 2 oe ‘Srtjomdence beeen the eset of ths f-tinenonal rector pact {See ot ofall Fpl cement ny llr Uae tere st be elements in Fy. That sq «power ofthe character "We al ose that fr evry pine pone =p thee eld of cements, and Ie nig (opto omaha). ut fist we nvetighe the mpi onder of elements in Fhe set of nome sents of or Bite Slt. By the “ode” of x nero ‘Semest we mean the least postive power which ‘steve af walipicaie geoeatr of Bite Sle. Thee ro g = 1 soceto element and bythe defalton of + Sl, hey form an abelin Ironp with respec: to silo. Tis means thatthe produ of two ‘Sours net sonnet rite and commstative law bold, ‘arian ety lee 1 and ny onaeto seme hasan verse. ‘etl fot abo te goog that the ord ofan bent mse vide {ae mumber of element inthe group. Fr the sake of cnpetenes we ive ‘rot of thi inthe as of or grou F Propitn IL13. The order of ey 8; des g~ 1 Fant prov Lat de the smalt power Sf mbich egal 1. (Nove hotter ie omer of tht ne the poners on the Bite feu Fy cannot all be dati, anda oon a = 0) for j > we he4 lite and QuadeatieRane oat) tats 4%) deoote the at fa poe fo ‘hl fry Fy 88 dt th “oe costing of al eet the frm ot nap 15 = 5). ey to ee ha ay 0 comets tre ein enor atin (are ome Bain So eS, TET the fm bo then any eens ain bS if te fom 1 tein aS bene = uta a) An ac at oan (actly clement Sine the si fal th cots exits Fy themes SRIF; wadajout une o element hence dg — 1): Sond pron Fst we sow tha ev! = 1, To ye thi, wee the pod of mone sents in Fy. ‘Thee are ¢=1 a at, IC me up ech ofthe by ar wear cerangemen ofthe sane ents (Ges any to din: cements ea dine fe maton y ‘Ts the produc mt ata Bot we have multe thi prot Iya! Heme ot 1 (Compare withthe prot of Propantion 12.2) Now let dete order of, te the alls patve per wich se Td ti ot dvde¢~ 1, could Bd a saber postive mombex 7 — Tama th pnins whee g hen ha lors orer: beans fod $id estate on can wet 2) mes 1 Comey me ow ow tht cae ode d whiner gd) = Af) pi Si bad als eter hon allt ter the th the {Ith power wold ive Land Bence oral to the power ged) = 1 Srould ge (hs prom in exact the se way ms Propenion £42 ‘ut cdi tea that ao erer dan 0 of 1 Thay tas order dad nly ged) = 1 “Thos men hn there ty ent of order dy then ther ze cexuy pa) elements of ore 8 far ey dg 1) tere re nly o> exis: not aot oxy lent hare cer Now every leet hs sone oer a=). Ad tae ae es Oo (sen of rer dat by Propstion LOT, Pages 0) == SSE mame of elomet a Fe. Ths the calf way at ery Tenet cn baw me oder d= i there areal) (el eer Sy demented Inport tee ae p= 1 ene of rer {{— trad wes ne peu aga 9a ent of oir {oi thm the ober ces ool qe pry Uh poe for ou geaty get) 1 Tis empl te pot ‘acy or eary prime p te eit m eer 9 ch hat the overs ofg chan al noni hd aes med ramp Wo cn ral esc ad 19 fom 18 by taking por af Naty the ute pero? tlced mad 19 3,4 Wherig teas ay 36 12.51, “ney tins rie wong with init et rock a yo some eine pits wf to Sede gator Whats uber 9 © Fs chown Stand? Wit eh poet tht wi be agouti oer ror rat porto of lt besser Cees coi fro? Towrling to PropntonIL12, he proportion pip 2)/@ 1). Dat ‘pour fla fo) fliwing the erly of Propation 133, his acon gu ote [I> fy re the duce oer al rts € Ag pe Th th oe pet mr y naan st ‘pent tov onthe seit p= For eampi, we ean pow ‘Propeition I The ents a eee of pres puch ha the rosy tht aondom gc Fy we genres me Prot Lt (x) any ones pote integers whe i vile by see sds of thn se res 3,3, Tsao} —= etm, we ld ae my =f Choe yt bea pie ch tat yz mn How do we La hath apie cat? That les on ‘rs hen pnb an ee prem wich te I ‘tnd ae ltl yon, eee rfl any pres hich oe Ted nts tree ir th emery enya” tong {he dient ible bad ate proportion of eines = kod mt eto) bt we dnt elt ct ere) Tes the pine ing 1 inde al of te piesdviig my and 0 53 < Tra y(t ~ Bi nj —> hs product apres Ta ng = Hr 0 (Cou Eats 30 3) Thi res he postion ences gs of Sie es with pine port munber of tenet We poe Sth ons so nian by bowing ht ie ENTatg= pf ements te pitino he plomil X= X. The {owing pepo shows that fr eery pine pom hee ob {ito somcrpm) ony oe te od wth ens Proponin HULA. f Fy seo el of = plement, then ex done wets the ston XP" =, ond Ry to prc the wt8 Rie Foland Guat Rees of roots of that equation, Convery, for evry prime power g = pf the ‘piting eld eR ofthe paloma XY sew fl of element ‘Prot. Fis suppor that Fyn a Gite Sls Since the order of any nonzero semen ive 1, follows that any nota element stisis the equate KY" =i, and eos, we mull both sides by X, the fusion XY = X, Of nut the ces alo aie he ter equation ‘Tn, ll g seats of Fy te sots of the degreng polypoid X* ~ Since hs fly eae bse more tan gots soos are precisely fhe elements of Fy. Noi that tis means tht Fy isthe sping Bel of the plpnonial XV, tha, the allt eld extension of Fy which onal of oot ‘Convery tg = be pine power nd It F be the spliting Ai oe Fy of te pga Xe -X. Nte that XO Xba deratie Xe 1 A (ese the integer gis a ip of pad 9 620 {Bef}; ne, the potysamial X* 1 has no codon ros wth Its deritie whic fe a ruts a al) and therfore as no ep toot. Tau, F mt contain ot lt the g ditinct rots of X¥—X. But ‘rece hat ce ae of g outs lend Ald. The hay pit I chat am or prodoe of two mot i again foot, Namely, sand ati the piynomia, we bane = a, = B, ad ence (0)? ab, Ly the [odat ial st To se that the um as satis the oly eax 20, wo note a fundamental fact sbout any ld of caraceristie emma (0+ 8)? =a? + i ony fof character p ‘Thelema i proved by obering that alo the intermediate ters sani in he biel epatson Jog (a? beause ly — 3)! Avie by pforO' wbore the digs are anaogota the confess of the polynomial. Foe ‘ample nts inary expan anager is writen as sun of powers of rth conics bo I) uta» polyaomil over F isa sum of powers LX. But the compart rater mieadiag, Fr example, the sm of any mer of ptyomial of dre dso polyoma of degree (a hs) ‘thers stn seed i nogery wl be an dager bing moe than binary digs. Buample 3. Let f(X) = X69 X7 41,9 X841 6 FX]. Pind ‘ged(fia) sting the Bckdean alot or plyomials nd expres he ec the fra w(X)/(X) + (X04) ‘Salton stoma von ge ate sguenceof qualities below, whlch ad he onion that ged.) = Xa the next ence ‘oF oqltien eben, woking boca to expr Xt asa nee fooninan off and. (Noto by he way a a Bld of carceritic Padding the sane ae sbacing, Ln, b= a-+b~2= 0-48) We have (x +g +X 4X) (x R= x) +4) X41) . 406-1904) Sat (Xe NU 419) = OHIO Brercises 1. For p = 2,3,5,7, 11,19 and 17, find the amulet postive Inte fer whch gemrtes Fp, and determine bow many ofthe ites D2 Sncsp~ 1 oe erat. 12 Lat (ip) dente al resis modulo" which are meri, Le fot vile hyp, Warning: Be we not conse 2/9 (which peg?" inverile ements) wih Fyn (in whic al elements ‘rept 0 are ere). "The wo az the sae aly when @ = 1 (c) Lee bean integer which geoortes Fy wheve p> 2. Leta be ty integer greater than 1, Prove that ether ga (p+ 1) geertes (fer) hs, the ater ea » eee group (8) Prove that I @ > 2, then (2/22)" m mot eye, bat that the hunter generates a ubrogpcosuting olf of element azely ‘hone wich ze = 1rd 3. How many sects ar the smal eld extension of P which tentang al of te roto the polynomials X-+X + and X°4X417 ata Se at or ech dogo d <6, nd the umber fred polyoma owe Fy of dere and alt ofthe, Foc each dee d< 6, Sad the numberof mooie kroube polyno. Imi ovr yf depo aod for d <3 mak sto hem Sppowe tat fsa power f= prime Find ase femal forte ‘utero oni irefacbeplyoomins of degre fone Fy ‘Un the ply veson ofthe Baean slguith (exer 12ef $12} wo fnd ged fa) fo f9 © IX] in each ofthe flowing ‘examples Ineack ewe expres the g-,plynol as a combination FY ag, yin te fos dX) = AX) GLX) 401A). (fae ky ge eX sh pa (by fa XOX ROSE gE HL, (9 fa x8 X p19 = HPs L, (i) aX SHOE AP aE EN Hp (o) f= XOeSReATAKDHRAAA ALA ST, 9 = XOSSTX™ AONB, By compating sed(f,/) (se Exerc 1 of 1.2, fd all maine foots JX) OKLA KEXHL © BX) tng Bel ‘Soppowe that Fp siisies the plyoomial X7 + aX +8, whine BEF {@) Prove that o abo satis this plynomia (@) Prove that fag Fp thon = "aa? and b= oP. (c) Prove that fa? By sod e,d © By, then (o-tdP* = dead 82 fare ot oI Bg, Use pr (6 to find (2+ 98° (le wre tin the fr 2 +B, 0 Fn) Let db the makimim dearer of wo polyol , 9 € Fy Give shestiate in terms dan pla the pamber of bt operations new fo compute ed(f.g) wing the Bean sgh, Foc cach ofthe following Beis F, where = pind an ieducle ‘bom! wth oot in the une ld wher 0 apie (Ger generates F3), and wt ll of the pomers of a payor in caf epee < f(s) Fa () ei) Fay () Ps Let FUE) € Fut be primitive ireduible polyoma of degree 10 ‘center tot of PX), tls ans ha he power oes all GE. Using the big. aotaton,etimate (norms of ) the umber Gibveperston oqied ta wie every power ae polyoma fof dope lo an (6) Unde what conditions on p and fs eery dames of Fy Desde Ou Lagenater of Fy? (@) Under what condition i vey ele 0,1 either «generator fort ageare of gootatr?