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Soil Physical Properties
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Chapter 6
Soil Physical Properties

V.K. PHOGAT, V.S. TOMAR AND RITA DAHIYA
The Nation that destroys its soil destroys itself – Franklin D. Roosevelt,
32nd President of the United States
6.1. Introduction
Physical properties play an important role in determining soil’s suitability for agricultural,
environmental and engineering uses. The supporting capability; movement, retention
and availability of water and nutrients to plants; ease in penetration of roots, and flow of
heat and air are directly associated with physical properties of the soil. Physical properties
also influence the chemical and biological properties. The most pertinent physical
properties of soil relevant to its use as a medium for plant growth are discussed in the
following sections.
6.2. Soil Texture

Solid phase of the mineral soil mainly consists of discrete mineral particles as the amount
of amorphous material including organic matter is usually small. Mineral particles are
not exactly spherical but vary widely in their shape, therefore, these particles are usually
classified into three conveniently separable groups according to certain size range based
on their equivalent diameter (diameter of a sphere that has a velocity of fall in a liquid
medium equal to that of the specific particle). The groups of different size range of
mineral particles are known as soil separates, primary particles or textural fractions, namely:
sand, silt and clay. Soil texture refers to the prominent size range of mineral particles,
and is defined both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitatively, it refers to the feel of
soil whether coarse and gritty or fine and smooth when rubbed between thumb and
forefinger. Quantitatively, soil texture is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
content on weight basis. The term soil texture is often used interchangeably with
mechanical composition of soil. It is more or less a static property affecting almost all other
soil properties. Land use capability and soil management practices largely depend on the
texture.
6.2.1. Classification of Soil Particles

Soil particles of size less than 2 mm in diameter are included in the classification and are
considered as soil material normally used in soil analysis. Some soils contain large sized
136 SOIL SCIENCE: AN INTRODUCTION
particles which may create problem in tillage operations but do not contribute
substantially to important soil properties. The particles greater than 2 mm are known as
gravels (2-4 mm), pebbles (4-76 mm), cobbles (76-250 mm), stones (250-600 mm), and still
larger (>600 mm) as boulders.
Several systems exist for the classification of soil particles but International Society of
Soil Science (ISSS), renamed as the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), and the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are widely in use (Table 6.1). Some
important properties of sand, silt and clay particles are described in Table 6.2. In addition,
sand and silt particles consist of primary minerals such as quartz, feldspars and mica,
while clay particles are mainly secondary minerals such as kaolinite, illite, vermiculite,
montmorillonite, chlorite and hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium. Clay is a surface
active fraction with high degree of chemical and physical activities while relatively inert
sand and silt fractions exhibit such activities to a lesser extent. The sand and silt may be
called the soil skeleton while the clay, by analogy, regarded as the flesh of the soil. All the
three fractions including the pore space in between form the matrix of soil.
Table 6.1. Systems of classification of soil particles according to their sizes
International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Particle Diameter (mm) Particle Diameter (mm)
Coarse sand 2.0-0.2 Very coarse sand 2.0-1.0

Fine sand 0.2-0.02 Coarse sand 1.0-0.5
Silt 0.02-0.002 Medium sand 0.5-0.25
Clay <0.002 Fine sand 0.25-0.10
Very fine sand 0.10-0.05
Silt 0.05-0.002
Clay < 0.002
Table 6.2. Important properties of sand, silt and clay particles
Particle Properties
Sand Visible to naked eye, generally spherical or cubical in shape, feel gritty, low water and
nutrients holding capacity, loose when dry, very low plasticity and stickiness when wet.
Silt Not visible to naked eye, seen through an ordinary microscope, generally spherical or cubical
in shape, low to medium in capacity to hold water and nutrients, feel smooth, some plasticity
and stickiness when wet.
Clay Visible only through an electron microscope, platy in shape, high water and nutrients holding
capacity, hard when dry, high degree of plasticity and stickiness when wet, exhibit swelling
and shrinkage behaviour.
6.2.2. Mechanical Analysis

Mechanical analysis or particle size analysis is a procedure of determining the sand, silt
and clay contents in a soil sample. The primary soil particles, which are often aggregated,
are separated and made discrete by removing the binding agents (organic matter, calcium
carbonate, soluble salts and oxides of Fe and Al) in soil-water suspension. The organic
matter is oxidized with H2O2 while CaCO3 and oxides of iron and aluminum are removed
by treating the sample with dilute HCl and soluble salts by filtration with distilled water.
Mechanical stirring is done to disperse the clay particles from each other and eliminate
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 137
the air. A dispersing agent (Sodium hydroxide or sodium hexa-meta-phosphate or Calgon

solution) is added to prevent the clay particles to re-unite.
Once the soil particles are dispersed into ultimate particles, these are separated into
different sized groups by sieving through graded sieves up to approximately 0.05 mm in
size. Sieves of different sized circular holes are used for particles larger than 0.5 mm. For
smaller sized particles, wire mesh screens are used. For still smaller particles (<0.05 mm),
method of sedimentation is used in which the relative settling velocity of particles or
density of the suspension from which particles are settling is measured based on the
principle of Stokes’ law.
6.2.2.1. Stokes’ Law (G.G. Stokes, 1851)

According to Stokes’ law, the terminal velocity of a spherical particle settling under the
influence of gravity in a fluid of a given density and viscosity is proportional to the
square of its radius, and is given by:
…(6.1)
where v = terminal velocity of falling particles, cm s-1

ρs = density of solid particles, g cm-3
ρf = density of fluid, g cm-3
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm s-2
r = equivalent spherical radius of falling particles, cm
η = viscosity of suspending fluid, g cm-1 s-1 or poise
Derivation of Stokes’ Law

A spherical particle falling in a vacuum encounters no resistance and its velocity
accelerates by gravity. The velocity of the falling particle increases as it falls. But when
the particle falls in a fluid, it encounters a frictional resistance (Fr) in upward direction
which is directly proportional to its radius (r) and velocity (v), and viscosity of the fluid
(η). The resisting force due to friction, Fr, is given by:
Fr = 6πηvr ↑ …(6.2)
Initially, as the particle begins to fall, its velocity increases and eventually a point is
reached at which the increasing upward frictional resistance force equals the constant
downward force due to gravity. At this point of time, the particle continues to fall,
without acceleration, at a constant velocity known as the terminal velocity.
The downward force on a spherical particle due to gravity (Fg) is given by:
…(6.3)
where is the volume of the spherical particle.
When the terminal velocity is reached, the downward force equals to upward frictional
force. Therefore, setting the two forces equal, i.e. Fr = Fg:
which is known as Stokes’ law …(6.4)
For a given fluid and falling particles, the ρs, ρf, η and g are constant at a specified
temperature, therefore, the sedimentation velocity is directly proportional to the square
of radius of the particles. The Stokes’ law is applicable to a solid sphere or soil particle
falling through a liquid or gas, or to a drop of liquid falling through a gaseous medium.
If d is the diameter of the particle and assuming that the terminal velocity is attained
almost instantly, the time (t) needed for the particle to fall through a height (h) may be
calculated as:
as and …(6.5)
Rearranging the equation (6.5):
…(6.6)
One method of measuring particle size distribution is to use a pipette to draw samples
of known volume from a given depth in the suspension at specific times after
sedimentation has begun. An alternative method is to use a hydrometer to measure the
density of the suspension at a given depth as function of time.
Numerical: Using Stokes’ law, calculate the time required for sedimentation of silt
(diameter = 0.02 mm) and clay (diameter 0.002 mm) size particles to a distance of 10 cm in
a freshly prepared soil-water suspension at 20 oC.
Solution: Assuming particle density = 2.65 g cm-3, fluid density = 1.0 g cm-3, viscosity of
fluid at 20 oC = 0.01 poise = 0.01 g cm-1 s-1 and acceleration due to gravity = 981 cm s-2 and
substituting these values in equation 6.4, we get the settling velocity v of silt size particles
(r = 0.001 cm) as:
where h is 10 cm, therefore, time required for sedimentation of silt particles will be
sec or 4 min 38 sec.
Similarly, the time required for sedimentation of clay particles (r = 0.0001 cm) will come
out to be sec or 7 hr 43 min.
6.2.2.2. Assumptions and Limitations of Stokes’ law

i. Particles must be spherical, smooth and rigid: Clay particles are plate-shaped and fall
slower than spherical particles of the same mass.
ii. Size of particles must be larger than the size of molecules of liquid so that Brownian
movement of molecules of the liquid may not affect the falling velocity of soil particles.
The largest limit of particle exhibiting Brownian movement is approximately 0.0002
mm. Therefore, in the gravitational field, particles from 0.10 to 0.0002 mm in size can
easily be determined with sedimentation method. Soil particles less than 0.00002 mm
size may be separated using a centrifuge.
iii. Fall must be unhindered: Many fast falling large particles may drag finer particles
down along with them. Particles falling very near the wall of container (0.1 mm
distance) are also slowed down in their fall. The concentration less than 3% of soil in
the suspension may, however, reduce such hindrances.
iv. Particles must be of uniform density: Density of majority of mineral particles in most
soils varies between 2.6 to 2.7 g cm-3 with an average value of 2.65 g cm-3 which can be
used with reasonable accuracy.
v. The suspension must be still without any turbulence: Particles greater than 0.05 mm
in diameter settle quickly and cause turbulence, therefore, are analyzed using other
procedures. Any movement of the suspension alters the velocity of fall.
6.2.2.3. Methods of Mechanical Analysis

The international pipette method and hydrometer method are widely used for mechanical
analysis. The international pipette method is based on the principle of sedimentation, i.e.
different sized particles fall at different velocities. If a sample of soil-water suspension is
taken at a given depth at a particular time, it will contain all the particles which are still
in suspension at that depth. The international pipette method is regarded as a standard
method for particle size analysis because of its accuracy but it is time-consuming,
therefore, usually not employed where large number of samples are to be analyzed.
Hydrometer (Bouyoucos 1927) method is based on the principle that there is a
continuous decrease in the density of soil suspension with time at the rate the particles
fall below the level of hydrometer. The density of the suspension progressively increases
downward. Therefore, by measuring the density of soil suspension at required times
with a calibrated hydrometer, the proportion of different sized particles can be
determined. For quickly determining the silt+clay and clay fractions, it has been
recommended to measure the density of the suspension at 4 minutes and 2 hours,
respectively at 68 oF. The hydrometer method is considerably fast and reasonably accurate
but should not be used for soils having high CaCO3, organic matter content and salinity
as the materials binding the soil particles are not removed in this method.
6.2.3. Textural Classes

The overall textural designation of a soil as determined from the relative proportion of its
sand, silt and clay contents is called the textural class. Textural class not only conveys the
textural composition of soils but also indicates their physical properties. Soils, based on
their relative proportions of sand, silt and clay contents, are classified into twelve textural
classes as shown in Textural triangle (Figure 6.1). There are three broad primary textural
groups of soils: sandy, loamy and clayey to describe texture in relation to textural class of
the soils (Table 6.3).
To illustrate the use of textural triangle, assume that a soil contains 40% sand, 45% silt
and 15% clay by weight. First locate the point for 15% clay on the left side of the triangle.
Draw a line from this point across the graph parallel to the base of the triangle. Then,
locate the point for 40% sand on the base of the triangle and draw an inward line from
Figure 6.1. Textural triangle diagram according to ISSS system of classification of soil particles
Table 6.3. Textural groups to describe texture in relation to textural classes of the soils
Textural group Texture Textural class
Sandy Coarse Sand

Loamy sand
Loamy Moderately coarse Sandy loam
Medium Loam
Silt loam
Silt
Moderately fine Sandy clay loam
Clay loam
Silty clay loam
Clayey Fine Sandy clay
Silty clay
Clay
this point parallel to the right side of the triangle. The two lines intersect at a point
corresponding to 45% silt. The lines intersecting in the area demarcated as ‘loam’ indicates
textural class of the soil sample i.e. loam.
6.2.4. Textural Properties and Behaviour of Soils

6.2.4.1. Sandy Soils
Sandy soils contain more than 70% of sand and less than 15% of clay and are sub-divided
into two textural classes: sand and loamy sand. Sandy or coarse-textured soils are loose,
absorb water rapidly and drain it quickly, well aerated and can be worked easily in both
moist and dry conditions. These soils are also called as light textured soils due to lower
draft power required to till these soils. In general, the sandy soils have lower water and
nutrient holding capacity, lower organic matter content, no swelling and shrinkage, poor
sealing properties for ponds and dams, higher leaching of nutrients and pollutants. The
fine sands are easily blown by wind while coarse sands resist erosion by water.
6.2.4.2. Loamy Soils

The loamy soils are subdivided in seven textural classes: sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt,
sandy clay loam, clay loam and silty clay loam. To qualify for the designation as sandy or silt,
a soil must have at least 40-50% of these separates. Therefore, a loam in which sand is
dominant is classified as sandy loam. An ideal loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles
that exhibits the properties of these separates in equal proportions. It does not mean that the
three separates are present in equal amounts. From agricultural point of view, loam soil
is most favourable as its capacity to retain water and nutrients is better than sandy while
its drainage, aeration and tillage properties are more favourable than clayey soils.
However, under certain specific conditions for some specific plant species, sandy or
clayey soil may be more suitable than a loam soil.
The medium textured soils dominating in silt content have medium to high water and
nutrient holding capacity, moderate aeration, slow to medium drainage, medium to high
organic matter content, and moderate leaching of pollutants and nutrients. These soils
are easily blown by wind and susceptible to water erosion, easily compacted, having a
slight swelling and shrinkage, and moderately difficult to till after rains.
6.2.4.3. Clayey Soils

A clayey soil must contain at least 35% of clay fraction. These soils are further sub-
divided into three textural classes. If clay content is greater than 40%, the textural class is
either sandy clay, silty clay or clay depending upon the sand and silt contents. Sandy clay
contains more sand than clay content. Similarly, silt content of silty clay is usually more
than the clay fraction. Clayey or fine textured soils tend to absorb and retain more water,
become plastic and sticky when wet, hard and cohesive when dry, and difficult to
cultivate, therefore, also called as heavy textured soils.
The clayey soils have high water and nutrient holding capacity, poor aeration, very
slow drainage unless cracked, high to medium organic matter content, medium to high
swelling and shrinkage characteristics. These soils resist wind erosion and also resist
water erosion when aggregated. These soils have good sealing properties and retard
leaching of nutrients and pollutants.
6.2.5. Specific Surface of Soils

Specific surface is the surface area per unit mass or per unit volume of soil, expressed as
cm2 g-1 or cm2 cm-3. Most of the chemical reactions and physical processes like adsorption
of water, swelling, shrinkage, plasticity, soil strength, cation exchange capacity, availability
of nutrients, etc., depend on specific surface of soils. Specific surface increases as the size
of soil particles decreases.
For same volume of soil, the specific surface increases in the ratio in which the size of
particle decreases. For example, if the size of a cubical particle is 1 cm, then specific
surface area is 6 cm2 cm-3. If the cube is divided into 10 cubes, each of side 0.1 cm (1 mm),
then specific surface will become 60 cm2 cm-3. Thus, the specific surface area of sand
particle of 1 mm size and cubical in shape would be 60 cm2 cm-3, whereas clay particle of
0.001 mm size would have specific surface of 60,000 cm2 cm-3 i.e. 1000 times more specific
surface than sand particle. As clay particles are plate shaped, therefore, their specific
surface would be even higher. Besides size and shape, type of clay minerals also affect
specific surface. Specific surface of soil separates, clay minerals and different textured
soils is given in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4. Specific surface of soil separates, clay minerals and different textured soils
Soil separates / Diameter Specific surface Clay mineral Specific surface

soil (mm) (cm2 g-1) (m2 g-1)
Coarse sand 2.0-0.2 45 Kaolinite 37-45

Fine sand 0.2-0.02 446 Illite 120-170
Silt 0.02-0.002 4458 Chlorite 130-180
Clay 10-4 -10-6 1000 x 104 Montmorillonite 580-750
Sandy loam 10x104 - 40x104 Vermiculite 780-900
Loam 50x104 - 100x104
Clay 150x104 - 250x104
6.3. Soil Structure

The primary soil particles do not exist as such in natural conditions but are bonded
together into larger units or aggregates usually termed as secondary particles. These
aggregates formed under natural conditions are called peds whereas an irregular shaped
coherent mass of soil formed during tillage operations is called a clod. Soil structure is
defined as the arrangement of primary and secondary soil particles in a certain structural pattern.
This arrangement results in formation of different sized soil pores, therefore, soil structure
may also be defined as the arrangement of various sized soil pores in a certain structural
pattern.
6.3.1. Importance of Soil Structure

Soil structure influences almost all the plant growth factors viz. water supply, aeration,
availability of plant nutrients, heat, root penetration, microbial activity, etc. Strong
aggregation decreases detachability and transportability of soil particles by water or wind
and thus, reduces runoff and soil erosion. Soil structure is useful for classification of soils.
It is affected by tillage, cultivation and application of fertilizers, manures, lime, gypsum
and irrigation.
6.3.2. Classification of Soil Structure

Soil structure is described and classified based on (i) the type, as determined by shape and
arrangement; (ii) the class, as differentiated by size; and (iii) the grade, as determined by
distinctness and durability of peds.
6.3.2.1. Type of Soil Structure

Based on shape and arrangement of peds, soil structure is classified as simple and
compound. In simple structure, natural cleavage planes are absent. Simple structure is of
two types: single grained and massive. In single grained structure, particles are completely
unattached to each other as in case of loose sand while in massive structure, particles are
bonded in large cohesive, non-structured mass as in case of surface crust, plough pan and
clay pan.
In compound structure, natural cleavage planes are visible with naked eye. The shape
of individual peds is described according to relative length of vertical and horizontal
axes, and by shape of their edges. Compound structure is of four types depending upon
shapes and characteristics (Table 6.5).
Table 6.5. Types of compound soil structure and their characteristics
Type Shape and characteristics
Blocky All the three dimensions of peds are of about same size providing a shape of
block having flat or rounded faces. These peds are further sub-divided into
angular blocky and sub-angular blocky. In the former, faces are flat, and edges
and corners are sharp while in the latter, faces and edges are mainly rounded.
The blocky structure is usually found in B-horizon and promotes good drainage,
aeration and root penetration.
Prismatic The peds are elongated more in vertical than in horizontal direction giving a
column like shape. Vertical cleavage planes are predominant. When the tops of
peds are relatively angular and flat, it is called prismatic and when rounded, it
is called columnar.
Prismatic structure commonly occurs in subsurface horizons in arid and semi-
arid regions, and in poorly drained soils of humid region having swelling type
of clay.
Platy Horizontal axis is longer than vertical axis resulting in a plate like appearance.
Horizontal cleavage planes are predominant. When peds are thick, they are
called platy, and when thin, are called laminar.
Platy structure is often inherited from parent material and may also be formed
due to compaction of clayey soils by heavy machinery. Platy structure restricts
infiltration, percolation and aeration in soils.
Spherical Peds are roughly spherical or granular and sub-divided into granular and crumb.
Granular structure is less porous than the crumb due to low organic matter
content.
Spherical structure is formed by biotic activities in surface horizon and
promotes infiltration, percolation, aeration and root penetration in soils.
6.3.2.2. Classes of Soil Structure

On the basis of size of aggregates, each type of soil structure is further sub-divided into
five classes (Table 6.6). The size of aggregates is a criterion of quantitative classification
of soil structure. Coarse sand sized aggregates are more favourable for plant growth than
very small or very large aggregates.
6.3.2.3. Grades of Soil Structure

It is qualitative means of classification of soil structure. Grades of soil structure are
identified on the basis of stability of aggregates. Stability of aggregates refers to their
resistance to disruption by impact of raindrops or under submerged condition. It is
influenced by moisture content, amount and type of clay, nature of the adsorbed cations,
and organic matter content of soil. High moisture content, kaolinite clay, divalent cations
Table 6.6. Classes of different types of soil structure along with their dimensions
Class Diameter (mm) Thickness (mm)

Granular Blocky Columnar Platy*
Very fine <1 <5 < 10 <1

Fine 1-2 5-10 10-20 1-2
Medium 2-5 10-20 20-50 2-5
Coarse 5-10 20-50 50-100 5-10
Very Coarse >10 >50 >100 >10
*
Platy structure is designated as thin or thick instead of fine or coarse (Soil Survey Staff 1993)
and high organic matter content make the aggregates relatively soft. Three structural
grades have been identified as weak, moderate and strong (Table 6.7).
To describe a soil structure, the sequence grade, class and type is followed, for
example, strong coarse angular blocky, moderate thin platy and weak fine prismatic
structure.
Table 6.7. Grades of soil structure
Grade Characteristics
Weak Poorly formed, indistinct peds which are not stable

Moderate Moderately developed peds which are fairly stable and distinct
Strong Very well developed peds which are quite stable and distinct
6.3.3. Genesis of Soil Structure

Genesis of soil structure refers to the causes and methods of formation of aggregates. The
following two processes are involved in genesis of structure:
6.3.3.1. Flocculation
It is an electro-kinetic phenomenon in which positive and negative charges are involved.
In a soil-water suspension, the clay particles with a high zeta-potential repel each other.
With the addition of flocculating agent, zeta-potential is lowered, the particles come
closer and attract each other resulting in the formation of floccules of silt size. Floccules
are stable as long as the flocculating agent is present. Flocculation also takes place due
to dehydration, high soluble salt concentration and presence of divalent or trivalent
cations.
6.3.3.2. Cementation of Floccules

It refers to consolidation of clay floccules by cementing materials so that they may not get
dispersed once these have been flocculated. As floccules are not larger than silt size,
therefore, flocculation would be unfavorable for plants unless these are further aggregated
by inorganic (CaCO3, oxides of Fe and Al) and organic (organic matter) cementing
materials. Flocculation of clay particles is, therefore, prerequisite for aggregation.
Aggregation is always referred to flocculation plus where plus is the cementing agent.
6.3.4. Factors Influencing Formation and Stability of Soil Structure

6.3.4.1. Physical Factors
The physical factors include wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing. Alternate
wetting and drying leads to formation of smaller aggregates, particularly in the fine
textured soil. Drying causes shrinkage of the soil mass. When large dry clod is wetted,
rapid entry of water causes unequal swelling in the clod and clod is fragmented along
cleavage planes. In the process of wetting, increasing pressure of the entrapped air causes
disruption of the large clod into smaller pieces. Similarly, freezing causes cracks in large
clods by expansion of water. These cracks take in more water upon thawing and get
enlarged further on refreezing.
6.3.4.2. Chemical Factors

The chemical factors include exchangeable cations and binding materials. Clay acts as a
cementing agent and also swells and shrinks upon wetting and drying. In certain soils,
small aggregates are held together by covering of clay particles. Exchangeable ions such
as Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+ have a flocculation effect on clay while Na+ has a dispersing effect.
The Na+ ions dominating on exchange complex of sodic soils cause particles to repel each
other and hinder the formation of aggregates. The divalent cations such as Ca2+ and
Mg2+cause the individual colloidal particles to come together and form floccules. Calcium
also helps in binding the organic colloids and clay particles. Hydrated sesquioxides form
almost completely irreversible colloids upon dehydration and help in forming stable
aggregates as in lateritic soils (Oxisols and Ultisols) of the humid tropics. Sesquioxides
also form complexes with humus. The CaCO3 precipitating around soil particles acts as
cementing material for aggregation and imparts stability to soil aggregates. Soluble salts
tend to enhance flocculation of clay even in the sodium-saturated clays.
Organic compounds play a key role in aggregation and stabilization of soil structure.
Fats, waxes, lignin, proteins, resins etc., also help stabilizing the soil aggregates. Humus
helps in aggregation by forming clay-humus complexes. Only Ca-humus is flocculated
due to its tendency to form complex with organic compounds through the coordination
linkage. The Mg, K, H and Na humus is deflocculated and does not help in aggregation.
Synthetic soil conditioners (long carbon-chain organic compounds) are also used for soil
aggregation. These compounds attach themselves to the exchange sites of clay and bind
the clay particles together. Addition of these compounds in relatively small amounts can
produce a good structure even in sandy soils.
6.3.4.3. Biological Factors

The plants and plant residues help the soil particles to bind together. Gelatinous organic
compounds excreted from roots binds the soil particles together. Root hairs penetrate soil
clods and create points of weakness and ultimately break the clods into aggregates. These
also help the soil particles stick together in a granular form. Plant residues serve as food
for microbes which play a prime role in aggregate formation and produce sticky
substances on decomposition. Microorganisms decompose plant and animal residues to
form humus and this humus binds the particles together. Algae, fungi, actinomycetes and
bacteria which constitute the living matter in soil, bind soil particles more effectively
than the exchangeable ion. The small animals like rodents, earthworms, spiders, mites,
nematodes, insects, centipedes, millipedes etc., facilitate the formation of soil aggregates
by way of burrowing, turning the soil or thoroughly mixing the organic residues with the
soil.
6.3.5. Evaluation of Soil Structure

Soil structure can be evaluated both by direct and indirect methods.
6.3.5.1. Direct methods

In direct methods, soil structure is characterized by observing the shape, size and
arrangement of soil aggregates either microscopically or macroscopically. In microscopic
technique, thin soil sections are examined under various types of microscopes for shape
and size of the aggregates and voids. For macroscopic evaluation, a large soil clod is
excavated from the field and allowed to fall gently on smooth surface which breaks into
peds of different sizes and shapes. Shapes and sizes can also be observed directly from
the cleavages of the peds in the soil profile.
6.3.5.2. Indirect methods

Indirect methods involve measurement of size distribution of stable aggregates, stability
of aggregates or soil property which is a function of soil structure.
i. Size distribution of stable aggregates: Dry or wet sieving techniques are used for
determination of different sized stable aggregates. In dry sieving technique, the proportion
of stable aggregates against vibrating action, simulating the scouring effect of wind, is
determined which provides an index for characterizing the susceptibility of soil to
wind erosion. In wet sieving technique, size distribution of water stable aggregates is
determined.
ii. Measurement of stability of aggregates: It is evaluated by the degree to which soil
aggregates resist dispersion. Several indices have been developed such as stability
index, structural coefficient and dispersion coefficient. Stability index is the difference
between percent silt+clay as determined by mechanical analysis and that obtained by
suspension of soil sample in water. The greater the difference, the better is the soil
structure. Structural coefficient is given by (D-S/S), where D is the percentage of particles
less than 0.25 mm in diameter as determined by mechanical analysis and S is the
percentage of aggregates smaller than 0.25 mm in diameter as determined by wet
sieving method. Higher the value of structural coefficient, the better is the soil
structure.
iii. Measurement of soil properties: Bulk density, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity,
aeration, available soil water and degree of compaction of soil may be used for
evaluation of soil structure.
6.3.6. Indices of Soil Structure

Amount of different sized soil aggregates is represented by a single value for comparing
the structural status of different soils or the same soil under different management
practices. Among various indices, Mean weight diameter of aggregates (MWD) is a commonly
used index of soil structure. The MWD gives an estimate of weighted percentage of
average sizes of all the aggregates. The proportion by weight (wi) of a given size fraction
of aggregates to the total sample weight (W) is multiplied by the mean diameter (x– i) of
that fraction. The sum of these products for all size fractions gives the MWD in mm.
where n is the number of fractions; , where Wi is the weight of each size fraction
and W is total sample weight. The soils having MWD of aggregates greater than 0.25 mm
are considered good for crop production. Change in MWD takes into account the stability
of the aggregates both under dry and wet sieving conditions. The lower the difference
between two MWDs, the better is the soil structure.
Numerical
Calculate the mean weight diameter of water stable aggregates from the following data
obtained by wet sieving of 25 g of soil samples by Yoder’s wet sieving method for
aggregate analysis.
Weight of aggregates 12.12 4.35 4.12 3.06 0.98 0.37

retained in each size (g)
Solution: Total sample weight (W) = 25 g
Sieve size class Weight of aggregates Mean diameter of Fraction of total weight x– iwi
(mm) retained (g) each size fraction (mm) wi
Xi Wi x– i
4.0 12.12 4.0 0.485 1.940

4.0-2.0 4.35 3.0 0.174 0.522
2.0-1.0 4.12 1.5 0.165 0.248
1.0-0.5 3.06 0.75 0.122 0.092
0.5-0.25 0.98 0.375 0.039 0.015
0.25-0.10 0.37 0.175 0.015 0.003
Summation 25.00 2.820
= 2.82 mm
6.3.7. Management of Soil Structure

The general practices for improvement and maintenance of soil structure are:
i. Tillage operations be carried out within the range of optimum moisture condition to
ensure least destruction of soil aggregates.
ii. Zero or minimum tillage practices be adopted to maintain adequate aeration and
reduce the loss of organic matter through oxidation and erosion.
iii. Soil surface be kept covered with crop residues to protect aggregates from the beating
action of rain drops, check weed emergence and add organic matter.
iv. Incorporation of crop residues and manures into the soil for stabilizing aggregates.
v. Introduction of legumes in crop rotation coupled with the application of phosphatic
fertilizers.
vi. Green manuring and cover crops are good sources of organic matter.
vii. Integrated use of organics and fertilizers for crop production.
Some soils have specific structural problems which need proper soil management practices
for better soil structure.
i. Sandy soils: These soils have problem of low water and nutrient retention. The practical
method to improve structure of such soils is to add organic matter directly or through
green manuring. The addition of pond sediments, clay soil or even compaction is
helpful in increasing the proportion of small sized pores for enhancing water and
nutrients retention capacity.
ii. Clayey soils: These soils have restricted drainage and aeration due to poor aggregation.
Addition of organic matter, though helpful for improving the aggregation, but the
required amount is high. Therefore, crop rotation and use of phosphatic fertilizers are
useful. Ridge or raised bed cultivation can reduce the aeration stress problem to some
extent.
iii. Puddled condition: In areas under prolonged waterlogging, the soil aggregates are
broken, leading to puddled condition. Proper drainage is possible solution of this
problem.
iv. Dispersed condition: The problem of dispersion is found in sodic soils. Addition of
gypsum in combination with green manuring, manures or incorporation of crop
residues is successful in improving soil structure and amelioration of these soils.
v. Low stability of aggregates: Low stability of aggregates in soils of arid and semi-arid
regions is due to low organic matter content. Stability of aggregates can be increased
by addition of organic matter. Mulching may also be useful as it provides favourable
conditions for microbes to decompose organic materials.
6.3.8. Influence of Texture and Structure on Soil Porosity and Pore Size
Distribution
The porosity and pore size distribution in soil are affected by soil factors mainly texture
and structure. The organic matter, bulk density, and management factors like tillage,
cropping and irrigation, which affect soil structure, indirectly affect total porosity and
pore size distribution.
It has already been mentioned that the coarse textured soils have lower total porosity
than the fine textured soils, although the size of individual pores is larger in coarse
textured soils. The porosity in clayey soils is highly variable as soils exhibit swelling,
shrinkage, aggregation, dispersion, compaction and cracking upon wetting and drying.
The fine textured soils have larger proportion of micropores. Therefore, these soils retain
higher amount of water and are generally poorly drained. Sandy, loamy and clayey soils
may have total porosity in the range of 30-45, 40-55 and 45-60%, respectively. Distribution
of different sized pores is more important for plant growth than the total porosity. In
sandy soils, most of the pores are relatively large and nearly of uniform size, hence, once
these pores get emptied at a given suction, only a small amount of water is held in soils
while in clayey soils, the pore size distribution is more uniform, therefore, water gradually
decreases with increase in suction (Figure 6.2). The amount of water retained at relatively
low suction (<1 bar) depends primarily upon the capillary effect and pore-size distribution,
and hence is strongly affected by soil structure. Water retention in high suction range is
due to surface adsorption and influenced mainly by texture. Soil compaction decreases
total porosity especially by reducing the volume of large inter-aggregate pores, thereby
resulting in decreased water content at saturation and low suctions. The volume of
intermediate size pores is large but the intra-aggregate micro-pores remain unaffected by
soil compaction and for this reason the soil moisture retention for the compacted and
aggregated soils may be nearly identical at high-suction range (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.2. Schematic representation of effect of texture on soil water retention
Figure 6.3. Schematic representation of effect of structure on soil water retention
6.4. Quantitative Relationships between Soil Constituents

Soil texture and soil structure largely influence the weight and pore space of a soil. With
increase in bulk density, the volume of pores decreases and vice versa. Major interest is,
therefore, in studying the relationships between bulk density and pore space, as water
and air are stored in and move through the pores. Plant roots and other soil organisms
also require pore space for their growth and development.
6.4.1. Particle Density

The particle density (ρs) of a soil is the oven-dried mass of soil (Ms) per unit volume of
soil solids (Vs).
It is also called density of solid particles, mean particle density or true density. The ρs
depends on chemical and mineralogical composition of the soil. In most mineral soils, ρs
is in the range of 2.60 to 2.70 g cm-3. For all practical purposes average value of 2.65 Mg
m-3 is used since this value is very close to the density of quartz - a dominant mineral in
sand and silt fractions of the soil. The presence of iron oxides and other heavy minerals
increases but organic matter content decreases the ρs value as the soil organic matter
(SOM) is light in weight as compared to mineral particles.
6.4.2. Bulk Density

Bulk density (ρb) of a soil is the oven- dried mass (Ms) per unit volume (Vt) of soil as a
whole including pore space.
The ρs is always greater than ρb as Vt is always greater than Vs. If the pores constitute
half of the volume of soil then ρb is half of ρs, then ρb will range between 1.30 to 1.35 Mg
m-3. The ρb of soil is influenced by texture, structure, moisture content, organic matter
and management practices of soil. In coarse textured soils, ρb varies from 1.40 to 1.75 Mg
m-3 while in fine textured soils, it normally ranges from 1.10 to 1.40 Mg m-3. The ρb
decreases with increase in organic matter content and fineness of soil texture. Higher
values of ρb indicate more compactness of the soil. The ρb generally increases with soil
depth due to lower organic matter content and overburden of the upper soil layers. In
swelling soils, it decreases with increase in moisture content and vice versa. The bulk
density is of greater importance than particle density in understanding the physical
behaviour of soils and is used for computing the weight of a furrow slice of soil.
The reciprocal of bulk density is specific volume (Vb) i.e. the ratio of volume to dry
mass of soil, expressed as cm3 g-1 or m3 Mg-1. The Vb is an index of degree of compaction
or looseness of the soil. A higher value of Vb indicates lower level of compaction. The
values of specific volume for agricultural soils may vary from 0.55 to 0.70 m3 Mg-1 for
coarse textured soils and from 0.70 to 0.90 m3 Mg-1 for fine textured soils.
6.4.3. Total Porosity

The total porosity (f) is the volume occupied by pores (Vf) per unit volume of soil (Vt). It
is an index of relative pore volume in soil and is generally expressed as percentage.
Its value varies between 30 to 60%. Porosity is lower in the coarse textured soils than
in the fine textured soils but the size of individual pores is larger in the coarse textured
soils than in the fine textured ones. In clayey soils, the total porosity is highly variable as
the soil alternatively swells, shrinks, aggregates, disperses, compacts and cracks during
wetting and drying. Porosity is related to bulk density and particle density of the soil as:
Two types of pores (macro and micro) occur in soils without any clear demarcation.
Usually, pores larger than 0.06 mm in diameter are considered as macropores (water
conducting) and those smaller are called as micropores (water retaining) or capillary
pores. Macropores allow easy movement of water and air, whereas these movements are
restricted to some extent in the micropores. Pore space directly controls the amount of
water and air in the soil and indirectly influences the plant growth. Distribution of
different sized pores is more important for crop production than total porosity of the soil
per se. The existence of approximately equal proportion of both macro- and micro-pores
are ideal for optimum aeration, permeability, drainage and water retention; these also
offer most favourable physical condition for optimum plant growth. Porosity of soil can
easily be altered.
6.4.4. Void Ratio

The void ratio (e) is the volume occupied by pores (Vf) per unit volume of soil solid (Vs).
Void ratio is preferred for engineering purposes. Void ratio is greater than porosity as Vt
is always greater than Vs and its value varies between 0.3 and 2.0. The relationship of
void ratio and porosity is:
6.4.5. Degree of Saturation

Degree of saturation (s) is the ratio of pore volume occupied by water (Vw) to the total
volume of pores (Vf) and usually expressed as percentage:
It ranges from zero in dry soil to 100% in completely saturated soil. However, complete
saturation is rarely attained under field conditions since some air is always trapped even
in a very wet soil.
6.4.6. Air-Filled Porosity

Air-filled porosity (fa) is the volume occupied by air (Va) per unit volume of soil (Vt) and
expressed as percentage.
It is an important criterion of soil aeration and is related to the degree of saturation of

soil as:
fa = f (1-s)
6.4.7. Mass Wetness

Mass wetness (θg) is the mass of water (Mw) per unit mass of oven dried soil (Ms). It is
often termed as gravimetric water content and expressed as a fraction or percentage.
In mineral soils, the θg at saturation ranges between 25-60% depending upon bulk
density. The saturated water content is usually taken as maximum water holding capacity of
the soil. The saturated water content is higher in clayey than in sandy soils. In organic
soils (peat and muck), the saturated water content on the mass basis may exceed 100%.
6.4.8. Volume Wetness or Volumetric Water Content

Volume wetness (θv) is the ratio of total volume of water (Vw) occupied in the pore space
to the total volume of soil (Vt), expressed as a fraction or percentage.
The θv can be computed from θg as: θv = θg x ρb

At saturation, θv is equal to the total porosity of soil. It ranges from 40 to 50% in sandy,
approximately 50% in medium and can be 60% in clayey soils. In clayey soils (especially
with expanding type of minerals), it may exceed the porosity of dry soil because of its
swelling upon wetting. Relationship of θv with s and fa can also be derived as:
and fa = f - θv
The expression of water content on volumetric basis is more useful and convenient as
θv is directly involved in calculating water flux, volume of water added to soil by rains/
irrigation and the volume of water extracted from the soil by the process of evaporation
and transpiration by plants.
6.4.9. Depth of Water

The depth of water (dw) in cm or mm may be calculated as:
dw = θv × dt, because θv = θg ×ρb, therefore, θv = θg ×ρb × dt
where dt is the depth of soil layer for which the depth of water is to be calculated
6.4.10. Weight of a Furrow Slice

The weight of a furrow slice per hectare is the oven-dried weight of soil of one hectare
area to a depth of 15 cm. This weight is used for calculating the amount of fertilizer and
amendments to be applied. It is customary to consider that an average furrow slice of one
hectare area of a medium textured soil having a bulk density of around 1.33 Mg m-3
weighs about 2000 Mg or 2x106 kg and is calculated as:
Weight = Bulk density (Mg m-3) × Furrow slice depth (m) × Area of one hectare (m2)
= 1.33 × 0.15 × 104 = 1995 or ≈ 2000 Mg or 2 × 106 kg
6.4.11. Numerical Problems with Solutions

1. A cube of soil measures 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm (depth =10 cm and area = 100 cm2) and
has a total wet weight of 1460 g including 260 g of water. Assuming the particle
density of 2.65 Mg m-3, find out the water content on mass and volume basis, bulk
density, porosity, water holding capacity, air-filled porosity, degree of saturation and
depth of soil water.
Given: Depth of soil cube (dt) = 10 cm; Area of soil cube (A) = 10 cm x 10 cm = 100
cm2, Volume of soil cube (Vt) = area x depth = 100 cm2 x 10 cm = 1000 cm3 , Wet mass
of soil (Mt) = 1460 g, Mass of water (Mw) = 260 g and particle density (ρs) = 2.65 g cm-3.
Solution
i)
Ms = Mt – Mw =1460-260 = 1200 g
therefore,
ii) Bulk density
iii) Moisture content on volume basis (θv) = θg × ρb

therefore, θv = 21.7 × 1.2 = 26%
iv)
therefore,
v) Air-filled porosity (fa) = (f – θv)

therefore, fa = (54.7 – 26.0) = 28.7%
vi)
therefore,
vii)
Alternatively,
2.. The bulk density and particle density of a soil is 1.5 and 2.5 g cm-3, respectively. If the
moisture in the soil is 15%, find out the porosity, aeration porosity, degree of saturation
and void ratio.
Given: ρb = 1.5 g cm-3, ρs = 2. 5 g cm-3 and θv = 15%
Solution
i)
ii) Air-filled porosity (fa) = (f – θv) = (40 - 15) = 25%
iii)
iv) . Void ratio is in fraction and not in

percentage.
3. The weight of 130 cm3 of a saturated soil is 250 g. If the bulk density of the soil is 1.6 g
cm-3, find out its particle density, porosity and moisture percentage on mass and
volume basis.
Given: Mt = Ms+Mw = 250 g, Vt = 130 cm3 and ρb = 1.6 g cm-3
Solution
i) Particle density . We need to find out the values of Ms and Vs. The
value of Ms can be obtained from the given values ρb and Vt as:
or . The value V s may be
obtained as:
Mw = Mt - Ms i.e. 250-208 = 42 g or Vw = 42 cm3 considering density of water as
unity. The Vs is the difference of Vt and Vw i.e. 130-42 = 88 cm3
Therefore,
ii)
iii) Moisture content (mass basis)
iv) Moisture content (volume basis) θv = θg × ρb = 20.2 × 1.6 = 32.3%

4. The bulk density of a 100 cm3 saturated soil weighting 200 g is 1.6 g cm-3. Find out the
moisture percentage and particle density.
Given: Vt = 100 cm3, Mt = 200 g and ρb = 1.6 g cm-3
Solution
a.
The Ms is calculated from the given value of bulk density and total volume of soil
as:
So,
b.
5. The moisture percentage in a soil on wet-weight basis is 30%. Find out the bulk
density if particle density is 2.5 g cm-3.
Given: θg = 30% (wet weight basis), ρs = 2.5 g cm-3
Solution
where Ms + Mw = Mt = 100 g and Mw = 30 g (or Vw = 30 cm3), therefore, Ms = 70 g
. For calculating Vt, we need to calculate Vs from values of ρs and
Vw
. Now Vt = Vs + Vw = 28+30 = 58 cm3
therefore,
6. A soil has an initial volumetric water content of 10% and its volumetric water content
at field capacity is 30%. How deep a 10 cm rain will wet the soil? How much water in
needed to wet the soil to 125 cm.
Given: Initial θv = 10 % and θv at field capacity = 30%.
Solution
Water content required to attain field capacity of soil = 30-10 = 20% i.e. 0.20 cm of
water per cm of soil depth. Therefore, rainfall of 10 cm will wet the soil to a depth of
. The depth of water required to wet the soil to a depth of 125 cm

will be (0.2 × 125) = 25 cm
7. A soil has volumetric field capacity of 30%. Its initial water content on weight basis
and its bulk density varied with depth and are given in the table below. How deep a 5
cm rain will penetrate?
Depth (cm) Initial water content (%) Bulk density (g cm-3)
0-5 5 1.2
5-20 10 1.3
20-80 15 1.4
80-100 17 1.4
Solution
Given that θv at field capacity is 30%, the depth of soil to be wetted by a rainfall of 5
cm can be calculated as:
Depth Initial ρb Field Initial θv (%) Deficit field Depth of water

(cm) θg (g cm-3) capacity θv (%) i.e. θv = θg × ρb capacity θv required to wet
(%) (%) the soil depth
(cm)
0-5 5 1.2 30 6.0 30-6.0 = 24.0 0.24 × 5 = 1.20

5-20 10 1.3 30 13.0 30-13.0 = 17.0 0.17 × 15 = 2.55
20-80 15 1.4 30 21.0 30-21.0 = 9.0 0.09 × 60 = 5.40
80-100 17 1.4 30 23.8 30-23.8 = 6.2 0.062 × 20 = 1.24
The depth of water required to wet the soil up to 20 cm depth came out to be:
(1.20+2.55) = 3.75 cm but rain water is only 5 cm, therefore, only 1.25 cm of rain water
is left to penetrate in the soil beyond 20 cm soil depth. As per calculation, an amount
of 0.09 cm of water will be required to wet 1 cm of soil in 20-80 cm soil layer.
Therefore, 1.25 cm of water will wet the soil to a depth of . Hence,

total depth of soil wetted by rain of 5 cm will be 34 cm i.e. 20 cm + 14 cm.
6.5. Dynamic Properties of Soil

When certain forces act on a body, the forces do not produce any bodily motion, but
produce a relative displacement of particles of the body resulting in a change of shape or
size or both of the body. Physical behaviour of soils to an applied force is a dynamic
property. These properties include soil consistency, crusting, compaction, strength and
permeability.
6.5.1. Soil Consistency

Soil consistency is the resistance of soil to deformation or rupture under applied pressure.
Soil consistency is important for tillage operations and engineering purposes. The forces
of cohesion and adhesion acting within the soil are responsible for soil consistency. These
forces undergo changes in soil with soil wetness. Therefore, soil consistency is expressed
with reference to soil moisture content. A soil may be hard when dry, friable when moist
and plastic when wet. Apart from soil moisture, other factors affecting consistency are:
i. Type of clay: Soil consistency changes with the type of clay. For example, soil with
montmorillonite having larger specific surface area has higher consistency than
kaolinite.
ii. Texture: With increase in fineness of the particles, soil consistency increases.
iii. Organic matter: Organic matter has more cohesion than sand and silt but less than
clay.
iv. Structure: A puddled soil has more consistency than a well-aggregated one because of
larger area of contact between the individual particles.
v. Sesquioxides and calcium carbonate: Presence of these materials increases soil consistency.
6.5.1.1. Forms of Soil Consistency

i. Hard or Harsh consistency is observed in a dry soil. At low moisture content, the soil
becomes very hard and coherent due to cohesive forces between the dried particles.
ii. Soft and friable consistency is observed in a moist soil. As moisture content increases,
water molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the soil particles and result in
decreasing the coherence between the particles. The soil mass becomes friable.
Friability characterizes the ease of breakdown of soil. The range of soil moisture
content under friable condition is optimum for tillage operations.
iii. Plastic consistency is observed in wet soil. Soil can be moulded into any desirable shape
which is retained even after the applied pressure is removed.
iv. Sticky consistency is observed in a very wet soil. In very wet condition, soil sticks to
various objects. The moisture content at which soil ceases to stick to any other object
is called sticky point.
6.5.1.2. Soil Plasticity

Plasticity is the property which enables a clay/soil to take up water to form a mass that
can be deformed into any shape and to maintain the shape even after the deformation
pressure is removed. Soils with less than 15% clay do not exhibit plasticity in any moisture
range. This amount of clay, however, depends on type of the clay and the organic matter
content of the soil. The plate-like shape of clay particles and binding and lubricating
effect of adsorbed water provide plasticity to the soil.
6.5.1.3. Indices of Plasticity

Plasticity is exhibited over a range of moisture content referred to as plasticity limits
(Atterberg limits). There are three indices of plasticity:
Lower plastic limit or plastic limit: The plastic limit is the lowest moisture content at which
a soil can be deformed without cracking. It is the upper limit of moisture content for
tillage operation for most crops, except rice. Tillage operations in soil at moisture content
above the plastic limit result in smearing and puddling of the soil.
Upper plastic limit or liquid limit: The liquid limit is the
moisture content at which a soil ceases to be plastic. It
becomes semi-fluid and tends to flow like a liquid under
an applied pressure. This limit is used for classification
of soils for engineering purpose. The apparatus used for
determining the liquid limit is liquid limit device i.e.
Casagrande apparatus (Figure 6.4).
Plasticity index: The difference in the moisture content
between upper and lower plastic limit is that range of
moisture content over which a soil remains plastic, and is
called plasticity index. Soil with expanding type clays
has high liquid limit and plasticity index. Soils with high
plasticity index are difficult to plough. The plasticity
Figure 6.4. Casagrande- A liquid
index also gives an indication of compressibility. The limit device
greater the plasticity index, the greater is the soil
compressibility.
Shrinkage characteristics, liquid limit, plastic limit and different densities of soil are
called the index properties of soil by engineers. Soil engineers usually determine the
Atterberg limits for predicting suitability of soils for different construction purposes.
Soils with a plasticity index of greater than 25 results in poor roadbeds or foundations.
The expansiveness of a soil can be quantified as the coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE).
A sample of soil is moistened to its plastic limit and moulded into the shape of a bar with
length, say LM. The bar of soil is then allowed to air dry which shrinks to length, say LD.
The COLE is the per cent reduction in length of the soil bar upon shrinking:
6.5.2. Soil Crusting

Soil crust is a thin compacted surface layer of higher bulk density than the soil
immediately beneath which is formed due to dispersion of soil aggregates as a result of
wetting and impact of rain drops, and its subsequent rapid drying. The thickness of crust
may vary from mm to few cm depending upon the amount and type of clay, and silt
content of the soil. Soils having organic matter less than 1% are more prone to crusting.
6.5.2.1. Mechanism of Crust Formation

The impact of high intensity raindrops or sprinkler irrigation disintegrates the surface
soil aggregates. The disintegrated material disperses into suspension. Coarse particles
start to settle faster but fine particles remain in suspension for a longer period. As the
water drains or evaporates, clay particles settling on the top of coarse particles form a
surface crust on drying. Due to clogging of the macro-pores of the soil by dispersed
particles, the layer becomes dense, reducing the infiltration of water and exchanges of
gases through it. Upon drying, this layer becomes hard and its hardness/strength increases
with decrease in its moisture content. Hardness of the soil crust also increases with
increase in silica, oxides and hydroxides of Al and Fe, CaCO3 and silt content of the soil.
The crusting is more severe in the coarse and medium textured soils with weaker
aggregates than in the fine textured soils.
6.5.2.2. Adverse Effects of Crusting

Adverse effects of crusting are apparent mainly in germination and emergence of plant
seedlings. However, such effects depend on crust strength and thickness, emergence
force of seedlings and management practices. Re-sowing of poorly germinated crops
wastes money on seed and labour, and escalate the cost of production. Soil crust reduces
infiltration rate into the soils and increases the runoff losses. The exchange of gases
between soil and the atmosphere becomes slow or even ceases.
Crust strength is measured by the modulus of rupture test or in terms of the resistance
to penetration of the penetrometer. The maximum crust strength of a sandy loam soil in
arid and semi-arid regions can be about 3.5 kg cm-2 and thickness of about 3 mm. The
emergence forces of some of the crops are:
Crop Emergence force (kg cm-2)
Pearl millet 2.0

Cotton 3.0
Mungbean 3.2
Clusterbean 3.8
Maize 16.0
Thus, in sandy loam soils of arid and semi-arid regions, soil crust could be the limiting
factor for the emergence of pearl millet, cotton and mungbean but not for clusterbean and
maize.
6.5.2.3. Management of Soil Crusting

Soil crusting can be minimized by vegetative mulching, application of FYM or straw at
the rate of 30-50 kg ha-1 on seed-line immediately after sowing of crop to protect the soil
from raindrop impact. Ridge sowing of the crop can also be helpful for better emergence
of the seedlings. If the soil crust is formed, it can be immediately scrapped with a tined
hoe to ensure a better crop emergence. Addition of organic matter and use of certain soil
conditioners can also reduce clay dispersion and crust formation. Light irrigation after
crust formation can help in germination of the seeds sown.
6.5.3. Soil Compaction

Soil compaction is the process of increasing bulk density and reducing pore volume as a
result of the applied pressure. It leads to destruction of larger pores, re-arrangement of
solid particles and compression of air within the pore spaces in the soil. The degree of
compaction depends upon the nature of clay minerals, type of exchangeable cations,
amount of energy applied, water content and extent of manipulation of the soil. Dry soils
cannot be compacted to high densities due to incompressible nature of soil particles and
high internal friction. An increase in moisture content decreases cohesion between the
particles and internal friction, and facilitates compaction. With increase in soil moisture,
compaction increases to maximum and then decreases with further increase in soil water.
The moisture content at which maximum compaction occurs is called proctor moisture
content.
A compacted layer is commonly found just below the usually tilled layer of soil. This
layer is termed as plough sole. The compacted layer often restricts root penetration, and
reduces water and nutrient uptake by crops. For enhancing crop growth, the management
practices which are capable of preventing formation or breaking of such hard layers
(chiselling, sub-soiling, deep ploughing) should be followed. Compaction of coarse-
textured soils is sometimes desirable for better seed germination and efficient utilization
of water and nutrients.
For engineering purposes, soil compaction imparts strength to soil for erecting stable
structures and reducing maintenance costs. Compaction occurring over time under heavy
load causes uneven settlement and cracks in pavement or foundations. Different types of
equipments are used to compact the different textured soils. For example, kneading
techniques use heavy sheep-foot rollers in clayey and a vibrating rollers or hammers in
sandy soils.
Soils having swelling type of silicate clay may be compacted by applying external
pressure but regain their original position upon removal of pressure. This makes them
unsuitable for foundations. Standard proctor test is used to obtain optimum soil moisture
at which maximum compaction of soil is achieved (Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.5. Soil moisture content and bulk density curve attaining optimum moisture for Proctor bulk
density
6.5.4. Soil Strength

Soil strength is a measure of the capacity of a soil to resist applied pressure without
deformation. Soils which are unable to bear the applied pressure result in collapse of
engineering structures, for example, earthen dams under the pressure of impounded
water, sliding of pavement or other structures on unstable sloppy lands. Strength of
cohesive soils declines under wet conditions and increases under dry and compacted
conditions. There are different laboratory tests to estimate soil strength but the simplest
is the direct unconfined compression test.
6.5.5. Permeability
Permeability is the ease with which soil allows fluid to pass through it and helps in
determining the movement and retention of water, nutrients and air. Permeability is also
useful for civil engineers. For example, constructing a building on highly permeable soil
requires water proofing before laying the foundations or raising the columns.
6.6. Soil Colour

Soil colour provides valuable information regarding soil conditions and some properties
of soils. For example, dark coloured soils absorb more solar radiation and warm up faster
than the light coloured soils. Soil colour is also used for soil classification and
interpretation and description of soil profiles. The presence of excessive salts, soil erosion
etc., can also be easily identified from the soil colour.
6.6.1. Determination of Soil Colour

A standard system of accurate description of soil
colour involves Munsell Colour Chart (Figure 6.6).
A small piece of soil is compared with the
standard colour chips in the soil colour book.
Each colour chip is described by three
components: hue, value and chroma. The hue is
the dominant spectral colour which refers to
usually redness or yellowness in soil. The value
refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a
colour (amount of reflected light), a value of zero
(0) being black. The chroma represents the purity
of the dominant colour (strength of the colour),
a chroma of zero (0) being a neutral grey.
The Munsell colour notations are systematic
numerical and letter designations of each of
these three parameters. For example, the
notation of 2.5YR5/6 means a hue of 2.5 YR,
value 5 and chroma 6. The equivalent soil colour
name for this Munsell notation is ‘red‘. Soils
have a wide range of colours of red, brown,
yellow and even green. Some soils are nearly
black while some are nearly white. Adjacent soils
may even have different colours e.g., black and
red soils exist side by side in Andhra Pradesh.
Soil colour may vary with depth in soil profile Figure 6.6. The Munsell color system showing
and from place to place in the landscape. The
soil horizons may have colours of same hue but of different chroma and value.
6.6.2. Factors Influencing Soil Colour

Most important factors influencing the soil colour are:
i. Mineralogy and chemical composition of soil: Presence of manganese oxides imparts black
while glauconite imparts green colour to the soil. Calcium carbonate which is found
in soils of semi-arid regions imparts white colour.
ii. Iron compounds: Red, yellow or brown colour is mostly related to the extent of
oxidation, hydration and diffusion of iron oxides in the soils. Yellow, red and brown
colours are mostly due to the presence of goethite, hematite and magnetite,
respectively.
iii. Organic matter: Organic matter present in the soil tends to impart dark brown to black
colour to it.
iv. Soil moisture: Moist soils are darker in colour than the dry soils.
v. Soil texture and structure: Coarse textured soils are usually light in colour while well
structured soils appear to be darker in colour.
6.7. Soil Air

The soil air is as important as nutrients, water and temperature for plant growth. The
composition of soil air is closely related to the atmospheric air. By volume, the atmosphere
consists of N2 (78.09%) and O2 (20.95%) with smaller quantities of CO2 (0.039%), inert
gases such as argon (0.93%) and water vapour (variable). The concentration of O2 in soil
air is slightly less (20.60%) and that of CO 2 is several times higher (0.25 %) than
atmosphere as plant roots and soil microorganisms consume O2 and release CO2 during
their respiration. Under reducing conditions, O2 may completely be depleted and methane,
hydrogen sulphide and ammonia are formed due to decomposition of organic matter.
Soil air has a high relative humidity which is nearly 100% except at the surface during
summer season. Soil air is not continuous due to discontinuity of soil pores. The
composition of soil air is, however, dynamic and varies largely with soil moisture content,
degree of aeration, time of the year, temperature, soil depth, root growth, microbial
activities, etc., and from place to place.
6.7.1. Importance of Soil Air

Oxygen is required for the respiration of plant roots, microbes and the soil fauna. The
CO2 helps in increasing the availability of nutrients to plants. The N2 serves a substrate
for the production of plant utilizable (available) nitrogen by symbiotic and non-symbiotic
bacteria. Water vapour prevents the desiccation of soil and helps in movement of water
within the soil. A constant supply of O2 is essential and its concentration should be at
least 10% for normal growth of the plants. Lack of O2 is more injurious to plants than
excess of CO2 within the reasonable limits (<20%). An excess of O2 is also undesirable
because it oxidises the organic matter rapidly and dries the soil quickly.
6.7.2. Factors Affecting Composition of Soil Air

The composition of soil air changes continuously due to consumption of O2 by roots and
microorganisms, release of CO2 during respiration and decomposition of organic materials,
and renewal by atmospheric air. Factors affecting the composition of soil air include soil
physical properties, crop grown, tillage practices, organic matter content, biological
activities, season etc.
6.7.2.1. Soil Physical Properties

The soil physical properties such as texture, structure, porosity, bulk density and moisture
content largely control the composition of soil air. Sandy soils have low total porosity but
the size of pores is big whereas clayey soils have high total porosity but the size of pores
is small. The soils with bigger pores promote rapid exchange of gases than soils with
smaller pores; therefore, the composition of soil air may not change in sandy soils. The
soils of stable structure have large volume of macropores (> 0.06 mm equivalent diameter)
and contain the amount of O2 equivalent to its content in atmosphere. On the other hand,
puddled or flooded soils are higher in their CO2 content due to limited aeration. The
reduction in the volume of macropores upon compaction leads to increase in CO2 and
decrease in O2. The restriction in diffusion of gases with increase in soil moisture increases
the concentration of CO2 in wet soils. In waterlogged soils, gases like H2S, CH4 and NH3
may accumulate and have adverse effect on plant roots. Since, surface soil diffuses directly
with the atmosphere, therefore, has relatively higher O2 as compared to subsoil.
6.7.2.2. Respiration
The rate of respiration by plant roots and microorganisms is the major cause of the
variation in the concentration of O 2 and CO 2 in soil air which is affected by soil
temperature, moisture and type of soil organisms.
6.7.2.3. Soil Organic Matter and Biological Activities

Addition of manures, crop residues, sewage sludge or other organic materials affects the
composition of soil air to a large extent. During the process of microbial decomposition of
these materials, the concentration of O2 decreases and that of CO2 increases.
6.7.2.4. Cropping
The growing plants tend to reduce O2 and increase CO2 concentration due to root
respiration. The biological activities associated with crops also tend to increase the
concentration of CO2 in the soil.
6.7.2.5. Tillage
The exchange of gases is faster in tilled soils. A shallow tillage encourages CO2 in the top
soil in comparison to a deep tillage. Puddling required for growing rice decreases the
macropores and results in poor aeration for succeeding crop like wheat.
6.7.2.6. Season
The composition of soil air changes with season primarily due to changes in soil
temperature and moisture. In rainy season, soils have lower O 2 and higher CO 2
concentration as compared to summer when soils are dry and there is a greater
opportunity of gaseous exchange. But in warm season due to higher microbial activity
more CO2 may be produced. The concentration of CO2 increases after rains because of
increased decomposition of organic matter and slow gaseous exchange.
6.7.3. Soil Aeration

Soil aeration is the process of exchange of O2 and CO2 between soil air and atmosphere.
Soil aeration replenishes O2 consumed and prevents accumulation of CO2 evolved during
respiration of plant roots and micro-organisms. Aeration status of soil is usually

characterized by aeration porosity.
6.7.4. Processes of Gaseous Exchange

The exchange of gases between soil and atmosphere (renewal of soil air) is a natural
process which involves two mechanisms namely, mass flow and diffusion.
6.7.4.1. Mass flow

The mass flow of air occurs due to total pressure gradient of gases which causes
movement of entire mass of air from a region of higher pressure to the region of lower
pressure. Mass flow of air may occur from atmosphere to soil or vice-versa and from one
location to another in the soil. The difference in total pressure may arise due to
meteorological factors such as temperature, pressure, wind, and air replacement due to
rain or irrigation.
i. Temperature: As per Charles’ law, air pressure is directly proportional to the air
temperature at a constant volume. So, whenever there is a temperature gradient
between two points, pressure gradient also develops which causes gases to move.
Temperature difference may arise within the soil or between soil and atmosphere.
Therefore, movement of air may be within the soil and/or between soil and
atmosphere.
ii. Pressure: As per Boyle’s law, volume of air is inversely proportional to the pressure at
a constant temperature. With increase in pressure in the atmosphere, the volume of
soil air decreases resulting in movement of air from atmosphere to soil. As pressure
in the atmosphere decreases, the volume of soil air increases which causes the
movement of soil air to atmosphere.
iii. Rainfall and irrigation: Rainfall and irrigation displace the soil air as such to the lower
depths. When water is lost from the soil by evaporation, plant uptake or deep
drainage, the air moves from atmosphere to soil.
iv. Wind: Pressure and suction effects of high wind cause the exchange of gases between
the soil and the atmosphere but the effect is restricted to surface soil only.
6.7.4.2. Diffusion
Diffusion is the predominant process of soil aeration. In diffusion, individual gas
constituents move separately due to partial pressure gradient but the total pressure of air
may be the same. When partial pressure of CO2 in soil air increases due to root and
microbial activities, the CO2 diffuses from soil to the atmosphere. Similarly, when O2 in
soil air is consumed for respiration, its partial pressure is reduced and the O2 diffuses
into the soil. Diffusion increases with increase in temperature.
Fick’s law of diffusion: As per Fick’s law of diffusion, flux of a gas across a plane is
proportional to the concentration gradient:
…(6.7)
where qi is the flux of ith gas constituent in x- direction, D is the diffusion coefficient, dc is
change in concentration in a small distance, dx, and dc/dx is the concentration gradient of
the ith gas constituent. The flux (g cm-2 min-1) refers to the amount of gas diffusing in a
unit time across a plane of unit area.
The equation for ideal gases is:
PV = nRT …(6.8)
where P is the partial pressure of gas, V is the volume of gas, n is the number of molecules
of gas, R is the gas constant (8.3 J K-1 mol-1) and T is the absolute temperature.
Therefore, where c = concentration
Substituting the value of c in equation 6.7:
…(6.9)
where D, R and T are constants, therefore, D’ is diffusion coefficient when gradient is

expressed in terms of partial pressure of individual gas constituents.
The coefficient of diffusion of gases depends on the texture, structure and moisture
content of the soil. The rate of diffusion increases with temperature. Under dry conditions,
the diffusion of gases is higher in fine than the coarse textured soil. Under moist
conditions, the behaviour is reverse as the air-filled pores will be more in the coarse
textured soil.
6.7.5. Factors Affecting Soil Aeration

The volume of macropores affects the total air and gaseous exchange in the soil. The
volume of these pores largely depends on texture, structure, degree of compaction and
depth of soil. Due to large volume of macroporoes, coarse textured soils have adequate
aeration than fine textured soils. Due to this, the concentration of CO2 is higher in the fine
textured soils. Puddled soils have more CO2 content due to poor aeration. Well aggregated
soils may have some patches of poor aeration due to the presence of compacted soil
layer. The subsoils are usually deficient in O2 due to the reduced volume of macropores.
6.7.6. Characterization of Soil Aeration Status

Soil aeration status may be characterized by determining the concentration of O2 and CO2
in soil air using chemical or gas chromatographic methods. The air-filled porosity and air
permeability can also be used to determine the aeration status of soil. Other methods
include the determination of diffusion coefficient of gases and redox potential of the soil.
However, the best method for characterization of aeration status is to measure the oxygen
diffusion rate (ODR) in soil. The ODR is the rate at which O2 is replenished when it is
used by plant roots or microorganisms. The ODR meter is used to measure ODR. The
critical value of ODR of soils is 20×10-8 g cm-2 min-1 below which the growth of roots of
most plants ceases. The optimum ODR range for most crops lies between 30×10-8 g cm-2
min-1 to 40×10-8 g cm-2 min-1. The ODR decreases with moisture and the depth of soil. A
soil condition where the ODR is at least 30 × 10-8 g cm-2 min-1 and O2 concentration of the
soil air is at least 10% in the root zone is considered as having adequate aeration.
6.7.7. Management of Soil Aeration

The soil aeration can be optimized by managing soil structure, soil temperature, proper
drainage, tillage, plant adaptation and regulation of plant roots.
i. Soil structure: Soil structure may be improved by addition of farmyard manure, green
manuring, crop residues, and growing of legume crops in order to increase the volume
of macropores. The fine pores retain water for a longer time and inhibit oxygen
diffusion; therefore, it is necessary to avoid crusting and soil compaction.
ii. Drainage: Surface or subsurface drainage of fields is essential for the supply of
sufficient oxygen where soil becomes saturated due to continuous seepage from canals,
perched or high water tables, heavy rains or irrigation. The drainage will decrease the
moisture content and provide aerobic environment in the soil.
iii. Cultivation: A shallow cultivation of soil and inter-culture operations control weeds
and help in exchange of gases, especially in the poorly drained heavy-textured soils.
After rain, if crust is formed, it may hinder the gaseous exchange. A light cultivation
will break it and help in improving soil aeration. For the improvement of soil
aeration in deeper soil layers, planting deep-rooted crops, or sub-soiling, and vertical
mulching (the incorporation of organic residues into slits cut into the sub-soil) are
very useful.
iv. Temperature: An increase in soil temperature increases the oxygen diffusion rates,
enhances the microbial activity and raises CO2 production in the soil. The net result of
the increase in soil temperature on the partial pressure of O2 may, therefore, be either
positive or negative. In such situations, mulching plays an important role as mulch
protects the soil from the impact of the raindrops and therefore, helps in retaining the
tilth. Thus mulching facilitates aeration but it also keeps the soil moist and restricts
the soil aeration. The positive or negative effect of mulching on oxygen diffusion rate
depends on individual situation. However, it has been observed that mulching usually
decreases O2 diffusion into the soil.
v. Plant adaptations: Plant roots, in general, are adapted to aerobic conditions. However,
some of the plant species develop mechanisms such as increase in the air space of
roots (root porosity) or internal aeration through leaves and cortex cells, and grow
well even in oxygen-deficient soils. The selection of crop species, therefore, is
important for growing crops in waterlogged or poorly drained soils. For example, rice
thrives well in submerged soil conditions. Soybean crop can tolerate temporarily
waterlogged conditions better than crops like maize, pigeon pea and other deep-
rooted crops.
vi. Regulation of root respiration: Soil aeration may be managed by regulating respiration
of roots and microbes by fertilization, cultural practices, plant population and
incorporation of organic residues into the soil. Crops of lower O2 requirement or
shallow-root systems may be grown in situations where only surface soil has some
degree of aeration.
6.8. Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is an important physical property that regulates evaporation, aeration
and chemical reactions taking place in the soil. Soil temperature strongly influences
biological processes such as seed germination, seedling emergence and growth, root
development and microbial activities. Temperature is a measure of the heat energy. The
unit of heat energy is calorie or joule and temperature is Kelvin (K) but it is often convenient
to use degree Celsius (oC) or degree Fahrenheit (oF). Calorie is defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by 1 oC. The source of
heat in soil is primarily the solar radiation.
6.8.1. Thermal Properties

6.8.1.1. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of substance through 1oC and is expressed as cal oC-1. Specific heat is defined
as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance
through 1 oC. In other words, it is heat capacity per unit mass of substance and expressed
as cal g-1 oC-1 or J g-1 oC-1. The specific heat expressed on volume basis is called volumetric
specific heat i.e. product of specific heat and bulk density of the substance.
Specific heat of water is 1.00 cal g-1. Specific heat of most of the soil forming minerals
and humus is nearly 0.20 and 0.46 cal g-1, respectively. Practically, all substances have
specific heat lower than water. It takes five times more energy to raise the temperature of
water by 1 oC than the soil; thus, the specific heat of soil is strongly related to water
content.
6.8.1.2. Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat transmitted through a unit length of a
substance per unit cross-section per unit temperature gradient per unit time. It is
expressed in cal-cm s-1 cm-2 oC-1 or cal s-1 cm-1 oC-1. The flow of heat occurs in the direction
of decreasing temperature gradient, i.e. from higher temperature to lower temperature.
Thermal conductivity depends upon moisture content, texture, structure, mineralogical
composition, organic matter and degree of compaction of soil. It varies in the order of
sand>loam>clay>organic soil. Thermal conductivity increases with increase in wetness of
soil up to a certain limit beyond which it decreases. Organic matter increases porosity
and reduces the contact between soil particles. Therefore, thermal conductivity is low in
soils with high organic matter content. Similarly, thermal conductivity increases with
compaction of the soil due to increased contact between soil particles. Thermal
conductivity of quartz, water and air are in the ratio of 363:24:1.
Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric heat capacity. It
is a measure of the rate of change of temperature within soil due to net effect of thermal
conductivity and volumetric heat capacity of soil under prevailing conditions. The unit of
thermal diffusivity is cm2 s-1.
6.8.2. Heat Balance in Soil

The heat balance in soil is the balance of gains and losses of heat energy. It is expressed
as soil heat flux (amount of radiation received per unit area per unit time) which is the
difference between incoming heat fluxes and outgoing heat fluxes at the soil surface i.e.
JH = (Rs+Rnt) - (Hc + L*E + αRs)
where JH is the heat flux at soil surface representing vertical transport of heat into the soil
Rs - global solar radiation (sum of direct and scattered radiation)
Rnt - net long wave thermal radiation (radiation from sky - radiations from earth)
Hc - convective heat flux representing the transport of warm air from the soil surface
to the atmosphere vertically above it
L*E - latent heat flux, which is the product of the latent heat of vaporization (L) and
evaporation rate (E ), and denotes evaporation and subsequent transport of water
vapour from soil surface into atmosphere
α - albedo, which is fraction of incoming radiation to the reflected radiation back to

the atmosphere
6.8.3. Diurnal and Annual Variations of Soil Temperature

Depending upon the position of the sun from the earth, the exchange of solar radiation at
soil surface varies causing variations in both diurnal and annual soil temperature.
6.8.3.1. Diurnal Variation

The temperature of surface soil varies
according to incoming radiation during
the day, increasing to a peak value
during noon and falling thereafter.
During the night also it falls but much
slowly than during the day. Soil
temperature below the soil surface tends
to follow the changes in surface but the
diurnal variation is reduced gradually
(Figure 6.7). The variation in minimum
and maximum temperature also
Figure 6.7. Schematic diurnal variations in
decreases considerably with depth and temperature at different soil depths
at a certain depth below the surface
temperature variation is practically
absent. In general, diurnal changes in soil temperature are lower in moist than dry,
compacted than loose, and deeper than shallower soil layers.
6.8.3.2. Annual Variation

Annual variations in the soil
temperature (mean maximum and
minimum) at different soil depths
(Figure 6.8) influence the crop growth.
These changes may occur even beyond
1.0 m depth. Soil temperature variation
during the year is a major factor that
determines the length of growing season
and suitability for different crops. In
northern and central India, the
maximum soil temperature is critical for
Figure 6.8. Schematic annual variations in
crop growth during summer and temperature at different soil depths
minimum soil temperature during
winter.
6.8.4. Factors Affecting Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is controlled largely by the factors which affect incoming and outgoing
heat on and within the soil. The major source of heat in soil is radiation from the sun.
Other sources which are of minor importance include the heat from interior of the earth,
radioactive substances, and chemical and biological processes occurring within the earth.
The factors affecting soil temperature are both environmental (external) and soil (internal).
6.8.4.1. Environmental Factors

Solar radiation reaching on the soil surface depends largely on the angle of incidence of
radiation at earth surface. Highest radiation is received at lower latitudes i.e. at the
equatorial regions. The solar elevation is lower in winter than in summer season; more
solar radiation reaches the earth surface in summer causing seasonal fluctuations in soil
temperature. During the day, solar elevation is highest in the noon than in dawn and
dusk, causing diurnal changes in soil temperature.
The presence of water vapour, clouds, dust, smoke, fog, etc., in atmosphere also
affects the soil temperature. The processes such as evaporation, condensation, thawing
and freezing, cause increase or decrease in soil temperature depending upon the release
or absorption of heat during the process. Rain usually has a cooling action and vegetation
tends to decrease the soil temperature through reflection of incident radiation, insulation
effect, transpiration, etc.
6.8.4.2. Soil Factors

The properties of soil which affect the albedo are mainly responsible for variation in soil
temperature. Albedo, the fraction of the incoming radiation reflected from the earth’s
surface, depends on colour, moisture content and surface condition of the soil, and angle
of incidence of solar radiation at soil surface. The albedo is higher at dawn and dusk than
at other times of the day, and in winter than summer. Moist soils are relatively darker,
have lower albedo than the dried soils. Similarly, smooth surface has higher albedo than
the rough soil surface. During day, heat flows in downward direction from warmer soil
surface to cooler sub-surface and vice versa during night.
A soil having high specific heat exhibits less fluctuation in soil temperature. Therefore,
clayey soils with high moisture content remain cool while sandy soils which hold less
water warm up quickly. Soil texture, structure, compaction and moisture affect soil
temperature by influencing the thermal conductivity of soil. Dark soil absorbs more and
reflects less radiation than the light coloured soils; consequentially the former soils warm
up more quickly. In addition, biological activities associated with decomposition of
organic materials evolve heat and raise the soil temperature.
6.8.5. Heat Flow in Soil

Flow of heat in any material may occur by conduction (through contact), convection
(through air currents) and radiation (without any
medium). The heat flow in soil is mainly through
conduction while convection and radiation are of
lesser importance. The heat flow through
conduction is described by Fourier’s law.
According to this law, the heat flux in a block of
soil (Figure 6.9) is directly proportional to the ratio
of temperature difference (T1-T2) between the hot
and cool ends of the block and its thickness (x1-
x 2 ). The proportionality constant is thermal
conductivity, k. The Fourier’s law in the
differential form may be written as:
Figure 6.9. Heat flux in a block of soil

where Jq is heat flux, (J m-2 s-1) or quantity of heat Q, transferred across a unit cross-
sectional area, A (m2) of soil in a unit time, t (s), and is the temperature gradient over
distance x (oC m-1). The negative sign indicates that flux and gradients are in opposite
direction. A major factor influencing the heat conduction in soil is its moisture content. A
dry and loose soil is a poor conductor of heat than a wet and compacted soil.
6.8.6. Measurement of Soil Temperature

Measurement of soil temperature is based on changes in thermometric properties of the
measuring system in equilibrium with the soil. These methods are contact and non-
contact types. In contact type thermometers, expansion of a solid (bimetallic strip
thermometer), liquid (mercury thermometer), gas (constant pressure or volume
thermometer) or changes in electrical properties of material (thermistors and thermocouple
thermometer) with change in temperature is measured. The non-contact type thermometer
measures temperature from thermal radiation emitted by the object such as optical
pyrometers, total intensity radiometers and infrared thermometers. Mercury
thermometers, thermistors and thermocouple thermometers are widely used to measure
soil temperature.
6.8.7. Soil Temperature and Plant Growth

Soil temperature influences the plant growth directly by affecting seed germination and
root growth, and indirectly by affecting soil moisture, aeration, structure, microbial
activities and availability of plant nutrients.
6.8.7.1. Direct Effects

Most of the crops require optimum temperature in the range of 10-35 oC to germinate
within a reasonable time as shoot meristem, the site of temperature perception of many
crops, lies below the soil surface for an appreciable period. The plant growth is initiated
when the minimum temperature is reached, and rate of growth increases up to the
optimum temperature and declines thereafter. The minimum and maximum temperatures,
however, differ for different crops and stage of the crop growth. At very low or high
temperatures, root growth is stunted which reduces the absorption of water and nutrients.
Some plants are adapted to low temperatures while others adapt better under high
temperatures. The optimum temperature for root growth of most of the crop plants lies
between 20-25 oC and is often lower than that for shoot growth. The optimum temperature
for activities of most of the micro-organisms is between 25-35 oC. The relation of
temperature to plant life is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8. Approximate soil temperature ranges (oC) for some crops
Soil temperature range Maize Rice Sorghum Wheat
Optimum range - plants flourish and produce best 25-35 25-30 2-30 15-27
Growth range - plants can grow 10-39 15-38 15-35 5-35
Survival limit* (minimum and maximum temperature) - plants survive 0-43 12-42 7-37 0-40
* depends on stage of growth and duration of exposure to such extreme temperatures.

6.8.7.2. Indirect Effects

i. Soil moisture: Soil moisture decreases with increase in soil temperature due to increased
rate of evaporation. Temperature increases vapour pressure, and difference in vapour
pressure causes movement of water in vapour phase in the soil. This type of movement
is very important, particularly, in sandy soils where water percolates below root zone
and moves upward in vapour phase. These vapours get condensed in the root-zone at
night and become available to plants.
ii. Aeration: Increase in soil temperature increases diffusion which is important for
exchange of gases between soil and atmosphere.
iii. Soil structure: The temperature affects soil structure through its effect on moisture
changes, and freezing and thawing processes. Soil temperature is also important in
stabilizing the soil aggregates.
iv. Microbial activity and availability of nutrients: Soil temperature has a profound effect on
microbial activities which transform nutrients through decomposition of organic
matter and make them available to plants.
6.8.8. Management of Soil Temperature

Temperature of surface soil may be managed by suitable cultural practices such as
mulching, irrigation, drainage and tillage.
Mulch with plastic cover or crop residues may increase or decrease the temperature
of surface soil, depending upon the type of mulch and the environmental conditions.
Crop residue mulch reduces the solar radiations and lowers the maximum soil
temperature which has significant effect on root growth and crop yields in the arid
region. Polyethylene mulch raises the maximum soil temperature which is desirable
during winter season, as polyethylene is transparent only to the incoming solar radiations.
Mulch also conserves soil moisture by altering infiltration and evaporation of water.
Irrigation causes rapid and substantial reduction in maximum temperature in summers
due to lower temperature and higher heat capacity of irrigation water and greater
evaporative cooling in irrigated soils. In winter season, irrigation increases minimum soil
temperature due to relatively higher temperature and heat capacity of irrigation water
than the soil. As poorly drained soils have higher heat capacity, therefore, removal of a
major portion of soil water by drainage raises the soil temperature which is quite important
in cold humid region.
Tillage makes the soil loose, increases porosity and decreases thermal conductivity,
and consequently, the soil temperature. A tilled surface soil shows higher temperature
than the underlying untilled or compacted soil.
6.9. Conclusions
Physical properties have significant influence on the behaviour of soil for agricultural
and engineering uses. Soil texture and structure determine the total porosity and the size
distribution of pores which influence water, heat and air relationships in the soil. Soil
texture is a static property but structure may be manipulated through management
practices. It is essential to carry out the tillage operations at optimum soil moisture to
avoid deterioration in soil structure. Management of physical, chemical and biological
factors can help in maintaining proper soil physical conditions for plant growth. Soil
aeration and soil temperature affect the quality of soils for plants and other organisms.
Soil water has a major influence on both soil aeration and temperature. It competes with
soil air and moderates soil temperature. Soil consistency, plasticity, compaction, strength
etc., help in determining the stability of soil against loading forces from traffic, tillage or
building foundations. Looking at the current stress on soil as a natural resource for food
security and safety, due emphasis is needed for maintaining soil physical fertility by
adding organic materials, introduction of legumes in rotation, adoption of conservation
tillage, etc.
Study Questions
1. Calculate the total porosity of a soil whose bulk density is 1.30 Mg m-3 and particle
density of 2.65 Mg m-3.
(Ans. 50.9 %)
2. Calculate the weight of 1 hectare 15 cm deep soil whose bulk density is 1.4 Mg m-3.
(Ans. 2100 Mg)
3. Calculate the depth of irrigation for one hectare area of cotton whose effective root-
zone is 90 cm, from the following soil data taken before irrigation.
Soil depth ρb θg Field capacity Wilting point ρs

(cm) (Mg m-3) (%) (%) (%) (Mg m-3)
0-30 1.4 8.0 20.0 6.0 2.65

30-60 1.5 9.0 21.0 7.0 2.65
60-90 1.6 10.0 22.0 8.0 2.65
(Ans. 16.20 cm)

4. Describe the factors affecting soil structure.
5. Explain different kinds of soil structure and give significance of soil structure in
relation to plant growth?
6. What is the applicability of Stokes’ law in mechanical analysis of soil? What are its
assumptions and limitations?
7. What do you mean by soil separates? How does clay content in soil affect soil physical
properties?
8. Describe the importance of soil air in plant growth.
9. Suggest methods to manage soil temperature suitable for plant growth.
Suggested Further Readings

Biswas, T.D. and Mukherjee, S.K. (1994) Text Book of Soil Science, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2004) The Nature and Properties of Soils, Thirteenth Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc. New Delhi.
Das, D.K. and Agrawal, R.P. (2009) Physical Properties of Soils. In: Fundamental of Soil Science, the
Indian Society of Soil Science, pp 449-460.
Foth, H.D. (1978) Fundamentals of Soil Science, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Hillel, D. (1971) Soil and Water - Physical Principles and Process, Academic Press, Inc. New York.
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Soil Physical Properties

Chapter · November 2015

V.K. Phogat Rita Dahiya

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Soil Physical Properties

6.2. Soil Texture

6.2.1. Classification of Soil Particles

Table 6.1. Systems of classification of soil particles according to their sizes

Coarse sand 2.0-0.2 Very coarse sand 2.0-1.0

Table 6.2. Important properties of sand, silt and clay particles

6.2.2. Mechanical Analysis

the air. A dispersing agent (Sodium hydroxide or sodium hexa-meta-phosphate or Calgon

6.2.2.1. Stokes’ Law (G.G. Stokes, 1851)

where v = terminal velocity of falling particles, cm s-1

Derivation of Stokes’ Law

where is the volume of the spherical particle.

which is known as Stokes’ law …(6.4)

Rearranging the equation (6.5):

sec or 4 min 38 sec.

out to be sec or 7 hr 43 min.

6.2.2.2. Assumptions and Limitations of Stokes’ law

6.2.2.3. Methods of Mechanical Analysis

6.2.3. Textural Classes

Textural group Texture Textural class

Sandy Coarse Sand

6.2.4. Textural Properties and Behaviour of Soils

6.2.4.2. Loamy Soils

6.2.4.3. Clayey Soils

6.2.5. Specific Surface of Soils

Soil separates / Diameter Specific surface Clay mineral Specific surface

Coarse sand 2.0-0.2 45 Kaolinite 37-45

6.3. Soil Structure

6.3.1. Importance of Soil Structure

6.3.2. Classification of Soil Structure

6.3.2.1. Type of Soil Structure

Table 6.5. Types of compound soil structure and their characteristics

Type Shape and characteristics

6.3.2.2. Classes of Soil Structure

6.3.2.3. Grades of Soil Structure

Class Diameter (mm) Thickness (mm)

Very fine <1 <5 < 10 <1

Table 6.7. Grades of soil structure

Weak Poorly formed, indistinct peds which are not stable

6.3.3. Genesis of Soil Structure

6.3.3.2. Cementation of Floccules

6.3.4. Factors Influencing Formation and Stability of Soil Structure

6.3.4.2. Chemical Factors

6.3.4.3. Biological Factors

6.3.5. Evaluation of Soil Structure

6.3.5.1. Direct methods

6.3.5.2. Indirect methods

6.3.6. Indices of Soil Structure

Weight of aggregates 12.12 4.35 4.12 3.06 0.98 0.37

Solution: Total sample weight (W) = 25 g

4.0 12.12 4.0 0.485 1.940

6.3.7. Management of Soil Structure

Figure 6.2. Schematic representation of effect of texture on soil water retention

Figure 6.3. Schematic representation of effect of structure on soil water retention

6.4. Quantitative Relationships between Soil Constituents

6.4.1. Particle Density