Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

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Invited Research Article

Upper Triassic carbonate-platform facies, Timor-Leste: Foraminiferal

indices and regional tectonostratigraphic association
David W. Haig a, *, Sylvain Rigaud b, Eujay McCartain c, Rossana Martini d, Isaias Santos Barros e,
Lucy Brisbout f, Jacinto Soares g, Jose Nano e
a
Oceans Graduate School, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
b
Asian School of Environment, 62 Nanyang Drive, N2 01C 72, 637459, Singapore
c
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
d
University of Geneva, Department of Earth Sciences, rue des Maraîchers, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
e
Instituto do Petróleo e Geologia-Instituto Público, Dili, Timor-Leste
f
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety, Mineral House, 100 Plain St., East Perth 6892, Australia
g
Timor Resources, Project Office, Timor Plaza – Suit #303 CBD 3, Comoro, Dili, Timor-Leste

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Timor is part of the non-volcanic Outer Banda Arc with chaotic geology in the late Neogene collision zone be­
Carnian tween Sundaland (Southeast Eurasia) and the Australian continent. Confusion in the distinction between Triassic,
Norian Jurassic and Cenozoic shallow-marine carbonate units has led to a lack of appreciation of the widespread extent
Rhaetian
of Triassic carbonate-platform facies, at least in Timor-Leste. It also resulted in misunderstanding the different
East Gondwana
tectonostratigraphic/palaeogeographic affinities of the shallow-water limestones. Foraminiferal assemblages are
Interior continental sea
Platform–basin relationship critical in stratigraphic discrimination of these units. This study records for the first time the foraminiferal
microfauna of Upper Triassic shallow-water carbonate deposits in Timor. Many of the foraminiferal species are
known from North Africa and Europe and date these units to the Carnian–Rhaetian. The Upper Triassic Bandeira
Group represents extensive sheet-like carbonate-platform deposits (possibly on horst plateaus as well as shelf
areas adjacent land in the intracratonic sea). Contacts between the hard limestone, forming fatus (limestone
peaks) and ridges, and friable mud-dominated surrounding units are often obscured under deep tropical soil
cover. At all localities the Bandeira Group is closely associated in outcrop with coeval basinal mud-dominated
deposits (Babulu and Aitutu groups). With these it forms part of the East Gondwana Interior Rift Association
(EGIRA), similar to the classical Dachstein Platform–Hallstatt Basin facies associations found in the European
Alps. The basinal units contain turbiditic and debris-slide deposits that include clasts derived from the carbonate
platform. Shallow-water carbonate facies attributed to EGIRA, are present throughout the East Gondwana
Interior Rift from the Papuan Basin in the north to Exmouth Plateau, part of the Northern Carnarvon Basin, in the
south. These were deposited before Gondwanan breakup along this rift system. The Triassic carbonate-platform
deposits have a different dominant biogenic mineralogy (aragonite rather than calcite) and a different archi­
tecture to the bryozoan-crinoidal carbonate mounds present in the Permian of EGIRA in Timor-Leste. No Lower
and Middle Triassic shallow-water carbonate-platform deposits have been recognized in Timor-Leste. The Ban­
deira Group, confined to the Upper Triassic, belongs to a stratigraphic association (EGIRA; autochthonous)
different both in constituent units and outcrop coverage from that of the allochthonous Overthrust Terrane
Association to which the Lower Jurassic carbonate-platform deposits (viz. Perdido Group) belong. The Bandeira
Group has been confused not only with the Perdido Group but also with other shallow-water limestone units of
the Permian and Miocene in some former studies of Timor. The distinction between these units solves a major
tectonostratigraphic problem in Timor, and may apply elsewhere along the Outer Banda Arc.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: david.haig@uwa.edu.au (D.W. Haig), srigaud@ntu.edu.sg (S. Rigaud), Eujay.McCartain@woodside.com.au (E. McCartain), rossana.martini@
unige.ch (R. Martini), ibarros@ipg.tl (I.S. Barros), Lucy.Brisbout@dmirs.wa.gov.au (L. Brisbout), Jacinto.Soares@timorresources.com.au (J. Soares), jnano@ipg.tl
(J. Nano).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110362
Received 18 January 2021; Received in revised form 11 March 2021; Accepted 11 March 2021
Available online 18 March 2021
0031-0182/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D.W. Haig et al.
mosa River (this study); J3, Moumt Bibileu (Benincasa, 2015); J4, Mundo Perdido (Benincasa et al., 2012; Benincasa, 2015); J5, Mt. Laritame (Benincasa, 2015); J6,
Builo Range (Benincasa, 2015); and J7, Matabian Range (Timor-Leste Institute of Petroleum and Geology, D.W. Haig, and E. McCartain work in progress). The inset
map shows the main physiographic/tectonic features of the region (Banda Arc terminology after Hamilton, 1979).
1. Introduction
Dismembered stratigraphic successions and disjunct palaeogeo­
graphic relationships are typical of continent-to-continent collision
zones. Timor is part of the non-volcanic Outer Banda Arc (Fig. 1) be­
tween Sundaland (Eurasia) and the Australian continent (Hamilton,
1979; Harris, 2006; Audley-Charles, 2011; Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012;
Sevastjanova et al., 2016). Here, some of the most chaotic geology of any
orogenic belt in Southeast Asia is exposed (Hamilton, 1979). In this
region stratigraphic and palaeogeographic reconstruction relies on ac­
curate chronostratigraphic positioning of rock units and on establishing
original rock-unit associations. In Timor-Leste, the eastern half of the
island, only reconnaissance-type geological mapping covers the country
and many areas remain underexplored (Grunau, 1953; Gageonnet and
Lemoine, 1958; Leme, 1963; Audley-Charles, 1968; Economic and So­
cial Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2003). Most post-1960s work
has followed the map of Audley-Charles (1968).
Upper Triassic shallow-marine limestone, identified by palae­
ontological evidence (reviewed by Charlton et al., 2009), was recog­
nized throughout Timor (Fig. 1) during early geological investigations
(Hirschi, 1907; de Regny, 1915; Krumbeck, 1921; Brouwer, 1925, 1942;
Wanner, 1931, 1956; Wittouck, 1937; De Rover, 1940; Tappenbeck,
1940; Van West, 1941; Grunau, 1953; de Waard, 1957; Gageonnet and
Lemoine, 1958; Gageonnet et al., 1959; Marks, 1961; Yamagiwa, 1963;
Leme, 1963, 1968; Nakazawa and Bando, 1968). In later work, confu­
sion over the age of these deposits led to Upper Triassic shallow-water
limestone not recognized in many stratigraphic compilations (Audley-
Charles, 1968; Sawyer et al., 1993; Harsolumakso et al., 1995; Reed
et al., 1996; Harris et al., 1998; Villeneuve et al., 1999, 2004, 2005,
2010; Standley and Harris, 2009; Park et al., 2014; Fainstein et al.,
2020).
The earlier investigators found that the fatus (local name for lime­
stone peaks) were formed of various limestone units of different ages
(viz. Permian, Triassic, Eocene, Early Miocene) but most were of Triassic
age (Brouwer, 1942; Wanner, 1956; de Waard, 1957). However, Audley-
Charles (1968) and many subsequent workers mapped the high fatus as
“Lower Miocene” Cablac limestone defined by “hard, massive
2
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362
Fig. 1. SRTM image of Timor (compiled
from NASA Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission images) showing studied sites of
Upper Triassic carbonate-platform facies
limestones of the Bandeira Group (1, Ban­
deira Gorge, type section of the Bandeira
Group); 2, Lesululi Fatu; 3, Loelako Fatu; 4,
Saburai Range; 5, Lakus Mountain, Weber’s
locality 12 recorded in Wanner, 1956; 6,
Daisoli River near Mount Urasou in the
Turiscai region; 7, Mt. Lilu area; 8, Pualaca
region; 9, Paitchau Range; 10, Tutuala area.
In West Timor, most suspected Bandeira
Group localities come from the region
marked by “A”. Outcrops of the Bandeira
Group are surrounded by other units of the
Permian–Lower Jurassic East Gondwana
Interior Rift Association (EGIRA; see Fig. 3).
In Timor-Leste carbonate-platform facies of
the Lower Jurassic Perdido Group, often
confused with the Bandeira Group or with
younger limestone units, are present at lo­
calities labelled J1–J7. These belong to the
Overthrust Terrane Association (see Section
6.4), and include: J1, Cablac Mt. (Haig and
McCartain, 2007; Haig et al., 2007, 2008;
Keep et al., 2009); J2, Fehuc Fatu and Sa­
limestones...calcilutites, oolitic limestones, calcarenites and intra­
formational conglomerates ...dated on the basis of its microfauna as Te,
Lower Miocene” (Audley-Charles, 1968, his p. 26). In contrast, the
earlier workers had recognized oolitic limestone as part of their Triassic
Fatu Limestone.
The aims of the present study are to determine: (1) the extent, age,
broad facies and tectonostratigraphic association of Upper Triassic
shallow-water limestones in Timor-Leste; (2) how these deposits relate
to similar Triassic facies elsewhere in the collision zone between the
Australian continent and Sundaland (Eurasia) and along the Australian
margin to the south; (3) how these deposits differ in composition and
architecture from Permian shallow-water limestones in Timor-Leste; and
(4) how the Upper Triassic shallow-water limestones in Timor-Leste
relate to and differ from the Lower Jurassic shallow-water limestones
in the same region.
By determining the age of the Bandeira Group and the stratigraphic
units that are closely associated with it in outcrop this study will solve a
major area of confusion in the interpretation of Timor geology; viz. the
distinction of shallow-water limestone units, their palaeogeographic
affinities and tectonic histories. The results of this work will also influ­
ence stratigraphic and palaeogeographic interpretations of other areas
in the underexplored Outer Banda Arc and the western Australian
margin. Documentation here of foraminiferal assemblages in shallow-
water Upper Triassic limestone, so important for age discrimination,
will add to an appreciation of the widespread biogeographic ranges of
many of the species in carbonate-platform facies of this age.
2. Geologic background
2.1. Tectonic history
The oldest sedimentary strata in Timor, not affected by meta­
morphism, have been dated as latest Gzhelian (latest Carboniferous;
Davydov et al., 2013, 2014). The tectonic history of the region since that
time has involved three major tectonic stages: (1) the East Gondwana
Interior Rift (Fig. 2C; Harrowfield et al., 2005; Haig et al., 2014, 2015,
2017); (2) a passive-margin phase following the progressive breakup of
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 2. Major tectonic stages involving the East Gonwana Interior Rift and the
depositional position of Timor and other sites of Upper Triassic carbonate-
platform deposits in the region (discussed in Section 6.2) and their later
geographic settings. Sites represented on these maps are: A, Kubor Anticline,
Papuan Basin; B, Bird’s Head, New Guinea; C, Misool; D, Sula Platform; E, East
Sulawesi; F, Buru; G, Seram; H, Sinta Ridge, Banda Sea; I, northern Bonaparte
Basin, Ashmore Platform; J, Wombat Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin (J2,
inner part of basin); K, southern Exmouth Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin
(K2, inner part of basin; K3, northern Perth Basin). A, Present localities of the
sites in the collision zone between the Australian continent and Sundaland (the
200 m bathymetric contour is the junction between the light-blue and dark-blue
areas). B, Reconstruction of Australian continent at about 30 Ma, after breakup
along the western, southern and eastern margins and before collision in the
north and north-west (digital elevation model modified from Geoscience
Australia; Timor-Scott Plateau after Haig, 2012). C, Schematic map of the Late
Triassic East Gondwana Interior Rift (shaded green) with probable positions of
sites A–K; numerical ages (Ma) of progressive breakup along the rift axis follow
Pigram and Panggabean (1984) for 185 Ma, Metcalfe (2011) and Haig and
Bandini (2013) for 165 Ma, Heine and Müller (2005) for 155 Ma, Gibbons et al.
(2013) for 136 Ma; East Gondwanan reconstruction is modified from Harrow­
field et al. (2005). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

East Gondwana and subsidence of marginal plateaus (Fig. 2B, C; 165 Ma

in Timor region following Metcalfe, 2011, and Haig and Bandini, 2013);
and (3) collision between marginal plateaus (Timor-Scott Plateau in
Timor region, and Sula Spur along the margin to the north; Fig. 2B) of
the Australian continent and the leading edge of Sundaland that resulted
in the present configuration of the islands of the eastern Indonesian
region (Fig. 2A). Collision commenced in the Timor region at 8 ± 2 Ma
(Haig and McCartain, 2007; Haig, 2012; Haig et al., 2019).
All Permian and Triassic units in Timor are considered to have been
deposited in the complex East Gondwana Interior Rift (McCartain et al.,
2006; Davydov et al., 2013, 2014; Haig et al., 2014, 2017, 2019, their
Fig. 11; Haig, 2018). In present-day outcrop the units form a distinct
contiguous stratigraphic association. Unit boundaries are obscure in
many areas due to faulting or cover from thick tropical soils and alluvial
deposits. The same set of stratigraphic units, however, is present in close
outcrop throughout Timor-Leste and can be collectively mapped as the
East Gondwana Interior Rift Association (EGIRA; Fig. 3).
In Timor-Leste, the other main stratigraphic association, mappable in
coherent areas, is the Overthrust Terrane Association (OTA; Fig. 3; Haig
et al., 2019; see Section 6.4). This was emplaced on the Australian
continental margin from a forearc position off Sundaland during the late
Miocene collision (Haig and McCartain, 2007; Haig, 2012; Haig et al.,
2019). OTA is associated with the Lolotoi Metamorphics (with peak
metamorphism at about 45 Ma; Standley and Harris, 2009). As Hall and
Sevastjanova (2012) and Metcalfe (2011, 2013) suggested, southern
Sundaland includes early Mesozoic blocks derived from rifting along the
Mesotethyan margin of East Gondwana during the Jurassic.

2.2. Previous interpretations of Upper Triassic shallow-water limestones,

Timor-Leste
(caption on next column)
On Mt. Cablaci (= Cablac Mountain), the type area of the Cablac
Limestone (Lower Miocene, Audley-Charles, 1968), Haig et al. (2007,
their p. 248) noted “the massive limestones that outcrop on Cablac
Mountain…are composed mainly of peloidal, intraclastic and oolitic
wackestone, packstone and grainstone”. Although sparsely fossiliferous
some samples contain a Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian–Pliensbachian)
foraminiferal assemblage and spore-pollen from the upper part of the
Corollina torosa Zone (Lower Jurassic). Other samples were assigned a
broader Triassic or Early Jurassic age based on long-ranging foramini­
fers known elsewhere both in the Triassic and Lower Jurassic. No
shallow-water Lepidocyclina-Spiroclypeus limestones of Te-Letter Stage
(upper Oligocene to lowest Miocene; Reich et al., 2014) were located

3
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

McCartain, 2007; Keep et al., 2009).

Fig. 3. Schematic map with synorgenic deposits stripped away, showing the
distributions of EGIRA and post-breakup Timor–Scott Plateau Association
(T–SPA). Also shown are dismembered blocks of OTA and Lolotoi Meta­
morphics, emplaced onto the Timor margin of the Australian continent during
the first phase of collision with the margin of Sundaland (Eurasia). The OTA-1,
OTA-2 and OTA-3 divisions are described in Section 6.4. Upper Triassic Ban­
deira Group sites 1–10 are marked, as well as major outcrop areas of the Lower
Jurassic Perdido Group (J1–J7).
high on Mt. Cablaci (Haig et al., 2007, 2008; Keep et al., 2009). How­
ever, deep-water carbonate pelagites of the Upper Cretaceous, Upper
Paleocene and Upper Oligocene or lowest Miocene together with vol­
canics of uncertain age were found there as minor units (Haig and
In most investigations in Timor, the Triassic–Jurassic shallow-water
limestones have been considered part of an allochthonous klippen,
nappe or overthrust complex (see references cited in Section 1). How­
ever, Wanner (1956) noted that Upper Triassic shallow-water limestones
(including reef facies) around Pualaca in central Timor-Leste have a
close spatial association with formations of the “autochthon” that are
now recognized as belonging to the deeper-water Babulu and Aitutu
groups of EGIRA (Table 1). This close association has been confirmed by
debris/turbiditic slides of shallow-water carbonate detritus found in
successions of the Babulu and Aitutu groups (e.g. Roniewicz et al., 2005;
Haig et al., 2007).
The Upper Triassic shallow-water limestone facies are included in
the Bandeira Group (McCartain, 2014; Haig et al., 2019, following a
preliminary description of the facies from Bandeira Gorge, based on
unpublished stratigraphic logging by Lucy Brisbout, in Haig and
McCartain, 2012, their Table 1). Away from faults, indurated limestone
and sandstone successions within EGIRA, including the Bandeira Group,
show broad landscape-scale deformation and at some localities are
overturned. The associated friable mudstone units in many areas have
undergone chaotic ductile deformation.
The Lower Jurassic shallow-water limestone (Perdido Group,
following Benincasa et al., 2012) belongs to OTA and is associated with a
different set of stratigraphic units than EGIRA (see Section 6.4; Haig,
2018; Haig et al., 2019). In West Timor, early workers may have, at some
localities, confused the Upper Triassic Bandeira Group of EGIRA with
the mainly Lower Jurassic Perdido Group of OTA. Age-diagnostic mac­
rofossils are very rare in limestones of the latter group.

Table 1
Triassic lithostratigraphic units recognized in Timor-Leste (all units belong to EGIRA).
Lithostrat. unit Main rock types Age

(A) Basinal Facies

Wailuli Group Mainly grey calcareous mudstone, commonly with dark grey burrow infills (including Zoophycos Rhaetian to Toarcian (McCartain, 2014; McCartain et al.,
and Chondrites); in limited parts of the section, grey calcisphere and radiolarian-rich thin to work in progress).
medium wackestone is interbedded with calcareous grey mudstone (Audley-Charles, 1968;
McCartain, 2014). “Calcaires et marno-calcaires lachetés” and ?“Flysch supérieur” of Gageonnet
et al. (1959). [Note: In the type area of the “Wai Luli Formation” of Audley-Charles, 1968, “in the
valley of the Wai Luli where it follows the strike of the Aitutu anticline”, an Upper Permian
sandstone/mudstone succession was recorded by McCartain et al., 2006, and a Carnian section of
the Babulu Group was noted by Haig et al., 2007. The Wailuli Group is present in part of the area
on the southern side of the river; McCartain, 2014].
Aitutu Group Very thick succession of interbedded dark grey radiolarian-rich wackestone (paler when Norian to possibly early Rhaetian (Haig and McCartain,
weathered), in places also rich in halobiid filaments, and subordinate dark grey mudstone with 2010; McCartain, 2014).
cyclic bedding pattern; maybe with intercalated thin Babulu-type facies (Audley-Charles, 1968;
McCartain, 2014). “Série calcaire” of Gageonnet et al. (1959) Note older and younger Aitutu-like
facies in more restricted successions are present in the Wailuli and Babulu groups.
Babulu Group Mainly silty mudstone; in places, with thin to thick turbiditic sandstone interbeds (with grain late Anisian to early Norian (Haig and McCartain, 2010;
assemblage having a large reworked igneous component; eg. “Foura Sandstone” of Charlton and McCartain, 2014).
Gandara, 2014, age revised by Peyrot et al., 2019); sandstone often laminated with much
terrestrial phyto-detritus on bedding surfaces. Limited sections of thin-bedded dark grey
radiolarian-rich wackestone are interbedded in the mudstone (Bird and Cook, 1991; McCartain,
2014). Chaotic, collision-related, ductile deformation in many places has resulted in “broken
formation” (Harris et al., 1998). “Flysch inférieur” of Gageonnet et al. (1959).
Niof Group Bedded claystone (often variegated); in places with laminae or thin beds of sandstone and Induan to middle Anisian (McCartain, 2014; McCartain
limestone (probable equivalent to lower part of Niof Formation of Bird and Cook, 1991); in places et al., work in progress).
with abundant bivalves (Claraia spp.) and poorly preserved ammonoids.

(B) Shallow-water and deep-water platform facies

Bandeira Group In type area in Bandeira Gorge (see Section 4.2), conformable succession from base to top: Unit 1, Carnian to possibly early Rhaetian (this study).
mainly rudstone; Unit 2, mainly shallow-marine sandstone-mudstone; Unit 3, mainly thin-bedded
shallow-marine wackestone and floatstone; Unit 4, covered unit, possibly friable mudstone/
sandstone; Unit 5, mainly rudstone; elsewhere with small coral-algal-calcimicrobe-calcareous
sponge bioherms (Haig and McCartain, 2012; McCartain, 2014). Part of Fatu Limestone facies of
Wittouck (1937), and including “timorische Korallenkalk”; “Dachsteinkalkfazies” of Wanner
(1931, 1956); Pualaca facies of Charlton et al. (2009).
Lilu facies Red ammonoid-rich wackestone/packstone, thin to medium bedded (Berry et al., 1984; Martini late Induan (Griesbachian) to late Norian; possibly
(Bandeira et al., 2000; McCartain, 2014). “Cephalopodenkalksteinfazies” of Wanner (1931, 1956); Rhaetian (McCartain, 2014; McCartain et al., work in
Group) Cephalopod Limestone facies of Charlton et al. (2009). progress).

4
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 4. Three areas that show broad aspects of stratal architecture of the Bandeira Group. A, Tilted Google-Earth image of north face of Bandeira Gorge, the type
locality of the Bandeira Group. Limestones of Unit 3 and Unit 5 stand out on the cliff face; those of Unit 1 are at river level. Inset images: a, massive limestone of Unit
1; b, sandstone succession of lower Unit 2 overlying massive limestone of Unit 1; c, typical succession of Unit 3; d and e, massive limestone of Unit 5 with megalodont-
like bivalves. B, View, looking east, of Lesului and Loelaco fatus and the Saburai Range with Bandeira Group along the axis of the ridge which extends for about
22 km. C, Loelaco Fatu looking toward the north-west. Bandeira Group forms the prominent spine of this mountain. D, Google Earth image of south-east end of Timor
showing the extent of the Paitchau Range where the Bandeira Group forms the mountainous spine. See Supplementary Material 3 for description of these localities.

2.3. Triassic stratigraphic units recognized in Timor-Leste
A broad Triassic lithostratigraphic framework for Timor-Leste, which
may be applied throughout the island of Timor, includes basinal deep-
water units as well as shallow and deep-water carbonate-platform
facies (Table 1). The Bandeira Group is the focus of this study. In the
present lithostratigraphic classification, we have used broad “groups”
because with future detailed stratigraphic surface mapping and explor­
atory drilling (which are lacking at present), constituent “formations”
within each group may be defined (see Haig, 2018). In its type locality in
Bandeira Gorge, the Bandeira Group consists of five mappable units
(Section 1 of Supplementary Material 3) that may be designated at
“formation” level in future studies when the lateral extent of each
“formation” becomes more apparent.
3. Materials and methods
The Triassic limestones of the Bandeira Group are present either on
high ridges with steep scarps, which are difficult to log and sample, or as
isolated blocks, possibly slumped, in river valleys. Contacts with
adjoining units are often obscured by deep tropical soil cover and the
stratigraphic or structural nature of these is uncertain. In general, age-
diagnostic macrofossils are rarely observed in the field because the
limestones have weathered surfaces and often are diagenetically altered
obscuring at least some of the original fabric. Although broad-scale
reconnaissance maps have been compiled for Timor-Leste (e.g. Gru­
nau, 1953; Gageonnet and Lemoine, 1958; Leme, 1963; Audley-Charles,
1968; Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2003),
few sedimentary areas in the country have been mapped in detail using
rigorous biostratigraphic control. Our work is among the precursor
studies for future detailed mapping.
Since the 1960s, major advances in Triassic–Jurassic global corre­
lations have come from developments in microfossil biostratigraphy,
particularly from conodonts and palynomorphs in basinal facies and
from foraminifers in shallow-water carbonate facies such as the Ban­
deira Group. The foraminiferal determinations made here are mainly
from acetate peels, some of which were made at the field base camp
during field work. Thin sections were also made from selected samples.
The study material is housed at the Earth Science Museum in the Uni­
versity of Western Australia.

5
 Table 2
Summary of observations, age determinations, previous stratigraphic designations and the associated stratigraphic units for the Bandeira Group at its type locality, Bandeira Gorge, western Timor-Leste.
Loc. Region and sampled limestone
1: Unit 1 Bandeira Gorge, northern scarp. Lower
part (~10 m thick with base obscured) of a
700 m thick structurally conformable
succession of Bandeira Group (see Fig. 1A
of Supplementary Material 3)
1: Unit 3 Bandeira Gorge, northern scarp. Section
about 119 m thick with base structurally
conformable on Unit 2 sandy mudstones at
about 70 m above base of exposed
Bandeira Group. Contact with overlying
6
Unit 4 is not exposed (see Fig. 1A of
Supplementary Material 3).
1: Unit 5 Bandeira Gorge, northern scarp. Upper
part of exposed section, about 320 m thick
(see Fig. 1A of Supplementary Material 3)
D.W. Haig et al.
Rock types Index Foraminifera Age Previous stratigraphic Stratigraphic Association
(figures refer to main designation
text)
Massive to thick-bedded limestone; mainly ?Prorakusia primigenia ( Carnian, probably upper Carnian Audley-Charles (1968): Wailuli/Babulu and
rudstone/floatstone to coarse grainstone with Fig. 3A), Prorakusia cf. Aitutu Formation (Late Maubisse Groups.
micritic/micritized clasts common in most samples. salaji (Fig. 3B), Triassic). Grady and Stratigraphic contacts
Persistent foraminifers, echinoderm debris, mollusc Cassianopapillaria laghii ( Berry (1977): Aitutu with adjacent groups
debris, brachiopod debris, ostracods; less common Fig. 3C), Formation (Triassic). obscure; EGIRA (See
oncoids, ooids, nodular porostromate Semimeandrospira rauli ( Bachri and Situmorang Section 6 for discussion of
calcimicrobes, solenoporacean nodules, dasyclad Fig. 3D), Duostomina (1994): Cablac Limestone tectonostratigraphic
algae, Tubiphytes, calcareous sponges, corals, turboidea (Fig. 3E) (Miocene). association).
bryozoans. Quartz minor component in some beds Lamelliconus multispirus (
Fig. 3F), Lamelliconus
ventroplanus (Fig. 3G),
Triadodiscus eomesozoicus
(Fig. 3H), Trocholina?
cordevolica (Fig. 3I),
Diplotremina altoconica (
Fig. 3J), Duostomina
rotundata (Fig. 3K),
Parvalamella? praegaschei
(Fig. 3L), Robertonella (
Fig. 3M)
Thin- to medium-bedded dark-grey limestone and Aulosina oberhauseri ( Norian, at least in upper part of unit; same as for Unit 1 same as for Unit 1
medium-bedded couplets of dark-grey indurated Fig. 3N), Trocholina? aff. possibly late Carnian in lower part.
limestone and pale-grey recessive mudstone. acuta (Fig. 3O), ?
Limestones are mainly wackestone/floatstone with Parvalamella sigmoidea (
scattered skeletal debris, and peloidal grainstone. Fig. 3P), Astrocolomia
Main grain types are peloids, foraminifers, marschalli (Fig. 3Q)
ostracods, echinoderm debris, impunctate
brachiopod debris. Rare grain types are reworked
limestone clasts, porostromate calcimicrobes,
calcareous sponges, bryozoans, punctate
brachiopods, bivalve debris.
Massive, pale-grey limestone that forms near- Aulosina oberhauseri ( Norian, probably middle(?) to late Norian same as for Unit 1 same as for Unit 1
vertical ridges; including megalodont limestone. Fig. 3R), Aulotortus cf.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362
Limestone is rudstone/floatstone to coarse communis (Fig. 3S),
grainstone. Large clasts are micritic/micritized Diplotremina subangulata (
rounded limestone, solenoporacean nodules, Fig. 3T), Rakusia
porostromate calcimicrobe nodules, recrystallized oberhauseri (Fig. 3U).
bivalve debris, and rare calcareous sponges and
coral. Encrusters include Microtubus and bryozoans.
Other grains include peloids, very rare ooids,
foraminifers, brachiopod debris, echinoderm
debris. Recrystallization is common.
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Table 3
Summary of observations, age determinations, previous stratigraphic designations and the associated stratigraphic units for the Bandeira Group at Localities 2–4,
western Timor-Leste.
Loc. Region and Rock types Index Foraminifera Age Previous stratigraphic Stratigraphic
sampled limestone (figures refer to main text) designation Association

2, 3 Lesululi and Well-bedded to massive, grey to
Loelaco fatus; white, fossiliferous
limestone spine of wackestones, floatstones and
mountain range; bindstone (Benincasa, 2015).
only spot sampling Main grain types are micritic
available. clasts, brachiopod debris,
foraminifers, echinoderm
debris, ostracods, porostromate
calcimicrobes, recrystallized
bivalve fragments, gastropods.
Rare grain types are reworked
shallow-marine limestone
clasts, solenoporacean algae,
Microtubus encrustations,
calcareous sponges, bryozoans,
bivalve filaments (probably
derived from halobiids),
ammonoids, dasycladacean
algae, corals, isolated sponge
spicules
4 Saburai Range; Medium- to thick-bedded grey
limestone forming to white limestone, including
central part of wackestone, floatstone,
mountain; only bindstone and less common
spot sampling packstone and grainstone.
available. Grains include: micritic/
micritized clasts, porostromate
calcimicrobes, foraminifers,
calcareous sponges, ? coral,
bryozoans, brachiopod debris,
echinoderm debris including
crinoid columnals and echinoid
spines, ostracods.
Diplotremina subangulata (
Fig. 3V, W), Aulotortus
communis, Aulotortus aff.
sinuosus with
strengthenings in final
whorls (Fig. 3X, Y)
Diplotremina subangulata (
Fig. 3Z), Aulotortus
communis (Fig. 3Za)
Norian to ? early Grunau (1957): “Calcários de Babulu Group (Middle to
Rhaetian Fato de idade indeterminada, Upper Triassic) on
em parte triásicos”. Gageonnet western side of mountain
and Lemoine (1958): “Calcaires and Aitutu Group on
Fatu (Complexe Charrie)” eastern side (Benincasa,
surrounded by the Autochtone 2015); EGIRA.
“Mésozoïque”. Audley-Charles
(1968): Cablac Limestone
(Early Miocene). Benincasa
(2015): Bandeira Group.
within Grunau (1957): “Calcários de Maubisse Group (thrust
Norian–Rhaetian Fato de idade indeterminada, over the Bandeira Group
interval em parte triásicos”. Gageonnet in the north of the
and Lemoine (1958): “Permien range); Aitutu Group,
charrié (série de Maubisse, série Babulu Group (
de Sonnebait)” of the Benincasa, 2015);
“Complexe Charrie”, EGIRA.
surrounded by the Autochtone
“Mésozoïque”. Audley-Charles
(1968): Maubisse Limestone
(Permian) surrounded by
Wailuli Formation. Benincasa
(2015): Bandeira Group

The study is based on 181 limestone samples taken from 10 localities
in Timor-Leste (Supplementary Material 1). Supplementary Material 2
charts the grain-type composition including the foraminiferal assem­
blage identified in each sample. For this study, we do not show strati­
graphic maps of the areas in which we have sampled Bandeira Group
because of lack of available detail (see Section 2.3). Rather, we discuss
our studied sample localities, and the published and unpublished field
observations of adjacent stratigraphic units (Supplementary Material 3).
Supplementary Material 4 illustrates in 17 plates the foraminiferal
assemblage found at each locality. For named species, the known
stratigraphic ranges determined from reliable stratigraphic sections
elsewhere are listed in Supplementary Material 5. Apart from the stud­
ied outcrops, other occurrences of Bandeira Group in Timor-Leste are
known to us as part of the East Gondwana Interior Rift Association.
These have not been studied in sufficient detail to be included in this
compilation.
4. Results
Tables 2–5 summarize, from data presented in Supplementary Ma­
terials 1–5, the rock types, index foraminifers, age, previous strati­
graphic designations and the stratigraphic association for the Bandeira
Group samples at each of the 10 localities (Fig. 1) studied here. The type
locality includes three limestone units (Table 2; Supplementary Material
3, Section 1). Similarities and differences between the Bandeira Group at
the type locality and the sampled limestone units from other localities in
western Timor-Leste (Table 3), central Timor-Leste (Table 4) and eastern
Timor-Leste (Table 5) can be ascertained from comparison of the tables.
Table 6 lists foraminifers identified at each locality (summarized from
Supplementary Material 2).
4.1. Stratal architecture
Although the stratigraphic succession is tectonically dismembered,
some inferences can be made on the depositional architecture of the
Bandeira Group from the preserved outcrops. At the type section on the
northern face of Bandeira Gorge (Fig. 4A; Supplementary Material 3,
Section 1), limestone units 3 and 5 stand out in the cliff face as parallel,
very gently dipping slabs. However, this outcrop can only be traced for
several kilometres. To the west of the type section, the Bandeira Group
forms the spine of a mountain range extending from Lesululi Fatu in the
north through Loelaco Fatu to the Saburai Range in the south, a distance
of over 22 km (Fig. 4B, C; Supplementary Material 3, Sections 2 and 3). It
may extend further south to the Lakus Range (Supplementary Material
3, Section 4). In eastern Timor-Leste, the Bandeira Group forms the spine
of Paitchau Range (Fig. 4D; Supplementary Material 3, Section 8). This
range extends northeast to isolated fatus around Tutuala (Supplemen­
tary Material 3, Section 9) over a distance of about 17 km.
These outcrops suggest that extensive carbonate-platform deposits
formed the Bandeira Group. These had “slab-like” architecture origi­
nally on shelf areas adjacent land in the interior continental sea or on
horst plateaus within the sea. Several episodes of carbonate deposition
took place as suggested at the type locality by a conformable succession
(listed in ascending stratigraphic order) of limestone Unit 1, sand-
dominated Unit 2, limestone Unit 3, friable probably sand-mud domi­
nated Unit 4, and limestone Unit 5 (Suppl. 3, Section 1).
4.2. Overview of limestone facies
A microfacies analysis of the Bandeira Group cannot be undertaken
at present because of the lack of measured sections at most localities.
Two broadly defined lithofacies can be distinguished: (1) Rudstone–­
floatstone to coarse grainstone/packstone facies that is present in

7
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Table 4
Summary of observations, age determinations, previous stratigraphic designations and the associated stratigraphic units for the Bandeira Group at Localities 6–8,
central Timor-Leste.
Locality Region and Rock types Index Foraminifera Age Previous stratigraphic Stratigraphic Association
sampled (figures refer to designation
limestone main text)

6 Turiscai region; Coarse grainstone, and
samples from calcimicrobe floatstone with
limestone peloidal packstone/
outcrop in wackestone matrix; main grain
Daisoli River; types are peloids,
spot sampling porostromate calcimicrobes,
foraminifers, gastropods,
echinoderm debris; rare types
are ?dasycladacean algae,
Microtubus encrustations,
calcareous sponges, punctate
brachiopods, bivalve debris.
7 Mt Lilu region; Rudstone with micritic/
limestone micritized clasts, foraminifers,
forming high and bivalves as main grain
block including types; with rare aggregate
Mt. Dilu; spot carbonate grains,
sampling solenoporacean algae,
dasyclad algae, Microtubus
encrustations, gastropods,
ostracods
8 Pualaca region; Rudstone; main clasts include
two slumped micritized clasts, porostomate
blocks of massive calcimicrobes, solenoporacean
limestone; stop algae, foraminifers, calcareous
sampled sponges, gastropods, echinoid
spines; with rare oncoids,
reworked clasts of shallow-
marine limestone, Microtubus
encrustations,?corals,
encrusting bryozoans,
brachiopods, bivalve debris,
echinoderm debris, ostracods
Aulotortus aff. Within Grunau (1957): region
sinuosus with Norian–Rhaetian, mapped as “Ofioloitos e xistos
strengthenings in possibly Rhaetian cristalines
the final whorls. (predominantement e
paleozóicos)”.
Gageonnet and Lemoine
(1958): Mesozoic of the
“Autochone”.
Audley-Charles (1968):
region mapped as Wailuli
Formation.
Aulotortus Within Grunau (1957): “Triásico
communis ( Norian–Rhaetian (perto de Pualaca também
Fig. 3ZD, ZE) Jurássico)”.
Gageonnet and Lemoine
(1958): “Permien charrié
(série de Maubisse, série de
Sonnebait)”.
Audley-Charles (1968): thrust
block of Maubisse Formation
(Permian).
Nakazawa and Bando (1968):
“Fatu Limestones” of Triassic
and possibly Permian.
Grady and Berry (1977):
Permian limestone. Berry
et al. (1984): Lilu Beds (upper
Lower and Middle Triassic,?
Permian).
Diplotremina Within Grunau (1957): “Calcários de
altoconica ( Carnian–Norian; Fato de idade indeterminada
Fig. 4A–C) possibly Norian em parte triásicos”.
Aulotortus sinuosus ( Gageonnet and Lemoine
Fig. 4D). (1958): “Calcaires Fatu
(Complex Charrie)”.
Audley-Charles (1968):
Wailuli Formation “Upper
Triassic–Middle Jurassic”.
Charlton et al. (2009):
“Pualaca facies”
Not mapped in detailed.
Associated units in Daisoli
River are Cribas Group
(Permian; basinal EGIRA).
Lilu facies (deposited on
subsided carbonate platform -
Early to early Middle Triassic
in this region); Maubisse
Group (including
Wuchiapingian Colaniella beds
in this region); Babulu Group
(basinal Middle Triassic to
lower Upper Triassic unit); all
EGIRA. Kolbano Group (Late
Cretaceous, Turonian in this
area), Timor-Scott Plateau
Association (Haig and
McCartain, 2007; Haig et al.,
2019)
Babulu, Aitutu and Wailulu
Groups (Middle Triassic to
Lower Jurassic basinal units of
EGIRA); Maubisse Group
(Permian, EGIRA)

massive to thick-bedded limestone (e.g. Fig. 4Aa, d, e); and (2) Thin- to
medium-bedded dark-grey wackestone/floatstone with scattered skel­
etal debris and peloidal grainstone, with couplets of indurated limestone
and pale grey recessive mudstone in parts of the section (e.g. Fig. 4Ac).
Lithofacies 1 is present at all localities (see Fig. 5A–D for typical
microfacies). Most rudstone samples contain micritic/micritized clasts
and smaller peloids (Supplementary Material 2). Reworked shallow-
water limestone clasts containing skeletal debris are present in some
samples. Widespread grain types include porostromate calcimicrobial
nodules, less common solenoporacean algal nodules, foraminifers
(mainly carbonate-cemented agglutinated, involutinid and
duostominine-robertinid types), dasycladacean algae, calcareous
sponges, impunctate and punctate brachiopod debris, recrystallized
bivalve fragments and other molluscan shell debris, microgastropods,
echinoderm debris including echinoid spines and crinoid columnal
plates, and ostracods. Less widespread are ooids, oncoids, aggregate
grains, Tubiphytes, triaxon-type sponge spicules, corals, bryozoans, very
rare ammonoids, and silicate mineral grains (mainly quartz). Grains
commonly show micritic coatings or micritized margins, and less com­
mon Microtubus and other cyanobacterial encrustations. Many samples
show extensive recrystallization of grains (particularly those originally
aragonite) and of matrix.
Lithofacies 2, which is mainly wackestone or fine peloidal grainstone
is present mainly in Unit 3 of the Bandeira Group in the type section
(Fig. 5E, F; Section 1.2 in Supplementary Material 3). Ostracods and
foraminifers (mainly “miliolid”, nodosariid, vaginulinid and carbonate-
cemented agglutinated groups) and echinoid spines are the most
persistent grain types sparsely scattered in the matrices of the lime­
stones. Also present are minor reworked shallow-marine limestone
clasts, very rare porostromate calcimicrobes, very rare involutinid for­
aminifers, rare calcareous sponges (present as large clasts in the float­
stone), very rare bryozoans, impunctate brachiopods and less common
punctate types, rare bivalve debris (including recrystallized fragments,
very rare shells with prismatic microstructure and rare halobiid-type
filaments), very rare crinoid columnals, and quartz grains present in
only one sample. In contrast to the rudstone–coarse grainstone facies,
gastropods and duostominine foraminifers have not been found in the
wackestone facies.
Both lithofacies were deposited in shallow-marine environments
based on the grain assemblages present (see Flügel, 2004). Pelagic mi­
crofossils (e.g. radiolarians) are not present and ammonoids are very
rare in very few samples. The rudstone-dominated facies probably
represent high-energy environments on shallow-water parts of the
platform or in rare cases possibly debris-slides off the edge of the plat­
form or into a shelf lagoon. The wackestone–peloidal grainstone facies
indicate lower-energy lagoon environments. In contrast to the latter

8

Table 5
Summary of observations, age determinations, previous stratigraphic designations and the associated stratigraphic units for the Bandeira Group at Localities 9, 10, eastern Timor-Leste.
Locality Region and sampled limestone
9 - Upper Paitchau Range; Iralalaru
massive Hydropower Project, Boreholes #1
limestone and 2; 0–63 m (below surface).
unit Samples (acetate peels) made from
five cored sections (see Fig. 7 in
Supplementary Material 3)
9 - Middle Paitchau Range; Iralalaru
9
unit Hydropower Project, Boreholes #1
and 2; 62–167 m (below surface).
Samples (acetate peels) made from
five cored sections (see Fig. 7 in
Supplementary Material 3)
10 Tutuala area; limestone fatu on
northern side of town near Pousada;
spot samples
Rock types
Massive limestone; mainly rudstone with
grainstone and wackestone in very few
samples. Abundant to common micritic/
micritized clasts ranging from peloid to
nodule size; most persistent biogenic
grains are porostromate calcimicrobes,
foraminifers, bivalve debris, gastropods,
ostracods; with rare reworked shallow-
marine limestone clasts, solenoporacean
algae, dasycladacean algae, Microtubus
encrustations, Tubiphytes, porcelaneous
foraminifers, calcareous sponges, isolated
sponge spicules,? bryozoans, brachiopods,
echinoderm debris
Minor limestone intervals cored; mainly
rudstone and coarse grainstone. Persistent
grain types include micritic/micritized
clasts, porostromate algae, foraminifers;
with more sporadic solenoporacean algae,
Microtubus encrustations, Tubiphytes,
calcareous sponges, bryozoans,
impunctate brachiopods, bivalve debris,
echinoderm debris (including echinoid
spines and crinoid columnal plates),
ostracods.
Main rock types are peloidal-skeletal
grainstone and packstone; one sample of
ooid grainstone. Most persistent grains are
brachiopod debris, foraminifers,
echinoiderm debris (including echinoid
spines and crinoid columnals with
pentagonal and circular cross-sections),
ostracods, bivalve debris, gastropods; with
minor Microtubus encrustations,
calcareous sponges, coral debris,
bryozoans.
Index Foraminifera (figures refer to
main text)
Triasina hanktkeni (Fig. 4E), Aulotortus
communis, Aulotortis aff. sinuosus with
strengthenings in final whorls (Fig. 4G,
H), Aulotortus tumidus (Fig. 4F),
Diplotremina subangulata (Fig. 4I)
Aulotortus sinuosus (Fig. 4J),
Parvalamella friedli (Fig. 4K), Aulosina
oberhauseri, Aulotortus tumidus,
Diplotremina subangulata, morphotypes
transitional between Aulosina and
Triasina.
Aulosina oberhauseri (Fig. 4M),
Aulotortus communis (Fig. 4N),
Diplotremina altoconica (Fig. 4P),
Diplotremina subangulata, indeterminant
Cassianopapillariinae
D.W. Haig et al.
Age Previous stratigraphic designation Stratigraphic
Association
Within Sevatian Grunau (1953, 1957): “Fatukalke” of Aitutu Formation
(Late Norian) to indefinite age, but partly Triassic. (Upper Triassic basinal
Rhaetian interval; Gageonnet and Lemoine (1958): unit of EGIRA); Cribas
possibly Rhaetian “Calcaires Fatu” of the “Complexe Group (Permian basinal
Charrié”, massive limestone equivalent unit of EGIRA)
to Triassic of Tutuala.
Leme (1963): part of limestone massifs
of Tutuala (Late Triassic).
Audley-Charles (1968): Aitutu
Formation (Late Triassic).
Norwegian Water Resources and
Energy Directorate (2006):
Permian–Carboniferous limestone.
Charlton et al. (2009): Pualaca facies
(Upper Triassic).
Benincasa (2015): Bandeira Group.
Within same as above same as above
Norian–lower
Rhaetian interval
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362
Norian Wanner (1956): “Upper Norian” Aitutu and Babulu
massive coralline limestone. groups (Middle to
Leme (1963, 1968): massive grey to Upper Triassic basinal
light yellow limestone including units of EGIRA)
intraformational conglomerates,
Triassic.
Audley-Charles (1968): highly
fossiliferous basal conglomerates of the
Aitutu Formation, Carnian. Charlton
et al. (2009): Pualaca facies (upper
Triassic).
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Table 6
Distribution of identified foraminifers. Localities are numbered as on Fig. 1. At Locality 1, 1–1 is Unit 1, 1–3 is Unit 3, and 1–5 is Unit 5 (see Fig. 3). At Locality 10
(Fig. 4), 9–1 is Iralalaru #1, 8.4–16.6 m (Samples 48–64); 9–2 is Iralalaru #2, 15.6–23.3 m (Samples 98–104); 9–3 is Iralalaru #1, 39.1–47.6 m (Samples 65–78); 9–4 is
Iralalaru #1, 54.7–63.4 m (Samples 79–88), and Iralalaru #2, 54.5–60.9 m (Samples 105–110); 9–5 is 76.0–81.9 m (Samples 111–122); 9–6 is Iralalaru #2,
96.8–103.9 m (Samples 123–126); 9–7 is Iralalaru #2, 117.6–125.1 m (Samples 127–134); 9–8 is Iralalaru # 1, 138.3–149.1 m (Samples 89–93); 9–9 is Iralalaru #1,
150.0–167 m (Samples 94–97). See Supplementary Material 2 for species distributions in samples.
Localities 1–1 1–3 1–5 2 3 4 6 7 8 9–1 9–2 9–3 9–4 9–5 9–6 9–7 9–8 9–9 10

Agathammina iranica Zaninetti, Brönnimann, X X

Bozorgnia and Huber
Astacolus hemiselena Kristan-Tollmann cf.
Atsabella bandeiraensis Haig and McCartain X
Aulosina oberhauseri (Koehn-Zaninetti and X ? ? ? X
Brönnimann)
Aulotortus communis (Kristan) cf. X X X X X ? X
Aulotortus sinuosus Weynschenk X ? cf. X ? X ? X X ? X X X X X X X
aff. Aulotortus sinuosus (with strengthenings X X X
in final whorls)
Aulotortus tumidus Kristan-Tollmann X X
Austrocolomia marschalli Oberhauser X X
Calcitornella baconica Oraveczné Scheffer X
Cassianopapillaria laghii (di Bari and Rettori) ? aff.
Cassianopapillariina (either Diplotremina or X X X X X
Cassianopapillaria)
Cryptoseptida klebelsbergi Oberhauser X
Diplotremina altoconica Kristan-Tollmann X X X
Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-Tollmann X X X X X X X X X X
Duostomina alta Kristan-Tollmann ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Duostomina biconvexa Kristan-Tollmann ? ? ?
Duostomina rotundata Kristan-Tollmann X
Duostomina turboidea Kristan-Tollmann X
Duotaxis metula Kristan X X X X X ? ?
Duotaxis nanus (Kristan-Tollmann) ? ? X X ? ?
Endoteba ex gr. badouxi (Zaninetti and X
Brönnimann)
Endoteba kuepperi Oberhauser X
Endoteba ex gr. obturata (Brönnimann and X X
Zaninetti)
Endoteba spp. X ? X ? X X X X X X
Endotebanella kocaeliensis (Dager) cf.
Endotebanella robusta (Salaj) X X X X cf.
Endotriada tyrrhenica Vachard, Martini, cf. cf. cf.
Rettori and Zaninetti
Endotriadella wirzi (Koehn-Zaninetti), aff. aff. aff. aff.
Eoguttulina infracta Kristan-Tollmann X
“Everticyclammina” alveolatus (Salaj, Borza X X X X
and Samuel)
“Everticyclammina” cf. simplex (Urosevic) X X ? X X X X X X X X X
Gandinella capellinii (Ciarapica and Zaninetti) X X X X X X X X
Gandinella gemerica (Salaj) ? X
Gandinella kuthani (Salaj) X ? ? ?
Micritized morphotypes similar to Gandinella ? X X X X ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
but placed in Parvalamella spp.
Glutameandratids indeterminant X X X
Hemigordiopsid-like microgranular species X X
Hoyenella vulgaris (Ho) X X X X X X X
Karaburunia atsabensis Haig and McCartain X
Karaburunia spp. X X ?
Lamelliconus multispirus (Oberhauser) X
Lamelliconus ventroplanus (Oberhauser) X
Malayspirina fontainei Fontaine, Khoo and X
Vachard
Ophthalmidium primitivum Ho cf.
Palaeolituonella meridionalis (Luperto) X
Parvalamella friedli (Kristan-Tollmann) X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Parvalamella sigmoidea Rigaud, Martini and ?
Rettori
Parvalamella? praegaschei (Koehn-Zaninetti) X
Transitional between P? praegaschi and X
P. friedli
Planiinvoluta carinata Leischner X
Praereinholdella sp. X
Prorakusia primigenia di Bari and Laghi ?
Prorakusia salaji de Bari and Laghi cf.
Rakusia oberhauseri Salaj X
Rectoglomospira cf. senecia Trifonova ? ? X ? X
Robertonella sp. X
Semimeandrospira rauli Urosevic X
(continued on next page)

10
D.W. Haig et al.
Table 6 (continued )
Localities 1–1 1–3 1–5 2 3 4 6
“Siphovalvulina” almtalensis (Koehn- X X X
Zaninetti)
“Tolypammina” gregaria (Wendt) X X X X
Triadodiscus eomesozoicus Oberhauser X
Triasina hantkeni Majzon
Possible intermediate morphotype between
Aulosina and Triasina
Trocholina? acuta Oberhauser aff.
Trocholina? cordevolica Oberhauser X
Unknown high-trochospiral multichambered
morphotype
facies, the thin-bedded wackestone beds in the basinal facies of the
Babulu and Aitutu groups contain abundant radiolarians and halobiid
filaments.
4.3. Foraminifers and age constraints
Foraminifers (Table 6) identified at the studied localities include 54
named species (some tentatively identified) and 13 morphotypes left in
informal nomenclature. These provide the bases for age determinations
of the Bandeira Group in this study. Only five of the species have been
recorded previously in the Triassic deposits of Timor, from a carbonate
turbidite bed in the Babulu Group (Haig et al., 2007) and porcelaneous
foraminifers from Unit 3 at the type locality (Haig and McCartain,
2012). From deeper-water deposits in West Timor, Kristan-Tollmann
and Tollmann (1983) described several species from “Hallstätterskalk”
facies (= Lilu facies, Table 1); and from Timor-Leste, Haig and McCar­
tain (2010) recorded a diverse organic-cemented agglutinated forami­
niferal assemblage from basinal facies of the Babulu and Aitutu groups.
The deeper-water species are not present in the carbonate-platform
deposits studied here.
Many of the identified species (see named types in Table 6) are
known from carbonate-platform facies in northern Africa and in Europe
(see references in Supplementary Materials 4 and 5). This indicates wide
biogeographic ranges of species in a broad tropical–subtropical climatic
belt. Similar broad biogeographic ranges characterize the macrofossil
groups from Timor as reviewed by Charlton et al. (2009), in particular
the 167 ammonoid genera found in the deep-water facies of the island.
The most important age-diagnostic foraminiferal species in the
Bandeira Group are illustrated on Figs. 6 and 7; these and other species
are also illustrated in Supplementary Material 4, plates 1–17. Known
stratigraphic ranges of the age-index species are shown on Fig. 8, based
on reliable well-dated sections (see references in Supplementary Mate­
rial 5). Because of our incomplete sample coverage, the ages we have
determined for each locality (Tables 2–5) should not be regarded as
representing the full stratigraphic range of the Bandeira Group at that
locality. Our determinations are a starting point for further detailed
stratigraphic analyses. A synthesis of the age determinations and cor­
relation of the Bandeira Group to other EGIRA units in Timor-Leste are
discussed in Section 5.
4.4. Previous stratigraphic designations
Since the adoption of modern lithostratigraphic nomenclature for
Timor-Leste by Audley-Charles (1968), limestones of the Bandeira
Group at studied localities have been assigned to various formations of
different ages. The Permian Maubisse Limestone was mapped at locality
4 (Audley-Charles, 1968) and locality 7 (Audley-Charles, 1968; Grady
and Berry, 1977, as Permian limestone). The upper Lower and Middle
Triassic Lilu Beds, mapped by Berry et al. (1984), included Locality 7. In
mapping by Audley-Charles (1968) and Grady and Berry (1977), the
type locality of the Bandeira Group in Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1) was
placed in the Aitutu Formation (Upper Triassic, basinal facies; see
11
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362
7 8 9–1 9–2 9–3 9–4 9–5 9–6 9–7 9–8 9–9 10
X X X
X
? X X X X ? X ?
? X
Table 1). Audley-Charles (1968) also included the Paitchau Range (Lo­
cality 9) and Tutuala fatus (locality 10) as Aitutu Formation. Charlton
et al. (2009) informally designated the shallow-water Upper Triassic
limestone at localities 8, 9 and 10, the Pualaca facies. Audley-Charles
(1968) placed localities 6 and 8, within a broad area mapped as Wailuli
Formation (Upper Triassic to Middle Jurassic according to him). The
Lower Miocene Cablac Limestone was used to designate the Bandeira
Gorge type locality (locality 1) by Bachri and Situmorang (1994), and
localities 2 and 3 by Audley-Charles (1968).
4.5. Stratigraphic association
As listed on Tables 2–5 and described in Supplementary Material 3, a
recurring set of lithostratigraphic units is spatially associated with the
Bandeira Group at the studied localities. These include the Permian
Maubisse and Cribas groups; the Triassic Lilu facies, Babulu and Aitutu
groups; and the Uppermost Triassic to Lower Jurassic Wailuli Group.
This stratigraphic association typifies EGIRA (see Sections 2.1, 6.1 and
Fig. 9). At Locality 7, a small outcrop of Upper Cretaceous (Turonian)
carbonate pelagite belonging to the Kolbano Group (post Gondwana
breakup, Timor-Scott Plateau Association; Haig and McCartain, 2007;
Haig et al., 2019) is present in vicinity of Bandeira Group outcrop on Mt
Lilu.
5. Age synthesis and correlation
Foraminiferal assemblages observed in the Bandeira Group suggest
an age spectrum from within the Carnian (? late Carnian) to probably
within the Rhaetian (? early Rhaetian). At the type locality of the Ban­
deira Group, assemblages from Unit 1 belong probably to the late Car­
nian; those from Unit 3 may span the late Carnian to Norian, with the
upper part of the unit definitely Norian; and Unit 5 assemblages are
middle(?) Norian to late Norian. Although definitive Carnian assem­
blages have not been recognized at other localities, assemblages from
the Pualaca area (Locality 8) may be Carnian or Norian. Assemblages
from all other localities suggest a stratigraphic position no lower than
Norian, with assemblages from the middle unit at Locality 9 (Iralalaru
boreholes, Paitchau Range) and from Locality 10 (Tutuala) suggestive of
levels no higher than Norian. At localities 3 (Loelaco Fatu), 6 (Turiscai)
and 9 (upper unit, Iralalaru boreholes, Paitchau Range), morphotypes
related to Aulotortus sinuosus, but with strenghtenings in final whorls,
are present which elsewhere have been observed only in the Rhaetian
(see Fig. 8 and Supplementary Materials 3, 4). Rare Triasina hanktkeni
are also present in the upper unit at Locality 9 and supports a Rhaetian
age for this level (although the species ranges upward from the Sevatian,
latest Norian; Fig. 8).
As observed at the type locality, the Bandeira Group does not
represent continuous limestone deposition from the Carnian to Rhae­
tian. The lateral extent of the units recognized at the type locality is
unknown because of the extreme structural disturbance that resulted
from the late Miocene to present orogenesis, as well as lack of subsurface
information throughout most of the country. From the observations we
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 5. Microfacies typical of the Bandeira Group in Timor-Leste; bar scale = 2 mm; the clast composition of each rock sample examined is listed in Supplementary
Material 2. A, sample 12, Unit 1 in Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1, Figs. 1, 5), floatstone with recrystallized clasts coated by thick micritic encrustations, probably
produced by cyanobacterial action. B, sample 13, Unit 1 in Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1, Figs. 1, 5), coarse grainstone with abundant micritized clasts and a large
involutinid foraminifera with circular outline in the lower left. C, sample 35, Unit 5 in Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1, Figs. 1, 5), rudstone composed of large nodular
solenoporacean algae with micritic coatings (cortoids). D, sample 152 from Mt. Lilu region (Locality 8, Figs. 1, 9), rudstone composed of large calcareous sponge
cortoids, and micritizied and recrystallized clasts, as well as coated nodular porostromate calcimicrobes and solenoporacean algae (not shown here). E, sample 22,
Unit 3, Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1, Figs. 1, 5) peloidal packstone with a large porcelaneous foraminifer. F, sample 23, Unit 3, Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1, Figs. 1, 5)
peloidal packstone.

have made, shallow-marine limestone of the Norian seems most wide­
spread. In Timor-Leste, basinal deposits that correlate with the Car­
nian–Rhaetian Bandeira Group, are the upper Babulu Group (which
ranges upward to lower Norian) and the Aitutu Group (Norian; Table 1).
Possible correlation to the Rhaetian part of the Wailuli Group is dis­
cussed in Section 6.
6. Palaeogeographic implications
6.1. Local palaeogeography
At all localities where we found Upper Triassic shallow-marine
Bandeira Group, basinal coeval units from either the Babulu and/or
Aitutu groups (Table 1; Fig. 9) are present in adjacent outcrop (Section
4; Supplementary Material 3). Mass-flow and turbidite deposits
composed of shallow-marine carbonate debris are present within the

12
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

(caption on next page)

13
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 6. Selected foraminiferal species used for age discrimination within the Bandeira Group (see Supplementary Material 4, plates 1–17, for images of most of the
species observed in the Group). A–M, Carnian (probably upper Carnian), Unit 1, Locality 1, type locality of Bandeira Group: A, probable Prorakusia primigenia di
Bari and Laghi, perhaps with the few final streptospiral whorls broken from the test, from Sample 19; B, Prorakusia cf. salaji di Bari and Laghi, from Sample 13; C, ?
Cassianopapillaria laghii (di Bari and Rettori), questionable because of poor preservation of probable papillose lamellae, from Sample 3; D, Semimeandrospira rauli
Urosevic, from Sample 12; E, Duostomina turboidea Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 3; F, Lamelliconus multispirus (Oberhauser), from Sample 18; G, Lamelliconus
ventroplanus (Oberhauser), from Sample 19; H, Triadodiscus eomesozoicus Oberhauser, from Sample 19; I, Trocholina? cordevolica Oberhauser, from Sample 19; J,
Diplotremina altoconica Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 3; K, Duostomina rotundata Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 13; L, Parvalamella? praegaschei (Koehn-Zaninetti),
from Sample 19. M, Robertonella sp., from Sample 18. N–Q, Norian, Unit 3, Locality 1, type locality of Bandeira Group: N, Aulosina oberhauseri (Koehn-Zaninetti and
Brönnimann), with strengthenings (see Rigaud et al., 2013) in tubular chamber, from Sample 23; O, Trocholina? aff. acuta Oberhauser, from Sample 23; P, ? Par­
valamella sigmoidea Rigaud, Martini and Rettori, identification uncertain due to poor preservation, from Sample 27. Q, Austrocolomia marschalli Oberhauser, from
Sample 27. R–U, Norian diagnostic species from Unit 5, Locality 1, type locality of Bandeira Group: R, ? Aulosina oberhauseri (Koehn-Zaninetti and Brönnimann),
note the clear presence of narrowed lumen delimited by poorly preserved strengthenings, from Sample 37; S, Aulotortus cf. communis (Kristan), from Sample 35; T,
Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 35; U, Rakusia oberhauseri Salaj, from Sample 35. V–Y, Norian–Rhaetian diagnostic species from Localities
2 and 3: V, W, Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-Tollmann, V from Sample 145, W from Sample 140; X, Y, morphotypes related to Aulotortus sinuosus Weynschenk, but
with strengthenings in the final whorls, from Sample 140. Z, ZA, Norian or Rhaetian diagnostic species from Locality 4: Z, Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-
Tollmann, from Sample 147; ZA, Aulotortus communis (Kristan). from Sample 147. ZB, ZC, Norian or Rhaetian (possibly Rhaetian) diagnostic species from Lo­
cality 6: aff. Aulotortus sinuosus Weynschenk, may display strengthenings in the last whorls, from Sample 177. ZD, ZE, Norian or Rhaetian diagnostic species from
Locality 7: Aulotortus communis (Kristan); ZD from Sample 150, ZE from Sample 151.

Babulu and Aitutu groups (Section 2.2 and below). Although formation
contacts are disrupted by pervasive faulting and usually obscured under
thick soil cover, close field relationships and evidence of transport of
debris from the shallow-marine carbonate facies to basinal mud/turbi­
ditic sand facies stitch these units together as a coherent tectonostrati­
graphic association (Fig. 9). This is referred to as EGIRA (following Haig,
2018; Haig et al., 2019). No carbonate debris-slides or turbidites have
been documented from Rhaetian to Early Jurassic basinal strata (e.g. in
the Wailuli Group; Table 1; Fig. 9). This suggests that the Bandeira
Group does not extend far into the lower Rhaetian. This is supported by
the rarity of Triasina hanktkeni in the Bandeira Group (Supplementary
Material 3) compared to its abundance in the Asinepe (= Manusela)
Limestone of Seram (Al-Shaibani et al., 1983; Martini et al., 2004),
which is also part of the dismembered EGIRA along the “Outer Banda
Arc” (see Section 6.2).
From the upper Babulu Group in the Manatuto area, in limestone
blocks in a debris slide, Roniewicz et al. (2005) described shallow-water
reef-type corals, which they attributed to the Carnian. Bird and Cook
(1991) reported similar coral-bearing conglomeratic units in the Babulu
Group of West Timor. From the Wailuli River, Haig et al. (2007)
recorded a Carnian foraminiferal assemblage from a thin carbonate-rich
sandstone bed positioned between thicker halobiid-rich mudstone beds
of the Babulu Group. The foraminifers include Turriglomina mesotrias­
sica, Endotriadella wirzi, probable Diplotremina astrofimbriata, and species
of Endoteba, Duotaxis, Siphovalvulina, opthalmidiids (including forms
referred to Gsollbergella spiroloculiformis), and ?Gaudryina characteristic
of a carbonate-platform fauna. Spore-pollen recorded from mudstone
1 m below the sandstone belong to an assemblage no younger than
Carnian, and the Carnian brachiopod Koninckina leonhardi was found
3 m below the sandstone. McCartain (2014) provided other examples of
transported carbonate debris in the Babulu Group. In the Norian of
Timor-Leste, similar debris slides and carbonate turbidites are present as
sporadic interbeds within the thin- to medium-bedded radiolarian-rich
dark-grey wackestone/paper-shale successions of the Aitutu Group, but
these have not been fully described in published literature.
Because of a chaotic structural overprint and deep soil cover on the
friable mud-dominated units, the original geographic relationships be­
tween facies cannot be clearly observed. The Bandeira Group seems
mainly to be of rudstone or coarse grainstone facies deposited in high-
energy platform environments. The dominant sediment types are
micritic/micritized clasts and skeletal debris (Supplementary Materials
2, 3). Clean well-sorted oolitic sands are absent, although ooids form a
minor sediment component at a few localities (Supplementary Materials
2, 3). Where laterally extensive units of the limestone can be observed,
as in Bandeira Gorge (Locality 1), along the Lesululi-Loelaco-Saburai
ridges (Localities 2–4), and along the Paitchau Range (Locality 9), the
Bandeira Group exhibits slab-like architecture (see Section 4.1). This
and the facies suggest extensive carbonate platforms were developed in
Timor-Leste during the Carnian–Norian (and possibly to the early
Rhaetian). We have not observed any massive reef limestones of the
Norian that Roniewicz et al. (2005) surmised were present. Coral-sponge
buildups in the Pualaca region (Locality 8) appear to be of limited extent
as Charlton et al. (2009) also noted.
The carbonate platforms may have occupied marine shelves or horst
platforms within the interior rift system. At the type locality of the
Bandeira Group (Locality 1), the presence of minor quartz in Unit 1 and
the conformable contact between this unit and the overlying sandstone
(Unit 2; Fig. 4Ab and Supplementary Material 3), suggest that here a
shelf adjacent to an emergent hinterland was present during the Car­
nian. The higher limestone successions (Norian, possibly to lower
Rhaetian) in the type locality (Unit 5) and at other localities examined
here, lack a siliciclastic component (Supplementary Material 2) and
some of the localities may have been on horst platforms.
The flooding of a shallow-marine carbonate shelf (Unit 1 at the type
locality) by lithic sand (Unit 2; Fig. 4Ab) during the late Carnian may
represent climate change in the hinterland with an increase in humid
conditions and fluvial runoff. The correspondence of the contact be­
tween Units 1 and 2 with a global Carnian Pluvial Episode (see recent
papers by Zeng et al., 2019, and Mancuso et al., 2020 on Gondwana
successions) cannot be determined because of poor age resolution,
limited understanding of Triassic sequence stratigraphy in the disrupted
Timor region, and limited knowledge of eustatic events during the Late
Triassic. The return of muddy lagoonal conditions on the shelf (Unit 3 at
type locality; Fig. 4Ac) during the Norian either represents subsidence or
a climate-driven eustatic sea-level rise.
It is clear that the Upper Triassic shallow-water limestones (Bandeira
Group) represent extensive sheet-like carbonate-platform deposits in
Timor-Leste. These are linked in outcrop with basinal deposits (Babulu
and Aitutu groups) forming part of EGIRA (Fig. 9) similar to the classical
Dachstein Platform–Hallstatt Basin facies associations found in the Eu­
ropean Alps, as described in Flügel (2004). The Triassic carbonate-
platform deposits in Timor were not emplaced onto the Timor margin
of the Australian continent during collision from an allochthonous po­
sition, as suggested by many previous workers (see Section 1). As
Wanner (1956) suspected they formed part of a diverse platform-basin
depositional system in this region during the Carnian (possibly late
Carnian) to Norian, possibly extending into the early Rhaetian. They
have remained in an autochthonous position with respect to the present-
day Australian continent.
6.2. Similar coeval facies in East Gondwana Interior Rift
The reconstructed Triassic stratigraphy of EGIRA in Timor-Leste is
mirrored on other islands along the Australian continent–Sundaland

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D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 7. Additional selected foraminiferal species used for age discrimination within the Bandeira Group (see Supplementary Material 4, plates 1–17, for images of
most of the species observed in the group). A–D, Carnian–Norian diagnostic species from Locality 8: A–C, Diplotremina altoconica Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample
153; D, Aulotortus sinuosus Weynschenk, from Sample 154. E–I, late Norian (Sevatian) or Rhaetian diagnostic species from Locality 9 upper unit: E, Triasina
hantkeni Majzon, from Sample 107; F, Aulotortus tumidus Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 125; G, H, possible intermediate morphotypes between Aulosina and Tri­
asina, from Sample 83; I, Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 49. J–L, Norian diagnostic species from Locality 9 middle unit: J, Aulotortus
sinuosus Weynschenk, from Sample 119; K, Parvalamella friedli (Kristan-Tollmann), off-centered sections; from Sample 120; L, Diplotremina subangulata Kristan-
Tollmann, from Sample 131. M–P, Norian diagnostic species from Locality 10: M, Aulosina oberhauseri (Koehn-Zaninetti and Brönnimann), from Sample 171; N,
Aulotortus communis (Kristan), from Sample 174; O, Diplotremina altoconica Kristan-Tollmann, from Sample 175.

collision zone (Fig. 2A) and further to the south in contiguous basins on
the present-day Australian margin (Table 7). Because of complex
structure in the orogenic belt, as well as yet imprecise correlations,
uncertainty in local palaeogeography in a probable extensional tectonic
setting, and few preserved stratigraphic contacts between major lithos­
tratigraphic units, we have not attempted to draw stratigraphic columns
for each area when making this comparison or to develop local palae­
ogeographic maps. Rather we tabulate correspondence among units of
similar facies and broadly equivalent ages between Triassic–Jurassic
EGIRA in Timor-Leste and in the other areas (Table 7).
At most of the sites where equivalents of the Bandeira Group are
present (Table 7), equivalents of the Babulu Group are also present, but
Aitutu Group analogues seem less widespread. Argillaceous facies of the
Lower to Middle Jurassic (equivalent to the Wailuli Group) are present
in the Papuan Basin, Misool, East Sulawesi, Seram, and in the Northern
Carnarvon Basin on the Australian margin. The condensed submerged-
platform facies, represented in Timor-Leste by the Lilu facies, has only
been recorded in Seram. As discussed by Haig et al. (2015), equivalents
of the basal Triassic Niof Group are present in the Bonaparte, Canning,
Northern Carnarvon and Perth basins (north to south along the present
Australian margin south of Timor). The variegated marine clays of this
group represent a substantial marine flooding almost co-incident with
the Permian/Triassic boundary in the region. This flooding event is also
reflected in the Lower Triassic Lilu facies (deep-water-platform facies)
stratigraphically above Upper Permian shallow-water limestone of the
Maubisse Group (at Locality 7, Fig. 1).
An additional observation, suggesting that these dismembered de­
posits belong with their Timor equivalents in EGIRA, is the presence of
shallow-marine shales and sands with a distinctive molluscan fauna
including Malayomaorica, Retroceramus, and Beleminopsis at many of the
sites north of the Canning Basin in Western Australia (i.e. where conti­
nental breakup took place at or before 155 Ma; Fig. 2C). This Kimmer­
idgian–Tithonian neritic faunal assemblage, that is in the basal deposits
of the newly formed Indian Ocean margin, is present at widespread

15
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Fig. 8. Known stratigraphic ranges, in sections considered reliable outside of the East Gondwana Interior Rift, of age-diagnostic foraminiferal species found at
studied localities (see Supplementary Material 5 for references).

localities in Timor-Leste (Haig and McCartain, 2007) and is always
associated with EGIRA deposits. As well as sites listed on Table 7, the
faunal association is present in New Caledonia, New Zealand, Antarctic
Peninsula and Falkland Plateau (Crame, 1983) along a reduced East
Gondwanan margin. This was after separation of terranes on the Mes­
otethyan margin of Gondwana north of Greater India (Fig. 2C) that now
form part of Sundaland. Haig and McCartain (2007) found that at all
localities where the Malayomaorica shales/sands (attributed to the Oe
Baat Group) were present in Timor-Leste, younger carbonate pelagites
are also present. On modern Exmouth Plateau (Fig. 2B) a lowest
Cretaceous belemnite-rich shallow-marine sandstone lies unconform­
ably above EGIRA Triassic at least in some parts of the outer plateau.
This is below a deep-water carbonate-pelagite succession (Creta­
ceous–Cenozoic; Exon et al., 1992). Using this analogy, Haig and
McCartain (2007) suggested that a similar, but slightly older, succession
was present in Timor on a post-breakup Timor–Scott Plateau. Submarine
plateaus are present between abyssal embayments, floored by oceanic
crust, along the western Australian continental margin (Fig. 2B) and are
formed of attenuated continental crust that subsided within about 30 my
after continental breakup. From stratigraphic evidence, Timor–Scott
Plateau collided with areas derived from southern Sundaland at
8 ± 2 Ma (Haig and McCartain, 2007; Haig, 2012; Haig et al., 2019; see
Section 6.4).
The presence of EGIRA at Sites B–H, supports derivation of these
blocks from Sula Spur (Hall, 2011; Metcalfe, 2011, 2013). Further an­
alyses of Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits, and separation of these from
those derived from Sundaland, is required to confirm if an associated
submarine plateau succession was present before collision. It seems
highly likely that Sula Spur was a submarine plateau, similar to Exmouth
and Timor–Scott plateaus (Fig. 2B). These developed after the breakup
of the East Gondwana Interior Rift and formation of the Indian Ocean.
6.3. Comparisons with Permian shallow-marine carbonates in region
A continuous Permian shallow-marine limestone succession (viz.
Maubisse Formation) is not present in Timor-Leste, contrary to the
suggestions of Audley-Charles (1968), Charlton et al. (2002) and many
others including Fainstein et al. (2020). Shallow-water carbonate facies
were present in the late Gzhelian (latest Carboniferous, around 300 Ma;
Davydov et al., 2013, 2014), late Sakmarian–early Artinskian (Cisura­
lian, Early Permian, around 290 Ma; Haig et al., 2014), late Artin­
skian–early Kungurian (Cisuralian, Early Permian, around 283 Ma; Haig

16
D.W. Haig et al.
Fig. 9. Relationship of Bandeira Group to other Triassic–Jurassic units of EGIRA (see Table 1); the oldest post-breakup unit (Oe Baat Group with Malayomaorica
assemblage); and the Perdido Group of OTA (see Section 6.4). The vertical dimension of each photo approximately represents the time range of the stratigraphic unit
represented by the photo.
et al., 2017), late Wordian–Capitanian (Guadalupian, Middle Permian,
around 265 Ma; see Haig et al., 2017, their Table 2), and within the
Wuchiapingian, possibly extending through Changhsingian (Lopingian,
around 256 Ma, possibly extending to 252 Ma; work in progress). The
Permian limestone units seem to represent bryozoan-crinoidal mounds
of varying lateral extent and are conformable with underlying and
overlying volcanic and siliciclastic strata (Davydov et al., 2013; Haig
et al., 2014, 2017). These deposits fit, probably at maximum marine
flooding levels, in each of the depositional sequences, Pseq1–Pseq5,
recognized by Haig et al. (2018) in the west Australian basins to the
south.
In their exposition of Seram stratigraphy, Audley-Charles et al.
(1979, p. 556) suggested that the Maubisse Formation extended into the
Triassic in Timor, and this was followed, for example, by Harris et al.
(2009, their Fig. 4) and Fainstein et al. (2020, their Fig. 6a). Limestones
of the Triassic Bandeira Group are compositionally and architecturally
different from those of the Permian Maubisse Formation. The Bandeira
Group contains slab-like carbonate-platform units composed mainly of
rudstones and coarse grainstone with dominant micritic/micritized
clasts and peloids (see Section 4; Supplementary Material 3). The
17
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362
Permian limestones are dominated by bryozoan and crinoidal skeletal
debris and probably formed mounds rather than sheet-like platform
carbonates (Davydov et al., 2013; Haig et al., 2014, 2017). In terms of
skeletal mineralogy, the Triassic platform carbonates are dominated by
bioclasts that were originally aragonitic and are poorly preserved,
whereas in the Permian “mounds” the bioclasts are mainly calcitic and
well preserved.
Although deep-water carbonate-platform deposits of the Lilu facies
are known from Timor-Leste and are as old as late early Induan (latest
Griesbachian, based on conodont studies coordinated by Eujay McCar­
tain), shallow-water carbonate platform deposits of the Bandeira Group
are not known below the Carnian in Timor nor at the other sites in the
East Gondwana Interior Rift discussed in Section 6.2. There is a large
chronostratigraphic gap in the reconstructed stratigraphy between the
shallow-water carbonates of the Permian and those of the Triassic. The
name “Maubisse Formation” should not be applied to Triassic deposits
because of differences in composition, depositional architecture, and
lack of stratigraphic continuity.
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Table 7
Regional occurrences of Triassic–Jurassic units with Late Triassic shallow-marine limestone (Bandeira Group equivalents) associated with basinal facies similar to
those placed in EGIRA in Timor-Leste. Units from which foraminiferal assemblages have been described are marked by an asterisk. A, Papuan Basin: 1, Kuta
Limestone, Norian-Rhaetian (Bain et al., 1975; Skwarko et al., 1976; Kristan-Tollmann, 1986*, 1990*; see discussion on tectonostratigraphic position by Van Wyck and
Williams, 2002); 2, Yuat Formation and Jimi Greywacke, Anisian–Norian (Skwarko, 1967, 1973a, 1973b); 3, shale in Balimbu Greywacke, mid Sinemurian–early
Pliensbachian (Haig, 1979*); 4, Maril Shale and correlative units, Late Jurassic (Glaessner, 1945; Skwarko, 1967; Ayyasami and Haig, 1997). B, Bird’s Head
(easternmost New Guinea), 5, Bogal Limestone (Fraser et al., 1993; in Gunning 1, Berau Bay); 6, Tipuma Formation, Lower–Middle Triassic by palynomorphs (Fraser
et al., 1993; offshore Onin, TBJ 1×; onshore Tarof 2; see also Darman and Reemst, 2012, their Figs. 5, 9). C, Misool, 7, Bogal Formation, Carnian–Norian (Pigram et al.,
1982; Hasibuan and Grant-Mackie, 2007); 8, Keskian Formation (Anisian–Ladinian; Pigram et al., 1982; Hasibuan and Grant-Mackie, 2007); 9, Lios Member of Bogal
Formation (Pigram et al., 1982; Hasibuan and Grant-Mackie, 2007); 10, Yefbie Shale (Pigram et al., 1982) 11, Lelinta Shales (Pigram et al., 1982). D, Sula Platform,
12, Pigram et al. (1985, their Fig. 2). E: East Sulawesi-Buton, 13, carbonate-platform limestone unit (Cornée et al., 1994; Martini et al., 1995*, 1997*); 14, Tuetue
Member of Meluhu Formation in Sulawesi and Winto Formation in Buton (Surono and Bachri, 2002; reference to Winto Formation on p. 191 is based on previous
reports); 15, un-named unit (Cornée et al., 1999; Martini et al., 1997); 16, Nambo Formation (Hasibuan and Kusworo, 2008). F. Buru, 17, “massenkalk” (Upper
Triassic, Norian, Wanner, 1923; part of Ghegan Formation, Hartono and Tjokrospoetro, 1986); 18, Dalan Formation (Harahap and Poedjoprajitno, 2006); 19, Fogi
Beds (Upper Triassic, Norian, Wanner, 1923), 20, Malayomaorica beds recorded by Wanner (1923). G. Seram. 21, Manusela (= Asinepe) Limestone (Al-Shaibani et al.,
1983*, 1984*; Martini et al., 2004*; Charlton and Van Gorsel, 2014); 21x Ammonitico rosso Limestones at five levels within the Asinepe succession (Martini et al.,
2004). 22, Kanikeh Formation (Charlton and Van Gorsel, 2014); 23 Saman Saman Limestone (Audley-Charles et al., 1979), thin-bedded bituminous limestones placed
as a distinct facies in the Manusela Limestone (Charlton and Van Gorsel, 2014); 24, possible basinal grey shale facies (Charlton and Van Gorsel, 2014); 25, Kola Shale
with Malayomaorica assemblage (Charlton and Van Gorsel, 2014). H, Sinta Ridge, Banda Sea, 26, shallow-marine limestone (Villeneuve et al., 1994); I, Bonaparte
Basin, Ashmore Platform, 27, Benalla Formation (Mory, 1991; Nicoll and Foster, 1998); 28, Mount Goodwin Formation (Mory, 1991; Gorter et al., 2010); 29, Osprey,
Pollard and Challis Formations (Mory, 1991; Nicoll and Foster, 1998); I2 30, Dampier Peninsula, Canning Basin, glauconitic siltstone with Malayomaorica assemblage
(Brunnschweiler, 1957, 1960); J, Wombat Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin, 31, Rhaetian platform limestone (Dumont, 1992; Von Rad et al., 1992; Zaninetti
et al., 1992*; Kristan-Tollmann and Gramann, 1992); 32 Norian “black slit and clay” unit (Dumont, 1992); J2, 33, Locker Shale (inshore part of basin, Heath and
Apthorpe, 1986*; Gorter, 1994; Apthorpe, 2003*). K, southern Exmouth Plateau, Northern Carnarvon Basin, 34, Rhaetian carbonate “build-ups” (Grain et al.,
2013); 35, Lower to Middle Jurassic shale (Grain et al., 2013; = inboard Brigadier Formation + North Rankin Formation + Murat Siltstone; Kelman et al., 2013); K2,
inboard Northern Carnarvon Basin, Mungaroo Formation, delta complex (Kelman et al., 2013); K3, northern Perth Basin, Kockatea Shale (Haig et al., 2015).
Other sites in East Gondwana Interior Rift (see Fig. 2)

Units in Timor-Leste (see Table 1) A B C D E F G H I J K

Shales/sands with Malayomaorica-Retroceramus-Beleminopsis fauna; Kimmeridgian–Tithonian (see 4 11 16 20 25 I230

Haig and McCartain, 2007, for Timor-Leste records) - lowest unit of Timor-Scott Plateau Association

Gondwana Breakup (Opening of Indian Ocean)

Basinal Facies
Wailuli Group (upper Rhaetian–Lower Jurassic–? Middle Jurassic) 3* 10 15 24 35
Aitutu Group (Norian–lower Rhaetian) 9 19 23
Babulu Group (Anisian–Norian) 2 6 8 14 18 22 29 32 K236
Niof Group (Induan–Anisian) 28 J233 K3

Carbonate-Platform Facies
Bandeira Group; Carnian–?early Rhaetian 1* 5 7 12 13 17 21 26 27 31 34
Lilu facies; late early Induan and higher 21x

6.4. Comparison with Lower Jurassic Perdido Group of OTA-1
The Lower Jurassic Perdido Group is a carbonate-platform deposit
similar to the Upper Triassic Bandeira Group. It represents the Bahamian
facies included by Audley-Charles (1968) in his Cablac Limestone (see
Section 2.2). Peloidal, intraclastic and oolitic wackestone, packstone
and grainstone are the main rock types in the Perdido Group, with ooids
much more abundant than in the Bandeira Group. The Perdido Group
contains a much lower diversity of skeletal types than in the Bandeira
Group: mainly carbonate-cemented agglutinated species, including
complex morphotypes, among the foraminifers; scattered echinoderm
and mollusc debris; and dasycladacean and thaumatoporellacean algae.
The Upper Triassic foraminiferal assemblages of the Bandeira Group
are very different from Lower Jurassic assemblages found in the Perdido
Group. The Perdido Group includes a Sinemurian–Pliensbachian (Early
Jurassic) microfauna comprising species of Biokovina, Bosniella, Endo­
triadella, Lituosepta, Meandrovoluta, Palaeocyclammina, Planisepta,
Radoicicina, and Siphovalvulina not known from the Triassic (Haig et al.,
2007, and work in progress). The major mass extinction at the Triassic/
Jurassic boundary greatly affected carbonate-platform foraminiferal
assemblages (see review by BouDagher-Fadel, 2008), and this allows
easy separation of the Triassic and Jurassic carbonate-platform units.
As shown by the present study, the Upper Triassic Bandeira Group
belongs to EGIRA. In contrast, as indicated by Haig (2018) and Haig
et al. (2019, their Table 11), the Lower Jurassic Perdido Group belongs
to a distinctly different tectonostratigraphic association (OTA) that
forms coherent mappable areas in Timor-Leste (Fig. 3). OTA is made up
of sedimentary and volcanic units that are stratigraphically grouped in
three main divisions (Table 8). Each division, although now juxtaposed
by faulting, has a different palaeogeographic and structural history. The
Perdido Group belongs to OTA-1 division (Table 8). The complex history
of the terrane is under current study by us based on outcrop in the
Matebian Range where a deep-water mudstone of late Oligocene to
earliest Miocene age contains conglomerates and turbidites with clasts
derived from all OTA divisions (which outcrop in the vicinity). These
detrital rocks do not contain clasts derived from EGIRA units (including
the Bandeira Group). By progressive amalgamation of the OTA divisions
a coherent composite terrane was formed, presumably on the Sundaland
margin.
During the latest Miocene collision, OTA (and the Perdido Group)
was emplaced onto Timor–Scott Plateau (Haig, 2012; Haig et al., 2019).
The Timor–Scott Plateau EGIRA succession, including the Upper Triassic
Bandeira Group, was uplifted and deformed in a style that contrasts
markedly to that of the OTA composite terrane. Competent EGIRA units
such as the Bandeira Group were broadly folded, except near faults, and
in some places were overturned. Incompetent EGIRA units (e.g. the
Triassic Babulu Group) were chaotically deformed resulting at many
places in a broken-formation melange (Harris et al., 1998) with slabs of

18
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

Table 8
Allochthonous tectonostratigraphic units in Timor-Leste, including divisions of the Overthrust Terrane Association, OTA (modified from Haig et al., 2019, their
Fig. 11).
Overthrust Terrane Association

OTA-3: Eocene to lowest Miocene; least deformed of OTA divisions

Lower Miocene Baguia Formation: volcaniclastics (Leme, 1968)
Upper Oligocene – lowest Miocene Atelari Mudstone: calcareous bathyal mudstone containing debris-slide/turbiditic conglomerates with clasts derived from older OTA-3,
-2, and − 1 units (Jose Nano and IPG/UWA work in progress; includes mudstone recorded in Mundo Perdido massif by Benincasa et al.,
2012, their Fig. 8)
Upper Oligocene – lowest Miocene Booi Limestone: Lepidocyclina-Spiroclypeus limestone (Haig et al., 2008)
Middle Eocene – lowest Miocene Barique Volcanics: mafic volcanics (Haig et al., 2019)
Eocene – Oligocene un-named carbonate pelagite: bathyal calcareous ooze (see Haig et al., 2019)
Upper Eocene Dartollu Limestone: Pellatispira limestone (in part, Audley-Charles, 1968)
Middle Eocene Same Limestone: Alveolina-Nummulites-discocyclinid limestone (Haig et al., 2019)

OTA-2: Cretaceous, Paleocene;? Upper Jurassic; medium deformation with respect to OTA-1 and OTA-2
Cretaceous + Paleocene +? Upper Palelo Group (Timor Resources, pers. comm. 2018).
Jurassic
Cretaceous un-named carbonate pelagite unit (+? Wai Bua Formation of Audley-Charles, 1968; see Haig et al., 2019).
Paleocene un-named carbonate pelagite unit (see Haig et al., 2019)

OTA-1: mid Lower Jurassic (may extend into Middle Jurassic; most deformed of OTA divisions)
mid Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) –? Perdido Group: Bahaman-facies carbonate-platform deposits (Benincasa et al., 2012; group designation follows Haig, 2018)
Middle Jurassic
mid Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) –? un-named siliceous argillite with shallow channel cuts infilled by ooids derived from Perdido Group (Jose Nano and IPG/UWA work in
Middle Jurassic progress)

Oceanic abyssal units (late Middle Jurassic to uncertain higher stratigraphic levels): Noni Group; see Haig and Bandini’s (2013) record of upper Bathonian–lower
Callovian radiolarians from thin-bedded siliceous argillite referred to Noni Group. See Haig and Bandini (2013) for discussion of relationship to Noni Group in West
Timor. No other ages are available for similar thin-bedded siliceous argillites and radiolarian cherts, isolated from OTA outcrop, in Timor-Leste. In West Timor,
Munasri and Harsolumakso (2020) described a Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) radiolarian assemblage from the Noni Group. Contrary to Munasri and
Harsolumakso’s (2020) suggestion, the siliceous argillite succession described and illustrated by Haig and Bandini (2013, see their Fig. 3) is not part of the Wailuli
Group which is dominated by neritic calcareous mudstone (see Table 1 and Section 6.1, Fig. 11; and definition by Audley-Charles, 1968).
Lolotoi Metamorphics: peak metamorphism at about 45 Ma (Standley and Harris, 2009).

indurated sandstone and limestone surrounded by highly deformed
friable mudstone. In contrast the Perdido Group of OTA-1 is more
intensely deformed than the Bandeira Group because of its amalgam­
ation and later tectonic deformation on the Sundaland margin prior to
the Sundaland–Australian continent collision.
7. Conclusions
(1) Upper Triassic shallow-water limestones, attributed to the Ban­
deira Group, are shown for the first time to be widespread in
Timor-Leste. The limestones are mainly rudstone–grainstone
with micritic/micritized clasts as a dominant component. Thin-
bedded dark-grey wackestone is a less conspicuous lagoonal
facies. Foraminifers, recorded for the first time in Timor and
known from North African and European successions, indicate
the Bandeira Group ranges probably from the upper Carnian to
the lower Rhaetian. The succession, at least in some areas, in­
cludes siliciclastic units. The limestones represent carbonate-
platform facies on shelves or horst platforms, and the coeval
Babulu and Aitutu groups that outcrop in adjacent areas, form the
basinal facies. This stratigraphic association belongs to EGIRA.
(2) Similar Triassic shallow-marine limestones are present elsewhere
in the collision zone between the Australian continent and Sun­
daland (Eurasia) and along the Australian margin to the south.
These also are part of EGIRA. Many of the occurrences in the
collision zone were previously considered part of allochthonous
terranes.
(3) The Upper Triassic Bandeira Group differs in composition and
architecture from the Permian shallow-water limestones of
EGIRA in Timor-Leste. It contains a substantial proportion of
skeletal debris of original aragonitic composition prone to severe
diagenesis. The Permian limestone deposits are composed mainly
of calcitic skeletons that are usually well-preserved in Timor
outcrops. The Bandeira Group has slab-like architecture on
shelves and possibly horst platforms. The Permian shallow-
marine limestone units seem to be in the form of bryozoan-
crinoidal mounds. Some major stratigraphic compilations have
indicated a continuous shallow-water carbonate-platform suc­
cession from the Permian to Triassic in Timor-Leste. This is not
confirmed by our study which has found no evidence for Lower to
Middle Triassic shallow-water carbonate-platform facies.
(4) The Upper Triassic Bandeira Group belongs to EGIRA that is
distinct from OTA. Lower Jurassic shallow-water limestones
(Bahaman facies) of the Perdido Group form the oldest known
division of OTA. The Perdido Group has been confused with the
Bandeira Group and other shallow-water limestone units of the
Permian and Miocene in some former studies of Timor. The
distinction between the Bandeira and Perdido groups made here,
based on foraminiferal age determinations and recognition of
different original stratigraphic associations and structural his­
tory, solves a major tectonostratigraphic problem in Timor, and
may apply elsewhere in the Outer Banda Arc.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110362.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We thank the people and various institutions in Timor-Leste (UNTL,
SERN, IPG, ANPM) for their generosity and hospitality that continues to
facilitate our field studies initiated in 2003. We are grateful to our many
colleagues in Timor-Leste, Australia, and elsewhere who have

19
D.W. Haig et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 570 (2021) 110362

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