6.11 NEWTON’S RiInesA{— Newton's rings are another example of fringes of equal thickness. Newton’s rings are formed when a plano-convex lens L of a lange radius of curvature placed on a sheet of plane glass AB. The combination forms a thin circular air film of variable thickness in all directions around the point of contact of the lens and the glass plate, The locus of all points corresponding to specific thickness of air film falls on a circle whose centre is at 0. Consequently, interference fringes are observed in Fig. 6.22 the form of a series of concentric rings with their centre at O (Fig. 6: observed these concentric circular fringes and hence they are called Newton's rings. The experimental arrangement for observing Newton's rings is shown in Fic. 6.23 Monochromatic light from an extended source $ is rendered parallel by a lens incident on @ glass plate inclined at 45° to the horizontal, and is reflected normally down onto a plano-convex lens placed on a fiat glass plate. Part of the light incident on the system is reflected from the glass-to-air boundary, say from point D (Fig.6.24).The remainder of the light is transmitted through the air film. It is again reflected from the ait-to-glass boundary, say from point J. The two rays reflected from the top and bottom of the air film are derived through division of amplitude from the same incident ray CD and are therefore coherent. The rays 1 and 2 are close to each other and interfere to produce darkness or brightness. The condition of brightness or darkness depends on the path difference between the two reflected light rays, which in turn depends on the thickness of the air film at the point of incidence. 22). Newton originally Itis Scanned by CamScannerAir film Planoconvex Place glass A A B Pate AIR FILM Fig. 6.23 Fig. 6.24 6.11.1 Condition for Bright and Dark Rings : The optical path difference between the rays is given by A = 2ut cos r- 2/2. Since w= for air and cos r= | for normal incidence of light, A=21-N2 (6.48) Intensity maxima occur when the optical path difference A = mh. If the difference in the optical path between the two rays is equal to an integral number of full waves, then the rays meet each other in phase. The crests of one wave falls on the crests of the others and the waves interfere constructively. Thus, if 2t— 2/2 =m) 2t = (2m + 1)N2 (6.49) bright fringe is obtained. Intensity minima occur when the optical path difference is A = (2m + 1)A/2. If the difference in the optical path between the two rays is equal to an odd integral number of half-waves, then the rays meet each other in opposite phase. The crests of one wave fall on the troughs of the other and the waves interfere destructively. Hence, if 2t- 2/2 = (2m + 1)A/2 2t = mh (6.50) and dark fringe is produced. 6.11.2 Circular Fringes In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin air film is enclosed between a plano-convex lens and a glass plate. The thickness of the air film at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we move outward, The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness then fall on a circle whose centre is the point of contact. Thus, the thickness of air film is constant at points on any circle having the point of lens-glass plate contact as the centre. The fringes are therefore circular. 6.11.3 Radii of Dark Fringes Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens (Fig. 6.25). Let a dark fringe be located at Q Let the thickness of the air film at Q be PQ = 1. Let the radius of the circular fringe at Q be 0Q =r, By the Pythagorus theorem, PM? = PN? + MN? Scanned by CamScannerRar? + (R- 12 r,? = 2Rt- m (6.51) port, 2RI>>P, Ty? = 2Rt tion for darkness at Q is that 2t= mr P Py? = mR = Jar 7 Tq = VimbR (653) ay . B : (6.52 R * the condi ) the ni of dark fringes can be found by inserting values 1,2,3 | Thus, r= VIAR or revi n= VOR oo red Leg BAR or 7, VB and soon trmeans that the radii of the dark rings are proportional to square root of the natural’ umbers. The above relation also implies that, « Vk ‘Thus, the radius of the m' dark ring is proportional to square root of wavelength. ing Diameter: Diameter of m dark ring Dy, = 2r, i D,, = 2y2Rt i or y= 2YmMAR (6.54) " gxample 6.6: In a Newton’ rings experiment, the diameter of 10% dark ring due to + elength 6000 A in air is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens. : 12)? ere) sohtioa: Radius of curvature, R= (2/2) (0.510712) _ 104 cm. mh 10x6000x10'’m 6.11.4 Spacing between Fringes is not Even Itis seen that the diameter of dark rings is given by Dy, = 2 mdR : WP where m= 1,2,3, ... i The diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of the natural numbers. "therefore, the diameter of the ring does not increase in the same proportion as the order of | the diameters are | the ring, for example, if m increases as 1, 2, 3, 4, D, = 2VAR i D, = 20.4WAR \ D;= 20. WAR ' D,= 2@)\R and so on Scanned by CamScannerTherefore, the rings get closer and closer, as m increases. This ts why the rings ary & evenly spaced. 6.11.5. Fringes of Equal Thickness Newton's rings are formed as result of interference between light waves reflected from the and bottom surfaces of a thin ait film enclosed between a plano-convex lens and a plane gj.” plate. The occurrence of alternate bright and dark rings depends on the optical path diff ; arising between the reflected rays. If the light falls normally on the air film the opticay pe Mlifference between the waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film is A=U-d2 ifference between the reflected rays arises due to the Varia in the thickness ‘of the air film, Reflected light will be of minimum intensity for 4 thickness for which the path difference is mand maximum intensity for those thicknes, for which the path difference is (2m + 1)X2, Thus, each maxima and minima is a locus constant film thickness, Therefore, the fringes are known as fringes of ‘equal thickness, 6.11.6 Dark Central Spot . The central spot is dark as seen by reflection. i sition of light rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of a thin air film encloseg between a plano-convex lens and a plane glass plate, The occurrence of brightness or darkness depends on the optical path difference arising between the reflected rays. The optical path difference is given by 4 = 2-1/2. At the point of contact ‘O’ of the lens and glass plate a (Fig.6.26), the thickness of air film is negligibly small compared to a wavelength of light. Tt is seen that the path di Newton's rings are produced due to s Dark Reflected 1 Az=h2 The wave reflected from the lower surface of the air film suffers a phase change of x while the wave reflected from the upper surface of the film does not suffer such change. Thus, the superposing waves are out of step 1/2 which Fig. 6.26 is equivalent to a phase difference of 180° (or m rad). Thus _ the two interfering waves at the centre are opposite in phase and produce a dark spot. 6.11.7 Determination of Wavelength of Light ‘A plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature (about 100 cm) and a flat glass plate are cleaned. The lens is kept with its convex face on the glass plate and they are held in position with the help of a metal ring arrangement. The system is held under a low power travelling microscope kept before a sodium vapour lamp. It is arranged that the yellow light coming from the sodium lamp falls on a glass plate held at 45° light beam. The light is tumed through 90° and is incident normally on the lens-plate system. The microscope is adjusted till the circular rings came into focus. The centre of the cross-wire is made to come into focus on the centre of the dark spot, which is at the centre of the circular ring system. Now, tuming the screw the microscope is moved on the carriage slowly towards one side, say right side Fig. 6.27 (a). As the cross-wires move in the field of view, dark rings are counted. The movement is stopped when the 22nd dark ring is reached. Then the miczoscope is moved in the opposite Scanned by CamScannerside and stopped at the 20th or 19th dark ring. The vertical cross-wire is made tangential to the ioth ring and the reading is noted with the help of the scale graduated on the carriage. Thus, starting from the 19th ring, the tangential positions of the 18, 17%, 161, ..... 5!" dark rings are noted down. Now, the microscope is moved quickly to the left side of the ring system and jt is stopped at the 5" dark ring, The cross-wire is again made tangential to the Sth dark ring and its position is noted, The difference between the readings on right and left sides of the Sth dark ring gives its diameter value. The procedure is repeated till 19th ring is reached and its reading is noted. From the value of the diameters the squares of the diameters are calculated. A graph is plotted between D,,? and between the ring number ‘m’, A straight line would be obtained, as shown in Fig.6.27 (b). Cross wire -»| wipe yaya ft AVA rift vit it rile wih rift v\\ fife 22nd Sth Sth 22nd| dark{ring Direction of motion Stop measurement Start measurement LHS RHS: Jump from RHS 5th to LHS 5th ring No. of ring m ——> (a) (b) Fig. 6.27 We have D,,? = 4mkR (6.55) For the (m + p)"* ring, Drs p = Mm + PYAR 5s (6.56) Disp - D, = 4pAR o k Dasp-Dn = R mip i Me ot (6.57) 4pR p The slope of the straight line (Fig.6.27 b) gives the value of 4.!Thus, Slope ' a= (6.58) The radius of curvature R of the lens may be determined using a spherometer and 2 is computed with the help of the above equation. Scanned by CamScannerled in the gap between the les 6.11.8 Refractive Index of a Liquid film. The condition for inter, Sang Teg P&e liquid whose refractive index is to be dete Plane glass plate. Now the liquid film substitu may then be written as mined is fil tes the air 2pt cos r= mr Darkness iu al incidence the equation becomes where 1 is the refractive index of the liquid. For norm 2ut = The diameter of m* dark ring is given by Ie 4m\R ‘ In mn 59) Similarly, the diameter of the (m +p)! ring is given by . 4¢n + pyaR np =p (64 Subtracting equ.(6.59) from equ.(6.60), we get 2 2] _ 4pAR [Pee], -[P%], = (661) But we know that (Dap air ~ Dr doir = APAR 6) (64) Scanned by CamScannerINTERFERENCE BY DIVISION OF WAVE FRONT 46 FRESNEL BIPRIsM—{{~ ‘ fresnel used a biprism to show interference phenomenon. The biprism consists of two prisms of very small refracting angles joined base to base. In practice, a thin glass plate is taken and one of Hs faces IS ground and polished till a prism (Fig.6.6 a) is formed with an obtuse angle Scanned by CamScannerOf about 179° and two 30 Side of 30S OF the order ___ Whena light ray is il incident on an ordinary Prism, the ray is bent through an angle UZ called the angle of 3% o deviation. As a result, formation of virtual sources the ray emerging out Fig, 6.6. Fresnel bipris™ and for of the prism appears to | distance above the real source, as sh have emanated from a source S' located at 4 eee ‘mage of the source. A biprism, in oe in Fig.6.6 (c). These two virtua, in Fig.6.6 (b). We say that the prism product s seen In the same way, creates two virtual sources S and Sp ® fraction an sources are images of the same source S produced by f= 6.6.1 Experimental Arrangement ench consi The biprism is mounted suitably on an optical bench. a eth a eels horizontal long rods, which are kept strictly parallel to each of ie A monochromatic light so carry uprights on which the optical components are positions ce tne slit S acts as a n wurce such as sodium vapour lamp illuminates a vertical slit S. Therein hat i rel ae Tinear monochromatic light source. The biprism 1 placed in su fracting PHY | ana ( .d are hence coherent. B, length of the slit S. A single cylindrical wavefront impinges on both prisms. The top portion of wavefront js refracted downward and appears to have emanated from the virtual image S,. The lower segment, falling on the lower part of the biprism, is refracted upward and appears to have emanated from the virtual source S), The virtual sources S, and S, are coherent (see Fig.6.7), and hence the light waves are in a position to interfere in the region beyond the biprism. Ifa screen is held there, interference fringes are seen. In order to observe fringes, a micrometer ih edge is parallel to the (b) Fig. 6.7. Fresnel biprism and fringe formation eyepiece is used. Theory Let S, and S, and $y. The fringes are formed on a sereen T kept at a distance D from the biprism. The P © on the screen is equidistant from S, and S,. Hence, the waves arrive from S, and S, ave at O simultaneously and the point O is always bright. The point O corresponds to the position of central bright fringe. On both sides of O, altemate bright and dark fringes, as shows it Fig.6.7 (b), are produced. fringes, be the two virtual images of the source S. Let “d” be the distance between 8, int Scanned by CamScannerLet P be an arbitrary point on sere (Fig.6.8). Let @ be the angle ‘ai MP makes with the horizontal fine MO. Let S\N’ be anormal on to the line S,P. The distances PS, and PN are equal. The waves qmitted at the slits, S, and S, are intially in phase with cach other, The difference in the path lengths of these two waves is SN. We assume that the experiment is carried out in sit. Therefore, the optical paths are identical W ith geometrical paths, The nature of the interference of the two waves at P depends simply on how Fig. 6.8 many Waves are contained in the length of the path difference $,N. If SN contains an integral number of wavelengths, the two waves interfere constructively, producing a maximum in the sity of light on the screen at P. If it contains an odd number of half-wavelengths, the waves interfere destructively and produce a minimum intensity at P. intel 6.6.2 Optical Path Difference between the Waves at P Lot the point P be at a distance x from O (Fig.6.8). Then pE=x-d/2 and PF=x+d/2, 2 2 (S,P)?- (SP? = [or(o+4) He (3) (S,P)* = (S,P)? = 2xd 2xd_ SyP+5,P or S,P-S,P = We can approximate that S,P = S,P =D. Path difference = S,P — S,P = uw (6.6) We now find out the conditions for observing bright and dark fringes on the screen. 6.6.3 Bright Fringes Bright fringes occur wherever the waves from S, and S, interfere constructively. The first place this occurs is at , the axial point. There, the waves from S, and S, travel the same optical path length to O and arrive in phase. The next bright fringe occurs when the wave fiom S,; travels one complete wavelength further the wave from S,. In general constructive interference occurs if $,P and S,P differ by a whole number of wavelengths. The condition for finding a bright fringe at P is that S,P-S,P = mh Using the equation (6.6), it means that d = mh (62) Scanned by CamScanner, oy right fringe at O, corresponding to » _ fringe from the axis Corresponds tonit S| Where m is called the order of the fringe. The b called the zero-order fringe. The first-order bright and the second order bright fringe to m = 2 and so on: 6.6.4 Dark Frin; ges : f The first dark fringe occurs when (S,P ~ S,P) is equal t0 % i ae Har Tana 1 Poy phase at P. The second dark fringe occurs when (S,P ~ SP) ea : at ig occurs when (S,P-S,P) = Qm+ I) A/2 The condition for finding a dark fringe is xd Se Yr ad = (Om+05 (6 ‘The first-order dark fringe from the axis corresponds to m= I and the second order gg fringe to m = 2 and so on. 6.6.5 Separation between Neighbouring Bright Fringes The m* order bright fringe occurs when a) oa, and the (m + 1)" order bright fringe occurs when _ (m+ DAD Amt = d The bright fringe separation, B is given by BX —% a (63) The same result will be obtained for dark fringes. Thus, neighbouring bright and dai fringes are separated by the same amount everywhere on the screen, The separation B is alld the fringe width. | The width of the dark or bright fringe is given by equ.(6.9). aD a where D(= a + b) is the distance of the sources from the eye-piece. Scanned by CamScanner- gjustments . rh Ae 0 adjustable slit S, the biprism, and a micrometer eyepiece are mounted on the ights and are adjusted to be at the same height and in a straight line. The slit is made apf and parallel to the refracting edge ofthe biprism by rotating it in its own plane. It is vetted with the light from the monochromatic source. The biprism is moved along, the i bench ill, on looking through it along the axis ofthe optical bench, two equally brigkt opti ait images are seen, Then the eyepiece is moved tll the fringes appear in the focal vet the eyepiece. : P @ Determination of fringe width B; When the fringes are observed in the field view of the eyepiece, the vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the centre of one of the bright fringes. The position of the eyepiece is read on the scale. The micrometer screw of the eyepiece is moved slowly and the number of the bright fringes, N, that pass across the cross-wire is counted. The position of the cross-wire is again read. The fringe width is then given by p= tm —%m (i) Determination of ‘a’: A convex lens of short focal length is placed between the slit and the eyepiece without disturbing their positions. The lens is moved back and forth near the biprism till a sharp pair of images of the slit is obtained in the field of view of the eyepiece (Fig. 6.9 a). The distance between the images is measured. Let it be denoted by d,. Fig. 6.9 If wis the distance of the slit and w that of the eyepiece from the lens (Fig.6.9), then the magnification is vid + 6.10) aad (6.10) ‘The lens is then moved to a position nearer to the eyepiece, where again a pair of images ofthe slit is seen (Fig. 6.96). The distance between the two sharp images is again measured. Letit be d,. Again magnification is given by Bi uu 6.11 ad. (6.11) Note that the magnification in one position is the reciprocal of the magnification in the other position. Multiplying the equations (6.10) and (6.11), we obtain Ady Ps Pp d= ydid, (6.12) Using the values of B, d and D in the equation (6.9), the wavelength 4 can be computed, Scanned by CamScanner~wee sue rays are parallel, ? 7.5 FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT a - consider the arrangement in Fig ieee Obtain Fraunhoffer diffraction by Single slit. The lenses L, and L, keep at eee and the screen effectively infinity. The first lens renders the eam parallel while the second makes he Screen to receive the parallel rays Converging to a Point, P. Let us consider 4 single narrow slit AB of width @ Perpendicular to the plane of the page. Let it be illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 2.. Ag th i ae COrdin, jp Abe considerations of geometrical optics, a sharp image of the slit is expected to form P in the focal plane of the lens. However, what we obtain on the screen is a slit image of maximum brightness at the center, followed by the secondary maxima on the cither side of gradually decreasing intensities, with distance. This intensity distribution on the Screen js known as the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. Let us try to understand the reasons for this unique distribution of intensity in the image of a single slit. 7.5.1 Formation of Maxima and Minima vryyry (a) (b) Fig. 7.6: Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit (a) Conditions at the central maximum. The rays Parallel to axis come to focus at P giving a bright band. (b) Typical diffraction pattern consisting of a central bright band flanked by weaker bright bands, Fig. 7.6 shows a plane wave front (parallel rays) incident on the slit AB. A small part AB is sliced off from the incident wave front. According to Huygens’ principle, each point on AB acts as a source of secondary wavelets. It would then be appropriate to replace the wave front AB with a string of point sources. As all points on AB are in phase, the point sources will be coherent. Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another portion and the resultant intensity on the screen will depend on the direction 0. The secondary wavelets travelling parallel to OP come to focus at P. The waves from points equidistant from ‘O’ and situated in the upper and lower halves OA and OB start in phase. They will travel the same distance in reaching P. The optical path difference is therefore zero and the waves will Scanned by CamScannerbe in phase at P. They reinforce each ther t0 produce an intensity maximum alt is at the centre of the diffraction pattern and is called zero order central maxima. : For any other point like Q on the screen (Fig. 7.7), the light from different parts of the aperture travels different distances and the difference jncreases as we consider points at increasing distance from P. The path oncitions at the first minimum of diffraction difference between the waves reaching _pattern-Each point on the sliced portion AB of the the points from different parts of the Wave front acts as a point source. Any two waves that aperture increases gradually, originate at points separated by ‘Now consider the secondary waves /2 distance are 180° out of phase and interfere destructively. travelling in a direction making an angle 0 with OP. These secondary waves are brought to focus by the lens at a point Q, which will have a maximum or minimum intensity, depending on the path difference between the waves arriving at Q from different points on the wave front AB. It is convenient to divide the wave front AB into two halves AO and OB. A line AM is drawn perpendicular to the direction of the diffracted rays. Waves ON and BM are in phase at the slit. Wave BM travels farther than ON. The path difference between these wavelets = ON = (d/2) sin0. If ON = 2/2, the two waves interfere destructively and produce darkness at Q. This is true for any two waves that originate at points separated by (d/2), as the path difference between from such points will be 2/2. For every point in the upper half OA, there is a corresponding point in the lower half OB. The path difference between the waves from these corresponding points will be 2/2. Hence, the waves LE from the upper half AO interfere destruc- tively with waves from the lower half OB, if F h 2 45in9 = 2 ie, sinO = Nd 7.) Therefore, the intensity at Q is zero and a dark band called the first order ‘minimum is produced at Q. A similar dark band occurs at Q’ below P at an Fig 7.8: Condition for frst order maxima of angular distance @ governed by the diffraction pattern equation (7.1). It is also called the first order minimum. We may divide the slit into four parts, six parts and so on. Arguments similar to the above show that a dark band occurs whenever sin = 2Md, 30d, Ald, Shid, ... etc. They are known as second order minimum, third order minimum, etc. In general minima appear if the following condition is satisfied: sin, = md condition for minimum 2) where m= 1,2,3, 0 Scanned by CamScannerley More generally the condition for minima may be expressed #8 dsin@ = +m) ich Hi (7, d's 1 mavima, Which lie i 2a seoel”,*adition to the central maximum there are SE es are located in t Pet eu Qadary minima on either side of the central maximum. Thet i diteetog Which the path difference ON is an odd multiple of 1/2. Hence for secondary maxim, in ON = dsin 0 = (m+ 1)M2 In general the secondary maximum are given by 2m+1)\r Pa . sin @,, = ( 7 F condition for maxima 09 Thus, the diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central bright ™axinuy flanked by secondary maxima and minima on both the sides. ‘5.2. Intensity Distribution in Diffraction Pattern Due to a Single sii, Let a plane wave be incident normally on a long narrow slit of width d. Let us imagine thy this slit width d is divided into N parallel strips of each of width Ax. Each strip acts as a secondary source of radiation giving out wavelets leading to a Characteristic distribution of intensity at a point Q. The position of the point Q in the Fig. 77 is fixed by the angle 6. The wavelets from adjacent strips have a path difference of Ax sin g The resultant of all the wavelets reaching Q can be estimated by integration. Let the disturbance caused at Q by the unit width of the slit be Y= Acos@t . Amplitude of the wavelet from the width dr at A, when it reaches Q is (A dr). 2n Phase of this wavelet at Q= ors Ex0g =at +p eenind where x is the distance of Q from O, the mid point of the slit. The disturbance caused at Q by the wavelet is given by dy = Ad nar 25 The total disturbance at Q by all wavelets from the slit of width a is given by +al2 +al2 i y=] = f Asosl ons A528] . onesi ot 2E8iN® _ 5. Therefore, cu[ors se] = cos(eot + kx) But cos(wt + kx) = cos wf cos kx sin wt sin kx 40/2 ye J Alcos ot - cos kx — sin wt - sin kx]dx -al2 taj2 +a)2 y= J Alsos@r-cos kx] de— J Alsin wt sin ke] de -al2 -al2 ta/2 +a/2 y = Acoset J coskedr- Asin wt J sin kede ald ~al2 Scanned by CamScanneror Y = Acos qs] Sin ke Tt? er asin of-seey” k —a/2 (ka sin] “4 ),..;_ (ka y = Acosne| 2 \*e| > cos id cos & k + Asin ot 7 2sin{ _(2n-sin @-a y= deol (3) sia| -a/2 k = 2Acosar = 2n-sin @ ny sin{ 24sin 6 sin ( 228in 8 =A ” sing [OS® =) Aa os cost (7.4) ‘ x Y = Agcoswt The quantity in brackets gives the amplitude Ap of the resultant disturbance at Q. For 0=0, Ay = 4p = Aa. Intensity distribution is given by sin( 74sin @ = Ly y= 4 —Tasing [eos ot as) a _ Rasin@ Ke ; , y = Aycosat= [22 cosor sin 4g = 422] ' (7.6) sina P 22] (1.7) where J, is the intensity of principal maximum at 6 = 0. in ot Thus, the intensity at any point on the screen is proportional to (=). A phase difference of 2 corresponds to a path difference of 2. Therefore, a phase difference of 2a. is given by 20 = a asin® (7.8) where a sin 0 is the path difference between the secondary waves from A and B (Fig. 7.5). a= Fasind (79) Scanned by CamScanner |ofthe diffraction 0. The value of “ Thus, the value of a depends on the angle fy I different values of 0 gives the intensity at the Point under consideration. Fig. 7.9 represents the intensity distribution, It is a graph of sin? “G2 | (along the Y-axis), as a function of © or sin 8 (along the X-axis). Itis seen that most of the light is confined to the central band and its intensity is far Srater than that of any other maxima. The Intensity of the secondary maxima falls off ee as one moves away from the centre. Fig. 7.9 le intensity of maximum : is about Wes a ere ae is 1/61 of the intensity of the principal maximum, 7}, Secondary maxima are too faint to be visible ordinarily. 7.5.3 Linear Width of the Principal Maximum the distance of the first secondary J Intanalty, um from the center of the Principal maximum, then the width of the central maximum is 7 Wax If the lens L is very near to the slit or the screen is far away from the lens, and f is the focal length of the lens, then OP = fis very large (Fig. 7.6a). As a result, 4 Sitwidh decreases sind = 5 a Distance along screen —> a : a But, for the first minimum sin @ = 7 Fig. 7.10: Central maximum increases in width as the slit width decreases a a 7 =a 0 x a (7.10) Hence, the linear width of the central maximum is given by W=2x= 22 (1) Note that when the slit width d >> 2, we see on the screen uniform illumination in the shape of the slit. As the slit width is reduced, the illumination starts to spread out and dark bands become visible. Further, the width of the central maximum increases as the slit narrows, as illustrated in Fig. 7.10. The position of the first secondary maxima on either side of the central maxima is givet by Scanned by CamScannerand Therefore. in this case 3h 3A 2d 3fh 2d (7.12) Scanned by CamScanner7.7 DIFFRACTION DUE TO N-SLITS—DIFFRACTION GRATING (NORMAL INCIDENCE) lite: exch, of wi Let us now consider the diffraction pattern produced Ean Erie el Separation between consecutive slits is d = a + b, where a is the open por. * Hon and b is the width of the opaque portion. Such a device ee of a large Dumber of Bavallel sis of equal width and separated from one another by eaual epaque spaces is cy 8 diffraction grating. The distance d between the centres of the adjacent slits is known 3S the grating period. j by ruling extreme} Rowland (1848-1901) produced transmission gratings v4 a int Th oe ©quidistant and parallel lines on optically plane glass plates with a ce Hed lings (Giamond scratch) scatter light and are effectively opaque while the parts without ruling transmit light and act as slits Because of the expenses and difficulty involved in fabrication, commonly used gratin, are reproduced from the original ruled gratings. The replica gratings are made by pouring , thin layer of collodion solution over the surface of a ruled grating and the solution is allowed to harden. The collodion film is peeled carefully afterwards from the grating. The film Tetains the impression of the rulings of the original grating in the form of ridges. The ruled lines, which scatter light, act as opaque spaces whereas the spaces between them which ‘transmit incident light act as parallel slits. The film is mounted between glass plates and it acts as 2 Plane transmission grating. The number of lines on a plane transmission grating is of the order of 6000 lines per cm. 7.8 PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING - THEORY Fig. 7.15 Let us consider the plane transmission grating held normal to the plane of the page (Fig. 7.15 a) and represented by the section ABC...H. Let the width of the transparent portion AB te equal to a and opaque portion BC be equal to b. The distance (a + b) = d and is called the grating constant or grating period. Leta parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 2. be incident normally on the grating surface. Then all the secondary waves travelling in the same direction as that of the incident light will come to focus at the point P on the screen. The ‘ren is placed at the focal plane of the collecting lens, L. The point P where all the secondary aa reinforce one another corresponds to the position of the central bright maximum Scanned by CamScannerjow let us consider the secondary waves t ina diimetion inelf: il be direction of the incident light (Fig, nish) he nen Seca disbces and iiscbviows tha There ita path difference between the waves coming ou! fom each slit and tending atan angle 0, These Secondary waves come to focus at the point Q on the screen, The iaensity at Q will depend on the path difference between the secondary waves originating nthe corresponding points Aand C of two Neighbouring slits, In the Fig. 7.15 (b), AB = a and BCD. The path difference between the Secondary waves starting from A and Cis equal to AC sin 0. But AC = AB+BC=a+h Path difference = AC sin 0 = (a+b) sind The point Q will be of maximum intensity if this path difference is equal to integral multiples of A. It means that all the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the neighbouring slits reinforce one another and the angle 6 gives the direction of maximum intensity. In general (a+b) sin 8, = ma (7.20) where @,, is the direction of the m* principal maximum. If (a + b) sin 8 =A, we obtain maximum intensity at Q. When (a + 6) sin 6 = 2A, there will be again a maximum and so on. Between the central maximum P and the first maximum at Q there will be minimum intensity and so on. Similar maxima and minima are obtained on the other side of central maximum. Thus, on each side of the central maximum at P, principal maxima and minimum intensity are observed due to diffracted light. The position of m*" minimum is given by c (a+ 5) sin, = (2m + 1)N/2. (7.21) 7.8.1 Intensity Distribution 7 When illuminated by a beam of monochromatic radiation, the system produces N wavelets at an angle @, each of the amplitude 4y = 4y ma . The phase difference between successive 2nd sin =a The resultant amplitude can be expressed as y = Ag[cos wt + cos(wt + 8) + cos(ct + 28) + ... + cos(wt + NB)] Expressing the amplitude terms as real parts of complex numbers, we have jné ae 75 4 2/8 = Aeiot| le” ya Agee 1 eB $F ae] = dye [Eee We get the intensity by multiplying the amplitude with its complex conjugate. iene 4[ te m| ~a[ices 3) wavelets is 5 = (-e*)\a-e%*) 1=cosé ns si’ [ Neti] go 2g erry a in| sin’ Scanned by CamScanner; [tee sin or sin’ jal ee T= Ig “ee | af nd sind sin a: in? 01 sin? NV’ or 1,| Sit , |sin” NY ; ot J sin?y 2 where mdsin@ Y= a I sin? g The expression for intensity is a product of two terms. The term Jo a Teptesen, sin? Ny sin? SPY *seng ity due to interference produced by waves from N equally Spaceg the intensity distribution due to a single slit diffraction. The second term the distribution of intensi point sources, Principal Maxima When sin y = 0, that is y=tm (n=0,1,2,3,....) We have sin Ny=0 and hence 7 ¥ becomes indeterminate, sin . According to L’Hospital’s rule, uw S27 Lay com siny ae Therefore, lt [2] —=é astmx| siny sin?a) > Substituting this value into equ.(7.22), we get I= Zo] 2% |v? which is maximum, . oO Thus the resultant intensity of maxima is aN eae a (2). (723) o hr ) sin’NY Fig. 7.16 shows the intensity distribution determined by the factor 3 or sin?) sin? Ny SO | ond St ae ( oe }» sin? y el respectively. The resultant of these curves is obtained by multiplying the ordinates of first two curves at a oint. ee Fig. 7.16 Scanned by CamScanner| “me ey He called fant intensity of any of the princi Principal maxima, In order to find the cs ipal ir om Pal maxima in the diffraction pattern, we have to the square of the number of the gf; i 2 wit ts tea sogle ali, © slits (N4) with the factor of ‘| which is the nt The direction of the principal maxim s are giv in ym jee f ney ASIN O = gy EMO” bY sin = 0, that in-7 = 4 mm, a This equation is known as the Brating equation : we put n= 0, we get O= 0. This is the dime. a... His ari a and produce & bright cont 4 he direction in which waves from all slits arrive Mage, i axi i are if we put = l, 2,3... we iy This maxima ig called the zero order principal a eae the directions of the first, second, third order pi maxi Pectively. Therefore, the direction of occurrence of principal maxima is given bY sin 0, = a d ath be sin 8, = nN (7.25) bere N= a the number of ruled lines Per unit width of the grating. pa i The intensity is zero when sin Ny=0, or M=4mn Nrdsin@ of Ny = ROSNY a4 mn f N-dsin@=4m. (7.26) Here, m can take all integral values except 0, N, 2N, 3N, etc because these values give the positions of principal maxima. The positive and negative signs indicate that the minima of a given order lie symmetrically on both the sides of the central principal maxima. It is seen from equ.(7.26) that m = 0 gives principal maximum of zero order while m = 1, 2,3,...(N — 1) give the minima. Then m = N gives Principal maximum of first order. Thus, between zero order, and first order principal maxima we have (N - 1) minima. Similarly, it can be shown that there are (N — 1) minima between first order and second order principal maxima and so on. Between two such consecutive minima, the intensity has to be maximum, and these maxima are known as secondary maxima. The secondary maxima are not visible in the grating spectrum, as the number of slits is very large. non ant. aE Anan Scanned by CamScannerRESOLVING POWER -o objects or their images a when ee for the eye i a Vety close to each other, they appear as one and it may jot : iiike details aie a) ie AS separate, If the objects are not seen separately, then we soy ving the objects oe ved by the eye. Optical instruments are used to assist the ein 1es0 § OF images. The method adapted to seeing the close objects as ey jects is call i fp an ee phoma eee a of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate Ie : aled very close to each is i ii . Ae efined as the reciprocal of the sma other is called its resolving power. : . i lest angle subt jecti int Ne, which can just be distinguished as aan ended at the objective by two point 79.1 Rayleigh’s Criterion he theory of optical instruments is based on the laws of geometrical optics and rectilinear propagation of light. These laws are only approxi- mately tue. When a beam of light from a point object passes through the objective of a telescope, the lens acts like a circular aperture and produces a diffraction pattem instead of a point image. This diffraction pattern is @ bright disc surrounded by altemate dark and bright rings (see Fig, 7.19). It is known as Airy’s disc. If there are two point objects lying close to each other, then two diffraction pattems are produced, which may overlap on each other and it may be difficult to distinguish them as separate (see Fig. 7.20). To obtain the measure of the resolving power of an objective lens Rayleigh suggested that the two images of such point-objects Iying close to each other may be regarded as separated if the central maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other (Fig. 7.21 b). In other words, when the central bright image of one falls on the first dark ring of the other, the two images are said to be resolved (see Fig. 7.20 c). This is equivalent to the condition that the distance between the centers of the patterns shall be equal to the tadius of the central disc. This is called the Rayleigh criterion for resolution and is also ‘a) CET) known as Rayleigh’s limit of resolution. (See Fig. 7.21). Fig. 7.20 Fig. 7.19: Airy Disc Scanned by CamScanner() Fig. 7.21: The images of two sources are discernable ed satisty Rayleigh criterion as seen in the third image al 7.10 RESOLVING POWER OF A PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING One of the important properties ofa diffraction grating is its ability to resolve spectral ling, TE-The spectral resolving power OF a grating is defn which have nearly the same wavelength- nee in terms of the smallest wavelength interval (dA) that can be detected by it. It is given by 1/g, d dh is their difference. where 2 is the average of the two wavelengths an 1 a0 Resolving Power = = 75 aq, (733) de a Li > nal et us now find the values of aA and 70 The diffraction grating equation is (a+b) sin 0 = mh. Differentiating the above equation both sides, we get (a+b) cos 0 d0 = mdb d_m ah (a+ bycos 8 C38) where d® is the angle between the two diffracted beams whose difference in wavelength is dh. The light diffracted from the grating enters the objective of a telescope in a grating spectrometer. If the diffracted beam completely fills the objective then width of the beam equals the diameter d of the objective lens. The angular limit of resolution of a telescope objective is given by aw-* d Now d = AB cos @ = I cos @ where / is the length of the grating. Fig. 7.22 Scanned by CamScannerpute Teos 8 a x 10080 = = Ios a : Ad dO Resolving Power, R= >= 75-7 ae zee (a+b) cos ® i} Icos Ox ml (a+b) =mN (7.35) where N = l(a + 6) = number of rulings on the grating surface and m is the order of the spectrum. Hence, the resolving power of a grating is given by the simple expression, RP. = mN Scanned by CamScanner