Icof Csu Module: Course Code: DRSW 102

ICOF CSU MODULE
COURSE CODE: DRSW 102

COURSE TITLE: NEW TESTAMENT LITERATURE
1 We are leaders in Open and Distance education with over 80 years’ experience
CONTENTS
100. WELCOME MESSAGE FROM THE CHANCELLOR .……………….…..……..……………………3
101. OUR VISSION ...……..…………………………………………………..…………..….….………….4
102. OUR MISSION …………………..………………………………………..…………..….….………….4
103. REACHING OUT THROUGH EDUCATION SINCE 1932 ..………….…..……..…………….……..4
104. UNIVERSITY UNDERTAKING .………………………………………..………………..……..….….…4
105. WHO ARE WE? …………..…………………….…………………..…………..….………..…………4
105. BOARD OF REGENTS……...………………….…………………..…………..….………..………….5
106. Course Code & Name ……………………….......…….……………………………………………..7
107. Course Description.…………………………………………………………………………………….7
108. Learning Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………7
109. Course Outline ……………….………..……………………...…………………………………………7
110. Assessment method …………………………………………………………………………………...10
111. Course Material ………….…………………………….……………………………………………….13
112. Unit 1……………………....................................…...……..............................................................14
113. Unit 2………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………….75
114. Unit 3………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..102
115. Unit 4………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..129
118. Unit 5………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..154
WELCOME MESSAGE FROM THE CHANCELLOR
The International Coalition of Fellowship (ICOF) in collaboration with Colleges Seminary and
Universities is a 21st movement of Christian Colleges and Universities working together to provide
education to Christians who cannot afford career development in Government and Private
institution of Higher learning around the world with focus to Christians in Africa.
ICOF-CSU was established in 1932 by Christians. Currently, we are operating in Europe, India and
Africa, providing career opportunities at Community level to Christians. This syllabus was
developed by senior academicians with vast years of experience in education. It covers learning
programs from Certificate to PhD offered in the comfort of Students home or office without setting
foot on campus! The tradition at ICOF-CSU is to provide our students with a quality online and
Distance education at an affordable fee. Both our faculty and staff endeavor to serve our students
and offer them the education they so earnestly seek. In a world of rising costs, our students enjoy
the benefits of a truly online and Distance learning experience in education at only a fraction of
the cost of a traditional campus setting.
Our innovative approach and flexibility of schedule along with our global presence distinguishes
ICOF as a leader in distance learning. Through our Distance Education Network (DEN) we employ
and maintain a multitude of communication methods whereby a student may obtain a quality
education in the convenience of the student's home, office or elsewhere with no residency
requirements and without setting foot on campus! At ICOF, our students enjoy most or all of the
traditional student services afforded on a campus but only at a distance. Our students enjoy and
profit from the one-on-one and group online discussions, as well as the open door policy which
affords them an opportunity to ask questions to the faculty and instructors when the need arises.
Our students are never alone.
Unlike the traditional approach to education where students are immured in a classroom setting,
our students maintain the flexibility of choice and freedom through our non-traditional approach
to college degrees and courses. Our students, with their fragmented and busy schedules, enjoy
the latest technology and learning tools. Our approach to independent learning, flexible
scheduling, time frame, and innovative methods of communication, allow our students to learn
when and where they find the time and opportunity. We welcome individuals from all walks of life
and will assist, where possible, to facilitate the needs of the individual. Our faculty and instructors
are of the highest caliber and enjoy jobs within institutions of higher learning, state and federal
agencies and corporations of all kinds. Our faculty and instructors enable our students to obtain
the knowledge necessary for tomorrow's change, which increases their opportunity for personal
and market growth. Our faculty and instructors, most generally, have a number of years instructing
and/or working in their chosen fields of studies. We look forward to serving you and providing you
with a quality education.
Professor Gaudenzio Masimino Rossi

University Chancellor
ICOF Colleges Seminary and Universities
THIS MODULE WAS PREPARED BY FACULTY BOARD AND FACULTY OFFICE STAFF
1. Ex Officio Members: The Rector, Vice Rector/s, the Registrar and the Deans
1. Proff. Bernie L. Wade (USA). University Rector

2. Proff. Charles Mwape (Zambia). Vice Chancellor
3. Dr. Erick J. Brown (USA) Deputy Vice Chancellor Academic
4. Dr. Jay D. Carlin (USA) Deputy Vice Chancellor Administration
5. Dr. Godwin Musonda (Zambia) Director of Admissions
6. Pastor Samson Adeyekun (Nigeria) Senior Lecturer
7. Proff. Mathew Njamba(Zambia). Postgraduate Director
8. Dr. Christina Church (USA). Dean School of Business Studies
9. Dr. Lackson Banda (Zambia). Senior Lecture/Former Registrar
10. Dr. Akinyele Obadofin (Nigeria) Senior Lecturer
11. Dr. Ntshangase S. Bongani (South Africa)Senior Lecturer/Coordinator
12. Dr. Alick W. Mbewe (Zambia) University Registrar
13. Dr. Kingsley Kakungu (Zambia) Dean School of Education
14. Dr. Paul Kakunta Mbulo (Zambia) Dean of Studies/Senior Lecturer
15. Dr. James Zulu ( Zambia) Director Open and Distance Learning
16. Dr. David King (USA) Senior Human Resource Officer
17. Dr. Donna Clark (USA) Senior admission Officer
18. Dr. Beverly Snyder (USA) Senior Lecturer/Coordinator
19. Mr. Marco A. Albarran Bursar
20. Proff. Renee Clark – (UK) Librarian/Coordinator
21. Dr. Charles Oseji (UK) Senior Lecturer/Coordinator
2. THE UNIVERSITY HAS ALSO EMINENT GUEST LECTURERS WHO COMPLEMENT THE VARIOUS FACULTIES.
1. Prof. Allen Lewis (USA) Adjunct Professor

2. Prof. Gerald M. FitzGerald (United Kingdom) Adjunct Professor
3. Prof. William Flood (United Kingdom) Adjunct Professor
4. Dr. Carmen Herbel-Spear (USA) Adjunct Professor
5. Dr. Barnabas Oluwaleye (Nigeria) Senior Lecturer/Coordinator.
6. Dr. James H. Martin ( Canada) Adjunct Professor
7. Dr. Joseph Rankin (USA) Associate Professor
8. Dr. Taiwo Kasumu ( Nigeria ) Associate Professor
9. Prof. Robert R. Iwatt ( Cameroon) Associate Professor
10. Dr. Peter Mitchell ( Canada) Associate Professor
11. Dr. Herbert Gadian (Philippines ) Associate Professor
3. AFRICA EMINENT/QUALIFIED/GUEST AND ADJUNCT LECTURERS:
1. Bishop Dr. Charles Burton Senior Lecturer

2. Dr. Christopher Campbell Senior Lecturer
3. Dr. Mark. Kasongo Senior Lecturer
4. Dr. Ronald Ngandu Senior Lecturer/Coordinator
5. Dr. Florence Brooks Senior Lecturer
6. Dr. James B. Martin Senior Lecturer
101. OUR VISION
The Vision of ICOF-CSU is to be a leader in the provision of Open and Distance education in
Africa THROUGH imparting knowledge to Christians beyond Doctrinal difference.
102. OUR MISSION
To reach out through education and enhance academic Excellency, innovation as a 21st
century movement of higher learning institution.
103. REACHING OUT THROUGH EDUCATION SINCE 1932
In line with our mission statement of reaching out through education, all first year students shall
take the following four compulsory courses for first semester which shall continue to be an
entry requirement to do other programs neither under or postgraduate studies.
1. Introduction to Christianity and Religious Studies

2. Christian Social Ethics
3. New Testament Literature
4. Old Testament Literature
104. UNIVERSITY UNDERTAKING
ICOF Colleges Seminary and Universities reserves the right to revise all announcements
contained in this policy document and, at its discretion, to make reasonable substitutions or
changes in requirements to improve or upgrade academic programs in line with required
international standards in the provision of Higher education.
105. WHO ARE WE?
We are called ICOF Colleges Seminary and Universities because we work with Colleges
Seminaries and Universities around the world both Private and Public to reach out through
education either in association or in Partnership on selected learning programs under a joint
academic faculty.
COURSE CODE: DRSW 102 MODULE NAME: NEW TESTAMENT LITERATURE
E1.2.1. Background and Rationale

This course introduces the students about the New Testament books, their origin,
transmission, inclusion in the canon, and messages and also give a survey of the New
Testament books, their origin, transmission, inclusion in the canon, and messages.
E1.2.2. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course students will be able to:
a. Define the Bible, canonicity, revelation and inspiration.
b. Explain the composition and the nature of the New Testament.
c. Describe the theological basis of the New Testament books.
d. Arrange the New Testament book according to their authenticity.
e. Discuss briefly the general theological backing of each book of the Testament
depending on the category such as Pauline literature, Pastoral Letters, Gospels,
etc.
f. Explain the Biblical languages and the life of the people of Palestine before, during
and after Jesus Christ.
g. Apply some of the principles in the New Testament to Christian living
E1.2.3. Course Content (Syllabus)
UNIT I.
The Synoptic Gospels; Matthew, Mark and Luke, Authorship of the Synoptic Gospels,
Characteristics of the Synoptic Gospels, The Synoptic Problem, Religious groups in the
time of Jesus; The Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes and Zealots, The Temple and
Synagogue and their uses
UNIT II.
The birth narratives of Jesus and John; Announcements of the births of John and Jesus,
The birth and infancy of Jesus up to the time of his baptism, The life of John the Baptist,
The teachings of John the Baptist and the baptism of Jesus, Comparisons of John and
Jesus, The death of John the Baptist
UNIT III.
The beginning of the ministry of Jesus, The temptations of Jesus, The Sermon on the
Mount, The teaching of Jesus: The parables, The miracles of Jesus: The four types of
miracles; nature, raising of the dead, healing and casting out of evil spirits, The death,
resurrection and ascension of Jesus
UNIT IV.
The beginning of the early church; Replacement of Judas Ischariot and the Pentecost,
Life in the early church; Communalism, The book of Acts as a defence of Paul and the
church Christianity versus Judaism (Persecution), Persecution and the spread of
Christianity from Jerusalem (Importance of Christianity), Problems in the early church
(The conversion of Gentiles), The conversion of Paul and further spread of the Gospel
UNIT V.
The epistles: Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Thessalonians, James, Timothy, Peter,
Hebrews, Revelation
E1.2.4. Assessment
Assignments / Class work 30%
End Semester Examination 70%
E1.2.5. Prescribed Textbooks
1. Henze, J. (1997). Resource for RE Teachers Number 25. Ndola: Copperbelt Religious
Education Development Unit
2. Douglas J. D. (2000). The New Bible Dictionary, New York
3. The Holy Bible, (2011). Hendrickson Marketing LLC, USA
E7.6. Reference Materials

1. Magesa, L. (1997). African Religion: The Moral Life of Abundant Life. New York: Orbis
Books.
2. Masterton, R. (1987). “The Growth and Development of Religious Education in
Zambia” Med thesis, University of Birmingham
3. Mbiti, J. (1969). African Religion and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.
4. Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education (2013). The
Zambia Education Curriculum Framework (2013). Lusaka: CDC.
5. Mitchell, B. (1973). The Justification of Religious Beliefs. London: Macmillan
6. Watson, B. (1993). The effective teaching of Religious Education. London: Longman.
7. Wright, A. (1993). Religious Education in the Secondary School-Perspective for
religious literacy. London: Routledge.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
Details concerning assignments to be submitted will be found in this file. Assignments are to be
submitted to the course facilitator for marking. There are many assignments for this course,
provided at the end of unit. You MUST attempt answers to all the assessment questions as they
are meant to assist you to understand the course.
ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
There are two aspects of the assessment of this course, the Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)
and a written examination. In tackling these assignments, you are expected to apply the
information, knowledge and experience acquired during the study of the course. The
assignments must be submitted to your course facilitator for formal assessment in accordance
with the deadlines stated in the assignment file. The work you submit to your course facilitator
for assessment will account for 30per cent of your total course mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final examination of three hours duration.
This examination will count for the other 70 per cent of your total course marks.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

There are many tutor-marked assignments in this course and you are required to submit all the
assignments. The best four out of the overall assignments will be counted in your favour. Each
assignment counts for 20per cent but on the average when the five assignments are put
together, then each assignment will count for 10per cent towards your total course mark. This
implies that the total marks for the best four assignments which would have been 100 marks
will now be 30per cent of your total course work.
The Assignments for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment file. You will be
able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set
books, reading and study units. However, at this level of education, you are expected to
research more widely, and demonstrate that you have a very vast knowledge of the subject
matter.
When each assignment is completed, send it together with a TMA form to your Course
Facilitator. Ensure that each assignment reaches your course facilitator on or before the
deadline given in the assessment file. If for any reason you cannot complete your work in time,
contact your course facilitator before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an
examination. Extensions shall not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional
circumstances warranting such.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for course : DRSW 102 New Testament Literature will be of three hours
duration and have a value of 70 per cent of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions which reflect the practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments you
have previously encountered. The examination will cover the entire course. It will be important
for you to revise your work especially the TMAs.
This is because the examination questions shall follow a similar pattern as in the assessments
and tutor-marked assignments contained in the course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Table 1: Course marking Scheme
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Assignments Best four marks 30% of total course marks
of the assignment @ 10%
each (on the average) =
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of total course marks
Tips relevant for the course study.
In distance learning, the study units stand in place of the lecturer, which is one of the very
great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed
study materials at your own pace, and at any time and place that suits you best. You are here
reading the lecture instead of listening to it. The study units tell you what to read as well as your
text books or set books.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject
matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course
as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the units. These learning objectives are
meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check
whether you have achieved the set objectives or not. If this is made a habit, then you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course. Remember that you are a master to
yourself and you must be self-disciplined.
The following is a practical guide for working through this course.

1 Read this course guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.
2 Organise your study schedule to guide you on the time you need to spend on each unit and
as the assignments relates to the units.
3 Once you have created your study schedule, do everything possible to abide by it.
4 Turn to unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5 Assemble the study materials and your set books for the unit you are about to study.
6 Work through the unit. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them.
7 After that, you move to the next unit and also try to go through the assignment, paying
particular attention to your tutorial facilitator’s comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignments as well as written assignments.
8 When you have submitted an assignment to your tutorial facilitator for marking, do not wait
for its return before starting on the next unit.
9 After completing the last unit, review the course as many times as possible and get ready for
the final examination. Constantly ensure that for every unit of study the objectives are
achieved.
SUMMARY
This course guide has introduced you to every aspect of your course on New Testament
Literature. The course has been broken down into unit that makes it easier for you to
understand. If you follow the course guide faithfully, you will surely achieve success in your
study.
COURSE MATERIAL
UNIT I:
The Synoptic Gospels; Matthew, Mark and Luke, Authorship of the Synoptic Gospels,
Characteristics of the Synoptic Gospels, The Synoptic Problem, Religious groups in the time of
Jesus; The Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes and Zealots, The Temple and Synagogue and their
uses
Learning objective
At the end of the unit, student expected to learn
• Understand Synoptic gospels
• Able to list various synoptic gospels
• Identify chief characteristic of the synoptic gospels
• Able to identify the synoptic problems
• Illustrate religious groups in the time of Jesus
• Analysis temple and Synagogue and their uses
INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT

The New Testament is a record of historical events, the ‘good news’ events of the saving life
of the Lord Jesus Christ—His life, death, resurrection, ascension, and the continuation of His
work in the world—which is explained and applied by the apostles whom He chose and sent
into the world.
It is also the fulfillment of those events long anticipated by the Old Testament. Further, it is
sacred history, which, unlike secular history, was written under the supernatural guidance of
the Holy Spirit. This means that it, like the Old Testament, is protected from human error and
possesses divine authority for the church today and throughout human history until the Lord
Himself returns.
Christians see in the New Testament the fulfillment of the promise of the Old Testament. It
relates and interprets the new covenant, represented in the life and death of Jesus, between
God and the followers of Christ, the promised Messiah. Like the Old Testament, it contains a
variety of kinds of writing. Among its 27 books are selected recollections of the life and acts
and sayings of Jesus in the four Gospels; a historical narrative of the first years of the Christian
church in the Acts of the Apostles; the Epistles—letters of advice, instruction, admonition, and
exhortation to local groups of Christians—14 attributed to St. Paul, one (Hebrews) probably in
error, and seven by three other authors; and an apocalyptic description of the intervention of
God in history, the Book of Revelation.
The books are not arranged chronologically in the New Testament. The Epistles of Paul, for
example, which address the immediate problems of local churches shortly after Christ’s death,
are considered to be the earliest texts. The books are instead arranged in a more logical
narrative order: The Gospels telling the life of Jesus and his teachings; the Acts detailing the
work of Christ’s followers in propagating the Christian faith; the Epistles teaching the meaning
and implications of the faith; and Revelation prophesying future events and the culmination
of the divine purpose.
Origin and Meaning of the Term “New Testament”

The Bible is divided into two sections we call the Old Testament and the New Testament, but
exactly what does that mean? The Greek word for “testament,” diaqhkh (Latin, testamentum),
means “will, testament, or covenant.” But as used in connection with the New Testament,
“Covenant” is the best translation. As such, it refers to a new arrangement made by one party
into which others could enter if they accepted the covenant. As used of God’s covenants, it
designates a new relationship into which men may be received by God.
The Old Testament or Covenant is primarily a record of God’s dealings with the Israelites on
the basis of the Mosaic Covenant given at Mount Sinai. On the other hand, the New Testament
or Covenant (anticipated in Jeremiah 31:31 and instituted by the Lord Jesus, 1 Cor. 11:25),
describes the new arrangement of God with men from every tribe and tongue and people
and nation who will accept salvation on the basis of faith in Christ.
The old covenant revealed the holiness of God in the righteous standard of the law and
promised a coming Redeemer; the new covenant shows the holiness of God in His righteous
Son. The New Testament, then, contains those writings that reveal the content of this new
covenant.
The message of the New Testament centers on (1) the Person who gave Himself for the
remission of sins (Matt. 26:28) and (2) the people (the church) who have received His salvation.
Thus, the central theme of the New Testament is salvation.
The names Old and New Covenants were thus applied first to the two relationships into which
God entered with men, and then, to the books that contained the record of these two
relationships. “The New Testament is the divine treaty by the terms of which God has received
us rebels and enemies into peace with himself.”
Divine Preparation for the New Testament

In the time of the New Testament, Rome was the dominant world power and ruled over most
of the ancient world. Yet in a small town in Palestine, Bethlehem of Judea, was born one who
would change the world. Concerning this Person, the apostle Paul wrote, “But when the fulness
of the time came, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the Law (i.e., the Old
Covenant).” In several special and wonderful ways, God had prepared the world for the
coming of Messiah. Several factors contributed to this preparation.
Preparation through the Jewish nation
The preparation for the coming of Christ is the story of the Old Testament. The Jews were
chosen of God from all the nations to be a treasured possession as a kingdom of priests, and
a holy nation (Ex. 19:5-6). In that regard, beginning with the promises of God given to the
patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen. 12:1-3; Rom. 9:4), they were to be the
custodians of God’s Word (the Old Testament [Rom. 3:2]), and the channel of the Redeemer
(Gen. 12:3; Gal. 3:8; Rom. 9:5).
The Old Testament, therefore, was full of Christ and anticipated His coming as a suffering and
glorified Saviour. Furthermore, these prophecies were not only many, but very precise, giving
details of Messiah’s lineage, place of birth, conditions around the time of His birth, life, death,
and even His resurrection.
Though Israel was disobedient and was taken into captivity as God’s judgment on her
hardness of heart, God nevertheless brought a remnant back to their homeland after seventy
years, as He had promised in preparation for the coming of the Messiah. Though four hundred
years had passed after the writing of the last Old Testament book, and though the religious
climate was one of Pharisaic externalism and hypocrisy, there was a spirit of Messianic
anticipation in the air and a remnant was looking for the Messiah.
The Religious World at the Time of the New Testament

Before surveying the New Testament, it would also be well to get a general picture of what
the religious world was like when the Savior came on the scene and when the church was
sent out into the world. As you read the quote by Merrill Tenney, note the great similarity to our
world today. The message of the Savior as revealed in the New Testament is like a breath of
fresh air after being in a smoke-filled room.
The Christian church was born into a world filled with competing religions which may have
differed widely among themselves but all of which possessed one common characteristic—
the struggle to reach a god or gods who remained essentially inaccessible.
Apart from Judaism, which taught that God had voluntarily disclosed Himself to the patriarchs,
to Moses, and to the prophets, there was no faith that could speak with certainty of divine
revelation nor of any true concept of sin and salvation. The current ethical standards were
superficial, despite the ideal and insights possessed by some philosophers, and when they
discoursed on evil and on virtue, they had neither the remedy for the one nor the dynamic to
produce the other.
Even in Judaism, the revealed truth had been obscured either by the encrustation of traditions
or by neglect …
Paganism and all religions apart from knowledge and faith in God’s Word always produces a
parody and a perversion of God’s original revelation to man. It retains many basic elements
of truth but twists them into practical falsehood. Divine sovereignty becomes fatalism; grace
becomes indulgence; righteousness becomes conformity to arbitrary rules; worship becomes
empty ritual; prayer becomes selfish begging; the supernatural degenerates into superstition.
The light of God is clouded by fanciful legend and by downright falsehood. The consequent
confusion of beliefs and of values left men wandering in a maze of uncertainties. To some,
expediency became the dominating philosophy of life; for if there can be no ultimate
certainty, there can be no permanent principles by which to guide conduct; and if there are
no permanent principles, one must live as well as he can by the advantage of the moment.
Scepticism prevailed, for the old gods had lost their power and no new gods had appeared.
Numerous novel cults invaded the empire from every quarter and became the fads of the
dilettante rich or the refuge of the desperate poor. Men had largely lost the sense of joy and
of destiny that made human life worthwhile.
Composition and Arrangement of the New Testament
The New Testament: Some Basic Information

The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen
different authors between 50 CE and 120 CE. The writings are of four types: Gospels, acts of
the apostles, epistles, and apocalypse.
The New Testament contains four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. These books tell
the stories about Jesus’ life, ministry, and death. The Gospels were written anonymously and
came to be ascribed to disciples (Matthew and John) and associates of the apostles (Mark
and Luke) sometime in the second century.
Acts of the Apostles, written by the author of the third Gospel (“Luke”), begins after Jesus’
death and describes the spread of the Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, primarily
through the missionary activity of the apostle Paul. Following Acts are twenty-one epistles or
letters. Most of these New Testament books are records of correspondence between a church
leader and a Christian community; these epistles address issues of Christian belief, practice,
and ethics. Thirteen of the epistles claim to be written by Paul (though, as we will see, most
New Testament scholars doubt the reliability of some of these claims). The last book in the New
Testament is Revelation, a Christian apocalypse. The author of this book, John, describes the
events leading up to the destruction of this world and the appearance of the world to come.
Other Early Christian Writings

The twenty-seven books of the New Testament are not the only writings of the early Christians.
There are many other Gospels, epistles, and apocalypses that are not included in the Christian
canon. One important collection of noncanonical early Christian writings includes a series of
writings, collectively called the Apostolic Fathers.
These books, written by Christians in the early second century CE, were considered
authoritative in some Christian communities. Some of these writings, in fact, were believed to
be as authoritative as the Gospels or Paul’s letters. Another important collection of early
Christian writings, including epistles, apocalypses, and Gospels, was discovered near Nag
Hammadi, Egypt in 1945. This find included fifty-two Coptic writings, some originating as early
as the second century.
Based on their literary characteristics, the 27 books in the New Testament are often classified
into three major groups—
1. The historical (five books, the Gospels and Acts)
2. The epistolary (21 books, Romans through Jude)
3. The prophetical (one book, Revelation).
The following two charts illustrate the division and focus of this threefold classification of the
New Testament books.
An Overview as to Focus
Historical The Gospels: Manifestation:
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John Telling the story of the coming of the Savior and His
person and work.
Acts Propagation:
The Acts of the Holy Spirit Proclaiming the message of the Savior who has
through the apostles come.
Epistolary Epistles: Explanation:
Letters to churches and Developing the full significance of the person and
individuals. work of Christ and how this should affect the walk
Romans through Jude of the Christian in the world.
Prophetical Revelation Consummation:

The apocalypse of the Lord Anticipating the end time events and the return of
Jesus Christ the Lord, His end time reign, and the eternal state.
ACTIVITY
1. How many books does the New Testament have?
2. List the Gospels, the number of chapters and the authors
3. Why is the Gospel of John not one of the Synoptic Gospels?
4. What do you think is the difference between the Old and the New Testaments?
5. The New Testament can be said to deal with two life historical periods. Which are they?
6. Between the New and Old Testaments, which one do Christians base their faith?
7. How is Christianity related to Judaism?
After having looked at the New Testament in general, now we zero in to The Four Gospels
before restricting ourselves to the Synoptic Gospels.
The Four Gospels
The four Gospels record the eternal being, human ancestry, birth, resurrection, and ascension
of Jesus the Christ, Son of God, and Son of Man. They record also a selection from the incidents
of His life, and from His words and works. Taken together, they set forth, not a biography, but
a Personality.
These two facts, that we have in the four Gospels a complete Personality, but not a complete
biography, indicate the spirit and intent in which we should approach them. What is important
is that through these narratives we should come to see and know Him whom they reveal. It is
of relatively small importance that we should be able to piece together out of these
confessedly incomplete records (John 21:25) a connected story of His life. For some adequate
reason -- perhaps lest we should be too much occupied with "Christ after the flesh"-- it did not
please God to cause to be written a biography of His Son. The twenty-nine formative years are
passed over in a silence which is broken but once, and that in but twelve brief verses of Luke's
Gospel. It may be well to respect the divine reticences. But the four Gospels, though
designedly incomplete as a story, are divinely perfect as a revelation. We may not through
them know everything that He did, but we may know the doer. In four great characters, each
of which completes the other three, we have Jesus Christ Himself. The Evangelists never
describe Christ--they set Him forth. They tell us almost nothing of what they thought about Him,
they let Him speak and act for himself.
This is the essential respect in which these narratives differ from mere biography or portraiture.
"The words that I speak unto you, they are spirit, and they are life." The student in whom dwells
an ungrieved Spirit finds here the living Christ.
The distinctive part which each Evangelist bears in this presentation of the living Christ is briefly
note in separated Introductions, but it may be profitable to add certain general suggestions.
1. The Old Testament is a divinely provided Introduction to the New; and whoever comes
to the study of the four Gospels with a mind saturated with the Old Testament fore view
of the Christ, His person, work, and kingdom, with find them open books.
For the Gospels are woven of Old Testament quotation, allusion, and type. The very first
verse of the New Testament drives the thoughtful reader back to the Old; and the risen
Christ sent His disciples to the ancient oracles for an explanation of His sufferings and
glory (Luke 24:27) One of His last ministries was the opening of their understandings to
understand the Old Testament.
Therefore, in approaching the study of the Gospels the mind should be freed, so far as
possible, from mere theological concepts and presuppositions. Especially is it necessary
to exclude the notion--a legacy in Protestant thought from post apostolic and Roman
Catholic theology--that the church is the true Israel, and that the Old Testament
foreview of the kingdom is fulfilled in the Church.
Do not assume that "the throne of David" ( Luke 1:32) is synonymous with "My Father's
throne" (Revelation 3:21) or that "the house of Jacob" (Luke 1:33) is the Church
composed both of Jew and Gentile.
2. The mission of Jesus was, primarily, to the Jews (Matthew 10:5; Matthew 15:23-25; John
1:11) He was "made under the law" (Galatians 4:4) and was a "minister of the
circumcision for the truth of God, to confirm the promises made unto the fathers"
(Romans 15:8) and to fulfil the law that grace might flow out.
Expect, therefore, a strong legal and Jewish colouring up to the cross. (Matthew 5:17-
19; Matthew 6:12; cf ; Ephesians 4:32; Matthew 10:5; Matthew 15:22-28; Mark 1:44;
Matthew 23:2) The Sermon on the Mount is law, not grace, for it demands as the
condition of blessing (Matthew 5:3-9) that perfect character which grace, through
divine power, creates (Galatians 5:22)
3. The doctrines of grace are to be sought in the Epistles, not in the Gospels; but those
doctrines rest back upon the death and resurrection of Christ, and upon the great
germ- truths to which He gave utterance, and of which the Epistles are the unfolding.
Furthermore, the only perfect example of perfect grace is the Christ of the Gospels.
4. The Gospels do not unfold the doctrine of the Church. The word occurs in Matthew
only. After His rejection as King and Saviour by the Jews, our Lord, announcing a mystery
until that moment "hid in God" (Ephesians 3:3-10) said, "I will build my church." (Matthew
16:16) It was, therefore, yet future; but His personal ministry had gathered out the
believers who were, on the day of Pentecost, by the baptism with the Spirit, made the
first members of "the church which is his body" (1 Corinthians 12:12; Ephesians 1:23)
The Gospels present a group of Jewish disciples, associated on earth with a Messiah in
humiliation; the Epistles a Church which is the body of Christ in glory, associated with
Him in the heavenlies, co-heirs with Him of the Father, co-rulers with Him over the coming
kingdom, and, as to the earth, pilgrims and strangers (1 Corinthians 12:12; Ephesians
1:3-14; Ephesians 2:4-6; 1 Peter 2:11)
5. The Gospels present Christ in His three offices of Prophet, Priest and King. As a Prophet
His ministry does not differ in kind from that of the Old Testament prophets. It is the dignity
of His person that which makes him the unique Prophet. Of old, God spoke through the
prophets; now He speaks in the Son. (Hebrews 1:1). The old prophet was a voice from
God; the Son is God himself. (Deuteronomy 18:18)
The prophet in any dispensation is God's messenger to His people, first to establish truth,
and secondly, when they are in declension and apostasy to call them back to truth. His
message, therefore, is, usually, one of rebuke and appeal. Only when these fall on deaf
ears does he become a foreteller of things to come. In this, too, Christ is at one with the
other prophets. His predictive ministry follows His rejection as King.
The sphere and character of Christ's Kingly Office are defined in the Davidic Covenant
(2 Samuel 7:8-16) and refs, as interpreted by the prophets, and confirmed by the New
Testament. The latter in no way abrogates or modifies either the Davidic Covenant or
its prophetic interpretation. It adds details which were not in the prophet's vision. The
Sermon on the Mount is an elaboration of the idea of "righteousness" as the
predominant characteristic of the Messianic kingdom. (Isaiah 11:2-5; Jeremiah 23:5;
Jeremiah 33:14-16) The Old Testament prophet was perplexed by seeing in one horizon,
so to speak, the suffering and glory of Messiah. (1 Peter 1:10-11) The New Testament
shows that these are separated by the present church-age, and points forward to the
Lord's return as the time when the Davidic Covenant of blessing through power will be
fulfilled (Luke 1:30-33; Acts 2:29-36; Acts 15:14-17) just as the Abrahamic Covenant of
blessing through suffering was fulfilled at His first coming. (Acts 3:25; Galatians 3:6-14).
Christ is never called King of the Church. "The King" is indeed one of the divine titles, and
the Church in her worship joins Israel in exalting "the king, eternal, immortal, invisible."
(Psalms 10:16; 1 Timothy 1:17). But the church is to reign with Him. The Holy Spirit is now
calling out, not the subjects, but the co-heirs and co-rulers of the kingdom (2 Timothy
2:11; Revelation 1:6; Revelation 3:21; Revelation 5:10; Romans 8:15-18; 1 Corinthians 6:2)
Christ's priestly office is the complement of His prophetic office. The prophet is God's
representative with the people; the priest is the people's representative with God.
Because they are sinful he must be a sacrificer; because they are needy he must be a
compassionate intercessor. (Hebrews 5:1; Hebrews 8:1-3)
So Christ, on the cross, entered upon his high-priestly work, offering Himself without spot
unto God (Hebrews 9:14) as now He compassionates His people in an ever-living
intercession (Hebrews 7:23). Of that intercession, John 17 is the pattern. (John 17).
6. Distinguish, in the Gospels, interpretation from moral application. Much in the Gospels
which belongs in strictness of interpretation to the Jew or the kingdom is yet such a
revelation of the mind of God, and so based on eternal principles, as to have a moral
application to the people of God, whatever their position dispensationally. It is always
true that the "pure in heart" are happy because they "see God," and that "woe" is the
portion of the religious formalists whether under law or grace.
7. Especial emphasis rests upon that to which all four Gospels bear a united testimony.
That united testimony is sevenfold:
a. In all alike is revealed the one unique Personality. The one Jesus is King in
Matthew, Servant in Mark, Man in Luke, and God in John. But not only so; for
Matthew's King is also Servant, Man, and God; and Mark's Servant is also King,
and Man, and God; Luke's Man is also King and Servant, and God; and John's
eternal Son is also King, and Servant, and Man.
The pen is a different pen; the incidents in which He is seen are sometimes
different incidents; the distinctive character in which He is presented is a different
character; but He is always the same Christ. That fact alone would mark these
books as inspired.
b. All the Evangelists record the ministry of John the Baptist.
c. All record the feeding of the five thousand.
d. All record Christ's offer of Himself as King, according to Micah.
e. All record the betrayal by Judas; the denial by Peter; the trial, crucifixion, and
literal resurrection of Christ. And this record is so made as to testify that the death
of Christ was the supreme business which brought Him into the world; that all
which precedes that death is but preparation for it; and that from it flow all the
blessings which God ever has or ever will bestow upon man.
f. All record the resurrection ministry of Christ; a ministry which reveals Him as
unchanged by the tremendous event of his passion, but a ministry keyed to a
new note of universality, and of power.
g. All point forward to His second coming.
WHO WROTE THE FOUR GOSPELS?
The story of Jesus of Nazareth is told in the New Testament by four different authors. The first
four books of the New Testament are called ‘gospels’ because they contain the ‘good news’
about Jesus’s life, death and resurrection. The four authors – traditionally identified as Matthew,
Mark, Luke and John – had different audiences in mind when they wrote, so the accounts
differ quite markedly in approach.
Matthew, Mark and Luke set out to present a description of Jesus’s life and death roughly in
chronological order. As, together, they see Jesus’s life in broadly the same way, they are
known as the ‘synoptic’ (meaning ‘seeing together’) gospels. John was more concerned with
explaining Jesus’s teachings and theology, so he has a more thematic approach and makes
little attempt to present his gospel in chronological order.
Mark’s Gospel, the shortest of the four gospels, is widely thought to be the first one to have
been written. Over a third of his account concentrates on the events surrounding Jesus’s
death and resurrection. It was probably written as early as 62AD (a little over thirty years after
the death and resurrection of Jesus) while Mark was staying with Paul in Rome. It is considered
to be the earliest gospel because Luke and Matthew appear to borrow a considerable
amount of their information from Mark’s narrative.
About ninety per cent of Mark’s narrative is repeated in Matthew’s gospel, while Luke includes
over half of Mark’s content.
Mark’s early account of Jesus’s life is widely believed to have been written by John Mark, a
Jewish member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem, at whose home the first
Christian believers met (see Acts 12:12). John Mark, as a teenager, may have known Jesus
well. The Upper Room where Jesus’s ‘Last Supper’ was held may have been at Mark’s house.
Many scholars think that the young man whom Mark says escaped from the Garden of
Gethsemane when Jesus was arrested (see Mark 14:51-52) was John Mark himself.
After Jesus’s death, Mark would have heard first-hand accounts of the life and teachings of
Jesus from Peter and the other apostles. As a young man, he travelled across Cyprus with Paul
and Barnabas (who was his uncle) in 46AD, before returning to Jerusalem (see Acts 12:25 &
15:37-39). He later spent two years in Rome (60-62AD) when Paul was under house arrest
awaiting his trial before Emperor Nero. It is likely that Mark’s Gospel was written around this
time, relying, for accuracy, on the accounts that the author had heard from Peter and the
other apostles.
Mark was later sent by Paul to the church at Colossae, but Paul asked Timothy to bring Mark
back from Colossae to Rome just before his death in c.67AD (see Colossians 4:10 & 2 Timothy
4:11). We know that John Mark arrived back in Rome about this time as Peter sends greetings
from Mark in his First Letter to the believers in Asia Minor, written in c.67AD shortly before Peter
was executed (see 1 Peter 5:13).
As Mark goes out of his way to explain Jewish customs (see Mark 7:3-4 & 15:42), he was
probably addressing an audience that included Gentiles, and may well have written his
‘Good News’ for the believers in Rome.
Luke’s Gospel appears to rely heavily on information from Mark’s gospel, as well as containing
some additional material from other sources (sometimes referred to by Biblical scholars as ‘Q’
or ‘Quelle’, German for ‘source’). Luke was a Gentile (non-Jewish) doctor, who was a close
companion of Paul. He is the only non-Jewish writer whose work is found in the Bible.
He first joined Paul in 51AD at Troas on his second missionary journey (hence the ‘we’ passages
that Luke wrote following Acts 16:11) and may well have lived in Philippi where he stayed after
Paul and Silas were forced to leave (see Acts 16:40). Some scholars believe that Luke was the
‘Man from Macedonia’ who appeared in Paul’s dream and begged Paul to visit his homeland
(see Acts 16:9).
Luke wrote his gospel for a Gentile audience, having been asked for an account of Jesus’s life
and teachings by a Roman friend he calls ‘Theophilus’ (‘lover of God’) (see Luke 1:1-4). Luke
stresses that Jesus was the saviour of all mankind, whatever their background, their gender or
their nationality. He also wrote a second book for ‘Theophilus’ about the Acts of the Apostles
(see Acts 1:1-2).
Luke, a Roman citizen, later accompanied Paul from Philippi to Jerusalem in 57AD after his
third missionary journey (see the ‘we’ passages following Acts 20:6). He stayed for two years
with the believers in Jerusalem and Caesarea, during which time he probably met on many
occasions with the Jewish Christian community at the home of John Mark in Jerusalem.
Together with Aristarchus, he then travelled with Paul to Rome in 60AD. The next two years
were spent with Paul in Rome while Paul was under house arrest awaiting his trial before Nero
(see 2 Timothy 4:11).
It was probably during these two years in Rome (60-62AD) that Luke wrote his gospel. He
appears to have completed his gospel and the Acts of the Apostles before 64AD, as his
account of the apostles’ activities ends before the Great Fire of Rome in 64AD and the
outbreak of the Jewish War in 66AD. As the Acts of the Apostles makes no mention of the
outcome of Paul’s appeal to Nero that was heard in c.62AD, it was probably written before
the result was known.
It follows that Luke probably wrote his gospel and the Acts of the Apostles while staying with
Paul in Rome between 60 and 62AD. As it’s likely that John Mark was also staying with Paul
around the same time, this may help to explain why large parts of the gospels of Luke and
Mark are very similar. Most of the difference in emphasis is accounted for by the fact that
Mark’s gospel is written from the perspective of a Jewish Christian, while Luke wrote as a
Gentile believer.
Matthew’s Gospel is traditionally believed to have been written by Levi, a Jew from Galilee
who collected taxes for the Romans, and whose Greek name was Matthew (see Matthew 9:9-
13 & Mark 2:13-17). He was one of Jesus’s first ‘apostles’ – his close circle of twelve followers or
‘disciples’ – who were ‘sent out’ with the Good News (see Matthew 10:2-5).
Matthew’s account of Jesus’s life was written between 70 and 80AD primarily for Jewish
readers. Its particular emphasis was to persuade its readers that Jesus really was the Messiah
or Christ – the ‘anointed one’ promised by the Old Testament prophets. As a result, many
passages in Matthew’s gospel set out to demonstrate that Jesus fulfilled the expectations that
Jews had of the Messiah in New Testament times (see the feature on Who was the Messiah?
in Section 2).
Matthew therefore begins his narrative with a lengthy genealogy to establish that Jesus was a
descendent of King David (see Isaiah 9:7 & Matthew 1:1-17). He tells about the ‘magi’
(astrologers or ‘wise men’ from Mesopotamia) who came to Bethlehem after Jesus’s birth
seeking the new ‘King of the Jews’ (see Micah 5:2 & Matthew 2:1-12). He then endeavours to
show how Jesus was both a ‘prophet like Moses’ (see Deuteronomy 18:15-18 & Matthew 21:11)
and the promised ‘Son of Man’ (see Daniel 7:13-14 & Matthew 11:18-19). Matthew’s overriding
theme is that Jesus was the ‘Christ’ or ‘Messiah’, foretold by the Jewish prophets, who fulfilled
the Law of Moses (see Matthew 5:17-20).
John’s Gospel is quite different from the other three gospels. It is traditionally believed to have
been written by John, one of Jesus’s close circle of twelve apostles, in c.85AD when John, a
leader of the Christian community in Ephesus, was an old man. It was written to denounce
and disprove a heretical (false) teaching known by scholars as ‘Gnosticism’. Gnostics taught
that Jesus was human, but was not divine. John set out to show that Jesus was both human
and divine – still a fundamental belief of Christians today.
John wrote three letters to Christian believers between 85 and 88AD in order to denounce the
teachings of Gnostics (see 1 John 1:1-4, 2 John 1:7-11 & 3 John 1:3-4), and he probably wrote
his gospel very shortly before this in c.85AD. The emphasis of John’s gospel is that Jesus – the
‘Word of God’ who has always co-existed with God – was an amazing revelation of God
himself in human form (see John 1:1-14). John’s gospel is therefore unique, and is fascinating
to read alongside the other more conventional gospel accounts of Jesus’s life and teaching.
After completing his gospel and his three letters to the daughter churches in the region around
Ephesus, John was exiled by the Roman emperor Domitian to the island of Patmos. Here, in
c.90AD, he wrote the Book of Revelation – a revelation he received from Jesus Christ about
the ‘last days’ (see Revelation 1:1-3). He returned to Ephesus in c.96AD, where he died and
was buried.
The uniqueness of the Gospel of John

The Gospel of John is unique from the “synoptic Gospels” (Matthew, Mark and Luke), so called
due to their similar content. The synoptics cover many of the same miracles, parables and
events of Jesus’ life and ministry. There is a lot of overlap, repetition and even some parallel
passages that are nearly identical. Generally speaking, the synoptics tell us what Jesus said
and did; John tells us who Jesus is. The synoptics focus on the signs and sayings of Christ; John
emphasizes the identity of Christ. Early church father Clement of Alexandria called John “the
spiritual Gospel” because of its deep insight into Jesus’ divinity.
NOTICE THESE UNIQUE FEATURES OF JOHN’S GOSPEL:
There are only eight miracles recorded in John, six of which are peculiar to the book (not found
elsewhere in Scripture). Contrast that with the Gospel of Mark which details about twenty
miracles and mentions ten more.
There are no parables in John. Compare that with about fifteen in Matthew, nine in Mark and
over thirty-five in Luke.
There are nine metaphors (figures of speech or illustrations) in John used to describe Jesus (i.e.
Bread of Life, Living Water, Light of the World, the Door, Good Shepherd, True Vine, etc.)
Every chapter in John provides a separate portrait of who Christ is and what He does giving us
greater insight into His character and nature.
John recorded detailed conversations Jesus held with individuals—Nicodemus (3), the
Samaritan Woman (4), Martha (11), Mary Magdalene (20), Peter (21).
Over one-third of John’s Gospel (chapters 12-19) covers the last week of Jesus’ life.
The nine “I AM” statements of Jesus in the Gospel of John:
1. I AM the Bread of Life/Living Bread—Jn. 6:35, 48, 51.
2. I AM the Light of the World—Jn. 8:12; 9:5.
3. Before Abraham was, I AM—Jn. 8:58.
4. I AM the Door—Jn. 10:7, 9.
5. I AM the Good Shepherd—Jn. 10:11, 14.
6. I AM the Resurrection and the Life—Jn. 11:25.
7. I AM the Way, the Truth, and the Life—Jn. 14:6.
8. I AM the True Vine—Jn. 15:1, 5.
9. I AM He—Jn. 18:5-6.
John continued this theme in the Book of Revelation:

1. I AM the Alpha and Omega—1:8, 11; 22:13.
2. I AM the Beginning and the End—1:8; 22:13.
3. I AM the First and the Last—1:11; 22:13.
4. I AM He Who Lives and was Dead—1:18.
5. I AM He Who Searches the Reigns and Hearts—2:23.
6. I AM the Root and Offspring of David—22:16.
7. I AM the Bright and Morning Star—22:16.
In John’s writings, you find a direct connection between Jehovah I AM of the Old Testament
and Jesus I AM in the New Testament. When Moses asked God what His name was at the
burning bush, “God said to Moses, I AM WHO I AM. Thus, you shall say to the children of Israel,
I AM has sent me to you” (Ex. 3:14, NKJV). I AM means the self-existent One, the Eternal One
and expresses the unchangeableness of God’s character. He transcends the past, the present
and the future—He always has been, He always is, and He always will be God. Fill in the blank,
whatever you need from God, He is it! I AM ___________ . . . savior, healer, deliverer, redeemer,
provider, sanctifier, justifier, righteousness, love, joy, peace and so on.
John is called “The Revelator” because, among other things, he unveiled the true identity of
Christ in greater depth than any other Bible author. John drew closer to Jesus than any other
disciple and was given deeper insight into His divine nature. Notice John didn’t begin his
Gospel with the birth of Christ like Matthew and Luke. In fact, he mentioned nothing about the
nativity story or Mary and Joseph’s trek to Bethlehem to be taxed and counted. Instead, he
went all the way back to the origin— “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God” (Jn. 1:1). John revealed the deity of Christ in the very first verse
of his Gospel.
You see, Jesus did not become the Son of God when He was born of a virgin 2,000 years ago.
No, He has always been the eternal, pre-existent Son of God. He merely assumed a human
body in Mary’s womb— “The Word became human and lived among us” (Jn. 1:14, GW).
Matthew traced Jesus’ ancestry back to Abraham (Mt. 1:1), Luke traced it back to Adam (Lk.
3:38), but John traced it back to God the Father in eternity past. Furthermore, he disclosed
how Christ predates time and creation and was a co-Creator with His Father— “He was in the
beginning with God. All things were made through Him, and without Him nothing was made
that was made” (Jn. 1:2-3). Paul agreed with this assertion (Col. 1:14-19).
John paid attention when others didn’t and highlighted people to whom Jesus revealed His
Messiahship. He also included subtle statements when Christ shared His divinity, such as, “I and
my father are one” (Jn. 10:30) and “He who has seen Me has seen the Father” (Jn. 14:9). John
clearly stated the purpose of his Gospel, “These are written that you may believe that Jesus is
the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name” (Jn. 20:31). John
presented Christ so persuasively that his readers believe and receive eternal life through Him.
This is obvious by the key words “believe” (52 times), “believed” (27 times), “believeth” (17
times in KJV) and “believing” (2 times). John used some form of the word “believe” 98 times in
his account proving that faith in Christ is essential for salvation.
John was like a mechanic who opens a car hood to see what makes it run. In the process, he
got some oil (anointing) all over him. Remember, John literally laid his head on the chest of
Jesus and heard the heartbeat of God (Jn. 13:23-25).
The synoptic Gospels inform us of what Jesus said and did; John’s Gospel digs deeper and tells
us Who Jesus is. John started as an ignorant fisherman (Ac. 4:13), but after spending extended
time with Jesus, he transformed into a man on a mission to tell the world about the Godman
he met on the shores of Galilee.
C. S. Lewis said it well, “The Son of God became a man to enable men to become sons of
God.”
The Synoptic Gospels

The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they
include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes
identical wording. They stand in contrast to John; whose content is largely distinct. The term
synoptic (Latin: synopticus; Greek: συνοπτικός, Romanized: synoptikós) comes via Latin from
the Greek σύνοψις, synopsis, i.e. "(a) seeing all together, synopsis";[n 1] the sense of the word in
English, the one specifically applied to these three gospels, of "giving an account of the events
from the same point of view or under the same general aspect" is a modern one.[
The Synoptic Gospels are the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke in the New Testament, which
present similar narratives of the life and death of Jesus Christ. Since the 1780s the first three
books of the New Testament have been called the Synoptic Gospels because they are so
similar in structure, content, and wording that they can easily be set side by side to provide a
synoptic comparison of their content.
Characteristics of the Synoptic Gospels

By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. State who wrote the Gospels
2. Discuss the characteristics of each Gospel
The Gospels were written many years after Jesus had already gone to Heaven.
Precisely they were written starting about 50 years after the death of Jesus.
According to the reductionist theory, one cannot run away from his/her personal
interests when writing. As such, the Gospel writers had special interests which are clearly
reflected in the Gospels they presented.
Looking at the special interests of the Gospel writers will help us understand how
and why the writers presented their material the way they did. So, dear learners, we want to
start by looking at very simple things which you are familiar with.
Who wrote the Gospels?
1. Matthew was written by .................
2. Mark was written by ........................
3. Luke was written by ..........................
4. John was written by ........................
5. How many chapters does each of the gospels stated above have?
Characteristics of the Gospel of Luke

Luke was written by Luke the Physician, historian, a companion of Paul on his missionary
journeys and a Gentile. As a result of such, Luke had special traits which he wanted to display
A Gospel of prayer. One of the features of the gospel of Luke is that it is a gospel of prayer.
Luke alone showed a marked interest in the private prayer life of Jesus. In the book of Luke,
one would discover three different parables on prayer, for example, the parables of the “friend
at midnight”, “the Pharasee and the Publican” and “the unrighteous judge”. Again, when his
disciples asked Jesus to teach them how to pray, it was after Jesus himself had finished praying.
Again, at cardinal points in his life and ministry, Jesus prayed. Jesus prayed at his baptism and
during his transfiguration, for example. Luke was interested in prayer; that is why his book is
called a book of prayer.
Interest in women
Another feature of the book is that it is interested in women. Luke gives a lot of space for
women and women’s issues in his gospel. Luke wrote about the Prophetess Anna, who, it was
said was not going to die until she had seen the savior with her eyes. Luke vividly captured her
feelings and reactions when she saw the Christ. Luke also recorded the story of the widow at
Nain.
In Luke’s Gospel, the announcement of the birth of Jesus was first made to a woman, Mary.
Even in his life, Jesus was ministered to by women. At the point of death, Jesus was surrounded
by women
This makes Luke’s gospel a gospel of women.
Gospel of the Holy Spirit
The other characteristic with which the book of Luke is associated is the fact that it is a gospel
of the Holy Spirit. In Luke’s account of the birth of Jesus, the Holy Spirit features highly. Also, in
the account of the baptism of Jesus, the Holy Spirit was described as having descended in a
bodily form like a dove. Jesus himself is recorded to have said that “the spirit of God is upon
me”. This goes to prove that Luke’s Gospel is a Gospel of the Holy Spirit.
A gospel of praise/joy
The book of Luke is also described as a book of praise and joy. In the early parts of his book,
especially, Luke recorded the “Benedictus”, the “Ave Maria” and the “Magnificat”. These
were songs that were offered in praise of God and done with joy in the hearts of the people
who offered them.
Universalism
Luke’s gospel is also tainted with a global outlook. It sought to appeal to the world rather than
to the Hebrews exclusively. For example, Luke traced the family tree of Jesus to Adam, who is
seen as the father of the human race and not to Abraham, who is considered as the father of
the Jews, as Matthew did. Another example of universalism is the fact that when the child
Jesus’ life was in danger, God appeared to Joseph and told him to flee to Egypt, a gentile
nation.
According to the Gospel of Luke, even Gentiles are also in the plan of God for salvation.
Salvation is not only for the Jews.
Luke is a Gospel for the poor. In Luke, Jesus seems to be against the rich and riches
He says that riches are a hindrance to the kingdom of God (how hard it is for the
rich to enter into the kingdom of God. It easier for a camel to pass through the eye
of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God). Luke therefore has stories
like that of;
• The rich man and Lazarus and
• The rich man who could not part with his riches in order to get salvation. He
had been told to give to the poor Luke has Jesus encouraging his followers to store their
treasures in Heaven
The kingdom of God belongs to the poor
A gospel of people
Luke had a lot of interest in individuals. He showed a lot of interest in the personal lives of
people. It is one reason his book is called a gospel of people. He wrote about the personal
experience of the woman called Elizabeth, the wife of Zachariah and how she had a baby in
her old age. He wrote about Zacchaeus and the relationship between Martha and Jesus. That
is why it is called the gospel of people.
Luke was also a physician/medical doctor How did this affect him as he was writing? He was
interested in the virgin birth. The emphasis is on showing that God does things which defy
medical explanations, i.e. how does one get pregnant without sleeping with a man?
Luke was a historian. As a historian, he wanted to make a careful outline of how the events in
the life of Jesus unfolded He wanted to present events as accurately as possible, i.e. after
careful investigation.
So, the Gospel of Luke contains an accurate history of the life and ministry of Jesus
ACTIVITY
1. Highlight six characteristics of the gospel of St. Luke.
2. Cite two examples which show that the Gospel of Luke is for the despised in the society
The characteristics of Mark’s Gospel
Action driven
One of the features of Mark’s gospel is that it is action driven. Mark wrote with much more
pace than the other synoptic gospel authors. Mark seem to be in a hurry, so sometimes, many
stories are crammed together. The book starts with a bang and ends abruptly. He used words
like “immediately” most of the time.
The Gospel is Universal

Another feature of the gospel of Mark is that he seems to have written the gospel for the world
and not for the Jews alone. When he used words that were exclusive to the Jewish custom, he
explained them for the benefit of non-Jewish readers. He used expression like “Corban” and
Talitha kumi” but he explained them so that the Gentile nation can understand what he was
trying to say.
Repetitiveness
Mark’s style displayed a level of repetitiveness. He employed tautology in certain portions of
his work though some might argue that he employed them for the sake of emphasis. For
example, Mark wrote that Jesus healed at evening, when the Sun was set. In the story of the
feeding of the five thousand, he also described the crowd as sitting on the green grass.
Use of rough language
Mark’s language was not very refined. He wrote it the way it was, without giving it any
colouration. In the story of the storm on the Sea, Mark recorded that the disciples asked Jesus,
“Master, do you not care if we perish?” Also, in the story of the woman with the issue of blood,
there was a large crowd following, then suddenly Jesus asked “who touched me”. Mark
recorded the disciples as asking Jesus, “You see the crowd pressing around you yet you said
‘who touched me.’” This is an indication that Mark used a rough language to carry his
message across. These expressions were toned down when the other synoptic writers recorded
the same events.
Mark’s portrayal of Jesus

Mark sometimes portrayed Jesus in a very negative light. He recorded some of the very
unsavory remarks by his family and friends about him. When Jesus went to Nazareth, for
example, some of his relatives and friends thought he was mad. Mark recorded that they
considered him to be “beside himself” meaning he must have gone insane.
Humanity of Jesus
Mark tried to portray the human side of Jesus. He would capture Jesus behaving like a normal
human being. In the story of the storm on the Sea, Mark recorded that Jesus was asleep in the
stern of the boat. So, he was human after all. He also portrayed Jesus as someone who could
feel hunger pangs and could also be angry. When he expected the fig tree to have fruits, it
was because he was hungry. When he could not find the fig fruits to eat, he became angry
and cursed the tree. All these show the human aspect of the man Jesus.
ACTIVITY
1. What are the major characteristics of Mark’s gospel?
2. Highlight six characteristics of the gospel of Mark.
The characteristics of the Gospel of Matthew
Introduction
The books of Mark, Matthew and Luke are collectively referred to as the Synoptic
Gospels. This simply means the three writers wrote their books from the same point of view.
There are, however, certain distinctive characteristics about the gospel of Matthew that gives
it a unique identity, quite different from the other three Synoptic Gospels
Universalism
One of the characteristics of Matthew’s gospel is that it appeals to the entire world.
In other words, Christianity is for humanity and not only for the Jews. When Jesus
was born, for example, there were three wise men that came from the East to visit
the child. Also, when the child’s life was threatened, God told Joseph to escape with
the child to Egypt, a Gentile country.
Jewish Particularism
Apart from being universal, the gospel is still exclusive to the Jews in some sense.
In other words, it is a gospel dedicated to the Jews. Matthew, for example, traced
the genealogy of Christ to Abraham who is regarded as the father of the Jewish nation.
Matthew also recorded Jesus as saying he was sent to the “lost sheep of the house of Israel”
meaning he came specifically for the Hebrew race and not for any other race.
Ecclesiastic interest
Another characteristic of Matthew’s gospel is that, he is seen to be much interested
in the church or the “ecclesia”. Matthew recorded Jesus as telling Peter that he is
the rock on which he would build his church. Also, according to Matthew, the
church must be the final place for the adjudication of disputes, emphasizing the importance
of the church in the lives of Christians.
Elements of miracles
Matthew alone tried to make Jesus’ stories more miraculous than they may actually
seem. He seemed to employ the literary device called exaggeration to make Jesus
look like a powerful miracle worker. In the story of the healing of the Gerasene demoniac,
Matthew alone recorded that there were two mad men that Jesus
healed. Also, when Jesus cursed the fig tree, Matthew recorded that the tree died
immediately but Mark wrote that it was discovered the next day that the tree had
withered.
Interest in the Messiah

Matthew also tried to prove that Jesus was the Messiah that was being expected by
the Jews. For this reason; he quoted copiously from the Old Testament to buttress
his point. His catch phrase is “that it might be fulfilled” preceded his reference to
an Old Testament linkage of something he was writing about. So for example, when he wrote
about the flight of Joseph with his nuclear family to Egypt, Matthew wrote “that it might be
fulfilled that ‘out of Egypt have I called my son’”. He was quoting from the book of Hosea 11:1.
Apocalyptic interests
Matthew was also interested in the happenings of the last days, referred to as eschatology.
He spoke about issues concerning the end of the world. The parable of the Talents and that
of the Ten Virgins were exclusive to the book of Matthew. All these showed apocalyptic
influences.
One of Matthew’s interests was to show that Jesus came as a fulfillment of the Old
Testament scriptures. Everything that happened to Jesus was so that it would be fulfilled that
which was written by the prophets in the Old Testament. Again, Matthew shows that Jesus did
not come to abolish the law, but to make it complete. In the sermon on the mount, Jesus
modified some of the teachings that were given in the Old Testament. This was to make
people to be more Godly
e.g. You have heard that it was said an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, but I say
unto you …
Matthew’s Gospel is divided into 5 sections as according to the first five books of
the Old Testament
Matthew is fond of dreams. Action is taken after someone has dreamt, e.g. Joseph dreamt
and took Mary home; The wise men dreamt and avoided Herod etc. Although Matthew
portrays Jesus as a king, he wanted to show him as a Spiritual Messiah and not a political one.
The Jews at this time were expecting a political Messiah to lead them against the Romans So,
they expected Jesus to be that Messiah. BUT Jesus was a spiritual Messiah, who was going to
set his people free from sin and not political oppression. This is where Jesus differed with the
Pharisees who expected him to be as strict with the Law as they were.
ACTIVITY
1. What are the main characteristics of Matthew’s gospel?
2. Apart from being a universal gospel, Matthew was also exclusive to the Jewish
race. Discuss.
The Synoptic Problem
Introduction
The Synoptic Problem is the problem of the literary relationships among the first three
“Synoptic” Gospels. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called “Synoptic Gospels” because they
can be “seen together” (syn-optic) and displayed in three parallel columns. The three gospels
contain many of the same stories and sayings, often related in the same relative sequence.
However, there are also important differences in the wording of individual stories and sayings,
in the ordering of some materials, and in the overall extent of each gospel. In some instances,
the degree of verbatim agreement or the sequential agreement in the arrangement of
episodes and sayings is so strong that one must posit some kind of literary relationship among
the gospels.
By contrast, there are often marked differences in wording between any two gospels, and
sometimes among all three. This raises several questions:
1. Is the relationship among the three gospels a matter of direct literary dependence,
indirect dependence mediated through oral performances of written texts, or common
dependence on oral information?
2. Can the direction of dependence be established?
3. Can a genealogy of the development of the Synoptic Gospels be constructed?
The question is how best to account for the differences and similarities among the three
Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke. The answer to this problem has implications for
the order in which the three were composed, and the sources on which their authors drew.
Any solution to the synoptic problem needs to account for two features:
The "triple tradition": The three gospels frequently share both wording and arrangement of
"pericopes" (incidents, stories - this substantial sharing is what led to them being called
"synoptic", or seeing-together). Where they differ on this shared material, Mark and Luke will
agree against Matthew, or Mark and Matthew will agree against Luke, but very rarely will Mark
be the odd one out.
Matthew's and Luke's versions of shared pericopes will usually be shorter than Mark's.
The "double tradition": Sometimes Matthew and Luke share material which is not present in
Mark. In these cases, Matthew and Luke sometimes parallel each other closely, but at other
times are widely divergent. The "synoptic problem" is the question of the specific literary
relationship among the three synoptic gospels—that is, the question as to the source or sources
upon which each synoptic gospel depended when it was written.
The texts of the three synoptic gospels often agree very closely in wording and order, both in
quotations and in narration. Most scholars ascribe this to documentary dependence, direct or
indirect, meaning the close agreements among synoptic gospels are due to one gospel's
drawing from the text of another, or from some written source that another gospel also drew
from.
The synoptic problem hinges on several interrelated points of controversy:

• Priority: Which gospel was written first? (If one text draws from another, the source must
have been composed first.)
• Successive dependence: Did each of the synoptic gospels draw from each of its
predecessors? (If not, the frequent agreements between the two independent gospels
against the third must originate elsewhere.)
• Lost written sources: Did any of the gospels draw from some earlier document which
has not been preserved (e.g., the hypothetical "Q", or from earlier editions of other
gospels)?
• Oral sources: To what extent did each evangelist or literary collaborator draw from
personal knowledge, eyewitness accounts, liturgy, or other oral traditions to produce
an original written account?
• Translation: Jesus and others quoted in the gospels spoke primarily in Aramaic, but the
gospels themselves in their oldest available form are each written in Koine Greek. Who
performed the translations, and at what point?
• Redaction: How and why did those who put the gospels into their final form expand,
abridge, alter, or rearrange their sources?
Some theories try to explain the relation of the synoptic gospels to John; to non-canonical
gospels such as Thomas, Peter, and Egerton; to the Didache; and to lost documents such as
the Hebrew logia mentioned by Papias, the Jewish–Christian gospels, and the Gospel of
Marcion. Ancient sources virtually unanimously ascribe the synoptic gospels to the apostle
Matthew, to Peter's interpreter Mark, and to Paul's companion Luke—hence their respective
canonical names.
A remark by Augustine of Hippo at the beginning of the fifth century presents the gospels as
composed in their canonical order (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John), with each evangelist
thoughtfully building upon and supplementing the work of his predecessors—the Augustinian
hypothesis (Matthew–Mark). This view (when any model of dependence was considered at
all) seldom came into question until the late eighteenth century, when Johann Jakob
Griesbach published in 1776 a synopsis of the synoptic gospels. Instead of harmonizing them,
he displayed their texts side by side, making both similarities and divergences apparent.
Griesbach, noticing the special place of Mark in the synopsis, hypothesized Marcan
posteriority and advanced (as Henry Owen had a few years earlier[28]) the two-gospel
hypothesis (Matthew–Luke).
In the nineteenth century, researchers applied the tools of literary criticism to the synoptic
problem in earnest, especially in German scholarship. Early work revolved around a
hypothetical proto-gospel (Ur-Gospel), possibly in Aramaic, underlying the synoptics. From this
line of inquiry, however, a consensus emerged that Mark itself served as the principal source
for the other two gospels—Marcan priority.
In a theory first proposed by Christian Hermann Weisse in 1838, the double tradition was
explained by Matthew and Luke independently using two sources—thus, the two-source
(Mark-Q) theory—which supplemented Mark with another hypothetical source consisting
mostly of sayings. This additional source was at first seen as the logia (sayings) spoken of by
Papias and thus called "Λ", but later it became more generally known as "Q", from the German
Quelle, meaning source. This two-source theory eventually won wide acceptance and was
seldom questioned until the late twentieth century; most scholars simply took this new
orthodoxy for granted and directed their efforts toward Q itself, and this is still largely the case.
The theory is also well known in a more elaborate form set forth by Burnett Hillman Streeter in
1924, which additionally hypothesized written sources "M" and "L" (for "Special Matthew" and
"Special Luke" respectively)—hence the influential four-document hypothesis.
This exemplifies the prevailing scholarship of the time, which saw the canonical gospels as late
products, dating from well into the second century, composed by unsophisticated cut-and-
paste redactors out of a progression of written sources, and derived in turn from oral traditions
and from folklore that had evolved in various communities. More recently, however, as this
view has gradually fallen into disfavor, so too has the centrality of documentary
interdependence and hypothetical documentary sources as an explanation for all aspects of
the synoptic problem.
In recent decades, weaknesses of the two-source theory have been more widely recognized,
and debate has reignited. Many have independently argued that Luke did make some use
of Matthew after all—the Common Sayings Source. British scholars went further and dispensed
with Q entirely, ascribing the double tradition to Luke's direct use of Matthew—the Farrer
hypothesis of 1955. New attention is also being given to the Wilke hypothesis of 1838 which, like
Farrer, dispenses with Q but ascribes the double tradition to Matthew's direct use of Luke.
Meanwhile, the Augustinian hypothesis has also made a comeback, especially in American
scholarship. The Jerusalem school hypothesis has also attracted fresh advocates, as has the
Independence hypothesis, which denies documentary relationships altogether. On this
collapse of consensus, Wenham observed: "I found myself in the Synoptic Problem Seminar of
the Society for New Testament Studies, whose members were in disagreement over every
aspect of the subject. When this international group disbanded in 1982 they had sadly to
confess that after twelve years' work they had not reached a common mind on a single issue."
More recently, Andris Abakuks applied a statistical time series approach to the Greek texts to
determine the relative likelihood of these proposals. Models without Q fit reasonably well.
Matthew and Luke were statistically dependent on their borrowings from Mark. This suggests
at least one of Matthew and Luke had access to the other's work. The most likely synoptic
gospel to be the last was Luke. The least likely was Mark. While this weighs against the
Griesbach proposal and favors the Farrer. He does not claim that any proposals are ruled out.
Theories advanced to try and solve the synoptic problem Nearly every conceivable theory
has been advanced as a solution to the synoptic problem. The most notable theories include:
Notable synoptic theories
Priority Theory Diagram Notes
Most widely accepted

theory. Matthew and Luke
Two-source independently used Q,
(Mark-Q) taken to be a Greek
document with sayings
and narrative.
Double tradition explained

Farrer
entirely by Luke's use of
(Mark-Matthew)
Matthew.
Marcan
priority
A hybrid of Two-source and

Three-source Farrer. Q may be limited to
(Mark-Q/Matthew sayings, may be in
) Aramaic, and may also be
a source for Mark.
Double tradition explained
Wilke
entirely by Matthew's use
(Mark-Luke)
of Luke.
Matthew and Luke used Q.

Four-source
Only Matthew used M and
(Mark-Q/M/L)
only Luke used L.
Mark primarily has

Matthaea Two-gospel
collected what Matthew
n (Griesbach)
and Luke share in common
priority (Matthew-Luke)
(Marcan posteriority).
The oldest known view, still
advocated by some.
Mark's special place is
neither priority nor
posteriority, but as the
Augustinian intermediate between the
(Matthew-Mark) other two synoptic gospels.
Canonical order is based
on this view having been
assumed (at the time when
New Testament Canon
was finalized).
A Greek anthology (A),
translated literally from a
Hebrew original, was used
by each gospel. Luke also
drew from an earlier lost
Lucan Jerusalem school
gospel, a reconstruction
priority (Luke-Q)
(R) of the life of Jesus
reconciling the anthology
with yet another narrative
work. Matthew has not
used Luke directly.
All gospels directly used

the gospel of Marcion as
Marcion Marcion
their source, and have
priority hypothesis
been influenced heavily by
it.
Each gospel drew from a
different combination of
Multi-source
hypothetical earlier
documents.
The gospels each

independently derive from
Proto-gospel a common proto-gospel
(Ur-Gospel), possibly in
Hebrew or Aramaic.
Others or
none
Each document drew from
Q+/Papias
each of its predecessors,
(Mark-Q/Matthew
including Logoi (Q+) and
)
Papias' Exposition.
Each gospel is an
independent and original
Independence
composition based upon
oral history.
All the above theories have been put forward to try and deal with the Synoptic Problem, but
the following is the most widely accepted, as a solution to the problem
As exemplified in the above diagram;
1. There is information which is found only in Mark. This is not found in either Matthew or
Luke. The explanation is that although Matthew and Luke used Mark’s Gospel, they did
not get everything. Some information remains perculiar to Mark.
2. There is information which is found in Mark and Luke, but is not found in Matthew. As he
used Mark, Luke must have copied some information which Matthew did not find
necessary to include in his gospel. So, Mark and Luke agree against Matthew.
3. There is also information which is found in Mark and Matthew, but is not found in Luke.
As he used Mark, Matthew must have copied some information which Luke did not find
necessary to also include in his gospel. So, Mark and Matthew agree against Luke.
4. The diagram also shows that there is information which is found in all the three gospels.
The simple explanation is that Matthew and Luke must have used Mark and copied the
same information, hence the similarities.
5. Further, we note that there is information which is found in Matthew and Luke, but is not
found in Mark. There must have been a source available to Matthew and Luke, which
was not Mark.
6. There is also information which is found only in Matthew, and cannot be found in either
Mark or Luke. Matthew must have used an independent source which was available
only to him.
7. Finally, there is information which is found only in Luke, and not in either Mark or
Matthew. Luke must also have used an independent source which was available only
to him.
So, as has been seen, the above explanations favour the Markan priority.
ACTIVITY
1. What is the Synoptic Problem and how can it be solved?
2. What challenges do Christians face and what measures can be put in place to deal
with them?
Religious groups in the time of Jesus
In his ministry, Jesus mixed and mingled with many people belonging to various
religious group. Some of the groups of people that he interacted with appreciated him while
others demonstrated sheer hostility Jesus had to contend with these people from the
beginning of his ministry to the end of it.
The Pharisees
The Pharisees appear in the New Testament, engaging in conflicts between themselves and
John the Baptist and with Jesus, and because of this, Nicodemus the Pharisee (John 3:1) with
Joseph of Arimathea entombed Jesus' body at great personal risk. Gamaliel, the highly
respected rabbi and defender of the apostles, was also a Pharisee, and according to some
Christian traditions secretly converted to Christianity.
There are several references in the New Testament to Paul the Apostle being a
Pharisee before converting to Christianity, and other members of the Pharisee sect are known
from Acts 15:5 to have become Christian believers. It was some members of his group who
argued that Gentile converts must be circumcised and obliged to follow the Mosaic law,
leading to a dispute within the early Church addressed at the Apostolic Council in Jerusalem,
in 50 CE.
The New Testament, particularly the Synoptic Gospels, presents especially the
leadership of the Pharisees as obsessed with man-made rules (especially concerning purity)
whereas Jesus is more concerned with God's love; the Pharisees scorn sinners whereas Jesus
seeks them out. (The Gospel of John, which is the only gospel where Nicodemus is mentioned,
particularly portrays the sect as divided and willing to debate). Because of the New
Testament's frequent depictions of Pharisees as self-righteous rule-followers (see also Woes of
the Pharisees and Legalism (theology)), the word "Pharisee" (and its derivatives: "pharisaical",
etc.) has come into semi-common usage in English to describe a hypocritical and arrogant
person who places the letter of the law above its spirit. Jews today typically find this insulting
and some consider the use of the word to be anti-Semitic.
We will understand this group by answering the following question
Who were the Pharisees?

To answer the given question, we have to look at the beliefs and practices of the Pharisees.
This will give us an insight as to who these people were.
The Pharisees were an influential religious sect within Judaism in the time of Christ and the early
church. They were known for their emphasis on personal piety.
The word Pharisee comes from a Hebrew word meaning “separated”)

They accepted oral tradition in addition to the written Law, and their teaching that all Jews
should observe all 600-plus laws in the Torah, including the rituals concerning ceremonial
purification.
The Pharisees were mostly middle-class businessmen and leaders of the synagogues.
They were a minority in the Sanhedrin and
They held a minority number of positions as priests
They seemed to control the decision-making of the Sanhedrin because they had popular
support among the people.
Among the Pharisees were two schools of thought, based on the teachings of two
rabbis Shammai and Hillel. Shammai called for a strict, unbending interpretation of the Law on
almost every issue But Hillel taught a looser, more liberal application. Followers of Shammai
fostered a hatred for anything Roman, including taxation— Jews who served as tax collectors
were persona non grata. The Shammaites wanted to outlaw all communication and
commerce between Jews and Gentiles.
The Hillelites took a more gracious approach and opposed such extreme exclusiveness.
Eventually, the two schools within Pharisaism grew so hostile to each other that
they refused to worship together. The Pharisees accepted the written Word as inspired by God.
At the time of Christ’s earthly ministry, this would have been what we now call the Old
Testament. Unfortunately, the Pharisees gave equal authority to oral tradition, saying the
traditions went all the way back to Moses. Evolving over the centuries, the Pharisaic
traditions had the effect of adding to God’s Word, which is forbidden (Deuteronomy
4:2).
The Gospels are abound with examples of the Pharisees treating their traditions as
equal to God’s Word (Matthew 9:14; 15:1–9; 23:5; 23:16, 23; Luke 11:42). Jesus applied the
condemnation of Isaiah 29:13 to the Pharisees, saying, “Their teachings are merely human
rules” (Mark 7:7).
The Pharisees looked forward to the coming of a political Messiah who

would lead them against the Romans. However, they felt that this Messiah had to have the
qualities of a Pharisee. This is where they tended to differ with Jesus.
A Pharisee would never become a High Priest. As such, the Pharisees were not largely held
responsible for the death of Jesus Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in AD70, but the
Pharisees did not disappear from history after this destruction
Today we still have Pharisees. How?
The Pharisees taught the following doctrines:
1. God controls all things, but decisions made by individuals also affect life’s course.
2. There will be a resurrection of the dead (Acts 23:6).
3. There is an afterlife, with appropriate reward and punishment on an individual
basis. The Messiah will set up His kingdom on earth.
4. The spiritual realm, including the existence of angels and demons, is real (Acts
23:8).
5. Many of the Pharisees’ doctrines put them at odds with the Sadducees; however, the
two groups managed to set aside their differences on one occasion—the trial of Jesus
Christ. To accomplish the demise of Jesus, the Sadducees and Pharisees united (Mark
14:53; 15:1; John 11:48–50).
6. The Pharisees were responsible for the compilation of the Mishnah, an important
document with reference to the continuation of Judaism beyond the destruction of the
temple. Rabbinical Judaism and modern-day synagogues owe their existence to the
Pharisees’ work.
7. In the Gospels, the Pharisees are often presented as hypocritical and proud
opponents of Jesus. The Lord stated it bluntly: “They do not practice what they
preach” (Matthew 23:3). As a general rule, the Pharisees were self-righteousness
and smug in their delusion that they were pleasing to God because they kept the
Law—or parts of it, at least. As Jesus pointed out to them, however scrupulous they were
in following the finer points of ritualism; they failed to measure up to God’s standard of
holiness: “You have neglected the more important matters of the law— justice, mercy
and faithfulness” (verse 23).
8. Of course, not every Pharisee was opposed to Jesus. Nicodemus was a Pharisee who
rightly considered Jesus “a teacher who has come from God” and honestly sought
answers from Him (John 3:1–2). Nicodemus later defended Jesus before the Sanhedrin
(John 7:50–51) and was on hand at Jesus’ crucifixion to help bury the Lord’s body (John
19:39).
9. Some of the early Christians were Pharisees, as well (Acts 15:5). The apostle Paul was
trained as a Pharisee, and his credentials in that group were
sterling (Acts 26:5). Paul called himself “a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a
Pharisee; as for zeal, persecuting the church; as for righteousness based on the law,
faultless” (Philippians 3:5–6). But Paul found that his performance of the Law could not
produce true righteousness. After he placed his trust in Christ’s finished work on the
cross, he desired to “be found in him, not having a righteousness of my own that comes
from the law, but that which is through faith in Christ—the righteousness that comes
from God on the basis of faith” (verse 9). No one, not even the strictest Pharisee, is
justified by keeping the Law (Galatians 3:11).
What is the difference between resurrection and life after death?
The Sadducees
We ask the same question as the Pharisees, Who were the Sadducees?
This question will help us to describe the Sadducees so that we understand them
better. During the time of Christ and the New Testament era, the Sadducees were
a religio-political group that held a great deal of power among the Jews in Israel.
The Sadducees confronted Jesus on occasion, attempting to trip Him up (Matthew

16:1; Mark 12:18), and they later opposed the preaching of the apostles (Acts 4:1– 2).
The Sadducees, sometimes historically called “Zadokites” or “Tzedukim,” are thought by some
to have been founded by a man named Zadok (or Tsadok) in the second century BC.
Another school of thought is that the word Sadducee is related to the Hebrew word sadaq
(“to be righteous”).
The Sadducees were an aristocratic class connected with everything going on in the temple
in Jerusalem.
They tended to be wealthy and held powerful positions, including that of chief priests and high
priest, and they held the majority of the 70 seats of the ruling council called the Sanhedrin. The
Sadducees worked hard to keep the peace by agreeing with the decisions of
Rome (Israel at the time was under Roman control), and
They seemed to be more concerned with politics than religion. Because they were
accommodating to Rome and were the wealthy upper class, they did not relate well to the
common man, nor did the common man hold them in high opinion. The commoners related
better to those who belonged to the party of the Pharisees.
Though the Sadducees held the majority of seats in the Sanhedrin, history indicates that much
of the time they had to go along with the ideas of the Pharisaic minority, because the Pharisees
were more popular with the masses.
Not all priests were Sadducees, but many of them were. The Sadducees preserved the
authority of the written Word of God, especially the books of Moses (Genesis through
Deuteronomy). While they could be commended for this, they definitely were not perfect in
their doctrinal views. The following is a brief list of Sadduccean beliefs that contradict Scripture:
1. The Sadducees were extremely self-sufficient to the point of denying God’s
involvement in everyday life.
2. They denied any resurrection of the dead (Matthew 22:23; Mark 12:18–27; Acts
23:8). Due to this belief, the Sadducees strongly resisted the apostles’ preaching that
Jesus had risen from the dead.
3. They denied the afterlife, holding that the soul perished at death and therefore
denying any penalty or reward after the earthly life.
4. They denied the existence of a spiritual world, i.e., angels and demons (Acts 23:8).
5. Because the Sadducees were basically a political party rather than a religious sect,
they were unconcerned with Jesus until they became afraid He might bring
unwanted Roman attention. At that point the Sadducees joined with the Pharisees
and conspired to put Christ to death (John 11:48–50; Mark 14:53; 15:1). Other
mentions of the Sadducees are found in Acts 4:1 and Acts 5:17, and
6. The Sadducees are implicated in the death of James the brother of John in Acts 12:1–
2. The historian Josephus also connects the Sadducees to the death of James, the half-
brother of Jesus.
7. Since the Sadducees left no written description of themselves, all we know about
what they believed or what they did is what is found in the Bible and secondhand
sources.
8. According to most historical records, including those of Josephus, the Sadducees were
rude, arrogant, power-hungry, and quick to dispute with those who disagreed with
them.
9. The Sadducees ceased to exist as a group in AD 70, when Jerusalem and the temple
were destroyed by the Romans
ACTIVITY
1. Who were the Sadducees? In what important respects did they differ from the
Pharisees?
2. Pharisees are still present today. In what ways are people said to be Pharisees today?
The Scribes
A group of Jewish leaders who flourished from the time of the Exile until the destruction of the
Jewish state by Titus (70 A.D.). Originally their name (Heb. sōp rêm, writers) was used merely
to refer to clerks, whose function was to copy royal and sacred manuscripts. Later, the title
signified the official post of one who was learned in the Law of Moses (Ezr 7.6, 11; Neh 8.1, 4).
The people admired the scribes' erudition and their interpretations of precedents and tradition.
At the time of Christ many of the scribes adhered to the teachings of the Pharisees and
shared their casuistry, legalism, and externalism. With the chief priests, Sadducees, and
Pharisees, the scribes composed the Jewish aristocracy of the time; and many were members
of the Sanhedrin.
The scribes are mentioned frequently by the Evangelists as being opposed to Jesus and His
teaching (Mk 2.6–7, 16; 11.27–28; Lk 5.21, 30; 6.7; 20.1–2, 19–23).
They are also associated with the chief priests and elders in causing Jesus' death (Mk 14.43, 53;
15.1, 31; Lk 22.66; 23.10).
In Jesus' denunciations of the Jewish leaders Matthew includes the scribes as well as
the Pharisees (Mt 23.2–36). The lawyers condemned in Lk 11.45–52 for their hypocrisy are also
to be identified with the scribes. Their spiritual descendants were the rabbis whose teachings
are recorded in the Talmud.
The Zealots
The Zealots were a political movement in the 1st-century, which sought to incite the people of
Judea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the Holy Land by force
of arms, most notably during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–70). Zealotry was the term used
by Josephus for a "fourth sect" or "fourth Jewish philosophy" during this period. The term zealot,
the common translation of the Hebrew kanai, means one who is zealous on behalf of God.
The term derives from Greek (zelotes), "emulator, zealous admirer or follower".
Josephus' Jewish Antiquities states that there were three main Jewish sects at this time, the
Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes.
The Zealots were a "fourth sect", founded by Judas of Galilee (also called Judas of Gamala)
in the year 6 CE against the Census of Quirinius, shortly after the Roman Empire declared what
had most recently been the tetrarchy of Herod Archelaus to be a
Roman province, and that they "agree in all other things with the Pharisaic notions; But they
have an inviolable attachment to liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord."
(18.1.6)
According to the Jewish Encyclopedia article on Zealots: Judah of Gaulanitis is regarded as

the founder of the Zealots, who are identified as the proponents of the Fourth Philosophy.
In the original sources, however, no such identification is anywhere clearly made, and the
question is hardly raised of the relationship between the Sicarii, the upholders of the Fourth
Philosophy, and the Zealots.
Josephus himself in his general survey of the various groups of freedom fighters (War 7:268–70)
enumerates the Sicarii first, whereas he mentions the Zealots last. Others have also argued that
the group was not so clearly marked out (before the first war of 66-70/3) as some have thought.
Simon the Zealot was listed among the apostles selected by Jesus in the Gospel of Luke and
in the Acts of the Apostles. Two of Judas of Galilee's sons, Jacob and Simon, were involved in
a revolt and were executed by Tiberius Alexander, the procurator of Judaea province from 46
to 48.[8]
The Zealots had the leading role in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE). The Zealots
objected to Roman rule and violently sought to eradicate it by generally targeting Romans
and Greeks. Another group, likely related, were the Sicarii, who raided Jewish habitations and
killed Jews they considered apostate and collaborators, while also urging Jews to fight Romans
and other Jews for the cause. Josephus paints a very bleak picture of their activities as they
instituted what he characterized as a murderous "reign of terror" prior to the Jewish Temple's
destruction.
According to Josephus, the Zealots followed John of Gischala, who had fought the Romans
in Galilee, escaped, came to Jerusalem, and then inspired the locals to a fanatical position
that led to the Temple's destruction. They succeeded in taking over Jerusalem, and held it until
70 AD, when the son of Roman Emperor Vespasian, Titus, retook the city and destroyed Herod's
Temple during the destruction of Jerusalem.
The Essenes
The Essenes were a Jewish Samaritan sect during the Second Temple period that flourished
from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. The Jewish historian Josephus records that
Essenes existed in large numbers, and thousands lived throughout Roman Judaea, but they
were fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees, the other two major sects at the
time.
The Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to voluntary
poverty, daily immersion, and asceticism (their priestly class practiced celibacy). Most scholars
claim they seceded from the Zadokite priests. The Essenes have gained fame in modern times
as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead
Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. These documents
preserve multiple copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible untouched from possibly as early as 300
BCE until their discovery in 1946. Most scholars dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the
Dead Sea Scrolls. Rachel Elior questions even the existence of the Essenes.
The first reference to the sect is by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder (died c.79 CE) in his Natural
History. Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands
of generations, and that their priestly class (“contemplatives”) do not marry. Unlike Philo, who
did not mention any particular geographical location of the Essenes other than the whole
land of Israel, Pliny places them somewhere above Ein Gedi, next to the Dead Sea.
Josephus later gave a detailed account of the Essenes in The Jewish War (c.75 CE), with a
shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews (c.94 CE) and The Life of Flavius Josephus (c.97
CE). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish
philosophy alongside the Pharisees and the Sadducees.
Josephus relates the same information concerning;
1. Piety and celibacy
2. The absence of personal property and of money,
3. The belief in communality, and
4. Commitment to a strict observance of Sabbath.
5. He further adds that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning
6. They ate together after prayer.
7. They devoted themselves to charity and benevolence
8. They also forbade the expression of anger,
9. They studied the books of the elders
10. They also preserved secrets, and
11. Last, but not least, they were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred
writings.
Pliny, also a geographer, located them in the desert near the northwestern shore of the Dead
Sea, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.
Other beliefs and practices of the Essenes

1. The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—
often compared to later Christian monasticism.
2. Many of the Essene groups appear to have been celibate, but Josephus speaks also of
another "order of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years
and then becoming married.
3. According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as
a. collective ownership
b. electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and
c. obedience to the orders from their leader.
4. They were forbidden from swearing oaths and from sacrificing animals.
5. They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace, carrying weapons only
for protection against robbers.
6. The Essenes chose not to possess slaves but served each other and, as a result of
communal ownership, did not engage in trading.
Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious
celebrations.
7. After a three-year probationary period, newly joining members would take an oath that
included the commitment
a. to practice piety towards God and
b. to righteousness towards humanity,
c. to maintain a pure lifestyle,
d. to abstain from criminal and immoral activities,
e. to transmit their rules uncorrupted and
f. to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the angels.
8. Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive
their souls back after death.
9. Part of their activities included purification by water rituals, which was supported by
rainwater catchment and storage.
10. According to the Community Rules, repentance was a prerequisite to baptism: "They
shall not enter the water... for they will not be cleansed unless they have turned from
their evil."
11. Ritual purification was a common practice among the peoples of Judea during this
period and was thus not specific to the Essenes. A ritual bath or mikveh was found near
many synagogues of the period continuing into modern times.
Purity and cleanliness was considered so important to the Essenes that they would
refrain from defecation on the Sabbath.
The Temple
Definitions
1. (n) temple (Judaism) the place of worship for a Jewish congregation
2. (n) temple place of worship consisting of an edifice for the worship of a deity
3. (n) temple an edifice devoted to special or exalted purposes
4. Temple Any place in which the divine presence specially resides. "The temple of his body."
"Know ye not that ye are the temple of God, and that the spirit of God dwelleth in you?" "The
groves were God's first temples."
5. Temple Hence, among Christians, an edifice erected as a place of public worship; a church.
"Can he whose life is a perpetual insult to the authority of God enter with any pleasure a
temple consecrated to devotion and sanctified by prayer?"
6. Temple (Jewish Antiq) The edifice erected at Jerusalem for the worship of Jehovah.
"Jesus walked in the temple in Solomon's porch."
Temple of Jerusalem refers to either of the two temples that were the centre of worship and
national identity in ancient Israel.
In the early years of the Israelite kingdom, the Ark of the Covenant was periodically moved
about among several sanctuaries, especially those of Shechem and Shiloh. After King David’s
capture of Jerusalem, however, the Ark was moved to that city. This action joined Israel’s major
religious object with the monarchy and the city itself into a central symbol of union of the
Israelite tribes. As the site for a future temple, David chose Mount Moriah, or the Temple Mount,
where it was believed Abraham had built the altar on which to sacrifice his son Isaac.
The First Temple was constructed during the reign of David’s son, Solomon, and completed in
957 BCE. Other sanctuaries retained their religious functions, however, until Josiah (reigned c.
640–609 BCE) abolished them and established the Temple of Jerusalem as the only
place of sacrifice in the Kingdom of Judah.
The First Temple was built as an abode for the Ark and as a place of assembly for the entire
people. The building itself, therefore, was not large, but the courtyard was extensive. The
Temple building faced eastward. It was oblong and consisted of three rooms of equal width:
the porch, or vestibule (ʾulam); the main room of religious service, or Holy Place (hekhal); and
the Holy of Holies (devir), the sacred room in which the Ark rested. A storehouse (yaẓiʿa)
surrounded the Temple except on its front (east) side.
The First Temple contained five altars: one at the entrance of the Holy of Holies, two others
within the building, a large bronze one before the porch, and a large tiered altar in the
courtyard. A huge bronze bowl, or “sea,” in the courtyard was used for the priests’ ablutions.
Within the Holy of Holies, two cherubim of olive wood stood with the Ark; this innermost
sanctuary was considered the dwelling place of the Divine Presence (Shekhina) and could be
entered only by the high priest and only on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur).
The Temple suffered at the hands of Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylonia, who removed the Temple
treasures in 604 BCE and 597 BCE and totally destroyed the building in 587/586. This destruction
and the deportations of Jews to Babylonia in 586 and 582 were seen as fulfillments of prophecy
and, therefore, strengthened Judaic religious beliefs and awakened the hope for the
reestablishment of the independent Jewish state.
Cyrus II, founder of the Achaemenian dynasty of Persia and conqueror of Babylonia, in 538
BCE issued an order allowing exiled Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple. Work
was completed in 515 BCE. There is no known detailed plan of the Second Temple, which was
constructed as a modest version of the original building. It was surrounded by two courtyards
with chambers, gates, and a public square. It did not include the ritual objects of the First
Temple; of special significance was the loss of the Ark itself. Ritual, however, was elaborate
and was conducted by well-organized families of priests and Levites.
During the Persian and Hellenistic (4th–3rd century BCE) periods, the Temple generally was
respected, and in part subsidized, by Judaea’s foreign rulers. Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
however, plundered it in 169 BCE and desecrated it in 167 BCE by commanding that sacrifices
be made to Zeus on an altar built for him. This final act touched off the Hasmonean revolt,
during which Judas Maccabeus cleansed and rededicated the Temple; the event is
celebrated in the annual festival of Hanukkah.
During the Roman conquest, Pompey entered (63 BCE) the Holy of Holies but left the Temple
intact. In 54 BCE, however, Crassus plundered the Temple treasury. Of major importance was
the rebuilding of the Second Temple begun by Herod the Great, king (37 BCE–4 CE) of Judaea.
Construction began in 20 BCE and lasted for 46 years. The area of the Temple Mount was
doubled and surrounded by a retaining wall with gates. The Temple was raised, enlarged, and
faced with white stone. The new Temple square served as a gathering place, and its porticoes
sheltered merchants and money changers. A stone fence (soreg) and a rampart (ḥel)
surrounded the consecrated area forbidden to Gentiles. The Temple proper began, on the
east, with the Court of Women, each side of which had a gate and each corner of which had
a chamber. This court was named for a surrounding balcony on which women observed the
annual celebration of Sukkoth. The western gate of the court, approached by a semicircular
staircase, led to the Court of the Israelites, that portion of the Court of Priests open to all male
Jews. Surrounding the inner sanctuary, the Court of Priests contained the sacrificial altar and
a copper laver for priestly ablutions. This court was itself surrounded by a wall broken with gates
and chambers. The Temple sanctuary building was wider in front than in the rear; its eastern
facade had two pillars on either side of the gate to the entrance hall. Within the hall, a great
gate led to the sanctuary, at the western end of which was the Holy of Holies.
The Herodian Temple was again the centre of Israelite life. It was not only the focus of religious
ritual but also the repository of the Holy Scriptures and other national literature and the meeting
place of the Sanhedrin, the highest court of Jewish law during the Roman period. The rebellion
against Rome that began in 66 CE soon focused on the Temple and effectively ended with
the Temple’s destruction on the 9th/10th of Av, 70 CE.
All that remained of the retaining wall surrounding the Temple Mount was a portion of the
Western Wall (also called the Wailing Wall), which continues to be the focus of Jewish
aspirations and pilgrimage. Made part of the wall surrounding the Muslim Dome of the Rock
and Al-Aqṣā Mosque in 691 CE, it returned to Jewish control in 1967.
There was only one Temple in the whole of Israel. The idea of building the Temple started with
David, but was finally executed by Solomon. During the times of festivals, which were
celebrated once in a year each, Jews had to travel from wherever they were to the Temple
to attend these festivals. This is why on one of the days of Pentecost when the disciples
received the Holy Spirit, there were many people in the Temple Sacrifices were offered in the
Temple by individual people and sometimes by priests on behalf of the people. This is how we
find Zechariah in the Temple offering sacrifice when the angel Gabriel appeared to him
People tended to conduct business in the Temple; How? When people travelled to offer
sacrifices in the Temple they did not carry sacrificial animals or fruits They found these in the
Temple and bought. But they had to have Temple currency for them to buy anything in the
Temple They therefore had to change their money into Temple currency and they could do
that only in the Temple. So, the Temple became a thriving place for business. Jesus arrived in
the Temple and found people doing such kind of business got upset and chased them out.
The scribes also conducted their schools in the Temple We see Jesus at the age of 12, sitting
with the teachers of the Law, asking and answering questions The Temple was divided into
courts, with the outer most being the court of Gentiles, then the court of Jewish women, the
Jewish men and then the Priests. The innermost part of the Temple was the Holy of Holies where
Zechariah was found by angel Gabriel. It was believed that God dwelt in the Holy of Holies
All the Jewish festivals were held in the Temple
The Synagogue
A synagogue is a place of Jewish worship. In addition to housing a sanctuary for services,
Synagogues often serve as the center point of Jewish life.
What Does Synagogue Mean?
The word “synagogue” is the Greek parallel to the Hebrew term
1. beit knesset, “house of gathering.”
2. It is also referred to as a shul, a Yiddish word related to the English word
“school,” thus named since Torah is studied there as well.
Synagogues can be found virtually wherever there are Jews and have been in use since the
Babylonian exile.
Synagogue, also spellt synagog, in Judaism, is a community house of worship that serves as a
place not only for liturgical services but also for assembly and study. Its traditional functions
are reflected in three Hebrew synonyms for synagogue:
1. bet ha-tefilla (“house of prayer”),
2. bet ha-kneset (“house of assembly”), and
3. bet ha-midrash (“house of study”).
The term synagogue is of Greek origin (synagein, “to bring together”) and means “a place of
assembly.” The Yiddish word shul (from German Schule, “school”) is also used to refer to the
synagogue, and in modern times the word temple is common among some Reform and
Conservative congregations. The oldest dated evidence of a synagogue is from the 3rd
century BCE, but synagogues doubtless have an older history. Some scholars think that the
destruction of Solomon’s Temple of Jerusalem in 586 BCE gave rise to synagogues after private
homes were temporarily used for public worship and religious instruction.
Other scholars trace the origin of synagogues to the Jewish custom of having representatives
of communities outside Jerusalem pray together during the two-week period when priestly
representatives of their community attended ritual sacrifices in the Temple of Jerusalem.
Whatever their origin, synagogues flourished side by side with the ancient Temple cult and
existed long before Jewish sacrifice and the established priesthood were terminated with the
destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman emperor Titus in 70 CE. Thereafter synagogues
took on an even greater importance as the unchallenged focal point of Jewish religious life.
Literature of the 1st century CE refers to numerous synagogues not only in Palestine but also in
Rome, Greece, Egypt, Babylonia, and Asia Minor. By the middle of that century, all sizable
Jewish communities had a synagogue where regular morning, afternoon, and evening
services were held, with special liturgies on the Sabbath and on religious festivals. Modern
synagogues carry on the same basic functions associated with ancient synagogues but have
added social, recreational, and philanthropic programs as the times demand. They are
essentially democratic institutions established by a community of Jews who seek God through
prayer and sacred studies. Since the liturgy has no sacrifice, no priesthood is required for public
worship. Because each synagogue is autonomous, its erection, its maintenance, and its rabbi
and officials reflect the desires of the local community. There is no standard synagogue
architecture. A typical synagogue contains an ark (where the scrolls of the Law are kept), an
“eternal light” burning before the ark, two candelabra, pews, and a raised platform (bimah),
from which scriptural passages are read and from which, often, services are conducted. The
segregation of men and women, a practice that is still observed in Orthodox synagogues, has
been abandoned by Reform and Conservative congregations. A ritual bath (mikvah) is
sometimes located on the premises. In the time of Jesus there was a synagogue in every
village.
Jews used the synagogue for religious purposes on the Sabbath. They did not travel for more
than 1 km on the Sabbath, so the synagogue had to be near. The synagogue was just a hall
which was used for various purposes
1. For religious purposes i.e. for worship
2. As a communal school
3. For communal administrative meetings
Jews went to the synagogue where they took time to read and ponder on the Law
on the Sabbath. The affairs of the synagogue were presided over by the leader of the
synagogue Jairus was such a leader
ACTIVITY
1. Outlining their uses, describe the Synagogue and the Temple
2. What is your understanding of a church?
UNIT II.
The birth narratives of Jesus and John; Announcements of the births of John and Jesus, The
birth and infancy of Jesus up to the time of his baptism, The life of John the Baptist, The
teachings of John the Baptist and the baptism of Jesus, Comparisons of John and Jesus, The
death of John the Baptist
Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, the students are expected to learn
• Understand the birth narratives of Jesus and John
• Know the life of John and Baptist
• Describe the birth and infancy of Jesus
• Compare the teachings of John and Jesus
Introduction to the birth narratives

The announcement of the birth of John (Luke 1:5-25)
The story of the gospel begins in the days of Herod the Great who ruled over Judea. Among
the priests was a man named Zacharias. He and his wife, Elizabeth, were advanced in age
and had no children of their own.
They were declared to be godly people, not by their own view or by their neighbors, but so
stated in God’s judgment. Being a priest, Zacharias served two weeks out of each year in the
temple, running from Sabbath day to Sabbath day. Thus each Sabbath had two divisions on
duty at the same time, the one ending their turn and the one beginning their turn. Being of the
division of Abijah, his division worked the eighth and thirty-second week of the year (I
Chronicles 24:1-19). Josephus wrote that David “divided them also into courses; and when he
had separated the priests from them, he found of these priest twenty-four courses, sixteen of
their course of Eleazar, and eight of that of Ithamar; and he ordained that one course should
minister to God eight days, from Sabbath to Sabbath. And thus were the courses distributed
by lot, in the presence of David, and Zadok, and Abiatha the high priests and of all the rulers.”
It appears that the guards of the Temple followed the same schedule (II Kings 11:4-9).
The particular duties to be served by each priest were determined randomly

through the use of lots. Zacharias’s duty was to burn the incense, which was done twice a day
(Exodus 30:7-8). The time of burning the incense was also the time for the people of Israel to
offer prayers to God. Thus the smoke rising from the incense was seen as a symbol of prayer
(Revelation 8:3-4). While Zacharias was alone in the Temple, an angel appeared before him
next to the altar of incense. Zacharias’s reaction of fear is common among men (Judges 6:22;
Daniel 10:8; Luke 2:9). But there is a bit more to this. While God frequently talked with His people
in the times of the Old Testament, there had been no word from God for nearly five hundred
years (Amos 8:11; Micah 3:6).
After the long silence, Zacharias is faced with being the first recipient of a new message from
God. The message was a joyous one. In their old age they would have a son! Just as God had
done for Abraham, the father of Israel, so it would be done for his wife and him. Not only this
but the child would be treated as a Nazirite from before his birth, just as it was done for Samson
(Numbers 6:2-8; Judges 13:4). His son would be the first prophet to walk in Israel in five hundred
years. His impact on Israel would be like the great prophet, Elijah, known for the many miracles
that he performed in Israel. But most important of all, Zacharias’s son would be the prophet
who prepares the way for the Messiah! The one person Israel has been looking for well over a
thousand years. His son, John, would fulfill the last words of Malachi, the last prophet before
the silence. “Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet Before the coming of the great and
dreadful day of the LORD. And he will turn The hearts of the fathers to the children, And the
hearts of the children to their fathers, Lest I come and strike the earth with a curse”” (Malachi
4:5-6).
It must have been difficult for Zacharias to grasp. Things that he read about from days long
ago are going to occur to him! Perhaps we can understand that Zacharias doubted what he
heard. Rather than accept what he was told, he grabbed for the first “proof” that what he
was told could not be true – he and his wife were too old to have children. Zacharias knew
the story of Abraham and Sarah. He knew that with God all things were possible. But in that
moment when he faced the fact that it would happen to him, he doubted God – he asked
for proof, he asked for a sign.
The angel’s proof was to announce who he was; he was Gabriel, the angel
who spoke to the mighty prophet Daniel (Daniel 8:16). (More legends brought to life!) He
testified that his words came directly from God, but because God’s priest doubted God’s
messenger, Zacharias would have his proof: he would be unable to speak until the angel’s
message was fulfilled. It appears that Zacharias was also struck deaf as well as mute, as people
later signed to him instead of speaking to him (Luke 1:62). Meanwhile, the people outside the
Temple were wondering what became of Zacharias. The rituals for burning the incense are
fixed and the time to perform the duties were well known. But when Zacharias finally did walk
out, he could not tell them what had happened to him. Nor was he able to dismiss those who
gathered for prayer with the usual blessing (Numbers 6:23-26). From his hand signs, the people
figured out that he had seen a vision, but they knew nothing more than this. Zacharias finished
out his time at the Temple and returned home. It wasn’t long after that Elizabeth found herself
with child. She didn’t announce it, perhaps in fear of being made a spectacle or to wait until
she had proof that others could not help but acknowledge that she in her old age was
pregnant. Children were seen as a blessing from God (Leviticus 26:9; Psalm 127:3), so a lack of
children was an embarrassment to an Israelite woman.
The Announcement of John's Birth – the narrative
The angel Gabriel appeared to Zechariah to tell of a miraculous birth: Luke 1:11
Gabriel tells Zechariah, "Zechariah, do not be afraid, for your prayer has been heard." Luke
1:13
Gabriel announces the name of the child, "...and you shall name him John" Luke 1:13
Gabriel announces the mission of the child, "even from his mother's womb he will be filled with
the Holy Spirit, and he will bring back many of the Israelites to the Lord their
God...preparing for the Lord a people fit for him."Luke 1:15- 17
Zechariah expresses disbelief and is rebuked, "Zechariah said to the angel, 'How can I know
this? I am an old man...The angel replied...'Look, since you do not believe my words.... you will
be silenced..'" Luke 1:18-20
John is born: "The time came for Elizabeth to have her child, and she gave birth to a son." Luke
1:57
Zechariah was in the Temple offering sacrifice on behalf of the people who were
waiting outside
The Holy of Holies where Zechariah was, was not an easy place to be. This is where God was
thought to dwell
Being in the Holy of Holies was being in the presence of God, and so, one had to be righteous
if they were to survive there
If one entered the Holy of Holies and they were sinful, they would be struck dead
If the priest was to get into the Holy of Holies, he had to have ropes tied to his ankles, so that if
he died there, no one would follow to get him They had to pull him by the ropes
As the priest went into the Holy of Holies he also had to have bells tied on his
hands. As he would be performing his duties, the bells would be ringing. The people would
then know that the priest was alive. If the bells stopped ringing, then they would assume that
the priest was dead. They would then use the ropes to pull the priest out So, this is the situation
that Zechariah found himself in. When he saw the angel, he thought that he was finished, he
was going to be killed. He was troubled because as a righteous man he wondered where he
had gone wrong. Angel Gabriel saw that Zechariah was afraid. The angel then calmed
Zechariah and then took the opportunity to announce the birth of John.
According to Luke, both Zechariah and Elizabeth were old. On top of that, Elizabeth was even
barren. We said that Luke was a physician and here he shows one of his special interests.
Elizabeth was beyond the child bearing age for women i.e. she had gone beyond
menopause. She could no longer have children even if she was not barren. On top of that,
Elizabeth was also barren. She could not bear children. So, medically, Elizabeth could not give
birth at the time that the angel announced the birth of John.
How could such a woman give birth? Luke was interested in bringing such cases to show that
what was impossible with man or scientifically, was possible with God.
Even Zechariah was convinced that his wife could never give birth, because the situation was
compounded by their old age.
Who wouldn’t be convinced?

Angel Gabriel even announced that the child to be born to Zechariah and Elizabeth
was to be called John.He was given a name even before he was born. John’s future was also
predicted on this occasion. John was going to be a source of joy..
This brings out one of the characteristics of the Gospel of Luke, i.e. The Gospel of Joy
Zechariah was punished for doubting the message brought by angel Gabriel
The Announcement of Jesus’ Birth – the narrative

The angel Gabriel appears to Mary to tell of a miraculous birth: Luke 1:26-27
Gabriel tells Mary, "Mary, do not be afraid; you have won God's favor." Luke 1:30
Gabriel announces the name of the child, "..and you must name him Jesus" Luke 1:31
Gabriel announces the mission of the child, "He will be great and will be called Son of the Most
High. The Lord God will give him the throne of his ancestor David; he will rule over the House
of Jacob forever and his reign will have no end." Luke 1:32-33
Mary expresses concern and is assured, "'But how can this come about, since I have no
knowledge of man?' The angel answered, 'The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power
of the Most High will over you with its shadow. And so the child will be holy
and will be called Son of God.'" Luke 1:34-36
Jesus is born: "...the time came for her to have her child, and she gave birth of a son, her first-
born." Luke 2:6
The Announcement of Jesus’ Birth – analysis: (Luke 1:26-56)
Six months after Elizabeth conceived, Mary is visited by the same angel, Gabriel. Mary lived in
the small town of Nazareth – a poor town in the poor district of Galilee. Throughout these
events notice the many contrasts between the news given to Mary and that given earlier to
Zacharias.
The first being that Zacharias’s message was given in the capital city in the Temple of God
during a holy service to God. Mary is visited in a humble town in a remote area of Israel that
few visit. Mary was engaged to be married to Joseph, and at the time of the angel’s visit she
was a virgin – she had not had sexual relations with a man. The greeting the angel gave her
was a puzzling one. Her circumstances would not cause a person to think that she was highly
blessed by God. To be told this by one of God’s angels was even more puzzling. Gabriel
assured her there was no cause for alarm. She had been chosen to be the mother of a son
whose name would be “Savior.” This boy would be the long awaited Messiah, the son of God
and ruler of Israel and beyond. She asked how this would be possible since she has not had
sexual intercourse.
It was not a question of doubt that what Gabriel said was true, but a puzzlement because she
has not had the opportunity to become pregnant. The import of the angel’s words was that
Mary had already conceived or would conceive shortly.
We can also draw the implication that her marriage to Joseph was not scheduled to happen
any time soon. Since a virgin birth had never occurred in all the history of man, we can
understand why Mary did not consider this possibility.
In addition, we see her righteousness because she did not consider the possibility of having
intercourse with Joseph prior to her marriage. Unlike Zacharias, Mary didn’t ask for proof. She
just asked how the conception was going to be accomplished. Gabriel explained that she
would conceive directly by the Holy Spirit and those her son would rightly hold the claim of
being the Son of God. Though Mary did not ask for evidence, the angel told her that her cousin
Elizabeth had conceived in her old age after many years of being barren. This was sufficient
evidence that God could accomplish anything He desired. Mary demonstrated the firmness
of her belief by accepting the will of God then and there. Excited for her cousin, Mary
immediate set out for Zacharias and Elizabeth’s home in the hill country of Judah. The hill
country of Judah was in the area of Hebron, which was one of the inheritances of the priests
(Joshua 21:10-11). The haste of her departure again demonstrates Mary’s complete faith in
what the angel revealed to her.
Looking at this story, what is the age difference between John and Jesus?
I also want you to start thinking about the special interests of Luke that are
reflected in this story.
The birth of Jesus was announced to Mary, a woman.
If you recall, what does this tell us about the special interests of Luke?
Women had a special place in the life and ministry of Jesus.
Mary was a virgin, but betrothed to be married to Joseph. This brings out yet another of Luke’s
special interests. Remember, Luke was a physician. He was interested in how a virgin could fall
pregnant without sleeping with a man
As a historian, Luke was trying to present an accurate account of the events of the
announcements, after a careful investigation.
Naturally Mary was surprised by the angel’s announcement and just like
Zechariah, expressed her doubts of her falling pregnant without any man impregnating her.
However, the angel did not react the same way he did with Zechariah. For doubting, Mary
was not punished the same way Zechariah was, perhaps because she was a woman. The birth
of Jesus was announced by an angel who had been sent by God. This was the way God
chose to make known his will/plan to Mary. Mary was left with no choice but to accept the
impossible. When God says ‘YES’ nobody can say ‘NO
ACTIVITY
1. God punished Zechariah for doubting. Was God being fair to someone who was only
but facing reality and doubting the impossible?
2. What does this show about God?
3. Does this sort of thing happen to Christians today?
4. Apart from using angels, how else did God speak to people in the Bible?
5. How does God speak to Christians today?
6. How does God speak to people in other religions?
7. With God all things are possible. How is this notion reflected in the birth narratives?
8. Are all things possible with God today?
9. List any three predictions that were made about John?
10. In what ways did John fulfill those predictions?
11. State the special interests of Luke that are reflected in the announcement of John’s
birth
Announcement of Jesus’ Birth to Joseph
Mat 1:18 Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise: When as his mother Mary was espoused
to Joseph, before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost.
Mat 1:19 Then Joseph her husband, being a just man, and not willing to make her a public
example, was minded to put her away privately.
Mat 1:20 But while he thought on these things, behold, the angel of the Lord appeared unto
him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife:
for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost.
Mat 1:21 And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name JESUS: for he shall save
his people from their sins.
Mat 1:22 Now all this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the
prophet, saying,
Mat 1:23 Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call his
name Emmanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us.
Mat 1:24 Then Joseph being raised from sleep did as the angel of the Lord had bidden him,
and took unto him his wife:
Mat 1:25 And knew her not till she had brought forth her firstborn son: and he called his name
JESUS.
The birth of Jesus is to handled with reverential awe. We are not to probe into its mysteries with
presumptuous curiosity.
The birth of common persons is mysterious enough ( Ecclesiastes 9:5 ; Psalms 139:13-16 ), and
we do not well, therefore, if we seek to be wise above what is written as to the
birth of the Son of God.
The Jews were usually betrothed ten or twelve months prior to the marriage. So sacred was
this relationship that unfaithfulness to it was deemed adultery, and was punishable by death
i.e. death by stoning ( Deuteronomy 22:23-28 ; Leviticus 20:10 ; 16:38 ; John 8:5 ).
They were regarded as husband and wife, and could only be separated by divorce. Hebrew
betrothals set the world a good example. Hasty marriage is too often followed by hasty
repentance. "No woman of Israel was married unless she had been first espoused" Before
Joseph brought his bride to his own house he espoused her. An espoused maiden lived in her
father's house until the marriage.
The two evangelists (Matthew and Luke) which give the earthly genealogy of Jesus are each
careful to mention his miraculous conception through the Holy Spirit
All New Testament writers recognize Jesus as at once both human and divine. Christ's physical
nature was begotten of the Holy Spirit, but the Christian's spiritual nature is begotten of him
(John 1:13 ). The act of the Holy Spirit in this case indicates that he is a personality, and not a
mere influence, as some are disposed to imagine. Influences do not create physical bodies.
As a righteous man Joseph could not complete his marriage, and thus stain his family name.
As a merciful man he did not wish to openly disgrace the one to whom he was so fondly
attached. He wished to act justly toward his own reputation, and mercifully toward the
reputation of Mary.
He did not wish to expose her to the shame of a public trial before the court, nor to punish her
as the law permitted. The law of Moses gave the husband the power of divorce ( Deuteronomy
24:1 ). The bill or writing certifying the divorce usually stated the cause, and was handed to
the wife in the presence of witnesses. Joseph evidently intended to omit stating any cause in
the bill, that there might be no record to convict her of shame.
The law of divorce applied to betrothed as well as to married persons. In his kindness Joseph
anticipates the special teaching of Christ (Matthew 19:8 ) and the general instruction of Paul
( Galatians 6:1 ). How different the conduct of the innocent Joseph from that of guilty Judah
(Genesis 38:24 ).
Judah needed someone to point out his unfitness-- John 8:7
God guides the thoughtful, not the unthinking. The Lord looks after the good name of those
who honor his name, and he serves those who serve him ( 1 Samuel 2:30 ; John 12:26). The
sufferings of both Mary and Joseph must have been very extreme at this time--one being
forced to suspect the chief object of his affections, and the other being compelled to rest
under the unjust suspicions of loved ones, because of a condition which God alone could
explain. But God does explain where we cannot understand without his revelation, and where
we absolutely need to know] in a dream [A mode of communication frequently used by God
(Genesis 20:3; Genesis 31:11 Genesis 31:24 ; 37:5 ; 41:1 ; 1 Kings 3:5 ; Daniel 7:1 ; Job 4:13-15).
It is difficult to say how men determined between ordinary and divine dreams, but doubtless,
the latter came with a glory and vividness which gave assurance of their supernatural nature.
Matthew mentions four divine dreams, viz.: this one; the second one given to Joseph (Matthew
2:13); the dream of the Magi (Matthew 2:12); the dream of Pilate's wife-- Matthew 27:19 We
are known to angels, and they address us by name (Acts 10:3 Acts 10:13 ; 27:24 ). Much more
does the Lord know our names-- John 10:3; Luke 19:5 the name of David was calculated to
waken the memories of God's promises, and helped to prepare Joseph to receive the
wonderful news that Messiah was about to be born, for Messiah was the promised heir of
David. Have no fear as to Mary's virtue and purity. Fear no disgrace in taking her. Joseph
feared as a son of David that this marriage would sully his genealogy. But it was that which
gave point and purpose to an otherwise barren and uninteresting record. He feared as a man
lest he should share Mary's apparent disgrace; but he had infinitely more reason to fear his
unworthiness to share with her the exalted Lord.
The angel does not say "shall bear thee a son," as he said to Zacharias-- Luke 1:13 Joseph was
to take the position of a legal father to the child and name it. The name means "Salvation of
Jehovah" or "Jehovah is the Saviour." Would we all bear our names, such as Christian, pastor,
magistrate, father, mother, child, etc., as Jesus bore that wonderful and responsible name of
Saviour. Thus from before his very birth-hour, the nature of Christ's salvation is fully set forth. He
came to save from the guilt of sin by having shed his blood, sins may be remitted or washed
clean. He saves from the power of sin by bestowing the gift of the Spirit, who regenerates,
comforts, and strengthens, and ultimately he saves from the punishment of sin by giving us a
resurrection from the dead, and an abundant entrance into the home of glory. That
is no salvation at all which fails to free us from this triple bondage of sin. It was not fulfilled, but
was rather predicted because it was sure to take place.
Prophecies are fulfilled in four ways, namely,

1. When a thing clearly predicted comes to pass.
2. When that which has been pictured in type and shadow is at last shown forth in substance
and reality.
3. When an event which has been described in language more elevated and elaborate than
it demands is followed by another similar event to which the said language is more perfectly
suited.
4. When parabolic or figurative language may be applied to some subsequent event. The
prophecy of Isaiah was fulfilled after the third fashion, which was spoken by the Lord.
In innumerable passages the divine origin and inspiration of the Scriptures are clear and the
lips of the prophet now interprets the foretelling through the lips of the angel Isaiah 7:14. Isaiah's
name is not given. The ancients were studious readers, and had few books, so that there was
little need to cite authors by name. About the year 740 B. C. While Ahaz was king of Judah, his
land was threatened with an invasion by the united armies of Syria and Israel. Isaiah came to
frightened Ahaz, promised divine aid, and told Ahaz to seek from God a sign confirming this
promise. This Ahaz refused to do; whereupon Isaiah replied that God would grant a sign
anyway. The sign was that a virgin should have a son, and before the son reached the age of
discretion, the kingdoms of Syria and Israel should be destroyed. The sign given Ahaz was one
of deliverance, and prefigured the birth of Christ, the great Deliverer, in four ways:
1. A virgin bearing a child.
2. A male child (Revelation 12:5).
3. The divinely ordered naming of the child.
4. The significance of the name given.
Jesus fulfilled in his ministry man predictions; but many more such as this
one were fulfilled upon him without his volition. The Sonship of Jesus demands a miraculous
birth. If we doubt the miracle of his conception, we can never solve the perplexing problem
of his marvelous life and death. Rather, title; under the head of "name" the titles of
Jesus are also set forth at Isaiah 9:6.
Nature shows God above us; the Law shows God against us; but the Gospel shows God with
us, and for us. The blessing of the church militant is Christ, God with us; that of the church
triumphant is Christ, us with God. In this world Jesus walked "with us" in human form ( John 1:14
); and because he did so, we, in the world to come, shall walk "with him" in divine form ( 1 John
3:2 ; 1 Corinthians 15:49 ). In a personal sense Jesus may fitly be called "God with us," for he
was God and man united in one body. He followed the instructions.
As Joseph appears to have acted at once upon the angel's instruction, the marriage must
have taken place several months prior to the birth of Jesus, thus becoming the legally
recognized father of Jesus, and though he bestowed upon Jesus but a humble name ( Luke
4:22 ; Matthew 13:55 ), he nevertheless rescued him from the reproach of an illegitimate birth.
Romish teachers contend for the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary, that she may be
regarded as an object of worship. This doctrine cannot be proved by Scripture. But there are
weightier reasons than this which forbid us to worship her; namely, it cannot be proven from
Scripture either that she was divine or that she was sinless. Moreover, the fact that she entered
the marital state at all, shows that she was perfectly human, and comported herself as such.
Two Old Testament heroes bore the name Jesus under the form of Joshua. One was
captain of Israel for the conquest of Canaan, the other was high priest of Israel for rebuilding
the Temple ( 6:11 6:12 ). Christ was both the Captain of our salvation and the High Priest of our
profession
The childhood of Jesus

John 21:25 tells us that there were so many remarkable incidents in the life of Jesus Christ, that
if they were all written down, the number of volumes would be beyond measure. What He
accomplished in the 3½ years of His ministry is astounding. Thankfully, we have four Gospel
writers who record a great deal of what took place, including specific details surrounding His
birth. These glimpses are provided that we “may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of
God, and that believing [we] may have life in His name” (John 20:31).
The Gospel accounts provide rich details regarding the ministry of Jesus Christ. However, many
have questions about the life of Jesus before His ministry. Where did Jesus grow up? What was
Jesus like as a young child and as a boy growing toward adulthood? Did Jesus have siblings
and friends? Was Jesus a carpenter? While answers to many of these questions remain
shrouded, the biblical narrative provides some clues about these missing years.
Jesus as a child
The environment in which Jesus grew up was complicated by religious and political forces at
work in Judea and the surrounding territories. Many acknowledge Jesus’ birthplace was
Bethlehem (Luke 2:4-7), a city long associated with the family of David.
Jesus would not stay long in His ancestral city. Shortly after His birth, Joseph and Mary brought
Jesus to the temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22-38). Within months, the family would journey by
night to Egypt to escape the murderous rampage of King Herod (Matthew 2:13-18). In Egypt,
the family found safe haven until Herod’s death, when the family returned home. But Jesus did
not grow up in the area of Bethlehem or Jerusalem. Instead, Jesus’ childhood home was in
Nazareth, a city of Galilee (Matthew 2:19-23; Luke 2:39). Luke 2:40 gives a summary statement
describing Jesus’ development from infancy to age 12: “And the Child grew and became
strong in spirit, filled with wisdom; and the grace of God was upon Him.”
Jesus’ family life

Jesus grew up in a bustling, growing family. Matthew makes clear that Joseph and Mary did
not have children before Jesus’ birth (Matthew 1:24-25). However, the Bible tells us Jesus had
several younger half-siblings, children of Joseph and Mary. Matthew names four brothers—
James, Joses, Simon and Judas (Matthew 13:55). There were also at least two sisters (verse 56).
Thus, Jesus was the oldest of at least seven children. His stepfather, Joseph, was a carpenter
(verse 55). This occupation is generally understood to be someone who works with wood.
However, The Expositor’s Bible Commentary explains this word “can mean ‘carpenter’—one
who works with wood—or perhaps even ‘builder,’ in a time and place when most homes were
made of mud brick” (Revised Edition, 2010, Vol. 9, p. 384). This occupation would require skill,
patience and hard work—all traits Jesus would have observed during His childhood.
Was Jesus a carpenter?

Mark records that Jesus Himself was referred to as “the carpenter” (Mark 6:3). During His life, it
was customary for boys to be apprenticed in the occupation of their father. Thus, as the oldest
son in the household, it seems probable that Jesus would have been trained and employed
as a carpenter. While the biblical narrative does not expound on this point, it is perhaps likely
that Jesus used His carpentry skills to support Himself until beginning His ministry.
Jesus was raised in a religious home

In addition to telling us of Jesus’ numerous siblings and Joseph’s occupation, the Bible also
shows that Jesus was reared in a devoutly religious home. His family faithfully followed God’s
instructions concerning the annual religious festivals. Luke records that Jesus’ family made
annual pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the feast of Passover and Days of Unleavened Bread (Luke
2:41-42). Interestingly, social scientists today have confirmed the benefits for children growing
up in a religious environment. Dr. Pat Fagan is the director of the Center for Research on
Marriage and Religion and senior fellow at the Marriage and Religion Research Institute in
Washington, D.C. After compiling the findings of over 100 independent social scientists over
the last two decades on the effect that church attendance has on the lives of kids, he said,
“When policymakers consider America’s grave social problems, including violent crime and
rising illegitimacy, substance abuse, and welfare dependency, they should heed the findings
in the professional literature of the social sciences on the positive consequences that flow”
from faithful church attendance (Rob Kerby, “Church Kids Less Likely to Divorce or Live in
Poverty,” beliefnet.com). Learning at an early age that there is a God and that each person
is made in His image provides a healthy atmosphere for well-adjusted children. Joseph and
Mary furnished a home centered on God’s love, His commandments and His way of life, which
is undoubtedly one reason God selected them to provide His Son’s early childhood
development.
Jesus was an exceptional Child

Jesus experienced a natural maturing process similar to any growing boy, but He was
especially endowed with God’s Spirit and favor from birth so that He was far advanced
beyond other young men when it came to grasping the Word of God and spiritual principles.
Interestingly, Luke’s account of Jesus’ life tells of something that took place when Jesus was
12 years of age. There is much we can learn from this fascinating story, which is only found in
the Gospel of Luke. Luke 2:43-44 begins to give some interesting insight into the dynamics of
Jesus’ special family. After the festivals, as the family caravan was a day’s journey from
Jerusalem on their way toward home, it was discovered that Jesus was not with the group.
How could they have gone so far without realizing this?
First of all, Jesus must have been a boy who had earned His parents’ confidence and trust.
Joseph and Mary were obviously relying on Jesus to act in a responsible manner during the
trip home from Jerusalem. They had learned by this time that their oldest child was a very
reliable, capable and dependable youth. Had He been unpredictable or immature, then they
would have felt the need to oversee His whereabouts more closely. But apparently they had
no reason to expect anything out of the ordinary. Joseph and Mary assumed He was traveling
with another family or relatives and didn’t inquire as to His whereabouts until later that day.
This was understandable behavior on their part since there was no way they could have
envisioned anything other than reliable conduct from their Son and a normal trip home to
Nazareth after the Passover festival. They were startled to find that He was not with the
caravan. Filled with concern, they spent the next day traveling back to Jerusalem with great
consternation, hoping to find Him safe.
The boy Jesus at the temple

It appears it was on the third day after the festival that they found Him in the
temple area. He was not playing with other boys, lost or even scared to be on His own. He was
instead involved in serious discussions with some of the learned teachers of the law in
Jerusalem, “both listening to them and asking them questions” (Luke 2:46).
Rather than being annoyed by one so youthful, these intelligent men were astounded by
Jesus’ questions and responses and, most importantly, by His grasp of deep theological topics.
Luke’s account says, “All who heard Him were astonished at His understanding and answers”
(verse 47). Truly they were in the presence of a very divinely gifted young man. Once He was
located, Joseph and Mary were relieved to find Jesus safe. Yet at the same time they were
bewildered by their Son’s surprising behavior and seeming lack of appreciation for the
anxiousness He had caused. Mary took the lead in asking what it all meant. It seems Joseph
remained quiet for the moment and allowed her to speak for them both. Perhaps it was
because Jesus was conceived in her womb or because, being a concerned mother, she was
the one more emotionally distraught after the days of searching, but Mary now sought an
answer from her Son. Jesus’ mother showed wisdom and self-control in that she first inquired
about her Son’s intent. She asked in verse 48, “Son, why have You done this to us? Look, Your
father and I have sought You anxiously.” Many parents would automatically allow their
frustration or anger to dictate their action and might lash out at their child for causing such
distress, but she apparently knew her Son had never been irresponsible or rebellious and so
she sought an honest understanding of what He was doing.
“I must be about My Father’s business”

Jesus responded to His mother’s inquiry by saying, “Why did you seek Me? Did you not know
that I must be about My Father’s business?” (verse 49). Jesus did not give prior warning that He
intended to remain in Jerusalem. Perhaps He hoped that Joseph and Mary would conclude
that He had important work to accomplish and that they would not worry when He turned up
missing.
Spiritual understanding
Jesus must have had some very profound conversations with His parents growing up. His
mother would have related the story of His birth and what Gabriel said when he appeared to
her nine months prior to His birth. Jesus also had His Father’s Spirit without measure (John 3:34).
He had a strong grasp of His own purpose for being on the earth. The zeal to please His
Heavenly Father and do the work of God would have burned strongly in Him even at this time
in His young life. So, perhaps Jesus felt His parents, on this occasion, would consider all this and
that it would allay any anxiety concerning His whereabouts. Of course, parental concern for
their 12-year-old was so strong that they were not fully able to understand what He said to
them (Luke 2:50). Now that His parents had returned for Him, Jesus knew He would later launch
into His life’s work and undertake His Father’s business. But for now Jesus determined to return
to Nazareth and continue to be subject to Joseph and Mary (verse 51). Jesus’ Heavenly Father
did not intend His Son to begin His great public ministry for another 18 years. By then He would
be ready to face the greatest challenge any man could ever face.
Why did Luke record the story of Jesus as a boy in the temple?
There is a reason God inspired Luke to record this amazing account in Jesus’ childhood. We
see from this circumstance that this extraordinary family went through life experiences as any
normal family does, with real feelings, emotions, cares and sometimes confusion felt by family
members, including Jesus’ brothers and sisters (see John 7:3-4). All three of the key players in
this account showed godly responses to the circumstances they faced and ended up
maturing as individuals. Joseph and Mary had much to ponder concerning their Son and His
special gifts, and Jesus grew in understanding of His role as a son and emerged with a greater
grasp of God’s will for Him. Yet, through it all, no one sinned and the parent-child relationship
was strengthened not damaged. What guided these three individuals are the principles found
in God’s Word, the Bible. They were also helped by the Holy Spirit that came from our Heavenly
Father.
The ministry of John the Baptist

In those days John the Baptist came, preaching in the wilderness of Judea and saying,
“Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near.” This is he who was spoken of through
the prophet Isaiah: Matthew 3 New International Version 3 2 3 “A voice of one calling in the
wilderness, ‘Prepare the way for the Lord
John’s clothes were made of camel’s hair, and he had a leather belt around his waist. His food
was locusts and wild honey. People went out to him from Jerusalem and all Judea and the
whole region of the Jordan. Confessing their sins, they were baptized by him in the Jordan
River. But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to where he was
baptizing, he said to them: “You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the coming
wrath? Produce fruit in keeping with repentance. And do not think you can say to yourselves,
‘We have Abraham as our father.’ I tell you that out of these stones God can raise up children
for Abraham. The ax is already at the root of the trees, and every tree that does not produce
good fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire. “I baptize you with water for repentance.
But after me comes one who is more powerful than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry.
He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. His winnowing fork is in his hand, and he will
clear his threshing floor, gathering his wheat into the barn and burning up the chaff with
unquenchable fire.”
St. John the Baptist, (born 1st decade BCE, Judaea, Palestine, near Jerusalem—died 28–36 CE;
feast day June 24), Jewish prophet of priestly origin who preached the imminence of God’s
Final Judgment and baptized those who repented in selfpreparation for it; he is revered in the
Christian church as the forerunner of Jesus Christ. After a period of desert solitude, John the
Baptist emerged as a prophet in the region of the lower Jordan River valley.
He had a circle of disciples, and Jesus was among the recipients of his rite of baptism. The
primary sources for information about John’s life and activity are the four Gospels (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John), The Acts of the Apostles, and the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus’s
The Antiquities of the Jews.
In using these works for historical reconstruction, allowances must be made for the known
tendencies of each writer. All four Gospels recognize in John the start of
the Christian era, and each in its own way tries to reconcile John’s precedence in time and
Jesus’ acceptance of his message and of a baptism of repentance from his hands (elements
suggesting subordination to John) with the author’s belief in Jesus as the Messiah and Son of
God.
The Gospel According to Mark presents Jesus as the hidden Messiah, known only to a narrow
circle, and John as the one who had to “come first to restore all things” but who also remained
hidden and suffered death with little acknowledgment of his true status (Mark 9)
Matthew and Luke are thought to further develop Mark’s narrative. The Gospel According to
Matthew emphatically identifies John as a new or returning Elijah, herald of the kingdom of
God (Matthew 3). For Matthew, John’s death, like that of Jesus, illustrates the old Israel’s
hostility to God’s offer of salvation.
The Gospel According to Luke and in The Acts of the Apostles, Luke neglects the identification
with Elijah but describes John as Jesus’ forerunner and as inaugurator of the time of fulfillment
of prophecy. Luke’s account of the infancy of John and of Jesus uses material perhaps
transmitted by former disciples of the Baptist. It depicts the coming of Jesus and John in two
parallel series of scenes, each with an angelic annunciation, a conception, a marvelous birth,
a circumcision, hymns greeting the child and predicting his destiny, and an infancy. Even in
his mother’s womb John recognizes Jesus—also still in his mother’s womb—as his Lord.
The Gospel According to John reduces the Baptist from an Elijah to a model Christian
preacher, a mere voice; it omits any description of Jesus’ baptism. Its tendency has often been
labeled a polemic against a continuing group of disciples of John, but it is more plausibly
explained by the evangelist’s desire that this ideal witness recognize the full character of the
Christ and as a necessary consequence of the tension between the highly developed
understanding of Christ in this Gospel and those details in early Christian tradition that
suggested Jesus’ subordination to John. The Gospels are thus primarily interested in the
relations between John and Jesus
The Gospel According to John reduces the Baptist from an Elijah to a model
Christian preacher, a mere voice; it omits any description of Jesus’ baptism. Its tendency has
often been labeled a polemic against a continuing group of disciples of John, but it is more
plausibly explained by the evangelist’s desire that this ideal witness recognize the full
character of the Christ and as a necessary consequence of the tension between
the highly developed understanding of Christ in this Gospel and those details in early Christian
tradition that suggested Jesus’ subordination to John. The Gospels are thus primarily interested
in the relations between John and Jesus
In 27/28 or 28/29 John attained prominence, not as a priest but as a prophet. He was active
in the region of the lower Jordan valley, from “Aenon near Salim” (near modern Nāblus) to a
point east of Jericho. His austere camel’s hair garment was the traditional garb of the
prophets, and his diet of locusts and wild honey represented either strict adherence to Jewish
purity laws or the ascetic conduct of a Nazirite (a Jew especially
vowed to God’s service). His mission was addressed to all ranks and stations of Jewish society.
His message was that God’s judgment on the world was imminent and that, to
prepare for this judgment, the people should repent their sins, be baptized, and produce
appropriate fruits of repentance. Certain problems about the meaning of John’s message
continue to be debated: In Matthew 3, John says, “He who is coming after me is mightier
than I”; this might refer to God himself, a human messiah, or a transcendent divine being. He
also says, “I baptize you with water…; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire”; this
second baptism might symbolize the judgment the one coming would carry out. John’s
followers were characterized by penitent fasting, beyond the demands of Jewish Law, and
special prayers. John’s ethical call for justice and charity in Luke 3 requires righteousness from
everyone. Although, like earlier prophets, John had an inner circle of disciples, baptism was
not an admission rite into this group. It was a rite (immersion in running water) that symbolized
repentance in preparation for the coming world judgment and was to be accompanied,
before and afterward, by a righteous life. It was hardly conceived as a sacrament, in the
Christian sense, conveying forgiveness, or as superseding Judaism and marking off a new
people, including both Jews and Gentiles, prepared for God’s final kingdom. Nor is a
hypothesis that it symbolized a new Israel’s crossing of the Red Sea toward a new national
deliverance demonstrable. Equally unprovable is that it was a rite symbolizing man’s reunion
with divinity and return to his heavenly home—a sacrament of salvation and rebirth.
The Jewish rite of baptism of converts differs fundamentally and is not its source. There were
several other baptizing groups found about the same time and place, but none of
these various and little-known baptisms can be shown to have inspired John’s. His may have
resembled in parts the initiatory baptism of the Essenes, though their other baptisms were more
concerned with maintaining their community’s ritual purity. John’s baptism probably
symbolized not so much anticipated entrance into the kingdom of God as an anticipatory
submission to the coming world judgment, which was represented as a coming second
“baptism” by the Holy Spirit in a river of fire.
The Baptism of Jesus

Then Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan to be baptized by John. But John tried to deter
him, saying, “I need to be baptized by you, and do you come to me?” Jesus replied, “Let it
be so now; it is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness.” Then John consented. As soon
as Jesus was baptized, he went up out of the water. At that moment heaven was opened,
and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and alighting on him. And a voice from
heaven said, “This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased.”
Jesus was God’s son, so he was sinless and there was no need for him to receive forgiveness.
John tried to refuse to baptise Jesus saying that it was he, John, who should be baptised by
Jesus. Christians believe Jesus was baptised so that he could become like one of us. This shows
his great humility. He set an example for us to follow.
Jesus’ baptism was also an opportunity to show his authority as God confirmed he was His Son.
Jesus was baptised as an adult. Some Christian churches still hold to this custom today. This is
so that the adult chooses a Christian way of life and will follow it – e.g. believers’ baptism.
Roman Catholics are baptised as babies to remove the stain of original sin and to welcome
the child into the Christian community. The child then grows up in the faith of the community
and makes their sacraments.
John the Baptist vs. Jesus the Christ

It is very interesting to compare these two men – John the Baptist and Jesus Christ – by
paralleling their lives. -They lived at the same time. -They were actually related by blood, and
were basically the same age (minus a few months).
-The angel Gabriel announced both of their births.
-The religious leaders of their time, and even the political leaders, didn’t care for either
one of them. They wanted these two dead.
-The people followed both of them. Yet, there are distinct diàerences between them.
They were as diàerent as night is from day, as was their purpose in life. “Let the house
of Israel therefore know for certain that God has made him both Lord and Christ, this
Jesus whom you crucified.” Acts 2:36
John the Baptist: – called, “The prophet of the Most High”,
Jesus Christ: – called, “The Son of the Most High”.
John the Baptist: – called the Messenger,
Jesus Christ: – called the Word.
John the Baptist: – was sent by God as a voice, a witness to the Light,
Jesus Christ: – was sent by God as the Lamb, the Light of the world.
John the Baptist: – as the child grew and became strong in spirit,
Jesus Christ: – as the child grew and became strong, filled with wisdom.
John the Baptist: – grew up living in the wilderness, alone,
Jesus Christ: – grew up in Nazareth, in a home, and in the temples learning, – was led into the
wilderness alone for 40 days to be tempted.
John the Baptist: – baptized Jesus,
Jesus Christ: – was baptized by John.
John the Baptist: – baptized with water,
Jesus Christ: – baptizes with the Holy Spirit and fire.
John the Baptist: – filled with the Holy Spirit,
Jesus Christ: – baptized by and filled with the Holy Spirit.
John the Baptist: – claimed he was not the Christ,
Jesus Christ: – a Voice from heaven, the angel Gabriel, Simeon, John, and demons all claimed
he was the Christ, the Son of God.
John the Baptist: – was a prophet,
Jesus Christ: – the fulfillment of prophecy.
John the Baptist: – the friend of the bridegroom,
Jesus Christ: – is the bridegroom.
John the Baptist: – ate no bread and drank no wine,
Jesus Christ: – ate and broke bread, (was called the Bread of Life), and drank wine (he turned
water into wine).
“Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing
to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of
men. And being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point
of death, even death on a cross. Therefore, God has highly exalted him and bestowed on him
the name that is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in
heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord,
to the glory of God the Father.” Philippians 2:6-11
John’s name in Hebrew means “Jehovah is gracious”. Jesus’ name in Hebrew is Yeshua or
Joshua, and means “To rescue, to deliver”.
It is possible that Jesus and John knew each other before their ministries began. Mary and
Elizabeth were friends and relatives, and they didn’t live too far from each other. Besides, they
all traveled to Jerusalem for the Passover each year, so maybe they saw each other then. If
so, perhaps John still didn’t know that Jesus was the Messiah until he saw him at the Jordan
river? It is fun to consider these things, but they ultimately don’t make a bit of difference in our
faith.
The death of John the Baptist

According to Josephus, sometime after baptizing Jesus, John the Baptist was killed at the
palace-fortress of Machaerus, located near the Dead Sea in modern Jordan. Built by King
Herod the Great, the palace was occupied at the time by his son and successor, known as
Herod Antipas.
The Gospels of Matthew (Matthew 14:1–12) and Mark (Mark 6:14– 29) recorded that Herod
Antipas had John the Baptist arrested and imprisoned after the preacher condemned the
king’s marriage to his wife, Herodias, as illegal, because she had previously been married to
his own brother, Philip.
Herod Antipas initially resisted killing John, because of his status as a holy man. But after his
stepdaughter danced for him at his birthday party, he offered to give her anything she desired.
Prompted by her mother, who resented John’s judgment of her marriage, Herodias’ daughter
requested the head of John the Baptist on a platter.
In The Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18:116-19), Josephus confirmed that Herod Antipas “slew”
John the Baptist after imprisoning him at Machaerus, because he feared John’s influence
might enable him to start a rebellion. Josephus also identified Herodias’ daughter as Salome
(the gospels don’t mention her name), but didn’t state that John was beheaded on her
request.
Josephus didn’t mention where John the Baptist was buried, nor did the Bible, though the
Gospel of Matthew stated that his disciples “came and took away the body and buried it,
and went and told Jesus” (Matthew 14:12). From the fourth century (three centuries after these
events took place), John’s burial place was traditionally believed to be at Sebastia (originally
Samaria), now in Palestine.
UNIT III.
The beginning of the ministry of Jesus, The temptations of Jesus, The Sermon on the Mount, The
teaching of Jesus: The parables, The miracles of Jesus: The four types of miracles; nature, raising
of the dead, healing and casting out of evil spirits, The death, resurrection and ascension of
Jesus
Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, the students are expected to learn,
• Understand the beginning of the ministry of Jesus
• Know the temptations of Jesus and the Sermon on the Mount
• Illustrate the teaching of Jesus
• Expose the miracles of Jesus
• List the miracles of Jesus
• Examine the resurrection and ascension of Jesus
The beginning of Jesus’ ministry

In the Christian gospels, the ministry of Jesus begins with his baptism in the countryside of
Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the river Jordan by John the Baptist,
and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples. The Gospel of Luke (Luke
3:23) states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry. A chronology of
Jesus typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at around AD 27–29 and the
end in the range AD 30–36 Jesus' early Galilean ministry begins when after his baptism, he
goes back to Galilee from his temptation in the Judaean Desert. In this early period he
preaches around Galilee and recruits his first disciples who begin to travel with him and
eventually form the core of the early Church as it is believed that the Apostles dispersed from
Jerusalem to found the apostolic sees. The major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8
includes the commissioning of the Twelve Apostles, and covers most of the ministry of Jesus in
Galilee.
The final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go to
Jerusalem. In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem
through Judea. As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the later Perean ministry, about one third
the way down from the Sea of Galilee (actually a freshwater lake) along the River Jordan, he
returns to the area where he was baptized. The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called
the Passion Week and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The gospels provide
more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their
text to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.
The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Roman Judea,
near the River Jordan. The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the
precursor to that of Jesus and the baptism of Jesus as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry,
after which Jesus travels, preaches and performs miracles. Jesus's Baptism is generally
considered the beginning of his ministry and the Last Supper with his disciples in Jerusalem as
the end. However, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the
Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus.
Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry. There have
been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus. One
approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with
historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28–29 AD/CE, while a second
independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical
information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around AD 27– 29.
In the New Testament, the date of the Last Supper is very close to the date of the crucifixion
of Jesus (hence its name). Scholarly estimates for the date of the crucifixion generally fall in
the range AD 30–36
The three Synoptic Gospels refer to just one Passover, specifically the Passover at the end of
Jesus's ministry when he is crucified. While the Gospel of John refers to two actual Passovers,
one at the beginning of Jesus's ministry and the second at the end of Jesus's ministry. There is
a third reference to passover that many claims is a third actual festival, but this cannot be
supported, it is more likely to be a forecasting of the second Passover in the Gospel of John.
This third reference to a passover in the Gospel of John is why many suggest that Jesus's ministry
was a period of about three years. Scholars that support a three-year ministry, such as
Köstenberger state that the Gospel of John simply provides a more detailed account. During
the ministry of Jesus, the tetrarch ruling over Galilee and Perea in this period was Herod
Antipas, who obtained the position upon the division of the territories following the death of
Herod the Great in 4 BC.
Baptism and early ministry of Jesus

The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism
of Jesus as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry. In his sermon in Acts 10:37–38, delivered in
the house of Cornelius the centurion, Apostle Peter gives an overview of the ministry of Jesus,
and refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the
baptism which John preached" and that Jesus whom "God anointed with the Holy Spirit and
with power" had gone about "doing good".
John 1:28 specifies the location where John was baptizing as "Bethany beyond the Jordan".
This is not the village Bethany just east of Jerusalem, but the town Bethany, also called
Bethabara in Perea. Perea is the province east of the Jordan, across the southern part of
Samaria, and although the New Testament does not mention Perea by name, John 3:23
implicitly refers to it again when it states that John was baptising in Enon near Salim, "because
there was much water there". First-century historian Flavius Josephus also wrote in the
Antiquities of the Jews (18 5.2) that John the Baptist was imprisoned and then killed in
Machaerus on the border of Perea. Luke 3:23 and Luke 4:1 indicate possible activities of Jesus
near the Jordan River around the time of his baptism, as does the initial encounter with the
disciples of John the Baptist in John 1:35 – 37, where "two disciples heard him speak, and they
followed Jesus". Assuming that there were two incidences of Cleansing of the Temple, which
was located in Jerusalem, a possible reference to an early Judean ministry may be John 2:13–
25
The Early Galilean ministry

The Early Galilean ministry begins when, according to Matthew, Jesus goes back to Galilee
from the Judean desert, after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. In this early period, Jesus
preaches around Galilee and, in Matthew 4:18-20 , his first disciples encounter him, begin to
travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.
The Gospel of John includes Marriage at Cana as the first miracle of Jesus taking place in this
early period of ministry, with his return to Galilee. A few villages in Galilee (e.g. Kafr Kanna)
have been suggested as the location of Cana. The return of Jesus to Galilee follows the arrest
of John the Baptist. The early teachings of Jesus result in his rejection at his hometown when in
Luke 4:16–30 Jesus says in a Synagogue: "No prophet is acceptable in his own country" and
the people reject him. In this early period, Jesus' reputation begins to spread throughout
Galilee. In Mark 1:21–28 and Luke 4:31–37, Jesus goes to Capernaum, where people are
"astonished at his teaching; for his word was with authority", in the Exorcism at the Synagogue
in Capernaum episode, which is followed by healing the mother of Peter's wife. Luke 5:1–11
includes the first Miraculous draught of fishes episode in which Jesus tells Peter, "now on you
will catch men". Peter leaves his net and, along with him, James and John, the sons of
Zebedee, follows Jesus as disciples thereafter.
This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus in Matthew,
and the Sermon on the Plain in the Gospel of Luke. The Sermon on the Mount, which covers
chapters 5, 6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew, is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew and
is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament. It encapsulates many of the
moral teachings of Jesus and includes the Beatitudes and the widely recited Lord's Prayer. The
Beatitudes are expressed as eight blessings in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew, and four
similar blessings appear in the Sermon on the Plain in Luke, where they are followed by four
woes that mirror the blessings. The Beatitudes present the highest ideals of the teachings of
Jesus on mercy, spirituality and compassion.
The Major Galilean ministry

The Major Galilean ministry, also called the Great Galilean ministry, begins in Matthew 8, after
the Sermon on the Mount and refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist. The
beginnings of this period include The Centurion's Servant (Matthew 8:5–13) and Calming the
storm (Matthew 8:23–27), both dealing with the theme of faith and fear. When the Centurion
shows faith in Jesus by requesting a "healing at a distance", Jesus commends him for his
exceptional faith.
On the other hand, when his own disciples show fear of a storm on the Sea of Galilee, Jesus
instructs them to have more faith, after he orders the storm to stop. In this period, Jesus is still
gathering the twelve apostles, and the Calling of Matthew takes place in Matthew 9:9. The
conflicts and criticism between Jesus and the Pharisees continue, e.g. they criticize Jesus for
associating with "publicans and sinners", whereby Jesus responds: "It is not healthy who need
a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance."
Commissioning the twelve Apostles relates the initial selection of the twelve Apostles among
the disciples of Jesus. Jesus goes out to a mountainside to pray, and after spending the night
praying to God, in the morning he calls his disciples and chooses twelve of them.
In the Mission Discourse, Jesus instructs the twelve apostles who are named in Matthew 10:2-3
to carry no belongings as they travel from city to city and preach. Separately, Luke 10:1-24
relates the Seventy Disciples, where Jesus appoints a larger number of disciples and sends
them out in pairs with the Missionary's Mandate to go into villages before Jesus' arrival there.
In Matthew 11:2–6 two messengers from John the Baptist arrive to ask Jesus if he is the
expected Messiah, or "shall we wait for another?" Jesus replies, "Go back and report to John
what you hear and see: The blind receive sight, the lame walk". Following this, Jesus begins to
speak to the crowds about the Baptist. This period is rich in parables and teachings and
includes the Parabolic discourse, which provides many of the parables for the Kingdom of
Heaven, beginning in Matthew 13:1. These include the parables of The Sower, The Tares, The
Mustard Seed and The Leaven, addressed to the public at large, as well as The Hidden
Treasure, The Pearl and Drawing in the Net. At the end of the Major Galilean ministry, Jesus
returns to his hometown, Nazareth. His wisdom is recognised there, questioned, and rejected.
The Final Galilean ministry

The Final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist, and includes the Feeding
the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in Matthew 14. After hearing of the Baptist's
death, Jesus withdraws by boat privately to a solitary place near Bethsaida, where he
addresses the crowds who had followed him on foot from the towns, and feeds them all with
"five loaves and two fish" supplied by a boy. Following this, the gospels present the Walking on
water episode in Matthew 14:22-23, Mark 6:45–52 and John 6:16–21 as an important step in
developing the relationship between Jesus and his disciples, at this stage of his ministry. The
episode emphasizes the importance of faith by stating that, when he attempted to walk on
water, Peter began to sink when he lost faith and became afraid. At the end of the episode,
the disciples increase their faith in Jesus, and, in Matthew 14:33, they say: "Of a truth thou art
the Son of God".
Major teachings in this period include the Discourse on Defilement in Matthew 15:1 20 and
Mark 7:1–23 where, in response to a complaint from the Pharisees, Jesus states: "What goes
into a man's mouth does not make him 'unclean,' but what comes out of his mouth, that is
what makes him 'unclean.'". Following this episode, Jesus withdraws into the "parts of Tyre and
Sidon" near the Mediterranean Sea, where the Canaanite woman's daughter episode takes
place in Matthew 15:21–28 and Mark 7:24–30. This episode is an example of how Jesus
emphasizes the value of faith, telling the woman: "Woman, you have great faith! Your request
is granted." The importance of faith is also emphasized in the Cleansing ten lepers episode in
Luke 17:11–19. In the Gospel of Mark, after passing through Sidon, Jesus enters the region of
the Decapolis, a group of ten cities south east of Galilee, where the Healing the deaf mute
miracle is reported in Mark 7:31–37. After the healing, the disciples say: "He even makes the
deaf hear and the mute speak." The episode is the last in a series of narrated miracles which
builds up to Peter's proclamation of Jesus as Christ
Later Judean ministry

In this period, Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem by going around Samaria, through
Perea and on through Judea to Jerusalem. At the beginning of this period, Jesus predicts his
death for the first time, and this prediction then builds up to the other two episodes, the final
prediction being just before Jesus enters Jerusalem for the last time, the week of his crucifixion.
In Matthew 16:21–28 and Mark 8:31–33 , Jesus teaches his disciples that "the Son of
Man must suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, chief priests and teachers of the
law, and that he must be killed and after three days rise again. Later in this period, at about
the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point
in the ministry of Jesus: The Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus. These episodes
begin in Caesarea Philippi, just north of the Sea of Galilee, at the beginning of the final journey
to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus. These episodes mark the
beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus as the Messiah to his disciples; and
his prediction of his own suffering and death.
Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13,
Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter
answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God. In Matthew 16:17, Jesus blesses Peter
for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who
is in heaven." In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God, which
Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his
Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter. In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine
revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God. In the
Gospel of Matthew, following this episode, Jesus also selects Peter as the leader of the
Apostles, and states that "upon this rock, I will build my church". In Matthew 16:18 Jesus then
continues: "That thou art Peter, and upon this rock, I will build my church". The word "church"
(ekklesia in Greek) as used here, appears in the Gospels only once more, in Matthew 18:17,
and refers to the community of believers at the time
Later Perean ministry

Following the proclamation by Peter, the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus is the next
major event and appears in Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8 and Luke 9:28–36. Jesus takes Peter
and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on
the mountain, Matthew 17:2 states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; his face shining
as the sun, and his garments became white as the light." At that point, the prophets Elijah and
Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them. Luke is specific in describing Jesus in a state
of glory, with Luke 9:32 referring to "they saw his glory". A bright cloud appears around them,
and a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen
to him".
The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God, (as in his Baptism),
but the statement "listen to him" identifies him as the messenger and mouth piece of God. The
significance is enhanced by the presence of Elijah and Moses, for it indicates to the apostles
that Jesus is the voice of God, and, instead of Elijah or Moses, he should be listened to, by
virtue of his filial relationship with God. 2 Peter 1:16–18 echoes the same message: at the
Transfiguration, God assigns to Jesus a special "honor and glory" and it is the turning point at
which God exalts Jesus above all other powers in creation.
Many of the episodes in the Later Judean ministry are from the Gospel of Luke but, in general,
these sequence of episodes in Luke do not provide enough geographical information to
determine Perea, though scholars generally assume that the route Jesus followed from Galilee
to Jerusalem passed through Perea. However, the Gospel of John does state that he returned
to the area where he was baptized, and John 10:40–42 states that "many people believed in
him beyond the Jordan", saying "all things whatsoever John spake of this man were true". The
area where Jesus was baptised is inferred as the vicinity of the Perea area, given the activities
of the Baptist in Bethabara and Ænon in John John 1:28 andJohn 3:23.
This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the Church, in which Jesus anticipates a future
community of followers and explains the role of his apostles in leading it. It includes the
parables of The Lost Sheep and The Unforgiving Servant in Matthew 18, which also refer to the
Kingdom of Heaven. The general theme of the discourse is the anticipation of a future
community of followers, and the role of his apostles in leading it. Addressing his apostles in
Matthew 18:18 , Jesus states: "Truly, I say to you, whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in
heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven". The discourse
emphasizes the importance of humility and self-sacrifice as the high virtues within the
anticipated community. It teaches that in the Kingdom of God, it is personal humility that
matters, not social prominence and clout.
At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode in John
11:1–46, in which Jesus brings Lazarus of Bethany back to life four days after his burial. In the
Gospel of John, the raising of Lazarus is the climax of the "seven signs" which gradually confirm
the identity of Jesus as the Son of God and the expected Messiah. It is also a pivotal episode
which starts the chain of events that leads to the crowds seeking Jesus on his Triumphal entry
into Jerusalem—leading to the decision of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin to plan to kill Jesus
(Crucifixion of Jesus)
Final ministry in Jerusalem

The final ministry in Jerusalem is traditionally called the Passion and begins with Jesus' triumphal
entry into Jerusalem early in the week that includes the Last Supper and is liturgically marked
as Holy Week. The gospels pay special attention to the account of the last week of the life of
Jesus in Jerusalem, and the narrative amounts to about one third of the text of the four gospels,
showing its theological significance in Christian thought in the Early Church. Before arriving in
Jerusalem, in John 12:9–11 , after raising Lazarus from the dead, crowds gather around Jesus
and believe in him, and the next day the multitudes that had gathered for the feast in
Jerusalem welcome Jesus as he descends from the Mount of Olives towards Jerusalem in
Matthew 21:1–11 , Mark 11:1–11 ,Luke 19:28–44 and John 12:12–19 .
In Luke 19:41–44 as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, he looks at the city and weeps over it,
foretelling the suffering that awaits the city. In the three Synoptic Gospels, entry into Jerusalem
is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers
from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their
commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the
Gospels.
The synoptics include a number of well-known parables and sermons such as the
Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows. In that week,
the synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such
as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees, in which Jesus criticizes
their hypocrisy.
Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, approaches the Jewish elders and performs the
"Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders.
Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins. In Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21, Jesus
provides a Discourse on the End Times, which is also called the Olivet Discourse because it was
given on the Mount of Olives. The discourse is mostly about judgment and the expected
conduct of the followers of Jesus, and the need for vigilance by the followers in view of the
coming judgment. The discourse is generally viewed as referring both to the coming
destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, as well as the End Times and Second Coming of Christ,
but the many scholarly opinions about which verses refer to which event remain divided.
A key episode in the final part of the ministry of Jesus is the Last Supper, which includes the
Institution of the Eucharist. In Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22–25, Luke 22:19–20 during the last
supper, Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying: "This is my body which
is given for you". He also gives them "the cup" to drink, saying this is his blood. While it may have
been fermented, none of the biblical accounts refer to it as wine, but rather as "the fruit of the
vine" or "the cup". In 1 Corinthians 11:23 26, Paul the Apostle refers to the Last Supper. John 14–
17 concludes the Last Supper with a long, three-chapter sermon known as the Farewell
discourse which prepares the disciples for the departure of Jesus.
The temptation of Jesus (Matthew 4: 1–11)

After his baptism, Jesus went to the desert to think about and prepare for his ministry. He spent
forty days and forty nights in the desert where he was tempted on three occasions by the
Devil.
“If you are the Son of God, command these stones to turn into bread.”
Jesus would have been very hungry as he had fasted whilst in the desert. The Devil was trying
to tempt Jesus to use his miraculous abilities for selfish motives. Jesus responds to the Devil’s
use of scripture by quoting scripture in retaliation.
He says, “One does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of
God.”
“If you Are the Son of God, throw yourself down.”
The Devil takes Jesus to the top of the temple. He tells Jesus to throw himself off to prove he is
the Messiah and that no harm will come to him. But if Jesus did this, again he would be using
his powers for selfish motives and testing if God would protect him. Jesus did not want to be
known as a magician-like miracle worker, but rather he wanted people to have true faith in
him.
Again Jesus replies with scripture, “Do not put the Lord your God to the test.”
“All these kingdoms I will give you, if you bow down and worship me.”
The final temptation was to see if Jesus would take the easy option and use evil powers to
achieve all that he wanted. Instead, Jesus was strong and firm in his mission to his Father.
He replies, “Worship the Lord your God and serve only Him.”
The Sermon on the Mount
The Sermon on the Mount is Jesus’ longest, most detailed teaching recorded in the Gospels. It
is found in Matthew 5, 6 and 7. It contains some of the most essential principles for living a
genuine Christian life.
Christ’s words recorded in Matthew chapters 5, 6 and 7 are often called the Sermon on the
Mount. The reason for this designation is that Jesus “went up on a mountain” (Matthew 5:1) to
deliver this message. Apparently, He did this to make it easier for His audience to hear what
He was going to say. An abbreviated account of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount is found in Luke
6:20-49. Although there are slight differences between the two Gospel accounts, these
passages provide an excellent overview of the subjects Jesus addressed during His earthly
ministry.
According to John R.W. Stott, “The Sermon on the Mount is probably the best known part of
the teaching of Jesus, though arguably it is the least understood, and certainly it is the least
obeyed” Because Matthew’s account is more extensive than the one in Luke, we’ll use it to
identify key messages that Jesus delivered for His audience in the first century and for us today.
Beatitudes and application of the law

Jesus’ sermon begins with a description of those who would be blessed by God. For instance,
“Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be filled” (Matthew
5:6). The verses beginning with the word “blessed” (Matthew 5:3-11) are commonly called
“Beatitudes”—meaning a state of supreme happiness. In essence, Jesus is stating that these
perspectives would become the mental states of mind for all who would become His disciples.
The remainder of the sermon gives more specifics of conversion—how to be a Christian. Christ
taught that His disciples were to be the salt of the earth and the light of the world. They were
commanded, “Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and
glorify your Father in heaven” (Matthew 5:16). Christians’ examples are to reflect God’s
righteousness to the world around them; and by doing so, their actions would shine like lights.
Following this admonition is a statement that is vital to understand, but often misunderstood:
Christ said that He did not come “to destroy the Law or the Prophets” (verse 17). In this verse,
He emphasized: “I did not come to destroy but to fulfill”—which is the opposite of destroying.
Christ further stated that “whoever does and teaches them [the commandments], he shall be
called great in the kingdom of heaven” (verse 19).
What follows is a detailed explanation of the spiritual understanding and application of the 10
Commandments. For example, Christ instructed the audience that it was a spiritual violation
of the law against murder to be angry with a person without a cause (verse 22). He also said
that men are to avoid adultery, even to the extent of avoiding lusting after women in their
hearts (verse 28). Just imagine a world in which these two admonitions were obeyed! There
would be no road rage or violent verbal abuse. People would try to solve their differences
peacefully, and the focus would be on reconciliation. Marriages would be saved, families
would thrive and every type of pornography would cease to exist. Then Christ gave some of
the most difficult instructions to follow: “Love your enemies” and “be perfect, just as your Father
in heaven is perfect” (verses 44, 48). God loves all peoples. He has deep concern even for
those who take His name in vain and reject His very existence. That same level of love He has
for all humanity is a love that He wants each person to exhibit toward others
Further instruction from the Sermon on the Mount:

Within this sermon is a detailed explanation of how to pray. Christ said that converted
Christians are not to “be like the hypocrites. For they love to pray standing in the synagogues
and on the corners of the streets, that they may be seen by men” (Matthew 6:5). Rather, He
told us to “go into your room, and when you have shut your door, pray to your Father who is
in the secret place” (verse 6). Also, when we pray, we are not to use “vain repetitions” (verse
7). We are not to just repeat the same words over and over. Christ then gave an outline of
how we should pray (verses 9-13), praising God in heaven and asking that His Kingdom would
come to this earth. We need to ask God for our daily bread (needs), and especially ask Him
for forgiveness. After this, Christ admonished everyone to forgive others their sins and offenses,
so our Heavenly Father will forgive us (verses 14-15).
Christ also discussed the topic of wealth. Where is our treasure? Which master do we serve?
“You cannot serve God and mammon [riches]” (verse 24). Therefore, we are not to worry
about things in this life, what we will eat or drink or what we will wear. Our Heavenly Father
already knows our needs. Christ also stated that God takes care of the needs of the birds, and
He is certainly able to take care of our needs as well (verses 25-32). Jesus then clearly showed
us what our top priority should be in life: “Seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness,
and all these things shall be added to you” (verse 33). We are instructed further to ask God for
help. As parents know how to give good gifts to their children, so, too, will our Father who is in
heaven give good things to those who ask Him (Matthew 7:7-11). This is most encouraging!
Choices and warnings

As Christ concluded the Sermon on the Mount, He admonished us to make
proper choices. We are taught to make choices based on God’s instructions in the Bible and
not simply follow the crowd by taking the easy way to live (Matthew 7:13-14). We are even
warned about false prophets who claim to be Christian, but whose lives don’t reflect God’s
values and true conversion. Prophets and ministers are to be evaluated by their fruits (verses
15-20). Then Christ gave a very serious warning: “Not everyone who says to Me, ‘Lord, Lord,”
shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of My Father in heaven” (verse
21). Not everyone who claims to be a Christian is one. We must obey God’s instructions in the
Bible, otherwise God will say, “I never knew you; depart from Me, you who practice
lawlessness!” (verse 23).
The Sermon on the Mount is still relevant for Christians today
The words of this sermon are as relevant today as they were when Christ spoke them! For
“whoever hears these sayings of Mine, and does them, I will liken him to a wise man who built
his house on the rock: and the rain descended, the floods came, and the winds blew and
beat on that house, and it did not fall, for it was founded on the rock” (Matthew 7:24-25). The
question is, will we be like that wise man? Will we take these words to heart from Christ’s Sermon
on the Mount? Be sure to read the related articles on Christian conversion, where you will find
more instruction that will both encourage and help you to be like that wise man!
The teachings of Jesus

Scripture gives insight into Jesus’ usage of parables, but the purpose was broader than
confusion. First, we should review scripture to understand why Jesus used parables to relay his
messages. Next we can think about the relevance of the morals or messages for our everyday
religion.
According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a parable is a “short fictitious story that illustrates a

moral attitude or a religious principle.” It is a simple narrative used to deliver the message with
a setting, limited characters and actions. Basically, it is a process of comparison that starts with
the familiar everyday life and leads to a deeper understanding. Parabolic literature was
included in several books in the Old Testament with the intention stated in Psalm 78:2-4, “I will
open my mouth in a parable; I will utter dark sayings of old, which we have heard and known,
and our fathers have told us. Telling to the generation to come the praises of the Lord, And His
strength and His wonderful works that He has done.”
One of the moving tales in 2 Samuel 12:1-15 reveals God’s forgiveness and judgment. Nathan
tells King David a tale. “There were two men one rich and the other poor. The rich man had
many flocks, but the poor man had nothing, except one little lamb, and it grew up together
with him and his children. It was like a daughter to him. The traveler came to the rich man,
who took the poor man’s lamb and prepared it for the man.” To the King’s surprise, Nathan
reveals that the rich man is David who killed Uriah, took his wife, and sinned against God.
Nathan told David, “The Lord also has put away your sin and you shall not die; but the child
who is born to you shall die.”
This tale reveals human flaws and gives insight into God’s way. In the New Testament, 55
parables are included in Luke, Mark and Matthew. Jesus used the parables extensively in his
three-year teaching ministry. He told the interesting stories about everyday life which caught
the attention of many people. The crowds enabled Jesus to teach more freely for a short
period of time because the leadership limited their restrictions to avoid uprisings.
Many people have said that it is not enough to read scripture; it requires meditation. This point
is very true about parables because deeply rooted in the simple stories are storehouses filled
with the mysteries of God. When asked by the disciples why he used parables, Jesus said that
he would fulfill the words of the prophet and reveal the mysteries from the foundation of the
world. In Matthew 13:11-13, he spoke to his disciples, “To you it has been given to know the
secrets of the kingdom of heaven, but to them it has not been given. For to the one who has,
more will be given, and he will have an abundance, but from the one who has not, even what
he has will be taken away.
This is why I speak to them in parables, because seeing they do not see, and hearing they do
not hear, nor do they understand.” Most people need to learn how to see and hear. It is
believed that God challenges those who come to him to study the messages and then to look
into their hearts for the deeper meaning of his mysteries. By following the dictates of their
hearts, they would be guided by the spirit to profound truths. The first steps were taken by
freewill then carried by grace. In other words, the soil must be prepared and the seeds or roots
must be nourished for survival and fruitfulness. This important message can be found in most
of the parables. I encourage the study of the parables because they remain relevant. They
teach morally sound lessons in the ways to interact with each other and reveal a path for
those with open hearts to discover God’s mercy and justice.
Jesus frequently taught in parables to illustrate profound, divine truths. Parables are familiar to
many people, but not always correctly understood. Let’s take the very familiar parable of the
Good Samaritan for example, which is often misunderstood. We all know what it means when
you call someone a “Good Samaritan.” That generally means that someone shows kindness,
mercy, compassion, care to some other person in need. However, during the time, the
Samaritans were not thought of as such. In addition to our popular misunderstanding of the
Samaritan, the parable of the Good Samaritan is largely misunderstood. The story is not to
make people feel guilty about not giving their money to poor people. It’s not to make people
feel guilty about not taking care of those that are suffering. This story is designed to make
people feel guilty for not loving God perfectly and loving others perfectly, and then running
to the One who alone can provide forgiveness for that sin and eternal life. Ultimately, parables
were earthly stories with heavenly meaning.
Here are six important reasons Jesus taught in parables.

To Send a Message Straight to the People
It may seem hard to get now, but for the people of the time, the parables resonated. Jesus
wanted to go around the teachers of the Law and bring His message directly to the people.
By telling the parables, He was delivering a message that they easily got. He would share
religious truths that listeners could grasp. These truths often connected with things that were
going on in the daily lives of those listeners. This they could understand. What better way to
get engaged in a story than to hear about something you connect with. That’s what it was
like for those who listened to the parables at the time. These parables also really tapped into
the imaginations and hearts of those who listened. As a result, the message was not only
compelling, but also really resonated.
To Help Us Understand the Gospel
Parables required those who were listening to think. Jesus told parables to see if we really
understand the Gospel. The truth is, understanding the Gospel is the beginning to a
transformed life. Each Gospel is unique. They give a beautiful and complete picture of the
Lord through their various writings. Mark is recognized as the Gospel of the suffering Son of
God. Matthew is recognized as the Gospel of the Messiah. Luke is the Gospel of the Savior of
all the people and John is the Gospel of the Son who reveals the Father. These writings may
be from different authors, but ultimately share an important picture of who Jesus was. Romans
1:16 says, “For I am not ashamed of the Gospel, because it is the power of God that brings
salvation to everyone who believes: the first to the Jew, then to the Gentile.” From this, we
know that the Gospel is the power of God and present in every aspect of our lives. One danger
that many Christians face today is failing to get the Gospel. If we don’t get the Gospel
message, then that message won’t translate to our hearts and lives.
To Revolutionize the way we see things
God’s people are a wandering people. We see countless examples throughout the Bible of
God’s people wandering. This theme of wandering is also present in our lives. These biblical
examples are traveling off-road. One popular biblical example is the parable of the Prodigal
Son who left home to enter a world of sin, among others. Their brokenness caused them to
wander away from God. However, through their stories we learn some important lessons,
particularly about the complete presence of God. There is a common misconception that
those who wander are lost but that isn't always the case. If you’re restless, doubtful or even
questioning your faith, you can learn through this journey that not all who wander are lost and
there’s a hope and peace for those who travel the winding path seeking to experience God.
To Serve as Weapons in Spiritual Warfare
Many people don’t recognize the fact that parables aren’t just stories. They are actually
weapons in spiritual warfare. We are living in a very serious warzone and peace is hard to find
in it. What many people fail to realize is that the number one battle that takes place in our lives
is in our head. The Bible tells us, “For though we walk in the flesh, we are not waging war
according to the flesh. For the weapons of our warfare are not of the flesh but have divine
power to destroy strongholds.
We destroy arguments and every lofty opinion raised against the knowledge of God, and take
every thought captive to obey Christ” (1 Corinthians 10:3-5). There are certain satanic
strongholds that imprison us each day that we must be aware of. The battles are taking place
in our thoughts. The parables of Jesus can help us better understand how to respond to those
attacks.
To speak with authority
Jesus Christ is unquestionably the greatest teacher the world has ever known and the most
recognized figure in human history. No figure has been more frequently mentioned than Him.
Jesus was also the greatest help to mankind the world has ever known, and yet He was
misunderstood. The Bible tells us, “And it came to pass, when Jesus had ended these sayings,
the people were astonished at his doctrine: for He taught them as one having authority, and
not as the scribes,” (Matthew 7:28-29). Compelling Truth explains that Jesus used parables in
part because He spoke with authority. In fact, the scribes often quoted both long passages of
the Law as well as traditions of other Jewish teachers to support their message and yet Jesus
spoke from His own authority, breaking from tradition.
To Know the Mysteries of Heaven
Before Jesus interpreted the parable of the seed and the soils, He drew His disciples away from
the crowd. The crowd said to Him, “Why do You speak to them in parables?” Jesus answered
them, “To you it has been granted to know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, but to
them it has not been granted. For whoever has, to him more shall be given, and he will have
an abundance; but whoever does not have, even what he has shall be taken away from him.
Therefore I speak to them in parables; because while seeing they do not see, and
while hearing they do not hear, nor do they understand…” (Matthew 13:10-13). After this point
in Jesus’ ministry, when He spoke in parables, He explained them only to His disciples. Many
people wonder why Jesus let most people wonder about the meaning of the parables. This is
why. The parables are some of the most incredible and unique parts of the Bible. They were
also key in sharing the Good News of Christ and the Gospel message. The next time you read
a parable in the Bible like the Parable of the Sower, the Weeds, the Mustard Seed, even the
Prodigal Son, look at them through fresh eyes. Ultimately, the parables and the Gospels display
the purpose of Christ, the Son of God – to fulfill prophecies, to minister to others, to save the
lost and to understand God better. Receive Gods Love God’s Love for You Is Unconditional.
Begin Your Relationship With Him Today
The miracles of Jesus

Miracles are supernatural deeds that were performed by Jesus. Generally, there are four types
of miracles, but others have come up with as many types as seven. The four types of miracles
are;
The nature miracles
Healing miracles
Casting out of evil spirits
Raising of the dead
Others have come up with seven types of miracles as follows; These 7 miracles of Jesus reveal
who our Savior is. Jesus’ miracles raised people from the dead, fed thousands, controlled
nature, cast out evil spirits, and healed the infirmed. Even Jesus’ birth was a miracle. More than
30 of Jesus’ miracles are recorded in the Bible
1. Jesus fed thousands of people.
Jesus fed more than 5,000 people with five loaves of bread and two fish. (Matthew
14:15-21) Jesus fed more than 4,000 people with seven loaves and a few small fish.
(Matthew 15:32-39)
2. Jesus cast out evil spirits.
Jesus cast an evil spirit out of a man who shouted at him as he
taught. (Mark 1:23-28) Jesus cast out demons from two men who were so violent that
no one could pass through the area where they were. (Mark 8:28-33) Jesus cast out a
demon from a mute man, and the man was able to speak again. (Matthew 9:32-33)
Jesus healed a demon-possessed girl whose mother had great faith. (Matthew 15:21-
28) Jesus cast out a demon from a boy with seizures after his dad asked him to heal
him. (Matthew 17:14-21)
3. Jesus healed the blind, deaf, sick, injured, and infirmed.
Jesus healed a government official’s son who was about to die. (John 4:46-47)
Jesus cured Simon Peter’s mother-in-law of a high fever. (Mark 1:30-31)
Jesus healed a leper who came to him and asked to be made clean. (Mark 1:40-45)
Jesus healed a Roman officer’s servant who was paralyzed. (Matthew 8:5-13)
Jesus healed a paralyzed man whose friends lowered him through
the roof of a house where Jesus was teaching. (Matthew 9:1-8)
Jesus cured a woman who’d bled constantly for 12 years. (Matthew 9:19-22)
Jesus healed two blind men who followed him by touching their eyes. (Matthew 9:27-
30)
Jesus cured a man who’d been sick for 38 years at the pool of Bethesda. (John 5:1-15)
Jesus healed a man’s deformed hand. (Matthew 12: 9-14)
Jesus healed a demon-possessed man who was blind and couldn’t speak. (Matthew
12:22)
Jesus healed a deaf man with a speech impediment by putting his fingers in the man’s
ears and touching the man’s tongue. (Mark 7:31-37)
Jesus healed a blind man by spitting on the man’s eyes. (Mark 8:22- 26)
Jesus healed a man who’d been born blind by spitting in the dirt and creating a mud
to put on the man’s eyes. (John 9:1-34)
Jesus healed a woman who’d been crippled by an evil spirit for 18 years. (Luke 13:10-
13)
Jesus cured a man of dropsy. (Luke 14:1-4)
Jesus healed ten lepers. (Luke 17:11-19)
Jesus healed two blind men on the side or the road by touching their
eyes. (Matthew 20: 29-33)
Jesus healed the high priest’s slave after Peter cut off his right ear. (John 18:10 and Luke
22:47-51)
4. Jesus turned water to wine.
At a wedding where the wedding party ran out of wine, Jesus changed water into a
good-tasting wine (John 2:1-11)
5. Jesus controlled the water and other elements of nature.
Jesus and the disciples were in a fierce storm and Jesus made it stop. (Matthew 8:23-
27). Jesus made a fig tree wither and never bear fruit again. (Matthew 21:18-22)
6. Jesus caught a surprisingly large amount of fish.
After Simon and his crew has fished all night and caught nothing, Jesus told them to
cast their net again and they caught so many fish it almost sunk their boats (Luke 5:1-
11) After Jesus rose from the dead, Jesus caused the disciples to catch
153 fish after they’d fished all night and caught nothing. (John 21: 1-11)
7. Jesus raised people from the dead, including himself.
Jesus brought a young man back to life. He was the son of a widow with no other
children. (Luke 7:11-17)
Jesus brought a synagogue leader’s daughter back to life. (Matthew 9: 18-26)
Jesus brought Lazarus back to life after he’d been in the grave for
four days. (John 11: 1-46)
Jesus rose from the dead. (Luke 24:5-6)
Generally, it can be said that Jesus did not perform miracles for personal
aggrandizement. He did perform miracles out of pity, love, care, concern and to save
life.
ACTIVITY
1. Citing examples, list the type of miracles of Jesus
2. In what ways are people tempted today?
3. Why is it that we don’t get to witness many miracles today?
4. Many preachers who teach today live lives which are not consistent with their
teachings. Is this a fair assessment of our religious leaders today?
5. Why do people go to worship these days? Is there true love for God?
The death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus
The crucifixion of Jesus is recorded in the New Testament books, known as the Gospels -
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. This Bible story is the central summary of the saving Gospel of
Jesus. Jesus had prophesied of his death in Matthew "from that time on Jesus began to explain
to his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and suffer many things at the hands of the elders,
the chief priests and the teachers of the law, and that he must be killed and on the third day
be raised to life." Jesus understood that his life would be required as a sacrifice for the sins of
man.
At the height of his ministry and miracles, many Jews came to believe in Jesus as Messiah, the
Son of God. Jewish leaders feared Jesus because of his growing followers. With the help of
Judas Iscariot, Roman soldiers arrested Jesus and he was put on trial for claiming to be the
king of the Jews.
According to Roman law, the punishment for rebellion against the king was death by
crucifixion. The Roman governor Pontius Pilate was reluctant when it came to the punishment
for Jesus. Pilate could find no wrong in Jesus, yet he wanted to give the people what they
wanted, and that was the death of Jesus. Pilate washed his hands in front of the crowd to
symbolize that he was not taking responsibility for the bloodshed of Jesus and then handed
Jesus over to be beaten and lashed. Jesus had a crown of thorns thrust on his head and made
to carry his cross along the pathway to the hill where he would be crucified. The location of
Jesus' crucifixion is known as Calvary, which is translated from "a place of skull".
Crowds had gathered to mourn and watch Jesus' death. Jesus was nailed to the cross
between two criminals and his sides pierced by a sword. While Jesus was mocked, one of the
criminals asked Jesus to remember him and Jesus responded: "Truly I tell you, today you will be
with me in paradise."
Jesus then looked to heaven and asked God "forgive them, for they do not know what they
do." When taking his last breath, Jesus spoke: "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit...it is
finished." Extraordinary events marked the death of Jesus. The sky was completely dark for
three hours as Jesus hung on the cross. At the moment of his last breath, the earth shook, the
temple curtain split from top to bottom, and the tombs of saints opened and their bodies
raised from the dead. The crucifixion of Jesus was a part of God's plan from the very beginning
of the birth of Jesus. The sin of mankind would require a sacrifice. The sinless life of Jesus was
lived and given so that man could receive salvation and eternal life in heaven.
The resurrection of Jesus Christ is the foundation of the Christian faith. Without the resurrection,
the belief in God's saving grace through Jesus is destroyed. When Jesus rose from the dead,
he confirmed his identity as the Son of God and his work of atonement, redemption,
reconciliation, and salvation. The resurrection was a real, literal, physical raising of Jesus’ body
from the dead. Jesus was arrested, tried, and found guilty of claiming to be a king. His body
was hung on a cross between two thieves. After his death, Jesus’ body was wrapped in linen
cloths and placed in a tomb with a large stone rolled across the opening. On the third day,
an early Sunday morning, Mary Magdalene and another Mary came to the tomb and found
it empty. Sitting on the rolled away stone was an angel of the Lord who told them to not be
afraid because Jesus had risen. As the women left to tell the disciples, Jesus Christ met them
and showed them his nail-pierced hands. Both the Old and the New Testament speak of the
truth of Jesus being raised from death - Jesus testified of his resurrection before he died on the
cross and his disciples witnessed his body after the resurrection.
ACTIVITY
1. Why is the death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus so important for the Christians?
2. Is Jesus going to come back as he promised?
UNIT IV.
The beginning of the early church; Replacement of Judas Ischariot and the Pentecost, Life in
the early church; Communalism, The book of Acts as a defence of Paul and the church
Christianity versus Judaism (Persecution), Persecution and the spread of Christianity from
Jerusalem (Importance of Christianity), Problems in the early church (The conversion of
Gentiles), The conversion of Paul and further spread of the Gospel
Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, students are expected to learn
• Trace the roots of the beginning of the early church
• Understand the life in the early church
• Understand the importance of christainity
• Analysis the problems in the early church
• Discuss the conversion of Paul and further spread of the gospel
The beginning of the early church

Church history, or the history of the Christian Faith, began about 30 A.D. in Palestine with a
small number of Jews and Jewish Proselytes, about 120 according to Acts 1:15, following the
resurrection of Jesus Christ. By the third century A.D., Christianity had grown to become the
dominant religion of the northern Mediterranean world. It also gained important extensions to
the east and south of the Mediterranean.
Apostolic Age (30–100 AD)

The apostolic period extends from the Day of Pentecost to the death of the Apostle John, and
covers about seventy years, from A.D. 30 to about 100. The field of action is Palestine, and
gradually extends over Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy. The most prominent centres are
Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome, which represent respectively the mother churches of Jewish,
Gentile, and United Catholic Christianity. Next to them are Ephesus and Corinth. Ephesus
acquired a special importance by the residence and labors of John, which made themselves
felt during the second century through Polycarp and Irenaeus. Samaria, Damascus, Joppa,
Caesarea, Tyre, Cyprus, the provinces of Asia Minor, Troas, Philippi, Thessalonica, Beraea,
Athens, Crete, Patmos, Malta, Puteoli, come also into view as points where the Christian faith
was planted. Through the eunuch converted by Philip, it reached Candace, the queen of the
Ethiopians.
As early as A.D. 58 Paul could say: "From Jerusalem and round about even unto Illyricum, I
have fully preached the gospel of Christ." He afterwards carried it to Rome, where it had
already been known before, and possibly as far as Spain, the western boundary of the empire.
Christianity began as a movement within Judaism at a period when the Jews had long been
dominated culturally and politically by foreign powers and had found in their religion (rather
than in their politics or cultural achievements) the linchpin of their community.
From Amos (8th century BCE) onward the religion of Israel was marked by tension between
the concept of monotheism, with its universal ideal of salvation (for all nations), and the notion
of God’s special choice of Israel. In the Hellenistic Age (323 BCE–3rd century CE), the
dispersion of the Jews throughout the kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean and the Roman
Empire reinforced this universalistic tendency. But the attempts of foreign rulers, especially the
Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (in 168–165 BCE), to impose Greek culture in Palestine
provoked zealous resistance on the part of many Jews, leading to the revolt of Judas
Maccabeus against Antiochus. In Palestinian Judaism the predominant note was separation
and exclusiveness.
Jewish missionaries to other areas were strictly expected to impose the distinctive Jewish
customs of circumcision, kosher food, and Sabbaths and other festivals. Other Jews, however,
were not so exclusive, welcoming Greek culture and accepting converts without requiring
circumcision. The relationship of the earliest Christian churches to Judaism turned principally
on two questions: (1) the messianic role of Jesus of Nazareth and (2) the permanent validity of
the Mosaic Law for all.
The Hebrew Scriptures presented history as the stage of a providential drama eventually
ending in a triumph of God over all present sources of frustration (e.g., foreign domination or
the sins of Israel). God’s rule would be established by an anointed prince, or Messiah
(from mashiaḥ, “anointed”), of the line of David, king of Israel in the 10th century BCE.
The proper course of action leading to the consummation of the drama, however, was the
subject of some disagreement. Among the diverse groups were the aristocratic
and conservative Sadducees, who accepted only the five books of Moses (the Pentateuch)
and whose lives and political power were intimately associated with Temple worship, and
the Pharisees, who accepted the force of oral tradition and were widely respected for their
learning and piety.
The Pharisees not only accepted biblical books outside the Pentateuch but also embraced
doctrines—such as those on resurrection and the existence of angels—of recent acceptance
in Judaism, many of which were derived from apocalyptic expectations that the
consummation of history would be heralded by God’s intervention in the affairs of men in
dramatic, cataclysmic terms.
The Great Sanhedrin (central council) at Jerusalem was made up of both Pharisees and
Sadducees. The Zealots were aggressive revolutionaries known for their violent opposition
to Rome and its polytheisms. Other groups were the Herodians, supporters of the client
kingdom of the Herods (a dynasty that supported Rome) and abhorrent to the Zealots, and
the Essenes, a quasi-monastic dissident group, probably including the sect that preserved
the Dead Sea Scrolls. This latter sect did not participate in the Temple worship at Jerusalem
and observed another religious calendar, and from their desert retreat they awaited divine
intervention and searched prophetic writings for signs indicating the consummation. Things
are a bit tougher for Christians in our society today than a few decades ago, aren’t they? At
times like this, it’s probably good to get some perspective. Once we knew what the early
church experienced— and, indeed, what Christians in other parts of the world are
experiencing now—would find ourselves looking a bit sheepish if caught complaining about
our lot.
Reasons for Persecution

There are several important and interrelated reasons for the persecution of the early church.
First was the problem of identity. Christianity was identified at first with Judaism, but people
quickly came to see it as a different religion. Jews were left alone for the most part; it seemed
best to Rome to just confine them and leave them alone.
Christianity, however, was a strange, new cult, and it began to spread across people groups
and geographical boundaries. People felt threatened by this oddball new religion.
The next problem was with the religious activities of the Christians, with what they did do and
didn’t do. In the days of the Roman empire, the worship of pagan gods and the emperor, was
a part of everyone’s life.
Two problems arose because of this. First, because they didn’t participate in pagan rituals, but
tended to keep to themselves, Christians were considered anti-social. When the imperial
police took an interest in them, they became more secretive which added fuel to the fire.
They became associated with the collegia—clubs or secret societies—
and leaders were suspicious of these groups because of the threat of sedition.
Second, since Christians wouldn’t join in with the religious activities which were believed to
placate the gods, they became a threat to the very well-being of the community. Writing in
about A.D. 196, Tertullian said, “The Christians are to blame for every public disaster and every
misfortune that befalls the people. If the Tiber rises to the walls, if the Nile fails to rise and flood
the fields, if the sky withholds its rain, if there is earthquake or famine or plague, straightway
the cry arises: ‘The Christians to the lions!’” With respect to what they did do in their own
religious practices, talk of eating the body and blood of Jesus, and the customary greeting
with a kiss, brought charges of cannibalism and incest.
The third problem was the nature or content of Christians’ beliefs. The historian Tacitus spoke
of Christians as a “class hated for their abominations” who held to a “deadly superstition.” A
drawing found in Rome of a man with a donkey’s head hanging on a cross gives an idea of
what pagans thought of Christian beliefs.
Finally, Christians’ reluctance to offer worship to the emperor and the gods was considered
madness, considering what would happen to them if they didn’t. Why not just offer a pinch of
incense to the image of the emperor?
In a pluralistic society, the narrowness of Christian beliefs seemed absurd, especially

considering what would happen to Christians who wouldn’t go along. In the opinion of the
general populace, says F. F. Bruce, “Such a crowd of wretches were plainly worthy of
extermination, and any repressive measures that were taken against them by authority could
be sure of popular approval.” Claudius Nero was named emperor at age 16 and reigned from
A.D. 54-68. He had about five good years under the guidance of such men as Seneca, the
Roman poet and philosopher. But that all changed when he had his mother killed in A.D. 59.
She was too powerful. Her “insanity and her fury at seeing her son slip out of her control” led
Nero to believe she was a threat to his power. In A.D. 62, he had his wife killed so he could
marry another woman. He later killed a brother and his teacher, Seneca.
Christians became the object of his ire following the Great Fire of Rome in A.D. 64. Some
people suspected that Nero started the fire himself, so he pointed the accusing finger at
Christians. The fact that he felt confident in doing this indicates the low regard in which people
held Christians already.
Historian Philip Schaff says that, “Their Jewish origin, their indifference to politics and public
affairs, and their abhorrence of heathen customs, were construed into an ‘odium generis
humani’ (hatred of the human race), and this made an attempt on their part to destroy the
city sufficiently plausible to justify a verdict of guilty.” Schaff says that “There began a carnival
of blood such as even heathen Rome never saw before or since....a ‘vast multitude’ of
Christians was put to death in the most shocking manner.” Some were crucified, some sewn
up in animal skins and thrown to the dogs, some were covered in pitch, nailed to wooden
posts, and burned as torches. It was in the fallout of this that Peter and Paul gave their lives
for their Savior, probably within a year of each other. Nero apparently took his own life in A.D.
68, when the Senate and the patricians turned against him.
Emperor Trajan ruled from A.D. 98-117. One of his governors, a man called Pliny the younger,
wrote to Trajan seeking advice on what to do with the Christians. They were becoming very
numerous, and Pliny thought the pagan religions were being neglected. He began sentencing
Christians who refused to honor the gods and the emperor to death. Pliny believed that, even
if the Christians’ practices weren’t too bad, just their obstinacy was enough to be rid of them.
Should he sentence them for carrying the name Christian only, or did they have to commit
specific criminal acts?
Trajan responded with a kind of “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy. “They must not be ferreted out,”
he said. But if someone made a credible charge against a Christian, the Christian should be
sentenced unless he or she recanted and gave proof by invoking pagan gods. Persecution
was especially bad in Syria and Palestine during Trajan’s reign. In 107, he went to Antioch and
demanded that everyone sacrifice to the gods. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch and pupil of the
apostle John, refused and was martyred by being thrown to wild animals. Ignatius wrote this
to Polycarp, another disciple of John, on his way to Rome: “let the fire, the gallows, the wild
beasts, the breaking of bones, the pulling asunder of members, the bruising of my whole body,
and the torments of the devil and hell itself come upon me, so that I may win Christ Jesus.”
Trajan’s ruling was carried on by the next few emperors. emperor Hadrian, “the most brilliant
of the Roman emperors,” says Will Durant, required specific charges against Christians as well.
he didn’t allow governors “to use mere clamorous demands and outcries” as a basis for
judgment. Furthermore, if anyone brings a charge against Christians “merely for the sake of
libelling them,” the governor was to “proceed against that man with heavier penalties, in
accordance with his heinous guilt.” There were to be no frivolous lawsuits. However, Christians
still needed to prove loyalty to the state and the pagan religions. Hadrian hated Jews, and
was somewhat “indifferent to Christianity from ignorance of it.” Philip Schaff tells us that “he
insulted the Jews and the Christians alike by erecting temples of Jupiter and Venus over the
site of the temple and the supposed spot of the crucifixion.” Not all officials required Christians
to denounce Christ. All they wanted was homage to the divine character of the emperor (“the
personal embodiment of the sovereign state”). “It was beside the point for Christians to argue
that the malicious tales circulated about them were false...deeds, not words, were required
by the state; and if they were in fact loyal citizens, as they protested, there was a simple way
of demonstrating their loyalty; let them offer a pinch of incense in honour of the emperor, let
them swear by his divinity, let them invoke him as ‘lord.’”
The policy of not actively pursuing Christians was continued under Antonius Pius who ruled
from A.D. 138-161. During the reigns of emperors such as Hadrian and Antonius, however,
Christians sometimes suffered persecution at the hands of the local townspeople without any
direct encouragement from government officials. During Antonius’ reign, Polycarp, a pupil of
the apostle John, was martyred in Asia during one such outburst of violence. After this,
persecution settled down somewhat. The execution of this 86-year-old man seemed to turn
the tide against persecution for a time. In A.D. 161 Marcus Aurelius took power and reigned
until 180. It was during his reign that Justin Martyr met his death. Although he didn’t directly
lead persecutions against Christians, he had no sympathy for them because he saw them as
being disgustingly superstitious. We’re told that “a law was passed under his reign, punishing
every one with exile who should endeavor to influence people’s mind by fear of the Divinity,
and this law was, no doubt, aimed at the Christians.”
F. F. Bruce says that the Christians’ “very resoluteness in the face of suffering and death, which
might in itself have won respect from a Stoic, was explained not as commendable fortitude
but as perverse obstinacy.... Marcus despised what seemed to him the crass superstition of the
Christian beliefs, which disqualified them from the respect due to others who maintained their
principles at the cost of life itself.”
For Aurelius, it was good to die for something significant, but not for something as silly as what
the Christians believed. Furthermore, Christians went to their executions with a show of
willingness that he considered theatrical display, which was anathema to the calm spirit
appreciated by the Stoics. During Aurelius’ reign, Christians were blamed for a number of
natural disasters because they wouldn’t sacrifice to the gods. In A.D. 177, in Gaul, horrible
persecutions broke out in a wave of mob violence. Slaves were tortured to give testimony
against their masters. “The corpses of the martyrs, which covered the streets,” says Philip
Schaff, “were shamefully mutilated, then burned, and the ashes cast into the Rhone, lest any
remnants of the enemies of the gods might desecrate the soil.”
It is said that the courage of a slave girl named Blandina “strengthened all the others; her
tormentors exhausted themselves in their attempts to make her renounce Christ. at last,”
Schaff tells us, “the people grew weary of slaughter,” and the persecutions died down.
Another emperor under whom Christians suffered terribly was Septimius Severus who ruled from
193-211. Writing during his reign, Clement of Alexandria said, “Many martyrs are daily burned,
confined, or beheaded, before our eyes.” In 202 Septimius enacted a law prohibiting the
spread of Christianity and Judaism. This was the first universal decree forbidding conversion to
Christianity. Violent persecutions broke out in Egypt and North Africa.
Leonidas, the father of Origen, a Christian apologist, was beheaded. Origen himself was
spared because his mother hid his clothes. A young girl was cruelly tortured, then burned in a
kettle of burning pitch with her mother. A poignant story of the breaking down of class
distinctions in the suffering church comes out of the persecution in Carthage. It is reported that
Perpetua, a young noblewoman, and Felicitas, a slave girl, held hands and exchanged a kiss
before being thrown to wild animals at a public festival. Persecutions abated somewhat soon
after Septimius died, but resumed with a vengeance under Decius Trajan. In his few short’s
years on the throne, emperor Decius Trajan undertook to restore the old Roman spirit. In A.D.
250, he published an edict calling for a return to the pagan state religion. local commissioners
were appointed to enforce the ruling.
According to Philip Schaff, “This was the signal for a persecution which, in extent, consistency,
and cruelty, exceeded all before it.” It was the first to extend over the whole empire, so it
produced more martyrs than any other persecution. When people were suspected of being
Christians, they were given the opportunity of offering sacrifice to the gods before the
commissioners. Certificates were issued to prove a person’s loyalty to the pagan religions.
Many Christians gave in to the pressure. Those who didn’t were put in prison and repeatedly
questioned. Rulers weren’t looking for martyrs; they wanted to see the Christians conform.
Christians who stood their ground were subject to confiscation, exile, torture, imprisonment,
and death. Some rushed forward “to obtain the confessor’s or martyr’s crown.” Some,
however, obtained certificates through bribery or forgery. Those who offered sacrifices were
excommunicated. In 251 Decius died, but persecution continued as Christians were blamed
for invasions by the Goths and for natural disasters. During the years 303-311, the church
endured persecutions so terrible, that all before were forgotten. Historian Philip Schaff saw this
as the final struggle between the pagan Roman empire and the rule of Christ in the West. The
primary sources of persecution were Diocletian and Galerius. Diocletian came to power in
284, and for twenty years upheld edicts of toleration made by a previous emperor. His wife
and daughter were Christians, as were most of his court officers and eunuchs. But Diocletian
allowed himself to be persuaded by two of his co-regents to turn on the Christians.
Four edicts were issued in A.D. 303 and 304. “Christian churches were to be burned,” Schaff
tells us, “all copies of the Bible were to be burned; all Christians were to be deprived of public
office and civil rights; and last, all, without exception, were to sacrifice to the gods upon pain
of death.” A fifth edict was issued by co-regent Galerius in 308 ordering that all men, with
wives, children, and servants, were to offer sacrifice to the gods, “and that all provisions in the
markets should be sprinkled with sacrificial wine.” as a result, Christians either had to commit
apostasy or starve. Says Schaff: “all the pains, which iron and steel, fire and sword, rack and
cross, wild beasts and beastly men could inflict, were employed” against the church.
executioners grew tired with all the work they had to do.
The tide finally turned in the terrible struggle between paganism and Christianity in 311 when
Galerius admitted defeat in trying to bring Christians back to the pagan religions. He gave
Christians permission to meet as long as they didn’t disturb the order of the state. He even
requested that they pray to their God for the welfare of the state. Some persecution followed
under a few other emperors, but the fire was almost out on the old Roman empire. In 313,
Constantine, the emperor in the west, issued the Edict of Milan which moved from hostile
neutrality to friendly neutrality toward Christians. He declared himself a follower of the God of
Christianity. In 324, he became emperor of the whole Roman world, and published a new
edict of toleration which was to cover the entire empire. In the first century A.D., it was easy
for the general populace to believe Nero when he accused Christians of causing the Great
Fire in Rome, because Christians were thought of as haters of the human race (odium generis
humani).
Theologian Harold O. J. Brown sees similarities between that attitude, and the attitude of
people toward Christians today in America. So, for example, objections to homosexuality
draw charges of hate mongering. When a homosexual is murdered, the finger of blame is
pointed at Christians for creating a “climate of hate.” Attempts at saving the lives of the
unborn are portrayed as attempts to make life difficult for women in crisis. Of course, over-
zealous Christians don’t help any when they blow up an abortion clinic, or shoot an abortionist.
The general secular attitude today seems to be that it’s okay for Christians to have their beliefs,
as long as they at least give lip service to certain trendy ideals: gay rights, abortion rights, and
religious pluralism, to name a few.
Not much different than the attitude in the early church, is it? “Believe in your God if you want,
but be sure to worship ours, too.” By God’s grace we don’t endure serious suffering, at least
not yet. But Christians in other nations are experiencing it. In Sudan, people are forced to
become Muslims or pay for their resistance with low paying jobs, slavery, rape, and even
death. This is not the only country where Christians suffer severely for their faith. But history has
shown that persecution ultimately strengthens the church. It removes the nominal Christians,
and it emboldens others to both stand firm when persecuted, and become more aggressive
in proclamation. If persecution comes to us, the church will remain, although church
membership rolls will probably become shorter.
Are we prepared to truly suffer for our faith? Do we really believe what we say we believe? If
persecution ever comes, God grant us the faithfulness to stand firm. and let’s not forget to
pray and work to help our brothers and sisters who are suffering for the name of Jesus Christ.
Deacon Stephen
St. Stephen, (died 36 CE, Jerusalem; feast day December 26),
Christian deacon in Jerusalem and the first Christian martyr, whose apology before
the Sanhedrin (Acts of the Apostles 7) points to a distinct strand of belief in early Christianity.
His defense of his faith before the rabbinic court enraged his Jewish audience, and he was
taken out of the city and stoned to death. His final words, a prayer of forgiveness for his
attackers (Acts of the Apostles 7:60), echo those of Jesus on the cross (Luke 23:34). Stephen is
the patron saint of deacons and stonemasons. The name Stephen is Greek, and chapter 6 of
The Acts of the Apostles 6 tells us that he was a Hellenist (a foreign-born Jew who spoke Greek).
He lived in Jerusalem and had become a Christian. The Hellenist converts, who probably
formed a minority in the early Christian community, complained that the care of their elderly
widows was neglected by the Hebrew-speaking majority.
The Apostles presented the matter to the congregation and, pleading the press of
responsibilities, instructed it to select seven deacons for this community service. They were
chosen and ordained, and Stephen, who became the best known of the seven, was
recognized as a man with special gifts as an evangelist. He engaged in religious discussions
among the adherents of synagogues of Diaspora Jews in the capital. Growth in the number
of Jewish converts, including “many of the priests,” provoked a reaction. He was summoned
before the Sanhedrin, the supreme rabbinic court in Jerusalem, and charged with speaking
against “this holy place and the law.” The charge is very general; the report of his defense
before the Sanhedrin is the primary resource for learning what Stephen stood for.
Stephen’s response was Jewish in its concerns, and in form it followed

Hellenistic rhetorical conventions (Joshua 24:2–14; Acts of the Apostles 3:12–26). Many scholars
see a Samaritan connection to Stephen’s community, postulating that it may have migrated
there when Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 CE. They assume that the speech may have been
modified in its transmission through the years between its delivery and its incorporation in St.
Luke’s text which appears as The Acts of the Apostles. In any event, what Stephen seems to
say about temple and law would not have displeased Samaritan ears either, though it is
probably Stephen’s independent and original conviction. Stephen was bitterly opposed to
the Temple in Jerusalem and its sacrificial cult. He revered the Law of Moses but considered
the temple cult an illegitimate part of it. For Stephen, Moses was “both ruler and deliverer”
(Acts of the Apostles 7:35); he had delivered “living oracles,” the true law; and he had
promised that God would raise up another prophet (Jesus) as he had raised up Moses (7:37).
Stephen seems to think of Jesus as the “restorer of Mosaic religion.” In his discourse, he
sets Aaron over against Moses, the Temple over against the tent, and Solomon, who built the
Temple, over against David, who was persuaded not to. For Stephen, the building of the
Temple was a bit of idolatry, comparable to Aaron’s golden calf; “the Most High does not
dwell in houses made with hands” (7:48).
Stephen’s feelings about the Temple seem to have been more completely negative than
those of the first Christians generally; the latter, including St. Paul, continued to frequent it. Its
sacrificial rites served in many ways to shape the theological interpretation of salvation
through the death of Jesus. There is no hint that Stephen assigned doctrinal significance to
the death of Jesus. On the other hand, it has been suggested that he may have been the first
to anticipate the return (Second Coming) of Jesus. In a moment of rapture, at the close of his
apology, he saw the heavens opened and “the Son of Man standing at the right hand of
God.” The title “Son of Man,” with its intensely eschatological-apocalyptic connotations, is
used in the New Testament only by Jesus himself, with this single exception from the mouth of
Stephen. For St. Paul, Jesus had brought deliverance from the “curse of the law”
(Galatians 3:13). For Stephen, deliverance still awaits the rebirth of the Mosaic tradition in its
purity. Though Stephen was an intensely committed follower of Jesus, his faith may have rested
as much on the old basis as on the new. Stephen, to whose fate the Pharisee Saul of
Tarsus assented, spoke for an overwhelmingly Jewish, pre-Pauline Christian movement, the
precise outlines of which are not easily recoverable, because they have been covered by
layers of great change. After the death of Stephen, persecution intensified and Christians
could not stand the heat. They fled from Jerusalem. But we are told that they disseminated
the word wherever they went. This is how the gospel moved out of Jerusalem, thereby fulfilling
Acts 1v8. If it were not for Stephen, the gospel would have remained in Jerusalem. When it
started, Christianity was a sect within Judaism. In other words, there was no one who was a
Christian who was not a Jew. If anyone wanted to become a Christian, he/she had to become
a Jew first. There was no deliberate attempt to preach to the Gentiles. It was after the death
of Stephen that the mission to the Gentile was born. So, it can be said that had it not been for
Stephen, Christianity would have remained a sect within Judaism. Stephen must also have
contributed to the conversion of Paul. Paul was there when Stephen was stoned and people
laid their clothes at his feet as they attacked Stephen. The events of this incident must have
haunted Paul, leading to his conversion. So, Stephen was important in the history and
development of the early church.
The Gentile Mission

In Paul's writing, and particularly in Galatians, we get a glimpse of how difficult and bitter the
move to include non-Jews was in the early days of Christian mission. Paul was writing in the
thick of it, before all Jewish Christians were equally convinced that non-Jews could be
Christians. He saw it as his own particular commission from Jesus to preach to the gentiles, so
his whole sense of his purpose in life is bound up with this issue. He bears witness to a time when
the decision could have gone either way. Luke, on the other hand, is writing with the benefit
of hindsight, reporting on a period that is now past, but living at a time when the divisions over
the issue are largely just a memory. Luke tends to see the spread of the gospel all over the
world and through all cultures as inevitable. He sees the seeds of the gentile mission right back
in Jesus' own life and work: at the very beginning of Luke's gospel, the old man, Simeon, says,
prophetically, that Jesus is given as "a light for revelation to the gentiles". And in Acts, Philip
and Peter have already started to preach to non-Jews before Paul gets going at all.
Luke is perfectly clear that the decision to include gentiles in the new Christian community is
one forced on the church by the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10, he describes a dream that Peter is
reported to have had, in which he is explicitly told that he must eat things that were forbidden
by Jewish law. While still puzzling over the meaning of the dream, Peter meets a Roman
centurion, Cornelius, who is longing to become a Christian and who has gathered all his friends
together to hear Peter. And just to reinforce the point, the Holy Spirit "falls" upon Cornelius and
all his friends, and they speak in tongues and praise God. Peter concludes that "God shows no
partiality, but in every nation anyone who fears him and does what is right is acceptable to
him." So as far as Acts is concerned, the spread of the gospel to Gentiles is something that
happens in an orderly, spirit-filled manner and with the imprimatur of the Jewish Christians in
Jerusalem, as soon as they hear Peter's experience.
Paul, on the other hand, suggests that the situation was rather messier and more prolonged
than that. In his letter to the Galatian Christians, he describes a public confrontation between
himself and Peter in Antioch, where he accused Peter of hypocrisy. Peter had apparently
been happy to waive the Jewish food laws and eat with gentile Christians until a party of
Jewish Christians arrived. Paul seems to suggest that there were groups of Jewish Christians
who travelled round, trying to enforce circumcision and observance of the law on new
converts, and that they were causing considerable division and unrest in the churches. Acts
15 reflects something of the same situation, and suggests that it was solved by a council in
Jerusalem, which heard both sides and then made a considered decision. Luke's intention
here is to give a general overview of the process, rather than a detailed blow-by-blow
account. As far as he is concerned, the matter is settled. From the point of view of the modern
reader, it is a bit more complicated than that. Although the inclusion of gentiles among the
followers of Jesus is not an issue any more, Christians do still have major disagreements, so this
early record of how disputes were handled and how boundaries were drawn is still of interest
to us. When we read Acts 15 in the light of Galatians 1 and 2, it is clear that the argument was
both lengthy and vicious, and that Luke is telescoping the process in his account.
Luke is clear that some boundaries were imposed on gentile converts. They were not admitted
without any restrictions. He reports the decision of the Jerusalem council three times (in Acts
15:20, 15:29, 29:25). But that doesn't make its meaning crystal clear. The decree has come
down to us in slightly different forms, with different families of manuscripts clearly understanding
it in slightly different ways. The New Revised Standard Version translation says that gentile
Christians must "abstain from things polluted by idols and from fornication and from whatever
has been strangled and from blood." That sounds like a rather odd jumble of Jewish food laws
and general morality. Do they still apply to Christians today? The debate rages across scholarly
books and anxious websites. But perhaps one or two things emerge clearly. One is the
interesting – and surely not obvious? – assumption that Christians should agree boundaries. It
would surely have made as much sense for gentile Christian churches to go one way and
Jewish Christians to go another? But no, Paul and Luke agree that this was a matter for
consultation.
The second is that both parties in the argument were forced to be slightly counter-cultural in
their handling of the issue. Their common faith made both Jewish and gentile Christians stand
out from their own communities because of a loyalty to something bigger. This was a matter
of absolutely vital self-definition. The whole nature of Christianity was at stake. So it is ironic that
we now don't even know quite what measures were taken to resolve it. We only know the
shape of the faith that emerged.
Paul and his missionary work

St. Paul the Apostle, original name Saul of Tarsus, (born 4 BCE?, Tarsus in Cilicia [now in Turkey]
—died c. 62–64 CE, Rome[Italy]), one of the leaders of the first generation of Christians, often
considered to be the most important person after Jesus in the history of Christianity. In his own
day, although he was a major figure within the very small Christian movement, he also had
many enemies and detractors, and his contemporaries probably did not accord him as much
respect as they gave Peter and James. Paul was compelled to struggle, therefore, to establish
his own worth and authority. His surviving letters, however, have had enormous influence on
subsequent Christianity and secure his place as one of the greatest religious leaders of all time.
Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 13 are attributed to Paul, and approximately half of
another, Acts of the Apostles, deals with Paul’s life and works. Thus, about half of the New
Testament stems from Paul and the people whom he influenced. Only 7 of the 13 letters,
however, can be accepted as being entirely authentic (dictated by Paul himself). The others
come from followers writing in his name, who often used material from his surviving letters and
who may have had access to letters written by Paul that no longer survive. Although frequently
useful, the information in Acts is secondhand, and it is sometimes in direct conflict with the
letters. The seven undoubted letters constitute the best source of information on Paul’s life and
especially his thought; in the order in which they appear in the New Testament, they
are Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians,
and Philemon. The probable chronological order (leaving aside Philemon, which cannot be
dated) is 1 Thessalonians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, and Romans.
Letters considered “Deutero-Pauline” (probably written by Paul’s followers after his death)
are Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians; 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus are “Trito-Pauline”
(probably written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death).
Paul was a Greek-speaking Jew from Asia Minor. His birthplace, Tarsus, was a major city in
eastern Cilicia, a region that had been made part of the Roman province of Syria by the time
of Paul’s adulthood. Two of the main cities of Syria, Damascus and Antioch, played a
prominent part in his life and letters. Although the exact date of his birth is unknown, he was
active as a missionary in the 40s and 50s of the 1st century CE. From this it may be inferred that
he was born about the same time as Jesus (c. 4 BCE) or a little later. He was converted to faith
in Jesus Christ about 33 CE, and he died, probably in Rome, circa 62–64 CE. In his childhood
and youth, Paul learned how to “work with [his] own hands” (1 Corinthians 4:12). His trade, tent
making, which he continued to practice after his conversion to Christianity, helps to explain
important aspects of his apostleship. He could travel with a few leather-working tools and set
up shop anywhere. It is doubtful that his family was wealthy or aristocratic, but, since he found
it noteworthy that he sometimes worked with his own hands, it may be assumed that he was
not a common labourer. His letters are written in Koine, or “common” Greek, rather than in the
elegant literary Greek of his wealthy contemporary the Jewish philosopher Philo
Judaeus of Alexandria, and this too argues against the view that Paul was an aristocrat.
Moreover, he knew how to dictate, and he could write with his own hand in large letters
(Galatians 6:11), though not in the small, neat letters of the professional scribe.
Until about the midpoint of his life, Paul was a member of the Pharisees, a religious party that
emerged during the later Second Temple period. What little is known about Paul the Pharisee
reflects the character of the Pharisaic movement. Pharisees believed in life after death, which
was one of Paul’s deepest convictions. They accepted nonbiblical “traditions” as being about
as important as the written Bible; Paul refers to his expertise in “traditions” (Galatians 1:14).
Pharisees were very careful students of the Hebrew Bible, and Paul was able to quote
extensively from the Greek translation. (It was fairly easy for a bright, ambitious young boy to
memorize the Bible, and it would have been very difficult and expensive for Paul as an adult
to carry around dozens of bulky scrolls.) By his own account, Paul was the best Jew and the
best Pharisee of his generation (Philippians 3:4–6; Galatians 1:13–14), though he claimed to be
the least apostle of Christ (2 Corinthians11:22–3; 1 Corinthians 15:9–10) and attributed his
successes to the grace of God.
Paul spent much of the first half of his life persecuting the nascent Christian movement, an
activity to which he refers several times. Paul’s motivations are unknown, but they seem not to
have been connected to his Pharisaism. The chief persecutors of the Christian movement in
Jerusalem were the high priest and his associates, who were Sadducees (if they belonged to
one of the parties), and Acts depicts the leading Pharisee, Gamaliel, as defending the
Christians (Acts 5:34). It is possible that Paul believed that Jewish converts to the new
movement were not sufficiently observant of the Jewish law, that Jewish converts mingled too
freely with Gentile (non-Jewish) converts, thus associating themselves with idolatrous
practices, or that the notion of a crucified messiah was objectionable. The young Paul
certainly would have rejected the view that Jesus had been raised after his death—not
because he doubted resurrection as such but because he would not have believed that God
chose to favour Jesus by raising him before the time of the Judgment of the world. Whatever
his reasons, Paul’s persecutions probably involved traveling from synagogue to synagogue
and urging the punishment of Jews who accepted Jesus as the messiah. Disobedient
members of synagogues were punished by some form of ostracism or by light flogging, which
Paul himself later suffered at least five times (2 Corinthians 11:24), though he does not say when
or where. According to Acts, Paul began his persecutions in Jerusalem, a view at odds with his
assertion that he did not know any of the Jerusalem followers of Christ until well after his own
conversion (Galatians 1:4–17).
Paul was on his way to Damascus when he had a vision that changed his life: according to
Galatians 1:16, God revealed his Son to him. More specifically, Paul states that he saw the Lord
(1 Corinthians 9:1), though Acts claims that near Damascus he saw a blinding bright light.
Following this revelation, which convinced Paul that God had indeed chosen Jesus to be the
promised messiah, he went into Arabia—probably Coele-Syria, west of Damascus (Galatians
1:17). He then returned to Damascus, and three years later he went to Jerusalem to become
acquainted with the leading apostles there. After this meeting he began his
famous missions to the west, preaching first in his native Syria and Cilicia (Galatians 1:17–24).
During the next 20 years or so (c. mid-30s to mid-50s), he established several churches in Asia
Minor and at least three in Europe, including the church at Corinth.
During the course of his missions, Paul realized that his preaching to Gentiles was creating
difficulties for the Christians in Jerusalem, who thought that Gentiles must become Jewish in
order to join the Christian movement. To settle the issue, Paul returned to Jerusalem and struck
a deal. It was agreed that Peter would be the principal apostle to Jews and Paul the principal
apostle to Gentiles. Paul would not have to change his message, but he would take up a
collection for the Jerusalem church, which was in need of financial support (Galatians 2:1–10;
2 Corinthians 8–9; Romans 15:16–17, 25–26), though Paul’s Gentile churches were hardly well
off. In Romans 15:16–17 Paul seems to interpret the “offering of the Gentiles” symbolically,
suggesting that it is the prophesied Gentile pilgrimage to the Temple of Jerusalem, with their
wealth in their hands (e.g., Isaiah 60:1–6). It is also obvious that Paul and the Jerusalem apostles
made a political bargain not to interfere in each other’s spheres. The “circumcision faction”
of the Jerusalem apostles (Galatians 2:12–13), which argued that converts should
undergo circumcision as a sign of accepting the covenant between God and Abraham, later
broke this agreement by preaching to the Gentile converts both in Antioch (Galatians 2:12)
and Galatia and insisting that they be circumcised, leading to some of Paul’s strongest
invective (Galatians 1:7–9; 3:1; 5:2–12; 6:12–13).
In the late 50s Paul returned to Jerusalem with the money he had raised and a few of his
Gentile converts. There he was arrested for taking a Gentile too far into the Temple precincts,
and, after a series of trials, he was sent to Rome. Later Christian tradition favours the view that
he was executed there (1 Clement 5:1–7), perhaps as part of the executions of Christians
ordered by the Roman emperor Nero following the great fire in the city in 64 CE
Points of interest
When God brings a person to faith in Jesus Christ, he already knows how he wants to use that
person in service to his kingdom. Sometimes people are slow to understand God's plan and
may even resist it. Paul's conversion showed that Jesus himself wanted the gospel
message to go to the Gentiles, quashing any argument from the early Jewish Christians
that the gospel was only for the Jews. The men with Saul did not see the risen Jesus,
but Saul did. This miraculous message was meant for one person only, Saul. The scales
falling from Paul's eyes symbolized a spiritual transformation that allowed him to see
the truth. Once he knew the truth about Jesus, there was no going back. Saul
witnessed the risen Christ, which fulfilled the qualification of an apostle(Acts 1:21-22).
Only those who had seen the risen Christ could testify to his resurrection.
Major themes and life lessons

In one moment of fear, enlightenment, and regret, Saul understood that Jesus was the true
Messiah and that he (Saul) had helped murder and imprison innocent people. Despite his
previous beliefs as a Pharisee, he now knew the truth about God and was obligated to obey
him. Paul's conversion proves that God can call and transform anyone he chooses, even the
most hard-hearted. Jesus did not distinguish between his church and his followers, and himself.
Jesus told Saul he had been persecuting him. Anyone who persecutes Christians, or the
Christian church, is persecuting Christ himself.
A person's past does not matter to Christ. He is more interested in a person's future. Even though
Saul had been one of Jesus' cruelest enemies, he became one of his closest friends. God's
forgiveness is full and final. God often chooses the most unlikely people to accomplish his will.
Over and over in the Bible, God picked flawed men and women to help carry out his plan of
salvation. The lesson is that the power comes from God; the person is only a vessel. When God
calls a person to a task, he equips that person for it. Paul received the Holy Spirit, along with
the truth of the gospel so he could share it with others. Paul could not have achieved this
remarkable accomplishment in his own strength. He was empowered by God.
The Council of Jerusalem or Apostolic Council

The Council of Jerusalem or Apostolic Council was held in Jerusalem around AD 50. It is unique
among the ancient pre-ecumenical councils in that it is considered
by Catholics and Orthodox to be a prototype and forerunner of the later ecumenical
councils and a key part of Christian ethics. The council decided that Gentile converts to
Christianity were not obligated to keep most of the Law of Moses, including the rules
concerning circumcision of males. The Council did, however, retain the prohibitions on
eating blood, meat containing blood, and meat of animals that were strangled, and
on fornication and idolatry, sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Decree or Jerusalem
Quadrilateral.
Accounts of the council are found in Acts of the Apostles chapter 15 (in two different forms,
the Alexandrian and Western versions) and also possibly in Paul's letter to the
Galatians chapter 2.[1]Some scholars dispute that Galatians 2 is about the Council of
Jerusalem (notably because Galatians 2 describes a private meeting) while other scholars
dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles. The purpose of the meeting,
according to Acts, was to resolve a disagreement in Antioch, which had wider implications
than just circumcision, since circumcision is the "everlasting" sign of the Abrahamic
Covenant (Genesis 17:9–14). Some of the Pharisees who had become believers insisted that it
was "needful to circumcise them, and to command [them] to keep the law of Moses" (KJV).
The primary issue which was addressed related to the requirement of circumcision, as the
author of Acts relates, but other important matters arose as well, as the Apostolic Decree
indicates. The dispute was between those, such as the followers of the "Pillars of the Church",
led by James, who believed, following his interpretation of the Great Commission, that the
church must observe the Torah, i.e. the rules of traditional Judaism, and Paul the Apostle, who
believed there was no such necessity. New Covenant, Antinomianism, Hellenistic
Judaism, Paul the Apostle and Judaism.) At the Council, following advice offered by Simon
Peter (Acts 15:7–11 and Acts 15:14), Barnabas and Paul gave an account of their ministry
among the gentiles (Acts 15:12), and the apostle James quoted from the words of the
prophet Amos (Acts 15:16–17, quoting Amos 9:11–12). James added his own words to the
quotation: "Known to God from eternity are all His works" and then submitted a proposal, which
was accepted by the Church and became known as the Apostolic Decree: It is my judgment,
therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead
we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual
immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood. For the law of Moses has been
preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath.
Can Acts be said to be a defense of Christianity

Some scholars would like to say no. Acts of the Apostles may seem to be a defense of
Christianity because of the many miracles described. For example, there is no mention of Paul
performing or experiencing miracles in his epistles, and Paul presents himself as a man unlikely
to have experienced miracles, other than the revelations from God. Paul faced many
challenges to his authority, yet in his account he never performs miracles to persuade or repel
his opponents, nor even describes those miracles that appear in Acts when to write about
them would have enhanced his authority. Paul could not risk his credibility by writing to his
contemporaries about miracles and wonders if they never really happened, since he could
be challenged to substantiate any events he described. However, after a safe interval of
many decades, the author of Acts attributes previously unknown miracles to Paul.
Nevertheless, Acts was actually written for theological-political reasons as a subtle comparison
of the apostles Peter and Paul. For example, according to Acts, Paul’s first miraculous cure was
improbably similar to Peter’s first cure. In both cases, a man who had been lame since birth
was immediately cured by being commanded to stand and walk. Peter’s first miracle cure
was performed in the name of Jesus, at the Temple, where the faithful saw the healed beggar
praising God, and was the opportunity for some outstanding proselytising. Paul’s first cure was
clumsy and without apparent purpose, given that Paul did not tell the man about Jesus and
he was even mistaken for a pagan god. The similarity of the two events tells us that Luke had
one account in mind when creating the other, and went on to create a subtle comparison
between the two apostles.
In an even more difficult challenge, Peter resurrected Tabitha, a good woman and a disciple,
who was certainly dead and her body had already been washed. This miracle became
known throughout Joppa and, as a result, many were converted. Paul also resuscitated a
young man who foolishly fell asleep in an upper storey window and fell to the ground. There is
some uncertainty as to whether the young man was really dead when Paul intervened to
revive him, and the miracle did not present an opportunity to convert unbelievers. I could go
on, miracle by miracle and claim by claim, but for some reasons, the author of Luke wished to
make Paul a lesser character in the early church. Instead of the autonomous missionary who
chose from the beginning to be the apostle to the Gentiles, he begins as the blind and helpless
man who was taught the gospel in Damascus and then, rather unsuccessfully, tried to convert
the Jews of that city. In this book, he played only a minor role in the decision to preach to the
uncircumcised. Acts of the Apostles is neither a defense of Christianity nor a proper history of
the early church.
ACTIVITY
1. ‘A sect within Judaism” Is this an apt description of the early church up to the death of
Stephen?
2. Discuss the importance of Paul and Stephen in the history and development of the early
church
3. What problems arose in the early church as a result of the admission of the Gentiles?
How were these problems solved?
4. What problems is the church of Christ facing today and how can these be tackled?
5. What type of persecutions can Christians say they are facing today?
UNIT V.
The epistles: Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Thessalonians, James, Timothy, Peter, Hebrews,
Revelation
Learning objectives
At the end of the unit, the students are expected to learn
• Understand the word “Epistles”
• Know the importance of different epistles
• List different epistles written in different people and churches
• Interpret various epistles
Preamble
The word epistle comes from the Greek word epistole, meaning letter or message. Epistles
were primarily written communications during the time of the New Testament. For example,
Paul, Peter, and John wrote epistles or letters to churches or individuals (Timothy, Titus,
Philemon).
An epistle was a letter written on a scroll most often dictated by an author to a scribe and
then reviewed by the author before being delivered by a trustworthy messenger. 1 Peter, for
example, mentions Silvanus or Silas (1 Peter 5:12) as transcribing Peter’s letter. Timothy, Paul’s
close associate, was also involved in transcribing and delivering Paul’s letters (Colossians 1:1;
1 Thessalonians 1:1; Philemon 1:1). Even so, Paul verifies in each letter he writes that he is the
author (Galatians 6:11). Epistles follow a fairly recognizable template. For example, Paul’s
letters begin with an introduction where he identifies himself to his audience, mentions any
known associations, and gives a greeting. The introduction of an epistle is followed by the main
body of the letter and concludes with a blessing and a personal note to individuals within the
church he’s addressing.
Epistles in the Scriptures are only found in the New Testament, which contains 21 such letters
extending from Romans to Jude. Thirteen of the Epistles are written by the Apostle Paul. These
are:
• Romans
• 1 and 2 Corinthians
• Galatians
• Ephesians
• Philippians
• Colossians
• 1 and 2 Thessalonians
• 1 and 2 Timothy
• Titus
• Philemon
Within the Pauline epistles are a group of letters known as the Prison Epistles (Ephesians,
Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon). These epistles were written during Paul’s two-year
house arrest in Rome (Acts 28:30-31). The Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) were
written to church leaders and include teaching focusing on worship services and church order
within the early church. Following Paul’s Epistles are eight General Epistles, also known as the
Catholic Epistles, and are written to a universal audience. These include the following:
• Hebrews
• James
• 1 and 2 Peter
• 1, 2, and 3 John
• Jude
The book of Revelation stands on its own because it is not addressed to anyone in particular.
It is not an epistle.
The letter to the Galatians

The occasion for this letter was a controversy that developed among the churches in Galatia,
and especially the one in Antioch, concerning the matter of requiring Gentile Christians to
obey the Mosaic Law. One law very much in question concerned circumcision, a religious rite
that meant for Jews much the same thing as baptism came to mean for Christians of a later
period. The Christians whose background had been in Judaism could see no reason why this
rite should not be required of all Christians, as it was for Jews. As they understood it, the laws
given by God through Moses were binding for all time and could never be set aside by human
beings or by any set of circumstances that might arise.
When people with a Gentile background became followers of Jesus and sought admission to
the Christian churches, they saw no particular value in the observance of the rite of
circumcision and wanted to be excused from it. Paul, invited to work with the Gentile element
in the church, was sympathetic to their position. The experiences that he encountered with
the Mosaic Law prior to his conversion convinced him that no one could ever be saved by
mere obedience to a set of external laws. His own conversion to the Christian faith was brought
about by the conviction that the spirit manifested in the life of Jesus took possession of the
hearts and minds of individuals and enabled them to be saved. Accordingly, if Gentile
Christians were possessed by this spirit, which for Paul was the true meaning of faith, it made
little or no difference at all whether they conformed to the letter of the Mosaic Law.
So long as Paul remained with these churches, the Jewish and Gentile elements seemed to
get along without any serious trouble, each group following the dictates of its individual
conscience. But after Paul left on one of his missionary tours, trouble began when prominent
officials of the church in Jerusalem visited the newly established churches in Galatia. These
church visitors insisted that the law concerning circumcision, as well as the other requirements
of the Mosaic Law, was binding on all Christians, including those coming from a Gentile
background. Furthermore, they launched a vicious attack on Paul because of his attitude
about this matter. They even went so far as to charge that he was an impostor and was guilty
of misleading the membership of the churches. In response to these charges, Paul wrote the
Epistle to the Galatians.
At the beginning of the letter, Paul expresses astonishment at what has taken place during his
absence from the Galatians. Surprised at the attitude taken by the so-called leaders of the
Jerusalem church, he is deeply disappointed when the people among whom he labored are
persuaded by these visiting brethren to turn from the message that he proclaimed and accept
as obligatory the requirements characteristic of Jewish legalism. Replying to the accusation
that he is not a qualified leader of the Christian community, Paul defends his apostleship by
declaring that Jesus Christ — not men — called him to that office. In support of this claim, he
reviews the experiences that led to his conversion and the circumstances under which he
carried on his work among the churches. He describes his relationship with the so-called "pillars
of the church" at Jerusalem, explaining both the purpose and the outcome of his conferences
with them. Although he did not receive from them any directive concerning the content of
the message he was to proclaim, they were fully informed about the work he was doing and
gave their approval to it, specifying in particular that he should devote his main efforts toward
working with people entering the church from a Gentile background.
Following this introduction, Paul proceeds to the main point of the letter: to explain and clarify
his position concerning the Law, which he does by detailing both its uses and its limitations as
a means of obtaining salvation. The Law, he maintains, lays bare the defects in a person's
character. In this respect, its function is like that of a looking-glass, which reveals blemishes but
does not remove them. He writes, "So the law was put in charge to lead us to Christ that we
might be justified by faith." When this goal has been reached, the Law is no longer necessary:
"Clearly no one is justified before God by the law." Only by faith in Christ are people justified.
By faith, Paul means something more than a mere intellectual assent to a number of facts in
connection with the earthly life of Jesus. He means a commitment on the part of an individual
to the way of life exemplified in the person of Jesus. A person possessed by the same spirit
present in Jesus will be saved from sin and the spiritual death that sin brings. That person's
desires and whole nature will be so transformed that he will do what is right because he wants
to act that way rather than because he thinks it is a duty to be performed in order to obtain a
reward.
Paul presents a series of arguments in support of his position regarding the Law. For example,
he refers to Abraham as the father of the faithful and insists that Abraham's righteousness could
not have been obtained by obedience to Mosaic laws because those laws were not given
until centuries after Abraham died. Hence, Abraham must have obtained righteousness by
faith. But if Abraham's righteousness was achieved by faith, the same must be true for all of his
spiritual descendants. When God made his great promise to Abraham, all of Abraham's
descendants were included. Christians are, according to Paul, of Abraham's seed, for it is said,
"If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise."
This same point is elaborated somewhat further in the allegory of Abraham's two sons. One
son, Ishmael, was born of a slave woman, but the other son, Isaac, was born of a free woman.
Ishmael represents people who are under bondage to the Law, and Isaac represents people
who are free in Christ: "It is for freedom that Christ has set us free. Stand firm, then, and do not
let yourselves be burdened again by a yoke of slavery."
The Epistle to the Galatians concludes with a description of the kind of life that a person will
live who is filled with the Spirit of God, a life that sharply contrasts to the kind of life a person
will live who has carnal desires. The quality of living is determined by whether or not an
individual is possessed by the Spirit of Christ.
Analysis
Galatians is important for several reasons. First of all, it is among the earliest, if not the earliest,
of all the writings in the New Testament. The letter gives us an insight into the problems that
arose in the Christian churches of the first century after Jesus' physical death, and most
important of all, it reveals one of the most essential elements in Paul's conception of
Christianity.
The letter has sometimes been called "Paul's declaration of independence," a designation
that means freedom from bondage to laws of any kind, whether human laws or divine laws.
On this particular point, Paul made a definite break not only with Judaism but with those
Christians of Jewish descent who thought of the new religion in terms of obedience both to
the Mosaic Law and the laws enunciated by Jesus. These two competing conceptions of
Christianity generally were held respectively by the Jewish and the Gentile elements in the
membership of the Christian church. Those with a Jewish background held what may be
called a legalistic conception of religion; the Gentile element under the leadership of Paul
believed in a mystical conception. According to the latter view, salvation can never be
achieved by trying to obey the requirements of the Law. Human nature is so constituted that
a person necessarily follows the desires of the heart, and so long as these desires are contrary
to the requirements of the Law, the result will be disobedience and a sense of guilt.
When Paul speaks of salvation by faith, he means the situation in which desires have been
changed so that what one wants to do will coincide with what one ought to do, a
transformation that humanity cannot bring about by itself alone but that can take place only
when the Spirit of God in Christ takes possession of hearts and minds. Salvation, the very
essence of Christian mysticism, means a union, or oneness, of the individual and God. In other
words, God dwells within the life of the individual, whose nature is thereby changed from that
which is prone to do evil to that prone to do good. The earthly career of Jesus is significant
because it illustrates what can happen to any human being who allows the Spirit of God to
take full possession of him, an idea clearly expressed by Paul when he says, "I have been
crucified with Christ and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me." Paul's argument did not
convince all members of the Christian community. Many members, especially those of a
Jewish background and understanding, still held to the legalistic view. The conflict between
the legalistic and the mystical interpretations of religion can be traced through all of the
successive periods of Christian history and is still one of the vital issues in contemporary
theology.
Paul’s letters to the Corinthians

Paul wrote at least four different letters to the church at Corinth, three of which are included
in the New Testament. In what is now called 1 Corinthians, there is a reference to a former
letter in which instruction was given concerning the type of conduct that should not be
tolerated in a Christian church. 2 Corinthians is made up of two different letters. Chapters 1–9
are written in a conciliatory tone that indicates that they were composed after Chapters 10–
13 were received and accepted by the members of the church. Chapters 10–13 belong to
what is often referred to as the "painful letter," in which Paul replies to the many false charges
made concerning him and his work. The largest part of Paul's correspondence was with the
church at Corinth, for the problems that he encountered in this place were more numerous
than he had found in other cities, and if his message could be successful in Corinth, there was
good reason to believe that it could have results that would be equally as good in any other
place.
Corinth was an important city in Paul's day. Generally known as a city devoted to pleasure-
seeking, it was a center for Greek culture and a busy commercial city with a cosmopolitan
atmosphere that brought together people and customs from different parts of the world.
Pagan religions with sexual rites and ceremonies existed, and both materialism and immorality
were the accepted order of the day. In view of these conditions, no wonder Paul said he
began his Corinthian mission with fear. However, his work was successful from the beginning.
He was especially anxious to guide new Christian converts with reference to the many
perplexing problems that were bound to arise. In other places, the Jewish element, with its
legalistic tendencies, created difficulties, but in Corinth, the moral problem caused the greater
anxiety. The Corinthian church's membership was composed of people from many different
quarters, including those whose training and environment were foreign to the Hebrew
standards of morality. Paul was deeply concerned that the Christian church in Corinth should
make no compromise with the morality — or immorality — customary in a pagan society. The
longest of the letters written to the church at Corinth is known in the New Testament as 1
Corinthians. Containing sixteen chapters dealing with a wide variety of topics, the first topic
mentioned is that of divisions within the church. Four distinct factions correspond to the four
individuals whose teachings were followed by the respective groups: Paul, Apollos, Cephas,
and Christ. Reportedly, the household of Chloe informed Paul that serious quarrels had taken
place among these factions. The spirit of independent thinking emphasized so strongly by the
Greeks evidently was influencing the Corinthian Christians. Paul's manner of dealing with the
problem is noteworthy. He does not insist that all members of the community should think alike
on every subject, nor does he advocate that someone with authority should tell others what
to believe. What he does insist on is a unity of spirit and purpose that will allow each group to
learn from the others. On the subject of immorality within the membership of the church, Paul
is very explicit. Any type of immoral conduct must not be tolerated among the believers. If any
of their number persist in following the low moral standards of the pagans, they should be
excluded from membership. Association with evildoers cannot be avoided so long as church
members live in a wicked city, but it need not be permitted within the group that is called
Christian. The function of the church is to set a high standard for the society in which it exists,
which cannot be done by permitting low standards among their own members: "Don't you
know that a little yeast works through the whole batch of dough? Get rid of the old yeast that
you may be a new batch without yeast — as you really are."
Disputes arising among members of the Christian community should be settled peaceably
without going to a civil court: "The very fact that you have lawsuits among you means you
have been completely defeated already. Why not rather be wronged?" Paul refers to a
popular Jewish belief that saints are to have a part in the judgment of the world. Certainly the
Corinthians are not qualified to have a part in the judgment of the world if they are unable to
settle difficulties among themselves.
Sexual morality was a real problem in the church at Corinth. Neither monogamy nor chastity
was regarded as obligatory in the pagan society in which many of the church members were
reared before becoming Christians. Paul's instruction regarding marriage must be considered
in accordance with his belief concerning the imminence of the second coming of Christ, as
well as with his desire to have the church at Corinth exemplify a high standard of living. The
same can be said about his advice concerning the impropriety of women speaking in church.
In the city of Corinth, prostitutes customarily spoke in public, and to protect the reputation of
the women in the Christian church, Paul thought it would be wise for them to remain silent. He
explains, however, that this is merely his personal opinion; he has received no direct revelation
to this effect. Regarding the eating of meat that has been obtained from animals sacrificed
to idols, everyone should follow the dictates of their own consciences, the only condition being
that each person should have respect for the conscience of the person who does not agree
with him. One should refrain from needlessly offending another person, even though by doing
so it is necessary to curb one's own appetite.
The Christian churches customarily commemorated the events associated with Jesus' death
and resurrection by partaking of a common meal together. Some of the people at Corinth
failed to see the significance of this meal and made it an occasion for feasting. Paul explains
that the purpose of this meal is not for the enjoyment of eating and drinking together but rather
for a renewed dedication to the spirit made manifest in the life and death of Jesus. In other
words, each individual should examine his own heart and life and bring them into harmony
with the Spirit of Christ. Any grievances that people have with one another should be set aside
in preparation for the eating of the meal together.
Spiritual gifts among the various members of the church is another topic treated at some
length in 1 Corinthians. Using the analogy of the human body, in which each organ has its
special function to perform and no one of them can be regarded as more vital than another,
the same principle applies within the church, which is the body of Christ. Some members have
the gift of prophecy, others that of teaching, and still others that of offering help in carrying
forward the work of the church. Those who are apostles or prophets are not to think of
themselves as superior to those who exercise other gifts, for all gifts are necessary, and the
church would not be complete if any of them were missing. To those who boast that they have
the gift of tongues and are therefore in a position to exercise lordship over others, Paul writes
that this particular gift, like all of the others, should be evaluated in terms of its usefulness in
promoting the Christian way of life. He does not condemn this gift for those who might find it
useful, but he says that so far as he is concerned, it is better to speak a few words that will be
understood by others than to speak at great length in an unknown tongue that is quite
unintelligible to those who might hear it. Following the discussion of spiritual gifts is Paul's
immortal hymn to Christian love, which is one of the great classics of Christian literature. The
hymn makes love the foundation for all Christian conduct. What wisdom was for the Greeks,
love is for Christians: "And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of
these is love."
After the discourse on love, Paul discusses resurrection. For him, the subject is of primary
importance, for he considers resurrection the basis upon which the whole structure of
Christianity rests. If Christ is not risen, then our hope is in vain. Christ's resurrection is attested to
by a large number of witnesses, of whom Paul counts himself one of the last. The significance
of the resurrection, more than a vindication of the Messiahship of Jesus, assures us that what
happened in the case of Jesus can and will happen to all those who believe in him. The
resurrection of the righteous will be associated with the second coming of Christ: "For the
perishable must clothe itself with the imperishable, and the mortal with immortality. When the
perishable has been clothed with the imperishable, and the mortal with immortality, then the
saying that is written will come true: 'Death has been swallowed up in victory.'" The letter closes
with an appeal for a contribution to help provide for the poor among the Christians in
Jerusalem. Paul will stop at Corinth on his way to Jerusalem and take the gift with him.
The so-called "painful letter," which is found in Chapters 10–13 of 2 Corinthians, contains Paul's
defense of himself and of his work to the charges made against him by his enemies, including
the Jewish legalists who said that Paul was an impostor who had not been authorized by the
proper authorities to work among the churches. The legalists supported their charge by
pointing out that Paul had a "thorn in [his] flesh," some physical defect that, according to
ancient Jewish regulations, would have barred a man from the priesthood. They further
maintained that Paul supported himself by doing manual labor rather than by accepting
support from the members of the church. This labor, in their judgment, was an admission on his
part that he was not qualified to be supported in the way that was customary for duly
authorized missionaries. The legalists also accused Paul of cowardice on the grounds that he
was bold so long as he was writing letters, but he was very mild when present with the legalists
in person. Other charges of a similar nature were made in an all-out attempt to discredit the
religious work that Paul was doing.
To all of these charges, Paul makes a vigorous reply. He shows wherein the charges are false,
and he recounts for the people at Corinth the many trials and hardships that he suffered for
their sake and for the sake of the gospel. Although he apologizes for seeming to boast of his
own attainments, he explains the necessity for doing so. He indicates further that his greatest
disappointment lies not in the fact that charges of this sort have been made against him but
that the members of the Corinthian church have apparently been persuaded by them. The
first nine chapters of what is now called 2 Corinthians are a letter that appears to have been
written some time after the "painful letter" was received and accepted by the church. This
letter contains an expression of gratitude for the change that has taken place among the
Corinthian believers. Paul rejoices that they are now on the right track again, and he
summarizes for them the essential meaning of the gospel that he first proclaimed to them.
Using the language of the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah, Paul tells them that the Christian
gospel is none other than the New Covenant, written "not on tablets of stone but on tablets of
human hearts." Toward the close of the letter, he again reminds them of the collection to be
taken for the poor in Jerusalem.
Analysis of I and II Corinthians

Although the Corinthian letters were addressed to a single church and were concerned
primarily with local problems existing at that time, they are of special interest to readers of the
New Testament. One reason for this interest is that the letters were written at an early date;
therefore, they throw considerable light on the character of the Christian movement prior to
the writing of any gospel account of Jesus' life. Paul's statements concerning the resurrection
of Jesus constitute the earliest preserved record of that event. The same is true of his account
of the institution of the Lord's Supper. His remarks concerning the gift of tongues, along with
the other gifts of the spirit, help us to understand the way in which these manifestations were
viewed by the early church. Finally, the many problems discussed in 1 Corinthians tell us a
great deal about the conditions that prevailed at that time.
Paul's account of the resurrection enables us to see how his view differed from those of the
ancient Greeks and also from the view found in certain portions of the Old Testament. The
Greeks believed in the doctrine of the soul's immortality. According to this doctrine, souls do
not have a beginning or an end. They are eternal realities capable of existing apart from the
bodies in which they were incarnated. This view was contrary to the Hebrew conception,
which viewed man as a single unit including body, soul, and spirit; the soul was not something
that existed apart from the body. After death, all went down to Sheol, a cavern below the
earth, but no memory or consciousness of any kind attended this state of existence. In contrast
to these views, Paul believed in a genuine resurrection from physical death in which a person's
individuality and moral worth would be preserved. But this preservation was not to be a
reanimation of the corpse and a continuation of life as it had been before. Flesh and blood,
Paul tells us, will not inherit God's kingdom. The body that is raised will not be the natural body
but rather a spiritual body. Paul does not tell us what this spiritual body will be like, but he is
sure that it will be a body of some kind, for the personality includes body, soul, and spirit, and
salvation is not achieved until all three have been transformed together.
The Gnostics of Paul's day, who believed that only spirit is good and that all matter is evil,
taught that Jesus did not possess a physical body but only appeared to do so. For Paul, this
position was untenable: Unless Jesus possessed a body in common with other human beings,
his triumph over evil would have no significance for humans. Jesus' resurrection means a
triumph of the entire personality over the forces of evil; what it means for Jesus it also means
for all those who put their trust in him.
Paul’s letter to the Romans
Summary of the letter
The book of Romans is a Pauline Epistle (letter from Paul). The Apostle Paul wrote it roughly
about 56-57 A.D. The key personalities in the book of Romans are the Apostle Paul, and
Phoebe who delivered this letter. Paul wrote the letter to the believers in Rome, hence the
name “Romans”. He wrote it to give them a concrete theological foundation on which to
construct their faith and to live for and serve God effectively. The book of Romans reveals the
answers to important questions and supplies information on many topics, such as salvation,
the sovereignty of God, judgment, spiritual growth, and the righteousness of God. Many
scholars also describe it as The Gospel and the Righteousness of God, which can be received
only by faith in the atoning death of Jesus Christ.
The focus of the “righteousness of God” is foundational throughout the book of Romans. In
fact, it is threaded through every section of the basic outline of this epistle. Paul reiterates this
so that the reader may realize that salvation cannot be attained through man’s good deeds
but only through faith in God’s righteousness: "I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is
the power of God for the salvation of everyone who believes... For in the gospel a
righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith" (1:16-17). You cannot
repair your relationship with God through your good deeds; this is only accomplished through
faith in the perfect and finished work of Jesus Christ.
In chapters 1-8, Paul explains the fundamentals and foundations of the Christian faith. This is
the Gospel Message, which all believers are commanded to share with the entire world. Some
of the most popular and precious memorization passages about Salvation can be found in
the first several chapters of Romans, “For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is
eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (6:23). Paul teaches about the sinful nature of all men in the
eyes of God, justification by faith in Jesus Christ, freedom from sin, and victory in Christ.
Chapters 9-11, Paul explains God’s sovereignty over salvation. He also spells out how an
individual may come into a right relationship with God: "if you confess with your mouth Jesus
as Lord, and believe in your heart that God raised Him from the dead, you will be saved; for
with the heart a person believes, resulting in righteousness, and with the mouth he confesses,
resulting in salvation." (10:13). Place your faith and trust only in what Jesus Christ has already
done on the cross and make Him the Master of your life and trust He raised Himself from the
grave conquering death. His promise is "You will be saved''. In chapters 12-16, Paul gives
instructions for all Christians about how to live a holy lifestyle. In the beginning of chapter 12
he writes, “Present your bodies a living and holy sacrifice”, and “Do not be conformed to this
world” (vss. 1-2). Much of the errors and trials that Paul dealt with in his “Epistles”, were because
the believers had conformed their lives to the world and not to God.
Analysis of Romans
I. INTRODUCTION. 1:1-15
i. Salutation. 1:1-7
• Paul called to be an apostle to the Romans called as believers. Grace and peace in
Jesus Christ.
ii. Personal explanations. 1:8-15
• His thanksgivings for them and his interest in them. His desire to see them and to impart
some spiritual gift to them. His obligation to preach the Gospel to all men. He is not
ashamed of the Gospel.
II. DOCTRINAL PORTION. 1:16-11:36
i. What is the Gospel? 1:16-18
• A righteousness of God to every one that believeth, to the Jew first and then to the Greek.
A righteousness by faith, just as the wrath of God falls on all impiety and unrighteousness.
ii. State of the Gentile world. 1:19-32
• They might have seen God through His works. They refused to see Him. They disputed, and
they blinded their hearts. They worshipped men and beasts.
• Therefore, they were delivered over to impurity. Their shameless lusts. Their violent and
unruly passions. Their lack of all natural affection. They not only did these things; but they
took delight in those who did them.
iii. State of Jewish people. 2:1-29
• The Jews condemn the Gentiles and yet do the same things. Their wrong-doing and
stubbornness will be equally punished. As the Jew has a priority of knowledge, so also he
has a priority of condemnation. Those without the law and those under the law will both
be judged by the standard under which they lived. The natural conscience is to the
heathen as a rule.
• The Jew has God's law, and is proud of his privileges. Yet he violates the law. Thus his
circumcision is no better than the uncircumcision of the heathen. The mere outward token
is worth nothing.
iv. But if so, what is the meaning of the covenant? 3:1-20
• In other words, in what does the privilege of the Jew consist? It is great in many ways. First
of all, the oracles of God were entrusted to the Jews.
• But what if they disbelieved? Do you say that then the Jews have no preference? No, none
at all. Their own Scriptures condemn them, as having sinned one and all. By the works of
the law no flesh shall be justified before Him.
v. To meet this universal failure, a universal remedy is found. 3:21-31
• This remedy is 'a righteousness of God by faith in Jesus Christ,' accorded to all, to Jew and
Gentile alike. Past sins of the world have been overlooked, that now God might shew His
righteousness.
• We do not annihilate law by this: we confirm law.
vi. But our father Abraham-what is the meaning of the covenant made with him? 4:1-25
• He is an example of this very principle, for he was justified through faith. For he that
believeth in God Who justifieth the impious-his faith is counted for righteousness. Such is the
language of the Psalms. Remember that Abraham was still uncircumcised at this time. It
was not through circumcision, still less through law, that he was justified. Law worketh wrath,
for it creates transgression.
• Thus Abraham is the father of the faithful. He hoped against hope, and so was justified. This
was written for our sakes, who believe on Him Who raised up Jesus our Lord from the dead.
vii. The results of this position of righteousness through faith. 5:1-11
a) Peace before God.
b) Confident boasting.
c) Patience under affliction.
• The love of God has been manifested through the death of Christ: and this is an assurance
that, as we have been reconciled through Christ's death, so we shall be saved, shall live,
in Christ's life.
viii. The terms 'life' and 'death' explained. 5:12-21
• The parallel of the First and Second Adam. Through the First Adam death came into the
world: through the Second, life. The death passed over all: so a fortiori the life.
• The law only interposed to heighten the sense of sin, and so to increase the effect of grace.
ix. What is to be the influence of all this on our conduct? 6:1-14
• Are we to continue in sin that grace may abound? This is a contradiction of the very
conception of our position. We have been crucified, have died, with Christ, to sin; we have
risen, have been made alive to God, to righteousness.
• Therefore, we must recognize this death, this life, in our conduct. Sin shall be no longer your
master, 'for ye are not under law, but under grace.'
x. But if so, if we are under grace, and not under law, shall we commit sin? 6:15-23
• No: you were slaves once to sin: now you are slaves to righteousness. What came of your
former slavery? Death. What of your present slavery? Eternal life.
xi. The assertion substantiated, 'Ye are not under law.' 7:1-6
• The obligation of the law in the case of a contract is cancelled by death. The wife is free
to marry when her husband dies.
• So in Christ's body, death has interposed between you and the law, the law is dead to you
and you to the law. The newness of the Spirit is substituted for the oldness of the letter.
xii. But is not all this tantamount to saying that the law is sin? 7:7-24
• On the contrary, sin is revealed and condemned by the law. Sin is dormant and dead, until
it is quickened by the law. Sin is then revived and I am slain. But the purpose of the law is
life, though the actual result may be death to me. The object of the law is to deepen sin;
and the conflict within myself vindicates the spirituality, the holiness, of the law.
• True, I sin through the law; but I sin against my conscience, and therefore I testify to the
holiness of the law. The holiness of the law is thus vindicated; but woe is me, wretched
sinner, how shall I be rescued?
xiii. Thanks to God through Christ, there is no condemnation to those in Christ. 7:25-8:11
• Through Christ, God has freed us from sin and death. We have been transferred from the
domain of the flesh to the domain of the Spirit. It is the Spirit of Christ that quickens our spirits,
and it will quicken our mortal bodies also.
xiv. Therefore we are bound to live after the Spirit. 8:12-39
• The Spirit witnesses that we are sons and heirs. Thus present afflictions sink into
insignificance: while we yearn for the future redemption. We hope and we trust, even
where we cannot see.
• For God hath foreknown and foreordained us; and if He is with us, who can oppose us? No
sufferings, therefore, no sorrows, shall separate us from the love of God in Christ.
xv. But what about the Jews? 9:1-13
• I have unspeakable sorrow on their behalf, bearing in mind their great privileges. Yet God's
word is true: not all Israel shall be saved. The Scriptures always speak of a part, e.g. in Isaac,
and again in Jacob.
xvi. It is as God foreordains, not as man likes. 9:14-33
• So in Pharaoh's case. Yet what man shall impugn the purpose of God, Who moulds us as
the potter his clay? The gathering-in of the Gentiles as well as the saved remnant of the
Israelites is foretold by the prophets. Heathendom has attained unto righteousness, Israel
has stumbled on the rock of offence.
xvii. Thus the zeal of the Jews has been ineffectual, for they have sought righteousness in a
false way. 10:1-21
• Righteousness is of faith, which believes in Christ's death and Christ's ascension. Here Jew
and Gentile are on a level. The Gospel must be preached to all, but all will not listen to the
preaching. This too was foretold by the prophets. The Gentiles, it was predicted, should
excite Israel to emulation.
xviii. Has God then rejected His people? 11:1-16
• No, it is now as of old. The faithful are few, and the apostles many. But their apostasy has
brought salvation to the Gentiles. And ultimately the faith of the Gentiles will re-act and
draw the Jews into the fold.
xix. Meanwhile the Gentiles have no ground for boasting. 11:17-36
• They are simply the wild graft on the cultivated tree. Their superiority is but for a time. Israel
at length will be saved with them. Thus God hath concluded all under unbelief that He
may have mercy upon all. Marvellous is the wisdom of God, to Whom be glory for ever.
III. PRACTICAL EXHORTATIONS. 12:1-15:13
• Present your bodies a living sacrifice. Ye are limbs of Christ's body. The metaphor implies
diversities of functions. Let each do his own work.
• Observe charity in all forms. Overcome evil with good.
• Be obedient to the temporal powers. They are God's delegates. Render to all their due, i.e.
love they neighbour as thyself. Love is the fulfilling of the law.
• Let each man look to himself, and each respect the conscience of another.
• So in the observance of days. So also in the observance of meats.
• Let the strong especially deal tenderly with the scruples of the weak, and put no
stumblingblock in his way.
• We must not please ourselves, but each his neighbour.
• God grant that you may so live in harmony, that with one accord with one mouth ye may
glorify God.
• Receive one another therefore, as Christ received you. For Christ came as a minister of the
circumcision, that through Him the Gentiles also might be brought into the fold; and the
prophecies might be fulfilled which spoke of the joint tribute of praise of Jews and Gentiles.
• This do, and God will fill you with all joy in believing.
IV. PERSONAL EXPLANATIONS. 15:14-16:27
i. The Apostle's motive in writing the letter. 15:14-21
• This I am persuaded you will do; but I have written to remind you, as your Apostle, as the
Apostle of the Gentiles. As such I have preached the Gospel far and wide, not building on
other men's foundations.
ii. His intention of visiting them. 15:22-33
• For this reason I have been prevented from visiting you. But I have hope to see you on my
way to Spain. At present I am bound to Jerusalem, as bearers of alms for the poor brethren.
Pray that I may be delivered from the unbelieving Jews there and may be free to visit you.
I am persuaded that the blessing of God will attend my visit.
iii. Greetings. 16:1-20
• I Commend you to Phebe, the bearer of this letter.
• Salute all the saints by name. The Churches of Christ salute you.
• I charge you to avoid divisions and offences. So will the God of peace crush Satan under
your feet.
• The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you.
iv. Postscript. 16:21-27
• Timothy, Lucius, Jason, Sosipater salute you.
• I, Tertius, the amanuensis, salute you.
• Gaius, my kind host, salutes you: so do Erastus and Quartus.
• The Doxology.
Epistles to the Thessalonians

Summary
Two letters that Paul wrote to the church in Thessalonica are preserved in the New Testament.
The first letter — 1 Thessalonians — was written to a community of believers who had been
Christians for only a short period of time, probably no more than a few months. We learn from
the Book of Acts that during Paul's stay in the city of Thessalonica, he preached in a Jewish
synagogue on three successive Sabbath days. He evidently stayed in the city for some time
thereafter and continued his work among the Gentiles. Although his ministry was successful to
the extent that he won converts to Christianity from both Jews and Gentiles, he did encounter
opposition, especially from Jews who resented very much that he was able to win Jewish
followers. Because of this opposition, Paul wisely left the city for fear that the newly formed
Christian community would be persecuted as he had been. He regretted that he must leave
the Christians before they were well established in the faith, but he hoped that he might visit
them again in the near future. When sickness prevented him from returning, he sent his
colleague Timothy to strengthen the group and then report back to Paul on the progress that
had been made. When Timothy returned to Paul with the good news that the members of the
church were standing firm in their new faith, Paul wrote the First Epistle to the Thessalonians.
Paul congratulates the Thessalonians on their fidelity to the gospel that he had proclaimed
while among them and urges them to remain steadfast in the faith. He warns them against
sensuality and various forms of self-seeking, which are contrary to the spirit of the Christian way
of life. But the main purpose of Paul's letter is to deal with a special problem that developed
after Paul left the city. Paul shared with the Christians at Thessalonica his belief that the end of
the age would come in the very near future. In part an inheritance from Jewish
apocalypticism, this belief held that the messianic kingdom would be ushered in by a sudden
catastrophic event, at which time the heavenly Messiah would descend on the clouds of
heaven with power and great glory. When the first Christians accepted the idea that the man
who had died on the cross was the real Messiah, they were convinced that he must return to
earth to complete the work that he had begun. The manner of his second coming was
conceived in accordance with the apocalyptic conceptions. This belief was common among
the early Christians, and Paul accepted it along with the rest. Although the Christians were
quite insistent that no one knew the exact time when this second coming would take place,
they felt sure that it would occur during the lifetime of those who were then members of the
Christian community.
After Paul left Thessalonica, some of the people who belonged to the church died. Because
Jesus had not returned, serious doubts arose in the minds of those Thessalonians who were still
living, for they had been led to believe that Jesus the Messiah would return before any of them
died. As they saw it, Paul was mistaken on this point, which then caused them to wonder
whether he might also be mistaken on other points as well. Obviously, an explanation of some
kind was in order, and this situation, more than any other single factor, prompted the writing
of Paul's First Epistle to the Thessalonians. In his statement regarding Jesus' second coming, Paul
says that he has in no way abandoned his faith that the return of Jesus to this earth will take
place in the near future. Concerning those who died or who might die before Jesus returns,
he states that they will be raised from the dead and will share equally with those who are still
living at that time: "For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command,
with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will
rise first." To this statement, Paul adds, "After that, we who are still alive and are left will be
caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with
the Lord forever." The letter closes with a reminder that the Day of the Lord will come as a thief
in the night. No one knows just when it will come, but all are admonished to live in such a way
that they will be ready for it at any moment.
Paul's Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is in one sense a follow-up to the first letter. Evidently,
the first letter was well received. People were satisfied with Paul's explanation concerning
those who died and were ready and willing to suffer persecution if need be in order to remain
true to the gospel that Paul preached. However, some members of the Christian community
were so overly zealous about Paul's teaching that the end of the age was near at hand that
they stopped making any plans for the future. Indeed, some of them stopped doing any work
at all, believing that in this way they were demonstrating their faith in the nearness of the great
event. Those who did not work were a burden to those who did work, and this situation
constituted a new problem. Paul addresses this concern in his second letter.
After commending the Thessalonians for their loyalty and assuring them that God will deal
justly with their persecutors, Paul proceeds to the main point of the letter. Although the coming
Day of the Lord is near, it is not as close as some people think. Concerning a report that had
circulated among the people stating that the day had already come, Paul tells the
Thessalonians not to be deceived on this matter, for the Day of the Lord will not arrive until
after certain events have taken place, and these events have not occurred yet. The specific
events to which Paul refers concern the coming of an Antichrist, someone in whom the power
of Satan has become incarnate and who will establish himself in the Temple at Jerusalem,
working with signs and wonders to deceive people. The basis for Paul's statement along this
line is found in the Jewish apocalyptic writings, which were fairly well known to him.
Concerning the coming of this lawless Antichrist, Paul says that the Antichrist's activities are
already in operation and would be carried out more fully except that he is now being
restrained. (Presumably, Paul means that the Roman government is restraining the Antichrist.)
In due time, the Antichrist will be revealed, and "the Lord Jesus will overthrow [the Antichrist]
with the breath of his mouth and destroy by the splendor of his coming." The letter closes with
an admonition to the Thessalonians to continue their regular lines of work and not to wait in
idleness for the return of Jesus.
Analysis
The two letters to the Thessalonians are of interest from a historical point of view because they
reveal conditions that existed in the newly formed Christian communities. They are also of
value in that they indicate something of the extent to which the early church was influenced
by Jewish apocalypticism in its beliefs concerning the second coming of Christ and the setting
up of the messianic kingdom. Jewish apocalypses taught that there would be a resurrection
of the dead in connection with other events that would usher in the new age.
Paul was able to make use of these apocalyptic conceptions in answering the questions that
so troubled the Christians in Thessalonica. Both of Paul's letters to the Thessalonians were
addressed to this one church and were occasioned by the problems associated with that
particular group of church members. It is quite unlikely that Paul anticipated any further use to
be made of his letters. Little if anything in them throws much light on the theological issues
involved in Paul's interpretation of Christianity. The letters do, however, indicate the type of
instruction that Paul gave to newcomers in the Christian movement.
Book of James
Summary
The book of James was written by Jesus’ half brother, James who initially did not accept him
as the Messiah (John 7:5), but later became a pillar in the early church (I Corinthians 15:7). The
book has been dated between 44-49 AD which makes it the first book written in the New
Testament. The audience for this book was Jewish as James addresses the letter “to the twelve
tribes scattered among the nations” (vs 1:1).
The main theme of the book of James focuses on godly behavior and obedience to the Word
of God. James wrote extensively about the relationship between faith and works, which can
cause confusion when comparing with the writings of the apostle Paul. However, James
emphasizes that we are justified by faith but it needs to be expressed through works of faith
(as opposed to works of the law), so given that preface there is no contradiction.
James 1 - Perseverance Through Trials
James 1 opens with a greeting and encouragement to remain joyful in the midst of trials
because the outcome of this type of testing is perseverance and a mature and complete
faith. James encourages that God is faithful to this process and will grant wisdom so we can
endure it. He then cautions us that God does not tempt us, rather temptation comes from our
own evil desires inside. James then gives instruction about listening and acting according to
the Word of God. He shows how knowing what it says shows us who we truly are and living it
out will give freedom and bless us.
James 2 - Faith and Deeds
James 2 starts with instructions about being impartial toward people. James instructs not to
show favoritism toward individuals who are wealthy because God has chosen those who are
poor in the eyes of the world to be rich in faith. He goes on to build a good case for works of
faith, which are deeds that grow out of one’s faith. He cites examples from Abraham and
Rabah, showing that what they did, proved their faith. He closes the chapter with this
statement, “As the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without deeds is dead” (vs. 2:26).
James 3 - Taming the Tongue
James 3 gives instruction about the dangers of the words we say. The tongue has the ability
to set the course of life, James compares it to a rudder which steers a ship and a fire which
can consume everything in its path. He makes the contrast that out of the same mouth come
praise and curses, however this should not be because true faith is evident by our words. This
chapter ends with the definition of the wisdom that comes from heaven. It is “peace-loving,
considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere” (vs. 3:17).
James 4 - Submitting To God
James 4 describes the war that rages between friendship with the world and life in God. James
advises to submit to God and resist the devil and his schemes. We are reminded to humble
ourselves before God so that He can exalt us. We are also cautioned to take into account the
Lord’s will when making plans because our time on earth is short and it is God’s will that
prevails.
James 5 - The Prayer of Faith
James 5 opens with a warning about hoarding wealth at the expense of workers. Then he
encourages us to remain patient in suffering because the Lord is able to bring us through trials
and make everything right. James closes the letter with instructions about praying. We are
instructed to pray in faith because “the prayer of a righteous man is powerful and effective”
(vs. 5:16).
As you can see the book of James gives practical advice for the believer in living out what
one believes. May you be blessed and inspired as you read and study the book of James.
Paul’s letters to Timothy
The book of I Timothy is a letter by the Apostle Paul to Timothy, Paul’s true son in the faith (vs.
2). Paul entrusted Timothy with leading the church in Ephesus. He strongly reminds him of his
objective which is to squelch the false teachings by those who teach the law, promoting
controversy instead of faith. He then instructs Timothy with practical advice on how to lead
this assembly. He ends by encouraging him to continue to fight the good fight and to guard
carefully what has been entrusted to him.
I Timothy 1 - A Warning Against False Teachers
I Timothy 1 opens with a personal greeting by the apostle Paul. Paul reminds Timothy that the
law is good if one uses it lawfully, which is to condemn. He then reminds of the grace of God
using himself as an example. Paul, the worst of sinners was shown mercy so Christ’s unlimited
grace would be displayed. Paul ends this chapter encouraging Timothy to fight the good fight
and to keep his conscience clear.
1 Timothy 2 - Instructions on Worship
I Timothy 2 reminds that we are to pray for those in authority so we can live peaceful and quiet
lives. We learn and important truth that God desires everyone to be save and to come into a
knowledge of him (vs. 4). Paul finishes with specific instructions to the women of this church to
dress modestly and to learn about the faith.
1 Timothy 3 - Choosing Overseers and Deacons Wisley
I Timothy 3 is a list of the characteristics that both the overseers and deacons in the church
must have. They are to manage their households well in order to likewise manage the house
of God well. Paul gives these instructions so they will know how to conduct themselves in God’s
household.
1 Timothy 4 - Advice for Timothy
I Timothy 4 is a warning to observe the times. Mentioning that some will abandon the faith and
follow things taught by demons such as forbidding marriage and abstaining from certain
foods. However Paul reminds that everything is created by God and should be received with
thanksgiving. He then encourages Timothy to train to be godly, to devote himself to reading
the scripture and preaching and teaching. He encourages him to watch his life and his
doctrine closely.
1 Timothy 5 - Honor and Care for Widows
I Timothy 5 gives instructions about caring for widows in their needs. Paul advises that their
families should first and foremost take care of them. However, if a widow is without family she
is trusting in God for provision and the church ought to take care of her. He also gives
instructions about elders, and then finishes with practical advice for Timothy.
1 Timothy 6 - Paul’s Final Charge to Timothy
I Timothy 6 is a reminder to be content and to pursue godliness. He instructs Timothy to flee
from the desire to acquire wealth and pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance
and gentleness. Once again he tells Timothy to fight the good fight and to take hold of the
eternal life given him. This letter ends with Paul reminding Timothy to guard carefully what has
been entrusted to him.
This book is full of practical instructions for the church and her leaders. May you be blessed
and inspired as you read and study the book of I Timothy.
The book of 2 Timothy is a personal letter from Paul to Timothy. The book opens with Paul
reflecting on Timothy’s sincere faith. He had learned it from His mother Eunice and his
grandmother Lois and Paul rejoices that this very same faith was evident in Timothy as well.
Paul writes this letter to encourage Timothy to be strong in grace, steadfast in what he had
been taught as well as giving a warning about the coming days of apostasy or godlessness.
Paul closes with a charge for Timothy to be prepared to preach the Word in season and out.
2 Timothy 1 - Guarding What Was Entrusted
2 Timothy 1 opens with Paul encouraging Timothy to fan into flame the gifting of God which
he received through the laying on of hands. He reminded Timothy not be ashamed of
testifying about the Lord Jesus Christ, or ashamed of Paul even though he was in chains. He
then charges Timothy to keep the pattern of teaching and of sound doctrine that he has
learned from Paul guarding diligently what had been entrusted to him.
2 Timothy 2 - Be Strong in Grace
2 Timothy 2 is a reminder to be singular in mission. Paul tells Timothy to be strong in the grace
of Christ Jesus and endure hardship. He is to remain focused on Jesus, His resurrection and
persevering for the sake of the elect. Paul instructs Timothy not quarrel over words rather to
handle the Word of God with skill and accuracy. Being able to gently instruct and explain the
Word so through it, God can lead people into a knowledge of the truth.
2 Timothy 3 - Godlessness In the Last Days
2 Timothy 3 serves as a warning that a time of apostasy is coming. In the last days people will
be lovers of themselves, having a form of godliness but denying its power. They will continually
be seeking knowledge but never able to accept the truth. And Paul firmly instruct that we
should have nothing to do with these people. Instead we are to combat this by knowing the
holy scriptures which are able to make us wise and equip us for every good work.
2 Timothy 4 - Preach the Word In Season and Out
2 Timothy 4 is a charge to be prepared to preach the Word in season and out, alway being
ready to correct, train and encourage others. Paul encourages Timothy to keep calm and
steady, endure hardship, and to fully perform all the duties of his ministry. Paul closes with final
instruction for Timothy to gather a few of his things and a few people and come quickly.
As you can see this book is full of wise instructions, especially for pastors and teachers in the
Church. It is a good reminder to stay focused on Christ and true to the grace revealed in the
Word of God being able to teach and explain it with authority and power.
The epistles of Peter
The book of 1 Peter was written by the apostle Peter to the church made up of both Jews and
Gentiles who were undergoing intense persecution. This letter was written around the time that
Nero had burned the city of Rome. Because of the widespread devastation and growing
hostility from the homeless masses, Nero redirected the bitter resentment to Christians, blaming
them for burning the city. Peter most likely wrote from Rome to “God’s elect, strangers in the
world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (vs. 1:1).
The main theme of the book of 1 Peter is living victoriously in the midst of suffering and
persecution. Peter writes to give hope in the midst of it; to remind of our great salvation in Christ
Jesus. To give advice on how to live a godly life before unbelievers, then ends with a reminder
that the Lord will return and restore all things.
1 Peter 1 - Living Hope & Sure Salvation
1 Peter 1 opens with a beautiful greeting to those who have been chosen by God; sanctified
by the Spirit and born again into a living hope. Peter encourages that suffering will prove
genuine faith with Christ is revealed. He also reminds that the prophets searched intently for
the time and circumstances of Christ, noting that they were not serving themselves but us
when speaking of this great salvation. Therefore we are reminded to be holy and love each
other deeply because we were purchased with a very high price; the precious blood of the
lamb.
1 Peter 2 - Living as God’s Chosen People
1 Peter 2 begins by showing how we are being built into a spiritual house with the Lord Jesus
as the cornerstone. Peter says we are a “chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a
people belonging to God” (vs. 9). Because of this we are to live as strangers in this world, living
good lives so that others will see and glorify God. We are instructed to submit to those in
authority over us and to show proper respect; we are to follow the example of Christ.
1 Peter 3 - Godly Living
1 Peter 3 starts with advice for husbands and wives. Wives are to live in a way that their inner
beauty will shine through. Husbands are to be considerate and respectful toward their wives,
so nothing will hinder prayer. Peter then summarizes by encouraging us to live in harmony with
one another. We are to set aside Christ Jesus as Lord and always be ready to give an answer
for this hope we have in Him. Then we are reminded to keep a clear conscience at all times
even when suffering unjustly.
1 Peter 4 - Suffering as Christians
1 Peter 4 reminds that the end is near; we are to be clear minded so we can pray. We are
encouraged to love each other deeply and use whatever gifts we’ve been given to serve
each other. Peter then points out that suffering because we are Christians should not surprise
us, rather we can rejoice because it is evidence that we bear the name of Christ. He
encourages that we are blessed when insulted because the Spirit of God rests on us.
2 Peter
The Apostle Peter wrote this letter near the end of his life; possibly from prison. Tradition says
that Peter was martyred by being crucified upside down. This letter was probably written to
the same believers addressed in his first epistle to the church. In this letter he is concerned
about false teachers infiltrating the believers and introducing destructive heresies as well as
immoral behavior. Peter stresses many times that knowledge of our Lord Jesus combats these
ideas. He finishes by addressing concerns surrounding the Lords return.
2 Peter 1 - A Sure Salvation
2 Peter 1 opens with a beautiful greeting and reminder that we have been given exceedingly
great promises to help us live godly lives and escape the corruption of our world. We are urged
to progress in our knowledge of God so that we will be effective and productive. The apostle
Peter reminds that he was an eyewitness of Christ’s majesty and was with Him on the sacred
mountain confirming the message of Christ, substantiating that all prophecy of scripture has
come about by inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
2 Peter 2 - Beware of False Teachers
2 Peter 2 serves as a warning that false prophets and teachers will try to secretly introduce
destructive heresies. Peter recounts many stories of how God rescues the righteous while
holding the unrighteous for the day of judgement. He warns that false teachers promise
freedom but are themselves slaves to depravity. We are warned to be on guard.
2 Peter 3 - The Lords Return
2 Peter 3 starts by clarifying ideas around the Lord’s second coming. Most expected the
imminent return of Jesus because of intense persecution. Scoffers were creating controversy
because it had not happened. Peter address the reasons and speaks of what will happen to
the earth in final days. He closes the letter reminding us to live holy and godly lives looking
forward to that day.
As you can see this book is as relevant today as it was in the days of the early church. It is full
of practical advice and encouragement. May you be blessed and inspired as you read and
study the book of 2 Peter.
1 Peter 5 - Final Greetings
1 Peter 5 closes with a few instructions to leaders, reminding to be good shepherds with what
God has entrusted. To be humble and to cast all anxieties on God because of His very great
love and care for us. We are encouraged to be self-controlled and aware that the enemy is
looking to devour; however, the remedy is to resist and stand firm in faith. Peter closes this letter
reminding us that the God of all grace will restore all things and make us strong, firm and
steadfast.
This book is full of practical advice and insights for the believer especially in the midst of
suffering. May you be blessed and inspired as you read and study the book of 1 Peter.
The Book of Hebrews

The book of Hebrews is the bridge that connects the Old Testament and the New. These
covenants are completely different and yet many Christians approach God on the basis of
Old Testament Law instead of New Testament faith. The entire book is about Jesus and how
He is the guarantee of a new and better covenant. It is essential for every Christian to
understand.
Hebrews 1 - The Superiority of Christ
Hebrews 1 is about the supremacy of Christ Jesus. It paints a wonderful picture of how He is
superior to the angels because of His redemptive work on the cross. Jesus is the exact
representation of the Father and was sent to communicate to us the true nature of God. By
understanding who Jesus is and what He said, we can know the fullness of God's nature and
character.
Hebrews 2 - The Role of Christ in Salvation
Hebrews 2 talks about the role of Christ in salvation. Jesus was briefly humbled and took on
human form so he could taste death for everyone. It was fitting that Jesus, through whom
everything exists, was the author of salvation. He shared in humanity so that through His death
he might destroy him who holds the power of death. We must pay close attention to this so
we do not ignore such a great salvation.
Hebrews 3 - Jesus is Greater than Moses
Hebrews 3 conveys the fact that Jesus is our faithful high priest who eternally resides over the
house of God as a son. It shows His superiority to Moses and the covenant of the law. This
chapter also serves as a warning against hardness of heart and being lured away by sin and
unbelief. We are to encourage each other daily and stand strong until the end with
confidence in Christ.
Hebrews 4 - The Believer's Rest
Hebrews 4 offers true Sabbath rest for the people of God through faith in Christ. This rest for
God's people is what was promised throughout the entire Old Testament. True Sabbath rest
does not come from adhering to the law or taking a break from work one day of the week.
The believer’s rest comes to fulfillment in our lives by fellowshipping with Christ.
Hebrews 5 - Jesus is the Perfect High Priest
Hebrews 5 shows Jesus as God's appointed High priest who became the source of eternal
salvation for everyone who believes. He was subjected to the weakness of the flesh yet without
sin. He learned obedience through what he suffered so in the same way he is able to help
those who will inherit salvation. Jesus was designed by God to be our high priest forever in the
order of Melchizedek.
Hebrews 6 - Warning against falling away
Hebrews 6 serves as a warning against walking away from the truth and becoming reprobate
(damned). Falling away makes it impossible to come back to repentance because it subjects
Christ once again to open shame. However, there are better things accompanying salvation
for us who continue on with Christ. We can proceed toward that steadfast hope entering
through the veil which Christ has opened to us.
Hebrews 7 - Melchizedek's Priesthood like Christ's
Hebrews 7 compares Jesus and Melchizedek, a priest forever without lineage. Abraham paid
honor and tithes to Melchizedek and by doing so the Levitical priesthood was blessed by him
as Levi was still inside of Abraham. In this fashion, Jesus is also a priest forever like Melchizedek.
However He is not of the tribe of Levi. With a change in priesthood there must also be a change
in the law. Jesus has proven His priesthood by his indestructible life. Because of this He is able
to save completely those who draw near to God through Him since He always lives to
intercede for them.
Hebrews 8 - Superiority of the New Covenant
Hebrews 8 shows that Jesus is the mediator of a new and better covenant which has been
enacted on better promises. Jesus is ministering in the heavenly tabernacle at the right hand
of God not in an earthly one (which was a copy and shadow of heavenly things). The New
Covenant is written on our hearts and enables us to know the Lord in an intimate way. Jesus
has promised to forgive our sins and remember them no more. The New Covenant has made
the Old one obsolete.
Hebrews 9 - The Old and the New
Hebrews 9 shows how worship in the Old Testament could not perfect the worshipper because
it related only to food, drink, various washings and regulations for the body. However, when
Christ appeared He entered into the heavenly tabernacle and poured out His own blood on
the mercy seat. The blood of bulls and goats was never able to cleanse the conscience of the
worshipper, but the blood of Christ is able to save completely as it cleansed us thoroughly and
we are now without blemish or accusation before God. Christ appeared at the consummation
of the ages to put away sin by His sacrifice.
Hebrews 10 - Christ's Sacrifice Once for All
Hebrews 10 shows that the Law was never able to make perfect those who draw near
because it was a shadow of the good things to come and not a reality in itself. Otherwise the
sacrifices would have ceased to be offered. Instead they served as an annual reminder of sin.
But when Jesus came He offered one sacrifice for sin for all time and then sat down at the
right hand of the Father. Now we can draw near to God through the veil of Christ's body,
having our hearts sprinkled clean and our conscience clear.
Hebrews 11 - The Faith Hall of Fame
Hebrews 11 paints a wonderful picture of the men and women who triumphed by faith; people
who believed God and pursued His promises even though many didn't see them come to pass
in their lifetime. This chapter defines faith and shows that it pleases God. This is a great reminder
for us as we navigate this life, clinging to the promises of God and looking forward to Jesus'
return.
Hebrews 12 - Jesus is Our Example
Hebrews 12 is a call to persevere looking to Christ as our example. He endured the shame of
the cross to bring us into fellowship with God, in the same way we should keep our eyes on
him as we run the race of life. We have received citizenship in an unshakable kingdom so let
us show gratitude and offer our lives in acceptable service to Him.
Hebrews 13 - The Changeless Christ
Hebrews 13 is a mixture of warnings, requests and final exhortations. It is a reminder to the
fellowship of Christ, to let love remain, show hospitality and honor each other. As well as
remembering to pray for leaders in the church. This book ends on a wonderful note by
reminding us that Jesus is the same yesterday, today and forever.
The Book of Revelation

Summary
In the Book of Revelation, the apocalyptic hopes of the early Christian community find their
clearest and most complete expression. Apocalypticism was not a new phenomenon among
Christians; it was a well-established belief among Jews, who held that the coming of the
kingdom of God would not be brought about by a gradual transformation but by a sudden
intervention, when God would end the present age and establish his kingdom in the world
made new. This conception of coming events is associated with the belief that prior to this
future time, the struggle between the forces of good and evil will become more intense. As
the evil powers grow stronger, they will inflict persecution and, in some instances, even death
upon those who follow a course of righteousness. The struggle will eventually reach a climax,
at which time God will intervene, destroy the forces of evil, and set up a new order in which
the righteous will live for all time to come. The appearance of the Messiah will coincide with
the coming of these events. When the members of the Christian community affirmed their
belief that the crucified Jesus was the long-awaited Messiah, they necessarily revised their
understanding concerning the work Jesus was to do and especially the way in which his work
would be completed. Because they were convinced that the work of the Messiah must end
in triumph and glory, they believed that this end could be accomplished only by a return of
Jesus back to this earth from the heaven to which he had ascended. This second coming,
occurring at the time when all the events connected with the apocalyptic program will take
place, will inaugurate the coming of the new age, as well as the final destruction of all the
forces of evil.
As time passed, many Christians — especially those who were suffering persecution at the
hands of the Roman government — became deeply concerned about how long it would be
before these events would take place. Toward the end of the first century of the Christian era,
emperor worship was fairly well established, not only in the city of Rome but in the outlying
regions that formed a part of the empire. When Christians refused to worship the emperor,
they were accused of all sorts of crimes and subjected to the most severe penalties. Some of
them suffered martyrdom rather than deny their faith. It was a critical time for the entire
Christian movement, and many of its members wondered whether the persecution would ever
end, while others were perplexed about the course they should follow. Some were even
tempted to abandon their faith or at least to make concessions to Rome sufficient to enable
them to save their lives.
Under these conditions, a Christian named John wrote Revelation, addressing it to the seven
churches that were in Asia Minor. The purpose of the book was to strengthen the faith of the
members of these churches by giving to them the assurance that deliverance from the evil
powers arrayed against them was close at hand. John was confident that the great day of
divine intervention would occur within a comparatively short time, but in accordance with the
apocalyptic literature with which Jewish Christians were familiar, he knew that many terrifying
events would take place first. He wanted to warn his fellow Christians concerning these events
and thus prepare them for the time when their faith would be put to a more severe test than
anything that they had experienced thus far. In writing Revelation, John follows the pattern
that was used in older apocalyptic writings in the Old Testament (such as the Book of Daniel
in the Old Testament, 1 Esdras in the Apocrypha, the Book of Enoch in the Pseudepigrapha,
the Assumption of Moses), and many other well-known writings, including sections of the Book
of Ezekiel in the Old Testament and portions of the Synoptic Gospels. In all of these writings,
events appear as though they were predicted long before they actually took place. The
revelations are usually through dreams or visions in which coming events are symbolized by
strange figures, the meanings of which are sometimes disclosed by an angelic messenger who
was sent for that particular purpose. The apocalypses were produced in times of crises, and
they were written for the benefit of people who were suffering hardship and privation at the
particular time when the writing was done.
At the beginning of Revelation, John tells us that while he was on the Isle of Patmos, where he
was banished because of his religious faith, he heard a loud voice telling him to write what he
saw and then to send the writing to the seven churches in Asia. The voice was that of Jesus
Christ, who had been raised from the dead and who had ascended to heaven. Christ's
messages are addressed to seven angels, each one of which is the guardian for a particular
church: Ephesus, Smyrna, Thyatira, Pergamum, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Christ
commends these churches for the good works that they have performed, but for five of them,
he also sends a message of warning and reproof. He is especially critical of those who tolerate
the doctrines of the Nicolaitans, whose teachings he considers a real menace to the Christian
community because they approve of the practice of eating meat obtained from animals that
have been used as sacrifices to idols. Although the apostle Paul and other Christians
maintained that this practice was not a matter of vital importance and that everyone should
be permitted to follow the dictates of their own consciences, apparently John did not share
this attitude. As he understands it, the crucial test for all Christians, as it is for Jews, is strict
obedience to all laws, and the rules pertaining to forbidden food are no exception. Although
it might appear to be relatively unimportant, people's attitudes toward matters of this kind
indicate the way in which they will behave toward weightier matters.
Christ commends those churches whose members have endured persecution and, in some
instances, even death rather than declare their allegiance to Roman rulers, who proclaimed
their own divinity and demanded that they should be worshipped along with the other gods
of the empire. He refers to Pergamum as Satan's home inasmuch as it was in this place that
the cult of emperor worship was particularly strong.
Christ warns Christians to expect that their persecutions will be even more severe in the
immediate future. Nevertheless, they are to remain faithful and regard these afflictions as tests
of their character. Those who remain loyal will be delivered from the hands of their enemies,
and in the new order of things soon to be established, they will be given a crown of life and
the assurance that the new order will last forever. The persecutions that are now taking place
will last for only a short time, for the hour of God's judgment is close at hand.
Following Christ's messages to the seven churches, John describes the seven seals, scrolls on
which is written an account of the events that are about to take place. The risen Christ, who
is referred to as the Lamb of God, is said to be the only one who is accounted worthy to open
the seals. When the first seal is opened, there appears a white horse, whose rider goes forth to
conquer. Other seals are opened, and three more horses — a red one, a black one, and a
pale one — appear in rapid succession. These four horses and their respective riders symbolize
the conflicts that will mark the beginning of the final destruction of the Roman Empire. When
the fifth seal is opened, John is permitted to look upon the souls of those who, in the midst of
their distress, cry out, "How long, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, until you judge the inhabitants
of the earth and avenge our blood?" They are told that the forces of destruction are about to
be turned loose in the world, and they may have to endure even greater torment, but if they
are faithful through it all, they will be among the redeemed whose names are written in the
book of life.
Following John's vision of the impending disasters soon to be inflicted upon the world, the
scene changes, and four angels representing the four winds of heaven are told to hold back
these winds until the servants of God have had seals placed on their foreheads. John then
reveals the number of those who are sealed. Drawing an analogy between the twelve tribes
of ancient Israel and the Christian community regarded now as the new Israel, he gives the
number of 144,000, or 12,000 from each of the tribes of Israel. Before the opening of the seals
is completed, another series of disasters is revealed in the appearance of seven angels, each
one carrying a trumpet. The blowing of these trumpets announces such physical catastrophes
as the coming of a great earthquake, the turning of rivers into blood, and the darkening of
the sun and the moon, as well as the falling of the stars from heaven. After these physical
phenomena, which will indeed be appalling, the wrath of God will be visited more directly
upon those who persecute members of the Christian community. Before describing the
manner of this visitation, John identifies the power now vested in the Roman emperor with an
evil being, who, through the centuries, has been at war against the forces of righteousness.
This evil being is none other than Satan, the archenemy of God, who is now putting forth a
supreme effort to destroy the righteous from the face of the earth. He is the Dragon who
launched a rebellion against God. John tells us that "there was war in heaven" as Michael and
his angels fought against the Dragon and his angels. The result of the conflict was that the
Dragon was cast out of heaven and one third of the angels were cast out with him. This same
Dragon worked through King Herod in an attempt to destroy the Christ child as soon as he was
born. His work has continued ever since, and according to John, he is now trying to accomplish
his purpose by working through the Roman emperor. His evil character is manifest in the cruel
persecutions that are being inflicted upon Christians.
In characterizing this power that now appears to be gaining mastery over the world, John
resorts to imagery used in the Book of Daniel to describe the wicked ruler who tried to coerce
the Jews into submission. The author of the Book of Daniel uses the symbol of a great and
terrible beast that has seven heads and ten horns. In like manner, John uses a beast to
represent the Roman emperor, whose image was stamped on the coins used in the empire.
At one point, John is quite specific in his identification of the one symbolized by the beast. He
says, "This calls for wisdom. If anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast, for
it is man's number. His number is 666." John is seemingly referring to the Roman emperor, but
he is also personifying the forces of evil, and his condemnation of the emperor is due to the
fact that John believes Satan is incarnate in the actions of the empire, for Satan and the
empire are linked together for the achievement of a common purpose.
As John sees the end drawing near, he describes the angels of heaven crying with a loud
voice. Three angels appear, the first one announcing that the hour of God's judgment has
come, the second one crying out that Babylon, which is used as the symbol of Rome, is fallen,
and the third one describing the terrible fate of those who worship the beast or its image. As
a final punishment, these false worshippers are thrown into a lake of fire, where they will forever
be destroyed. Seven more angels then appear, each one carrying a bowl, the content of
which symbolizes the wrath of God about to be poured out in the form of the seven last
plagues. The plagues will inflict the wicked of John's day, just as a series of plagues inflicted
the ancient Egyptians prior to the time when the Israelites were delivered from their bondage.
When the first angel pours out his bowl upon the earth, foul and evil sores grow on the men
who bear the mark of the beast and who worship its image. When the second angel pours
out his bowl on the sea, the sea turns to blood and everything living in it dies. Catastrophes of
a similar nature follow when the remaining angels empty their bowls.
The great catastrophic events that bring an end to all the kingdoms of earth will also be the
occasion for the return of Christ on the clouds of heaven. As Christ approaches the earth, the
wicked people will be slain by the brightness of his coming. For a period of a thousand years,
Satan will be bound, and the earth will be desolate. During this time, the righteous will be made
safe in the city of God, which is the new Jerusalem. At the end of the thousand years, the city
of God will descend to earth. Then the wicked will be raised from the dead, and after making
an attempt to overthrow the city of God, they will be destroyed in what John tells us is the
second death. The closing chapters of Revelation present a glowing description of the new
Jerusalem with its streets of gold, its walls of jasper, its gates of pearl, and the river of life, which
will flow eternally from the throne of God. In this heavenly abode, neither sorrow nor crying will
exist, for God will wipe away all tears, and there will be no more death.
Analysis
The Revelation of John is the one book in the New Testament that claims John as its author. By
the time the writings that are now included in the New Testament were assembled in their
present form, three letters and one gospel were also attributed to John. But in the case of
these writings, the name of the supposed author was added at a later date, and their
respective contents indicate that they were not written by the same John who wrote
Revelation.
The Book of Revelation often has been regarded as a mysterious book, quite beyond the
comprehension of the average lay reader. Its many references to angelic beings, its elaborate
description of Christ as he appears in the heavenly courts, its use of such mystic numbers as
three, seven, twelve, and their multiples, the accounts of strange beasts, symbolic names, and
definite time periods — all suggest some hidden and esoteric meaning that supposedly can
be detected only by an expert. For these reasons, many people have ignored the book,
feeling that any attempt to understand it is futile. Other people have taken an opposite
attitude and have found in this book what they believe to be predictions of whole series of
events, many of which have already occurred and the remainder of which are about to take
place in the near future. The basis for these views, many of which sound strange and fantastic,
is found in the elaborate symbolism used in the book. The use of symbols has an important
place in religious literature, for there is no other way in which a person can talk or even think
about that which is beyond the realm of finite human experience. But there is always a danger
that the symbols may be interpreted in a way that was not intended by the author who used
them. Only in regard to the content in which the symbols are used can we determine what
the author meant.
One source of confusion has been the result of a failure to distinguish between prophetic
writing and apocalyptic writing. The prophets used a particular literary form in which they
expressed their messages; the apocalyptic writers used a different literary form, one that was
better suited to the particular purpose that they had in mind. To understand either group, one
must interpret their writings by considering the respective literary form that they used. The
characteristics of apocalyptic writing are fairly well known. In addition to the Book of Daniel
and the Book of Revelation, a wealth of apocalyptic writing exists in the Apocrypha and the
Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. A careful study of these writings shows that they have
a number of common characteristics: They were produced in times of crises; they describe
the conflict between the forces of good and evil; future events are made known through
dreams and visions; the end of the conflict is to come shortly; and those who remain faithful
through persecution and trial are promised a reward in the messianic kingdom soon to be
established. The messages are for the benefit of the persecuted and are usually conveyed by
means of symbols that only the faithful can understand.
Interpreted in light of these characteristics, the Revelation of John is comparatively easy to
understand. In many respects, it is the least original of any of the New Testament writings. In its
style of writing, the number and kind of symbols that are used, and the purpose for which it
was written, the book closely follows the precedent established in the older apocalyptic
writings. The unique feature about Revelation is the particular occasion that caused it to be
written. Toward the end of the first century of the Christian era, the attitude of the Roman
government toward Christianity became especially hostile. Nero, the Roman emperor,
charged that Christians were to blame for the burning of Rome. Although the charge was
false, it was sufficient to cause many people to regard the new Christian movement with
suspicion. Jews and Romans alike resented the fact that Christians condemned so many of
the things they were doing, and they especially disliked the belief on the part of Christians that
their religion was superior to the older faiths that had been honored for centuries. The Christians
often held their meetings in secret places, and their critics imagined that they were doing all
sorts of evil things. It was easy to circulate rumors of this kind, and along with other things,
Christians were charged with plotting against the Roman government. As the opposition to
Christianity became more intense, the followers of the new movement were asked to prove
their loyalty to the Roman government by denouncing Christ and by worshipping the statue
of the emperor. When they refused to do this, they were tortured and even put to death.
Under these conditions, the Revelation of John was written. It would be difficult to imagine
anything more appropriate for the members of Christian churches at that time. They needed
encouragement and the assurance that their trials would soon be over, that the evil powers
of the earth would be destroyed, and that the triumph of righteousness would be established
in the world. The message of Revelation was intended for this particular time and set of
circumstances. Christians familiar with the older apocalyptic writings would understand the
book's symbolism, for practically everything John said to his contemporaries was said before
to people who suffered under similar circumstances. It is a mistake to suppose that John was
predicting events that would take place in the later centuries of Christian history. Writing to the
people of his own day about events that would happen while they were still living, he states
that Christ will return while those who put him to death on the cross are still living. The
permanent significance of Revelation lies in the author's conviction that right will ultimately
triumph over evil.
ACTIVITY
1. According to the letters of Paul, what problems did the Corinthian church face?
2. While Paul was a missionary to the Gentiles, he was first and foremost a missionary to
the Jews. Refute or support this assertion with evidence from Acts of the Apostles and
the letter to the Romans
3. To the Thessalonians, what did Paul teach about death, resurrection and the second
coming of Christ?
4. What did Paul have to say about marriage in his epistles?
5. What message did Paul have for Timothy?
6. The epistles were written to specific people and for specific reasons. How do Christians
today benefit from the same letters which were not meant for them.
Note: For Subsidiary Areas or courses of specialization not indicated here please contact the
Registrar on this E-mail address registrar@icofusa.org.uk or registrar@icofusa.net or contact
the Dean in your Country for updated courses.
149. AD JUNCTURE AND OTHER FACULTY MEMBERS OF ICOF AFRICA CAMPUS
The following are part time, full time and visiting professors providing academic Excellency to
students both during compulsory 14 days residential school and on student Portal interaction
forums.
• Proff. Barney Phillips (USA). E-mail: barney@icofusa.net
• Pastor Samson Adeyekun (Nigeria) E-mail: samsona@icofnigeria.net
• Dr. Moses Chalwe ( Zambia). E-mail: moses.chalwe@icofafrica.net
• Dr. Christina Church (USA). E-mail: church@icofusa.org.uk
• Proff. Charles Mwape (Zambian). E-mail: cm@icofafrica,net
• Dr. Lackson Banda (Zambian). E-mail: banda@icofzambia.net
• Dr. Akinyele Obadofin (Nigeria) E-mail: akinyela@icofnigeria.net
• Dr. Ntshangase S. Bongani (South Africa) E-mail: ntshangase@icof.co.za
• Dr. Alick W. Mbewe (Zambian) E-mail: registrar@icofzambia.net
• Dr. Kingsley Kakungu (Zambian) E-mail: dean@icofzambia.net
• Dr. Paul Kakunta Mbulo (Zambian) E-mail: mbulo@icofzambia.net
a. Dr. Jay Carlin ( USA) E-mail: jay@icofusa.net
b. Mr. Eric Brown ( USA) E-mail: ebrown@icofusa.net
c. Dr. Beverly Snyder (USA) E-mail: synderb@icofusa.net
d. Mr. Marco A. Albarran the Bursar. E-mail: marcoa@icofusa.net
e. Proff. Renee Clark – (UK) E-mail: reneec@icofusa.net
f. Dr. Charles M. Oseji (UK) E-mail: osejic@icofafrica.net
150. The University has also eminent Guest lecturers who complement the various faculties.
a. Prof. Allen L. Lewis (USA) E-mail: allen@icofusa.net
b. Prof. Gerald M. FitzGerald (United Kingdom) E-mail: geraldm@icofusa.org.uk
c. Prof. William Flood (United Kingdom) E-mail: williamf@icofusa.org.uk
d. Dr. Carmen Herbel-Spear (USA) E-mail: carmenh@icofusa.net
e. Dr. Barnabas Oluwaleye (Nigeria) E-mail: barnabas@icofnigeria.net
f. Dr. James H. Martin ( Canada) E-mail: james@icofusa.net
g. Dr. Joseph Rankin (USA) E-mail: rankin@icofusa.net
h. Dr. Taiwo Kasumu ( Nigeria ) E-mail: kasumu@icofnigeria.net
i. Prof. Robert R. Iwatt ( Cameroon) Email: robert@icofusa.org
j. Dr. Peter Mitchell ( Canada) E-mail: mictchell@icofusa.org.uk
k. Dr. Herbert Gadian (Philippines ) E-mail: herbert@icofusa.org
• Africa eminent/qualified/guest and adjunct lecturers:
a. Dr. Charles Burton ( Malawi) E-mail: burtonc@icofmalawi.net
b. Dr. Godwin Musonda E-mail: godwin@icofzambia.net
c. Bishop. Daniel Kasongo (Congo DRC) E-mail: kasongo@icofdrc.net
d. Dr. Ronald Ngandu E-mail: ngandur@icofzambia.net
e. Dr. David Tait (South Africa) E-mail: ntshanyintshanyi@icof.co.za
f. Dr. Florence Brooks (USA) E-mail: brooks@icofusa.net
g. Dr James Zulu E-mail: james.zulu@icofafrica.net
h. Dr. Christina A, Dzakpasu (Ghana) E-mail: christina@icofafrica.net
OPEN AND E-LEARNING DIRECTORATE
Dr. Peter Mitchell
Vice President
Botswana Office
Phone: +26771737082
E-mail: mictchell@icofusa.org.uk
Website: www.icofbotswana.net
OPEN AND E-LEARNING DIRECTORATE
Dr. Godwin Musonda

Director of Admissions
ICOF Africa Office
Phone: +260977/965/955-549512
E-mail: godwin.musonda@icofafrica.net
Website: www.icofafrica.net
1 40 ICOF AFRICA CAMPUS
The Board of Regent resolved to focus ICOF-CSU programs in Africa and use the International
office based in Washington Dc as an administration office for resource mobilization and
recruitment of volunteers as staff in ICOF Africa centres and campus. The following are current
campus hosting students from 54 African Countries with over 36,000 satellite campuses in
Africa.
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (COORDINATING CENTRAL AFRICA)
Bishop Daniel Kasongo

National Presiding Bishop
Democratic Republic of Congo
Lubumbashi Office
Phone: +243999880301
E-mail: kasongo@icofdrc.net
Website: www.icofdrc.net
REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA (COORDINATING SOUTHERN AFRICA)
Bishop Dr. Cephas Mbewe

Zambia Office
Phone: +260977-797406
E-mail: mbewec@icofzambia.net
Website: www.icofzambia.net
REPUBLIC OF KENYA (COORDINATING EAST AFRICA)
Bishop Isaac Mburu

Nairobi Kenya Office
Phone: +254722946372
E-mail: kitavij@icofkenya.net
Website: www.icofkenya.net
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA (COORDINATING WEST AFRICA)
Dr. Barnabas Oluwaleye

National Coordinator
Lagos Nigeria Office
Phone: +2348023725718
E-mail: barnabas@icofnigeria.net
Website: www.icofnigeria.net
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA (HOSTING AFRICA CAMPUS ADMINISTRATION)
Dr. Bishop Ntshangase Sibusiso Bongani

Newcastle KZN South Africa
P.O. BOX 2010 Newcastle 2940 South Africa
Phone: +27727077838
E-mail: ntshangase@icof.co.za
Website: www.icof.co.za
Professor Charles Mwape ICOF AFRICA OFFICE

Vice President for Africa
Johannesburg South Africa
P.O. BOX 1981 South Africa
Phone: +27657076744
E-mail: cm@icofarica.net
Website: www.icofafrica.net
REPUBLIC OF MALAWI
Bishop Charles Burton
Lilongwe Malawi
Phone: +265999615589
E-mail: burtonc@icofmalawi.net
Website: www.icofmalawi.net
REPUBLIC OF BOTSWANA
Apostle Linda Kelebogile Kebafitlhetse
Botswana Office
Phone: +26775118805
E-mail: lindah@icofbotswana.net
Website: www.icofbotswana.net
FEDRAL REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
Bishop Dr. Elisha Mauza

Tanzania Office
Phone: +254789815152
E-mail: mauza@icoftanzania.net
Website: www.icofnamibia.net
REPUBLIC OF NAMIBIA
Bishop or Coordinator to be appointment soon

Namibia Office
Phone: +264812522351
E-mail: education@icofnamibia.net
Website: www.icofnamibia.net
REPUBLIC OF ZIMBAMBWE
Kenneth Mukau
Zimbabwe Office
Phone: +263773553391
E-mail: education@icofzimbabnet
Website: www.icofzimbabwe.net
CONTACT DETAILS
Dr. James J. Martin

The Vice President International Affairs
ICOF Main Campus
Tel: (202) 350-2551
Fax: (202) 350-2551
1701 Pennsylvania NW,
Suite 300 Washington DC 20006
United States of America
E-mail : james@icofusa.net
Website: www.icofusa.net
Dr. Alick W. Mbewe

The Registrar
Africa Campus
Mobile: +260977776662
Office: +260-211-238160
Kasangula Road
Plot Number 178/13 Olympia Extension
P.O. Box 34490 Lusaka, Zambia
E-mail : registrar@icof.edu.zm
Website: www.icof.edu.zm
Dr Bongani Sibusiso Ntshangase

Deputy Vice President Admissions
South Africa Campus
Mobile: +27727077838
Office: +27343127894
Grunt Place Lawaley Johannesburg
E-mail : education@icof.co.za
Website: www.icof.co.za

Icof Csu Module: Course Code: DRSW 102

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ICOF CSU MODULE

COURSE CODE: DRSW 102

101. OUR VISSION ...……..…………………………………………………..…………..….….………….4

102. OUR MISSION …………………..………………………………………..…………..….….………….4

103. REACHING OUT THROUGH EDUCATION SINCE 1932 ..………….…..……..…………….……..4

104. UNIVERSITY UNDERTAKING .………………………………………..………………..……..….….…4

105. WHO ARE WE? …………..…………………….…………………..…………..….………..…………4

105. BOARD OF REGENTS……...………………….…………………..…………..….………..………….5

106. Course Code & Name ……………………….......…….……………………………………………..7

107. Course Description.…………………………………………………………………………………….7

108. Learning Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………7

109. Course Outline ……………….………..……………………...…………………………………………7

110. Assessment method …………………………………………………………………………………...10

111. Course Material ………….…………………………….……………………………………………….13

112. Unit 1……………………....................................…...……..............................................................14

113. Unit 2………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………….75

114. Unit 3………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..102

115. Unit 4………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..129

118. Unit 5………. ............…………………………………………………………………………………..154

Professor Gaudenzio Masimino Rossi

1. Proff. Bernie L. Wade (USA). University Rector

1. Prof. Allen Lewis (USA) Adjunct Professor

1. Bishop Dr. Charles Burton Senior Lecturer

101. OUR VISION

102. OUR MISSION

103. REACHING OUT THROUGH EDUCATION SINCE 1932

1. Introduction to Christianity and Religious Studies

104. UNIVERSITY UNDERTAKING

105. WHO ARE WE?

E1.2.1. Background and Rationale

E1.2.2. Learning Outcomes

E1.2.3. Course Content (Syllabus)

E7.6. Reference Materials

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Tips relevant for the course study.

The following is a practical guide for working through this course.

INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT

Origin and Meaning of the Term “New Testament”

Divine Preparation for the New Testament

The Religious World at the Time of the New Testament

The New Testament: Some Basic Information

Other Early Christian Writings

Prophetical Revelation Consummation:

WHO WROTE THE FOUR GOSPELS?

The uniqueness of the Gospel of John

NOTICE THESE UNIQUE FEATURES OF JOHN’S GOSPEL:

John continued this theme in the Book of Revelation:

The Synoptic Gospels

Characteristics of the Synoptic Gospels

Characteristics of the Gospel of Luke

This makes Luke’s gospel a gospel of women.

The Gospel is Universal

Mark’s portrayal of Jesus

Interest in the Messiah

The synoptic problem hinges on several interrelated points of controversy:

Most widely accepted

Double tradition explained

A hybrid of Two-source and

Matthew and Luke used Q.

Mark primarily has

All gospels directly used