IU Rel ceyey ®» 1.1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM. Se = Fundamental Particles cncn ae 1 ma 2 ey CHEM FILE ‘ A There are other subatomic particles found in an atom such ‘as mesons, positrons, neutrinos a and quarks. | 5 CHEM FILE J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897, Ernest 1 Rutherford discovered the 6 proton in 1920 and James Chadwick discovered the } neutron in 1932, | i saemmmmmenel 7 8 CHEM FILE . The positively charged protons 9 are packed together with the | neutrons in a small nucleus. However, the atom is stil stable because there is @ nuclear binding force that holds the rotor neutrons together. 10 BD) scemiexociensiy rete The fundamental particles in an atom are proton, neutron and electron. The properties of subatomic particles are given in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Properties of subatomic particles aired re Relative OES BRS od crs mass (kg) Proton D +1 1 1.67 x 107” 1 3 Electron e 1 7 eee ‘Neutron 0 i 1.67 x 1077 Proton is a positively charged particle while electron is negatively charged. Neutron is a neutral particle. A proton and a neutron have almost the same mass while an electron is of negligible mass. In his gold foil experiment, Rutherford proposed the atomic model where a large area of an atom consists of empty space. In the centre of the atom lies a very small nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged particles which he named the protons. The neutrons are also found in the nucleus. The protons and neutrons are collectively known as the nucleons. Bohr postulated that the electrons move around the nucleus in specific energy levels. An electron is a very light particle, about 5.44 x 10+ times lighter than a proton. Thus, the mass of an atom is contributed largely by its protons and neutrons. This means that the heaviest part of an atom is its nucleus. The mass of an atom is very small. Thus, it is more appropriate to express its mass in atomic mass units (a.m.u.). 1am.u. =—L x mass of one atom of #C 12 = 1.66 x 10 kgRew a A OM Calculate the mass of one atom of '% [Avogadro's number = 6.02 x 10? mol] Solution 1 mol of ?C has a mass of 12.0 g. 1 mol of #C contains 6.02 x 10” atoms F 12.0 I PM pug 220 _ 2» b 2+ Mass of atom of ?C = => 55 = 1.99 x 10 g B® Effect of an Electric Field on Subatomic Particles 1 When a beam of protons, neutrons and electrons is passed | through an electric field, the observations are shown in Figure 1.1 g protons ; beam of protons, slectrons and 2 neutrons 4 Figure 1.1 neutrons 5 Effects of an electric field t on subatomic particles electrons ' 2 The positive protons are deflected towards the negative plate. | The negative electrons are deflected towards the positive plate while the neutrons, being electrically neutral, are undeflected. 3. The lighter electrons are deflected more than the heavier protons, that is, « < B. t 2 > Effect of a Magnetic Field on Subatomic i Particles i 1 When a beam of protons, neutrons and electrons is passed through | a magnetic field, the observations are shown in Figure 1.2. i | t t t beam of protons, «Figure 1.2 coors it Effects of a magnetic field on subatomic particles F |direction TAKE NOTE ae The deflections of the protons and electrons in a magnetic field can bbe determined by using Fleming's left hand rule ————— a ale » Figure 1.3 Fleming's left hand rule direction of current 2 The particles are deflected and the deflections can be determined by applying Fleming’s left hand rule (Figure 1.3). The direction of the current is in the same direction of flow of the protons, and in the opposite direction of the electrons. 3. As in an electric field, the electrons are deflected at a bigger angle than the protons due to the lighter mass, while neutrons are undeflected. ® Proton Number, Z rie 1 The proton number of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. 2 Since an atom is electrically neutral, therefore, the number of ey protons is equal to the number of electrons. ay Wes ® Nucleon Number, A 1. The nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. 2 The number of neutrons in an atom = A — Z TAKE NOTE Aieineeniainibarae 3. The usual way of representing an atom is 4X, for example, #$CI known as the atomic number and 23U. and the nucleon number as ‘the mass number. Aes Determine the number of subatomic particles in j$C1 and *33U atoms. Solution — — —at rN IU Neen PSs Teg 2 Number of protons 92 eee end 7 92 Nee 18 ns)fons 1 When a chemical reaction takes place, only the valence electrons are involved, while the number of protons and neutrons in an atom remain unchanged. Thus, an ion has the same proton number and nucleon number as its atom. 2 A unipositive ion can be represented as follows. 2x where A and Z represent the nucleon number and proton number of element Y respectively. 3 When an atom or a molecule receives electrons, a negative ion, called anion is formed. X+ne > x" 4 An anion has more electrons than protons. Some examples are shown in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Examples of anions N= Fen ES =| en cd 7 | 8 | 9 [1s [16 | 7 | ek 10 10 10 18 18 8 io 5 When an atom or a molecule loses electrons, a positive ion, called cation is formed. YoY" tne 6 A cation has more protons than electrons, Some examples are shown in Table 1.3. Table 1.3 Examples of cations io Na* Mg® | APY Kr Ae u 12 13 19 Number of electrons _[NEU) 10 10 18 7 Species with the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species, for example, Na*, Mg’, Al, N*, O and F- are isoelectronic. 8 Ions with only one atom are called monatomic ions. Examples are Nat and Mg™. 9 Ions that contain more than one atom are called polyatomic ions, Examples are H,O* and NO;. EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following species (@) HN (b) (HOP © [8CO.F Solution (a) Number of protons = proton number = 7 Number of electrons = 7 + 0 Number of neutrons = 14 — 7=7 _ LINK TO STPM | 2014/P/01 + aise dpe eacara cvantaearllLEARNING OUTCOMES Te TAKE NOTE ‘The |H atom does not have neutrons. i ened CHEM FILE . The abundance of +H is 99.98% compared to the ‘other isotopes of hydrogen. Water enriched in molecules containing deuterium is called hen ‘ates. Deuterium and its compounds are used as 2 non-radioactive label in chemical experiments. Tritium is radioactive with a halflife of 12.32 years. It undergoes -decay to t form helium-3. (b) Number of protons = 3(1) +8 = 11 Number of electrons = 11 — 1 = 10 Number of neutrons = 3(1 ~ 1) + (16 - 8)=8 (c) Number of protons = 6 + 3(8) = 30 Number of electrons = 30 + 2 = 32 ‘Number of neutrons = (12 — 6) + 3(16 — 8) = 30 Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same proton number but with different nucleon numbers. Isotopes can also be defined as atoms of an element with the same number of protons but with different number of neutrons. Many elements have isotopes. Some examples are shown in Table 1.4. Table 1.4 Examples of isotopes Number of Isotopes ees oo | ~{H (protium) 1 1 0 Hydrogen | {D (deuterium) | 1 An element can have more than one isotope. Thus, isotopes are identified by their nucleon number, for example, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Isotopes have the same chemical properties because chemical properties are determined by the number of valence electrons. Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different number of neutrons. For example, deuterium, 7H has a higher density and melting point compared to protium, 'H An element may have several naturally occurring isotopes. The percentage occurrence of each isotope of the element is called its percentage abundance,8 The isotopic composition of an element is a constant. This means that the percentage abundance of the isotopes of an element is a constant, regardless of the source of the clement. For example, chlorine has two isotopes “Cl and "Cl, with percentage abundances of 75.78% and 24.22% respectively. Stability of Isotopes 1 Many isotopes occur naturally. However, artificial isotopes can be made by bombarding atoms with neutrons or protons in an atomic reactor, Some isotopes are stable while some are unstable. Table 1.5 shows examples of stable and unstable isotopes of some elements with proton numbers less than 83. Table 1.5 Examples of stable and unstable isotopes Sie Cees Hydrogen Hydrogen-1 | -Hydrogen-3 Carbon Carbon-12 Carbon-14 Oxygen Oxygen-16 Oxygen-15 Cobalt Cobalt-59 Cobalt-60 Iodine | Todine-127. | Todine-131 Lead Lead-207 Lead-210 | 4 The stability of isotopes depends on the neutron to proton ratio. Figure 1.4 shows the graph of the number of neutrons against the number of protons of stable isotopes of elements with proton numbers less than 83. The corresponding numbers lie in a region called the stability belt. ‘umber of neutrons T T 2 40 60 80 100 number of protons 5 Stable isotopes with proton numbers between 1 and 20 usually have almost the same number of protons and neutrons. For example, "C has six protons and six neutrons, '’N has seven protons and seven neutrons and *Cl has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. 6 As the proton number increases, the number of neutrons will exceed the number of protons. This is to overcome the repulsive TU emo cecoy td 4 Figure 1.4 The stability belt yates moestiecateaiew reallCHEM FILE 7 The penetrating power increases in the order , Band y. ‘cpatticles can be stopped 8 by a piece of paper and B-particles by a piece of thin ‘aluminium foil. y-rays can 9 pass through conerete and can be stopped only by a thick block of lead. } However, the ionising power of the o-particles is the highest. | LINK TO STPM 2015/P1/01 wv 2016/P1/Q2 forces between the protons in the small nucleus, For example, Br has 35 protons and 44 neutrons while ®5U has 92 protons and 143 neutrons. Isotopes that lie outside the stability belt are unstable. Unstable isotopes are radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes. They undergo radioactive decay spontaneously. Isotopes with a proton number greater than 83 are unstable, for mi example 28U, 2Th and 23Ra. Radioactive isotopes decay and emit o-particles, B-particles and/ or rays. (a) o-particles are helium nuclei, {He (b) B-particles are fast-moving electrons, 4e (©) yrays are high-energy electromagnetic waves with short wavelengths. When a radioisotope decays, a new isotope will be formed. “Po — *4Pb + $He (Alpha decay) ANT > 3yPa + fe (Beta decay) 11 Alpha decay (a) The emission of an a-particle leads to the formation of an isotope with a decrease in two units of the proton number and a decrease in four units of the nucleon number. For example, “*Po decays to ™Pb by emitting an a-particle as follows. nucleon number decreases by 4 units TAKE NOTE : a 1 Emission of an a-particle «Po —+ @Pb + 2He forms an isotope of an | clement situated two pasa, —~- ll oroton number decreases by 2 unis Periodic Table. 2 Emission of le) . . fren oe (b) The emission of an o-particle forms an isotope of an element ‘element situated one situated two places to the left in the Periodic Table. place to the right apa decay Pb Po 12 Beta decay (a) The emission of a B-particle forms an isotope with no change in the nucleon number and an increase by one unit of the proton number.For example, **Th decays by emitting a B-particle as follows. rucleon number remains unchanged *Th—~ Bpat fe proton number increases by 1 unit (b) The emission of a B-particle forms an isotope of an element situated one place to the right. beta decay L\ ™ | Pa 13 The decay will continue until a stable isotope is formed. 14 The stability of a radioisotope is measured by its half-life. The shorter the half-life, the less stable the radioisotope. The half-lives of some radioisotopes are given in Table 1.6. Table 1.6 Half-life of isotopes rar [eins Jodine-131 Carbon-14 5730 years Uranium-238 4.51 x 10° years Radium-226 ___ 1602 years EXAMPLE 1.4 Uranium-235 decays by emitting an alpha particle. Determine the proton number and the nucleon number of the isotope formed Solution Proton number = 92 ~ 2= 90 Nucleon number = 235 ~ 4 = 231 2gU — Th + $He REFRESHER 1 The fundamental particles in an atom are protons, neutrons and electrons. 2. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are neutral. 3. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus while electrons move around the nucleus in specific energy levels. 4 Aneutral atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. CHEM FILE The halflife of a | radivisotope is independent of the amount of the radioactive substance | present and is not influenced by catalyst or changes in temperature and pressure eee eeaeaanenmeemneal CHEM FILE Radium was discovered in | 1898 by Marie S. Curie and her husband Pierre. Radium has 33 isotopes, with nucleon numbers 202 toCHEM FILE When a tree is alive, C-14 is continually disintegrating, and it is continually being replaced through photosynthesis. However, when the tree di photosynthesis stops. Only disintegration continues and the C-14 concentration in the tree decreases. By measuring the C-14 level in the tree, itis possible to tell how long the tree has been dead. This is called carbon dating. Teme Uo yaa) eC aoe) isotopic mass, relative Te 5. A positive ion is formed when an atom or molecule loses electrons. A negative ion is formed when an atom or molecule receives electrons. 6 Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. 7 Unstable isotopes decay spontaneously. Checkpoint 1.1 1 Determine the number of subatomic particles of the following species. (a) 2D,"sO (b) 40> (© PN'SOr 2 Abeam of 'H* and "*O- ions is passed into an electric field as shown in the diagram below. beam of ‘we and, path ¥ (a) Identify the ions that follow path X and path Y. (b) Explain the magnitude of the angles of deflections x and y. 3 Three atoms are given below. ae ay ® (a) State the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom of 3X. (b) Which two atoms are isotopes of an element? Explain your answer. (©) What would be the relative mass of the ion formed when the 3Y atom loses two electrons? ®) 1.2 RELATIVE MASS > Relative Atomic Mass 1 An atom is too small for us to see and too light for us to weigh. So, how can we determine the mass of an atom? A standard scale is required so that we can at least compare the different masses of the atoms. 2. The relative atomic mass of an element gives an indication of how heavy an atom of that element is compared to an atom of another element.‘The lightest element is hydrogen. Thus, it was normal for hydrogen to be chosen as a standard for determining relative atomic mass, and its relative atomic mass was given | unit. Based on the 'H scale, relative atomic mass of an element is defined as how many times heavier an atom of that element is compared to an atom of 'H. For example, carbon-12 has a relative atomic mass of 12 units, This means one carbon-12 atom is 12 times heavier than a hydrogen-] atom. As heavier isotopes were discovered and accuracy was needed in determining relative atomic masses, the hydrogen standard was not suitable because the hydrogen atom is too light. The oxygen standard was then introduced. However, there were two different scales. Physicists used the relative atomic mass of O, the most abundant isotope of oxygen, as the standard, while chemists used the average relative atomic mass of all the isotopes of oxygen, '%O, 'O and '$O, as the standard. Hence, a conversion was needed to change between the two scales. In 1961, scientists agreed to use the °C isotope as the new standard for the following reasons. (a) ?C is abundant in nature. (b) It can be casily identified in a mass spectrometer. (c) It is easy to handle carbon since it exists as a solid at room temperature and pressure. Based on the "C scale, relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the average mass of one atom of the element compared to the mass of one atom of "C, where the relative mass of an atom of "°C is exactly 12.0 units. Relative atomic mass, A,, is given mathematically as average mass of | atom of element hx mass of | atom of #C The average mass is used because some elements have two or more isotopes. For example, chlorine has two isotopes, of which 75% is Cl and 25% is "Cl. Thus, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is the average mass of the isotopes, taking into consideration their relative abundances. i. 75. Relative atomic mass of chlorine = ( 100 * 33) ch; a x x) = 35.5 Note that relative atomic mass is a ratio, hence it has no units. The relative atomic mass gives an indication of how many times heavier an atom of the element is compared to an atom of °C.For example, the relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24.3, therefore a magnesium atom is 24. atom of carbon-12. 12 2.03 times heavier than an | > Relative Isotopic Mass 1 Foran isotope of an element, the term relative isotopic mass is used. mass of 1 atom of the isotope Relative isotopic mass == x mass of 1 atom of VC 12 2. The protons and neutrons have a relative mass of | unit while the electrons are of negligible mass. Hence, the relative isotopic mass of an isotope is approximately equal to its nucleon number. Some examples are shown in Table 1.7. Ries ; He 4 4.003 Na 23 22.990 Al 27 26.982 3 For most calculations, the nucleon number can be used as a substitute for relative isotopic mass. |. is defined as average mass of 1 molecule of substance 35x mass of 1 atom of #C 2. Relative molecular mass can be calculated by taking the sum of the relative atomic mass of all the atoms in the molecule. For example, the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO, = (1x 12.0) + (2 x 16.0) = 44.0 Relative Formula Mass TAKE NOTE | Tietethetias oe 1 For ionic compounds, the term + is used. is almost the same as that 7 mass of | formula of ionic compound ofitsatomasthemassof | Relative formulamass= = OSES 0" Tonle Colipoune electrons can be neglected. | +5 X mass of | atom of VC —_—_— a ) eons eessl 3 The relative formula mass of an ionic compound is calculated in the same way as relative molecular mass. This is because the mass of an ion is almost the same as that of its atom as the mass of electrons can be neglected. For example, the relative formula mass of K,O = 2(39.1) + 16.0 =94.2 ® 1.3 MASS SPECTROMETRY )» Mass Spectrometer ionisation Biaun “toil chamber a LI “= Le I | heating ‘lament to vacuum pump rosrior AKA The method used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element is called The instrument used is called a The functions of the parts of a mass spectrometer are given below. (a) The mass spectrometer is maintained at low pressure by a vacuum pump. All neutral atoms and molecules will be removed by the vacuum pump. (b)A small amount of a gaseous sample of an element is introduced into the mass spectrometer. Solid and liquid samples are vaporized in a (c) The gas or vapour flows into an . Here, a heated filament or electron gun emits high speed electrons. As the gaseous particles move into this chamber, collisions occur and each gaseous particle loses one electron to form a unipositive ion. X(g)+e° > X%(g) + 2e° (d) The ions move into an where they are by negatively charged plates, P, and P,, and they emerge through a slit with almost the same velocity. LEARNING OUTCOMES * Interpret m: Mass spectrometer Article on mass spectrometry eae ERT(e) The ions then move into a magnetic field where they are deflected. The angle of deflection is inversely proportional to the mass to charge ratio, mle. | Angle of deflection e mle (i) Tons with smaller m/e ratio are deflected more than | those with higher mie For example, consider the two ions “0 and '*N’, The mle ratio for "0% ion is 16/2 = 8 = The mle ratio for “N* ion is 14/1 = 14 The “0 ion has a smaller m/e ratio than the “N° ion, Thus the "O* ion will be deflected more than the “N* ion, zeit | : Wot and "yt fbn riginal path —— Hoe aye (ii) For ions with the same charge, those with smaller masses are deflected more. For example, 'H’, 7H* and ?7H* ions are deflected as shown in the figure below. a beam of TH, #HY and? te HH (ii) For ions with the same mass, those with higher charges are deflected more. For example, *Cl* and 3*CF* ions are deflected as shown in the diagram below. beam of or and oP of For (f) By varying the magnetic field strength and the accelerating voltage, the ions are focused onto an ion detector. (g) A weak signal is detected which is then sent to an amplifier which is connected to a recorder. The recorder will recordthe relative mass and abundance of the ions in a display called the mass spectrum, 4 The mass spectrum of magnesium is shown in Figure 1.6. 400 80 60 404 mg" Mg 25) Seca [ETE 10% 11% “Ra us massicharge (nv) % abundance (a) Since the ions have a charge of +1, the ratio m/e gives the relative mass of the ion. (b) The relative abundance of an ion is indicated by the height of the peak produced. (c) The mass spectrum of magnesium above shows that magnesium has three isotopes: “Mg, “Mg and Mg. (d) The relative abundance of the isotopes are 79%, 10% and 11% respectively. 5 Sometimes, doubly-charged ions are produced, X(g) +e" + ¥*(g) + 3e~ For these ions with a charge of +2, a peak will be recorded at m/2, its equivalent relative mass. For example, if “Mg ion is produced, then a peak at m/e value of 24/2 = 12 will be produced. Flow chart of the mass spectrometer is shown below. Vaporizaton chamber |-+[ ionisation chamber | —+[ Acceleration chamber I T I Sond and tau Woloouos cole with] [Tons are accterated by leamoles are vaporized | [electrons emitedirom | | negatively charged a |thested catode to” | — [plates and emerge wah fom unpostive ne | [high speeds Mg) +2 9g)» 20 Recorder J+ Magnetic fold i ‘Records the relative Tons are deflected mass and abundance according to of the ions in a mass massicharge (m/e) spectrum values. lons with small | ime values are more PSeN a oa »Br, "Br and "Br; ions are deflected in a magnetic field. Draw the paths of the three ions. « Figure 1.8 Mass spectrum of magnesium—_— a Br + original path Br foe rmaget td e \ The mass spectrum of a monatomic element ¥ is shown below. percentage abundance + 95.02 |- 42a. 0.75 |- a 33H me (a) Describe the above mass spectrum. (b) Determine the relative atomic mass of element X. (a) Element ¥ has three isotopes with relative isotopic mass of 32, 33 and 34 with relative abundances of 95.02%, 0.75% and 4.23% respectively. (b) Relative atomic mass of X = 32% 95.02) + (330.75) + (344.2 100 ‘An element Q occurs naturally as *Q and °°Q, Given that the relative atomic mass of Q is 28.4, what is the percentage occurrence of the lighter isotope? Let x = percentage occurrence of *Q 28,4 = 28% +30(100-x) 100 80.0%» Mass Spectrum of Monatomic Element 1 The me + the number of isotopes of the element + the relative isotopic mass of each isotope + the percentage abundance of each isotope spectrum of an element can be used to determine 2 For example, from Figure 1.6, the relative atomic mass of magnesium can be calculated by considering the percentage abundances of the isotopes of magnesium. Relative atomic mass of magnesium 2 = 24x79 , 25x10, 26x _ 943 100 100 100 3 Sometimes the relative abundance of isotopes are given. The relative abundance can be converted to percentage abundance. For example, consider the mass spectrum of boron LINK TO STPM shown in Figure 1.7. 201a/P 1/02 2017 /P 1/06 relative abundance "B 100.0 Total 123.0 100.0 Using relative abundance, the relative atomic mass of boron _ (23.0 x 10) + (100.0 x 11) 123.0 =10.8 '» Mass Spectrum of a Diatomic Element 1 Inamass spectrometer, when gaseous molecules are bombarded by high speed electrons, the covalent bonds in the molecules can be broken. 2. The mass spectrum of a diatomic element X, shows peaks that are caused by the molecular ion, X3, and the fragment ion, X*. | ih aca3 For example, chlorine has two isotopes, *Cl and “Cl in the ratio of 3: 1, The mass spectrum of chlorine gas shows 5 peaks at mle values as follows: 4 The molecular ions [*Chi’, [SCI"CI}’, "CPCI and ["CL}' will produce peaks with a relative abundance of 9 : 6: 1. [SCL]: CPCI, PCIE} : PCL 3) if 3301 4 fT) ob xp(Gx a)*(g . x 100% = 7.50% 2000 . I mol of hydrogen gas occupies x dm? at T°C and P atm. What is the volume of 0.25 mol oxygen gas at T°C and P atm? a ‘ACE AHEAD Chemisty First Term1 mol of any gas occupies the same volume under the same conditions. Thus, 0.25 mol oxygen gas would occupy 0.25x dm’, a Mole Concept for Solutions 1 The concentration of a solution is the amount of substance dissolved in 1 dm’ of the solution. 2. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in g dm* or mol dm*. 3. The number of moles of a substance in Vem’ of a M mol dm solution is given by MV Number of moles = 1090 4 Consider a reaction between two aqueous solutions that follow the stoichiometric equation below. aA(aq) + bB(aq) > products When V,, cm’ of solution A(aq) with concentration M, mol dm? reacts completely with V, cm’ of solution Biaq) with concentration M, mol dm”, then Mk Mak a_ Mak or > 3 5 MMs PA What is the mass of sodium hydroxide required to make 250 em’ of 0.20 mol dm? solution? [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; Na, 23] 0.20 x 250 1000 Mass of sodium hydroxide = 0.05 x (23 + 16 + 1) = 2.0 g Number of moles of sodium hydroxide = = 0.05 EXAMPLE 1.20 In 2 neutralisation reaction, hydrochloric acid of 0.50 mol dm is added to 25.0 cm’ of barium hydroxide solution of 0.20 mol dm. Calculate the volume of hydrochloric acid required for complete reaction. 2HCI + Ba(OH), — BaCl, + 2H,0 (MV acy _ (MV )sacor 2 Tamm invccualouan aanLINK TO STPM. 2013/P1/Q1 2013/P 1/016 2015/1103 2016/P1/Q1 2016/P1/018(a) —_-__ er = V=20.0cm? ® Stoichiometric Calculations 1 The number of moles of reactants used or products formed in a chemical reaction can be determined from its stoichiometric equation. 2 For example, the equation for the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid is shown below. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) + MgCl,(aq) + H,(g) The information that can be inferred from the equation are: (a) Mg(s) and HCl(aq) are the reactants. (b) MgCl,(aq) and H,(g) are the products. (c) 1 mol Mg(s) reacts with 2 mol HCI(aq) to form 1 mol MgCl,(aq) and | mol H,(g). AMP fl Calcium carbonate decomposes when heated to liberate carbon dioxide gas. CaCO,s) + CO,(g) + C20(s) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas that would be produced at room temperature when 25.0 g of calcium carbonate decomposes. [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Ca, 40; | mol of gas occupies 24.4 dm at room temperature and pressure] Solution ‘Number of moles of CO, produced = Number of moles of CaCO, decomposed = ae z. Volume of CO, = can 24426. dm AMPLE 1.22 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes according to the following equation. 2H,0,(1) + 2H,0() + 0.(g) Calculate the volume of oxygen liberated at s.t:p. from 250 cm? of a 1,50 mol dm® hydrogen peroxide solution. [1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm! at st-p] Number of moles of H,O, = pane = 02375 2 mol H,O, produces 1 mol 4x 0.375 x 22.4 = 4.20 dm> ». Volume of O,EXAMPLE 1.23 What is the mass of hydrogen required to reduce 150 g of copper(I1) oxide to copper? (Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Cu, 63.5] CuO +H, + Cu+H,O Bot 150. Mol of H, = mol of CuO = 75°; 150 Mi oe 223, ass of Hy = 35 5% 2= 3.77 8 EXAMPLE 1.24 What is the maximum mass of iron that can be extracted from 40.0 g of Fe,0,? [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Fe, 55.8] Relative formula mass of FeO, = 231.4 1 mol Fe,O, produces 3 mol Fe. 40.0 Mol of Fe=3 x 5377 +, Mass of Fe = 3 x 400 x 55,8 = 28.9 = T°" 31d =e Ceres ae ed 1 Sodium azide decomposes to liberate nitrogen gas as follows: 2NaN, + 3N, +2Na Calculate the mass of sodium azide required to liberate 50.0 dm? of nitrogen gas at room temperature. [Relative atomic mass: N, 14; Na, 23; 1 mol of gas occupies 24.4 dm? at room temperature and pressure] 2 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes catalytically as follows. 2H,0, ane 2H,O +O, Calculate the volume of oxygen that will be liberated at s.t.p. from. 25.0 cm? of a 0.50 mol dm” hydrogen peroxide solution. [1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm? at s.t-p.] 3 n atoms of an element N have a mass of 34.25 g and Sn atoms of an element M have a mass of 135.00 g. What is the relative atomic mass of N? [Relative atomic mass of M = 108] 4 How many moles of ions are formed when 65.25 g of barium nitrate dissolves in water? [Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; Ba, 137] Article on stoichiometry 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry £Summary 1 The fundamental subatomic particles are proton, electron and neutron. 2 Protons and neutrons have the relative mass of 1, while electrons are of negli mass. 3 Protons have a charge of +1, while electrons have a charge of —1, Neutrons are electrically neutral. 4 Proton number is the number of protons in an atom. 5 Nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom. 6 Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same proton number but with different nucleon numbers. 1 7 The relative atomic mass is the average mass of an element compared to 73 the mass of one atom of C-12. 8 The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined in a mass spectrometer. 9 The parts and functions of a mass spectrometer are {a) vaporization chamber to vaporize solid and liquid samples {b) ionisation chamber where positive ions are formed {c) acceleration chamber where ions are accelerated to high speed {d) magnetic field where ions are deflected according to m/e values (e) detector where ions are detected in an ion detector (f) recorder where the peaks are recorded in a mass spectrum 10 Angle of deflection is inversely proportional to the m/e value. 11 A mass spectrum can be used to determine (a) the number of isotopes of an element (by the number of the peaks) (b) the relative abundance of the isotopes (by the height of the peaks) (c) the relative isotopic mass of the isotopes (d) the relative molecular mass of a compound (e) the structure of a molecule 12 1 mol is the amount of substance that contains the same number of atoms as in 12 g of carbon-12. 13 Avogadro's constant is the number of particles present in one mole of a substance. It has a value of 6.02 x 10% mol". 14 Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance. 15 One mole of a gas occupies 22.4 dm? at s.t.p. and 24.4 dm? at room conditions, r.t.p. MbtFOCUS ON STPM 1 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1 The proton number of an ion Xis 17, its nucleon number is 35 and it has the same number of electrons and neutrons. What is the charge of ion X? A -2 Cc +i B -l D +2 ema The proton number of particle Q is 20. It has 20 neutrons and the same number of electrons and neutrons, What is the particle Q? A Qatom B Qion n C Q'ion D Q* ion w The molar mass of haemoglobin, Hb(Fe), is 6.66 10" g mol". If the percentage of iron in a haemoglobin molecule is 0.335%, what is the value of n? [Molar mass of Fe is $5.8 ¢ mol"!} A 2 Cc 4 B 3 D5 2 In an experiment, x g of sodium is burnt completely in air. The product formed is dissolved in water to form a 50.0 cm’ solution. 10.0 cm’ of this solution required 33.50 cm? of hydrochloric acid 0.10 mol dm* for complete neutralisation. What is the value of x? A 0.154 C 1.68 B 0.385 D 7.71 w The symbol of a sulphur atom is 2S. Which statement is true regarding sulphur? A. The relative atomic mass of sulphur is 32g. B_ A sulphur atom has 32 electrons, _ o © 10 relative intensity C 16 g of sulphur contain 6.02 x 107 atoms, D There are 16 protons and 16 neutrons in the nucleus of a sulphur atom. The mass ratio of one atom of an isotope of Q to one atom of carbon-12 is 1.50. What is the relative isotopic mass of the isotope of Q? A 8.0 Cc B 100 D 15.0 18.0 The function of the magnetic field in a mass spectrometer is to A vaporize a solid sample B produce positive ions C separate ions with different masses D_ separate ions from neutral molecules Which species will be deflected the most in a mass spectrometer? A 7H c B iLi D The nitrogen dioxide molecule, NO,, consists of ""N, "O and '*0 isotopes. How many molecular peaks would there be in the mass spectrum of a sample of NO? Al C3 B2 D4 The mass spectrum of a compound showing some major peaks is shown below. Bee Hane me 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry €Which compound will give the above 14. Boron has two isotopes with relative mass spectrum? isotopic masses of 10 and 11. When [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 1.00 g of boron reacts completely with 14; O, 16] hydrogen, 1.278 g of boron hydride, AN; c co B,H, is produced. Which graph shows B GH, D NO the mass spectrum of boron? 11 Anelement Y occurs naturally as °Y" A 4 and “Yin the ratio of 2: 1. Based on | this information, which graph could represent the mass spectrum of Y;? A c 2 z a a z | ze me + + me B ee 1 a2 1 B D 2 ; Yon lately io) be ase fa alas 12 The relative atomic mass of *Sr based on the '6O standard is 89.936. Based on the "C standard, the relative atomic mass of '6O is 15.995. What is the relative atomic mass of “Sr based on the °C standard? 1 A 89.908 C 89.964 B_ 89.931 D_ 90.000 13 The compound NCI, is formed from MN, 5Cl and "Cl isotopes. The relative abundance of *Cl to "Cl is 3: 1. Which statement about the mass spectrum of D relative: NCI; is true? se A. The base peak corresponds to N* 4 ion. B_ The mie value for the last peak is 123. The number of peaks for NCI;* ion is 4. D_ The relative abundance of N*Cl;* ion to N°C1;* ion is 3:1. Sau15 Tritium, 37, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, slowly turns into a helium isotope, }3He. Which statement is true of the two isotopes? A 3Tand jHe have the same nuclear charge. B }T and 3He have the same number of neutral subatomic particles. 3T* and 3He* have the same number of charged subatomic particles. D 3T* and 3He* are deflected to the same point in a magnetic field whose strength is not varied. 16 The mass spectrum for a diatomic gas Y, is given below. percentage abundance 28 30 32 nie Which statement is true? The element Y has three isotopes. The most abundant isotope is * ¥. The relative atomic mass of Yis 15. The peak at the m/e ratio of 28 is caused by 8Y,* ion. caeP 17 0.1 dm’ of argon contains x atoms. How many atoms are there in 0.2 dm’ of hydrogen gas under the same conditions? A Cc 2x B x D 4x 18 An element E has two isotopes '°E and "IE. If the ratio of the relative abundance of °E to ''E is 0.248, what is the relative atomic mass of E? A 10.1 Cc 10.5 B 103 D 108 Tetraethyllead (IV), (CH,CH,),Pb, is added to petrol as an anti-knock agent. It is prepared from ethane, CH;CH,, according to the following equations. S 21 23 CH,CH; + Cl, > CH,CH,CI + HCI 4CH,CH,Cl + 4NaPb > (CH;CH,),Pb + 3Pb + 4NaCl Which statement about the reactions is not true? A One mole of CH,CH, produces one mole of CH,CH,Cl B Four moles of CH;CH; produce one mole of (CH;CH,),Pb. C Four moles of HCI are formed for each mole of (CH;CH,),Pb produced. D_ One mole of Cl, is required for each mole of (CH,CH,),Pb produced. Caro 0.85 g of magnesium powder is reacted with 2.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid. What is the volume of hydrochloric acid required for complete reaction? [Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24.3] A 17.5 cm? C 42.5 cm’ B 35.0 cm? D 70.0 cm? 3.20 g of magnesium is burnt completely in oxygen. The magnesium oxide formed is dissolved completely in 2.0 mol dm hydrochloric acid. What is the minimum volume of hydrochloric acid used? A 66cm} C198 cm? B_ 132cm* D_ 264.cm* Which statement is true about the isotopes ‘SX and "¥? A They are isotopes of the same element. B The “SX isotope has more neutrons per atom than the '}¥ isotope. C_ They have the same density. D They have the same melting point. Which statement is true of the nuclides of silicon, *Si and “Si? A The mass spectrum of silicon shows three peaks at mle values of 14, 28 and 30. B #SiCI, and *SiCI, molecules have the same shape. —C Isotope #{Si is more reactive than the isotope *Si. D_ {{Si atom is smaller than the ;?Si atom. 24 Which statement is true about the isotope 4X? A Its relative isotopic mass is 4 g. B Its relative isotopic mass is based on the "C standard. C_ Theion 7 X** has a relative mass of A-2. D_ An atom of the isotope has (4+Z) number of neutrons. 25 A sample of bromine gas contains 2Br and {Br isotopes. Which mass/charge STRUCTURED QUESTIONS ratio corresponds to Br,* species that would be found in the mass spectrum of the bromine gas? A 35 Cc 81 B70 D 158 Urea, (NH,),CO is a chemical fertiliser which decomposes into carbon dioxide and ammonia gas in the presence of water. What is the mass of urea that is required to dissolve in water to produce 112 dm’ of gases at s.t.p.? [Relative atomic mass : H, 1.0; C, 12.0; N, 14.0; O, 16.0; Molar volume = 22.4 dm’ mol" at s.t.p.) A 120g C 100.08 B 360g D 150.0g 1 Write the chemical symbol of each of the following species in the table below. os Tne Nou 2 The behaviour of alpha particles, beta particles and protons in an electric field was investigated as shown in the diagram below. path x Path X and path Y show the paths of deflection of the alpha particles and protons. (a) Identify the particles that are deflected along path X and path Y. Explain your answer, (b) State the polarity of plate 4. Explain your answer. (©)_ Draw on the above diagram the path of deflection of the beta particles. ACE AHEAD Chemistry First Term3 The mass spectrum of an element Q is shown below. 78 relative abundance 24 5 me (a) Describe the mass spectrum of element Q. (b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of element Q. The relative atomic mass of an element ¥ is 79.99. (a) Why is the relative atomic mass of X not a whole number? (b) In nature, X has two isotopes with mass numbers 79 and 81. Calculate the percentage abundance of isotopes ”X and *X. (c) If X exists as a monatomic element, sketch the mass spectrum of X. A sample of dinitrogen oxide, N,O containing isotopes '*N, '"N and “0, is analysed in a mass spectrometer. (a) Identify the molecular peaks and their corresponding m/e values that would be formed in the mass spectrum of the sample. (b) If the percentage occurrence of isotopes N and "“N are 99.64% and 0.36% respectively, calculate the relative molecular mass of N,O. a mn 6 A sample of nitrogen monoxide, NO contains nitrogen and oxygen with isotopes ''N, '°N, "°O and "0. {a) How many molecular peaks will be formed in the mass spectrum of the sample? (b) Identify the ions responsible for the molecular peaks, and state their m/e values. ESSAY QUESTIONS 1A sample of hydrogen chloride gas, containing the isotopes 'H, “Cl and "Cl, is analysed in a mass spectrometer, The relative abundances of the isotopes CI and "Cl are 74.5% and 25.5% respectively. (a) Sketch the mass spectrum of the hydrogen chloride sample. (b) Calculate the relative molecular mass of the hydrogen chloride sample. v ‘A sample of aluminium chloride, AICI, is analysed in a mass spectrometer. The isotopes present are Al, Cl and "Cl. (a) How many molecular peaks will be formed in the mass spectrum? (b) Identify the ions responsible for the peaks in (a). 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry f(c) If the ratio of Cl to "Clis 3 : 1, calculate the percentage abundance of the molecular peaks, (d) Draw a mass spectrum of the compound. w An element E, which exists as diatomic molecules, has isotopes E-38 and E-40, The relative abundance of isotope E-38 is 80%. The mass spectrum of E shows three peaks at mle ratio of 76, 78 and 80. (a) Determine the relative atomic mass of element E. (b) Identify the ions responsible for the peaks mentioned above. (©) Calculate the percentage abundance of the three peaks. = Iron reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according to the following equation. Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) > FeCl,(aq) + Hy(@) In an experiment, a 0.50 mol dm” solution of dilute hydrochloric acid is added to 1.2 g iron powder. (a) What is the volume of hydrochloric acid required to dissolve the iron powder completely? (b) When the iron powder has reacted completely, what is the volume of hydrogen | liberated at s.t.p.? [Relative atomic mass: Fe, 55.8; 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm’ at stp] w 10.0 cm’ of sulphuric acid is added to an impure iron nail where all the iron reacted completely with the acid. The resulting solution requires 22.60 cm’ of a 0.200 mol dm* acidified potassium manganate( VII) solution for complete reaction. The equations for the reactions are shown below. Fe + H,SO, > FeSO, +H, 5Fe* + MnO, + 8H* > Mn* + 4H,0 + 5Fe** If the mass of the iron nail is 1.80 g, calculate (a) the number of moles of Fe® produced by the iron nail, (b) the percentage of iron in the nail, (c) the volume of hydrogen gas liberated at st.p. [Relative atomic mass: Fe, 55.8; 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm? at s..p,] 6 In an experiment, 3.5 g of potassium is burnt completely in air. The product is dissolved completely in water and made up to 500 cm’ solution. What is the concentration, in mol dm”, of the resulting solution? [Relative atomic mass: K, 39.1]vlad ANSWERS @ ‘roms, MoLecuzes anv srorcHiomeTRY Checkpoint 1.1 1 (a) Number of protons = 2(1) +8 = 10 ‘Number of electron: Number of neutrons (©) Number of protons =7 + 3(8) =31 ‘Number of electrons = 31 + 1 = 32 Number of neutrons = 7 + 3(8)= 31 2 (@) Path X: "0" Path (b) Angle y is bigger than angle x because the “O- ion is heavier than the 'H ion. 3 (a) 12 protons, 12 electrons and 12 neutrons (b) ¥ and Z. They have the same proton number. (©) 54 Checkpoint 1.2 1 Relative atomic mass of bromine 1.0% 49.5 700 = 80.0 7 {OH} 32 (CHOHF 4 (a) PAL, PAOD, PT (b) Percentage abundances of *¥ and *¥’ are 50%. (Paar PXOXT, PART: PAI whack (bad) (Lad) =2%9'\2%2) 4 \2%3 = 1: 2 3 5 Relative atomic mass of X _28x92.2 29x47 30x31 To. * 100 * 100— =28.1 6 Let a= percentage abundance of isotope *Z 693 = 0X4, (100 =a) 3= "100 * ~~ T00 a=1.0% Checkpoint 1.3 1 Number of moles of Ny = 50.0/24.4 Number of moles of NaN,=3x number of moles of Np $x 90.07244=1.37 <. Mass of NaN required =1.37%(23+3(14)]=89.1 2 2 Moles of O; evolved = 4 x mol H,O, = $25.0 x0,50/1000 6.25 x 10° z- Volume of oxygen at stp. = 6.25 x 10° x 22.4 14dm* 3 Sn atoms of M > 135.00 g atoms of M — 27.00 g 27.00 _ 34.25 108 4, A,= 137 4 Ba(NO,), > Ba® + 2NO, 1 mol Ba(NO,), produces 3 mol ions. +. 65.25/261 mol Ba(NO;). produces 3 x 65.25/261 =0.75 mol ions Focus on STPM 1 7 Objective Questions 1B 2A 3¢ 4B 5D 6D 7c BA 9c 10 B uc 1A BC 4 A 1s D 16 B 71D 1D 9D 20 B UB 2A 3B ws 6D 6 Cc Structured Questions 1 M=iH N=|H O=1Li R=HO™ T =¥Mg*2 (a) Path X-protons; Path Y-alpha particles; a-particles are $He atoms and heavier than protons, thus less deflected than protons. (b) Negative pole because protons and alpha particles are positively charged. (©) 3 (a) Element Q has three isotopes with the relative isotopic mass of 24, 25 and 26. The relative abundance of the isotopes *Q,*Q and 29 are 7.8, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively. i (b) Relative atomic mass of (7.8x24)+( 78+10¢ I. =243 4 (a) Xhas isotopes (b) Let a% = percentage abundance of "X (100 ~ a)%= percentage abundance of 1X 19xa , 8100-a) 100 *~ 100 = 7999 = a=505 Percentage abundance of "Y is 50.5% and "X is 49.5% 7 8 me 5(@) Vimie value | Ion | 4 pNNOP 45 NEN"OY 46 i;“O}" (b) Relative molecular mass of N,O wus 28) as 8) «(46935 935)a40 6 @)3 ©) inde value | Ton 30 [NOY st pPN*OY. 32 (PNY Essay Ques 1@) percentage abundance (b) Relative molecular mass = tions 2 (a) 4 molecular peaks ©) mle value 132 134 136 138 (4) percentage fbundance Oy 100 =365 Ton ee PAPC’ 100 3674.5 | 38%25.53 i 5 = 38 x20. 449 x20 3 (a) Relative atomic mass of B= 38 x 795 +40% 755 =38.4 (b) mile 76 : *Ey'; mle 78 : [EVE]; mle 80: °E* (©) MBs: PEMEY Ey = 16:8: 1 (b) Mol H, = mol Fe Volume of Hy = 1.2/55.8 x 22.4=0.48 dm? 5 (a) Mol of Fe in 10cm? = $ x mol MnO; 5x 0.200 x 22.60/1000 0.0226 (b) Mass of iron in the nail = 0.0226 x 55.8 = 1.26 g Percentage of iron in the na (©) Volume of H,=0.226 x 22. 6 4K +0, 42K,0 K,0+H,0 > 2KOH 4 mol K = 2 mol K,0 = 4 mol KOH + Mol KOH = mol K = 3.5/39.1 _ 3S _-Mx500 39.1 ~" 1000 ‘M=0.18 mol dm