READING TO LEARN 1 0 Scaffolding mathsScaffolding maths This book presents some simple strategies you can use to get all your students succeeding with maths problems. They are based on careful research in maths classrooms, looking at the way maths operations are taught, and the kinds of maths texts that students need to understand. Contents ‘The language of maths Example lesson plans for maths procedures Using measurement to teach number and data skis ‘The problems with maths problems Solving maths word problems Roading to Learn - Book 10 - SeatingThe language of maths Learning maths is usually talked about in terms of learning conoepts. But concepts do not ‘exist outside of the language that we use to talk about them. The language used to talk about ‘maths is written in @ shorthand system, in the form of sums or algorithms and formulae, But when we speak these algorithms and formulae we use the words of ordinary language. We know that language always occurs in the form of texts, whether It is spoken or written language, and that the type of text or genre depends on its purpose. In maths we can dently four key genres: * procedures, that explain how to do algorithms * problems, using algorithms to solve examples ‘© definitions, that detine technical terms ‘+ explanations, that explain maths principles. (Only maths problems and definitions are usually written in words. Algorithms and princloles aro written in numbers, but are usually only discussed in spoken language in the classroom; they are not written down, For example, in @ maths class students typically learn to do each algorthm by the teacher explaining it orally and demonstrating it on the board, as a worked example in numerical form. The students then practice the algorithm themselves, by working out problems in textbooks or worksheets. ‘Maths textbooks or worksheets often show formulae and worked examples of algorithms, but the procsdure for how to do the algorithm is rarely written down. Likewise, maths principles are explained by the teacher orally, and may be demonstrated with formulae on the board or Ina textbook, but the explanation is rarely written down. Oral procedures and exalanations, with worked examples, are the primary mode in which maths is taught, followed by students practising with related problems. \What often happens in maths classes Is that the top students are following and remembering the procedure as the teacher explains it orally, and are watching the example as itis worked ‘out on the board. The average students may be copying down the example, and are getting some of the procedure but missing paris. However the weaker students are not able to follow and remember the procedure and so cannot understand the example on the board. The top students can follow the procedure for two reasons. Firstly they are used to learning from reading; this means they are used to following and remembering sequences of information that they will use later. In this respect, leaming from teacher explanations is very much like lsarning from a book. Secondly, successful students are familiar with and understand the many different terms that are used for maths operations (they know for example that minus, subtract and take away all mean the same thing) Reading to Leam Book 10. Scaffolding mathsFor weaker students the task of following and remembering an oral maths procedure is much harder, because they do not have the same experiance of learning from reading, and find the different terms used in maths confusing. As a rasult they quickly become overloaded trying to follow the oral procedure and the example, and cannot remember it to solve maths problems. ‘The answer to this problem is very simple: get the students to write down the procedures for algorithms, as they are learning to do them. This can be very easily done using a strategy for teaching procedures. ‘The first principle Is that the procedure is repeated several times, carefully using the same words to explain each step each time. With maths algorithms, this means demonstrating the algorithm several times on the board, with different examples, but using the same words to explain each time. ‘After one or two examples you can ask the students what to do next, and they will start giving back the words you have used for each step. Affirm thelr responses, and repeat the ‘exact words you have chosen to uss. After a few examples, all students in the class wil know the words for each step in the procedure. [At this point the students can take turns to write the procedure on the board. As in Note ‘Making of Joint Rewriting, the class tells the scribe what to write, as the teacher prompts and elaborates where necessary. Where a word neads speling, write Iton the board for the soribe to copy. You can also stop to discuss and define terms es they are writen up. The class writes the procedure into their maths books as itis written on the board. ‘his strategy ensures that all stucients are completely familar with an algorithm before they are expected to use it to solve problems. Every student in the class will be able to solve the problems successfully, and even the top maths students will achleve better results than, they previously could. This is a more efficient approach for students to learn algorithms than making a series of errors struggling to solve problems. Instead, problem-solving becomes an officient activity for students to consolidate their memory cf the steps, and to transfer the skill flexibly to a variety of situations. “The technique can be used with algorithms at any level, from basic numeracy to quadratic equations. Crucially the teacher must prepare the procedure beforehand, by writing down the wordings for each step that will be used in the lesson. Planning these procedures can be surprisingly dificult, considering exactly what steps are involved, and what words to use in each step. Itis @ revealing activity, to find how complex it can be for students to follow oral procedures that the teacher normally gives spontaneously without a detailed plan. Reading to Leen - Book 10 - Seattoiding mathsExample lesson plans for maths procedures The following two procedures were written by NSW primary teacher Philippa Hughes for teaching addition and subtraction with her Year 3 class. Using this techniaue, all Prillppa’s students achieved outstanding results in maths. If you teach addition and subiracttion, you may do these operations differenty, in which case you need to write your own procedures. No matter what operations you are teaching you can plan to teach them using the same simple pattorn of steps In a procedure. Addition with Trading Steps (the teacher says these steps) 41. Read the algoritim, 2. Line up the numbers in the ones, tens and hundreds columns. Draw alline undemeath. Write a plus sign besice the bottom number. 3. First work in the ones column, Add the numbers together. What's the answer? 4, Doas the whole answer belong the ‘ones column? It doesn't, write the one under the line, and put the ten in the tens column. 5. Next work in the tens column. Add the numbers together. What's the answer? 6. Doss the whole answer belong in the tens column? Ifit doesn’t, write the ten under the line, anc put the hhundired in the hundreds column. 7. Next work in the hundreds column. Add the numbers together. What's the answer? 8. Does the whole answer belong in the hundreds columei? Writs it under the fine. 9. Read the whole algorithm with the answer. Example algorithm {teacher writes on board) 347 + 205 a47 4285 Students say 12 ‘Students say 13 ‘347 $285 32 Students say 6 Feeading to Leam - Book 10 - Scaffolding mathsSubtraction with Trading Steps Example algorithm {the teacher says these stops) (teacher wiltes on board) 1. Read the algorithm. 543 - 167 2. Line up the numbers in the ones B43 and tens column. Draw a line 2187 underneath, Write a minus sign beside the bottom number. 3, First we work in the ones column, Students say ‘No. Read the algorithm. Can we do it? 4. Ihwe can’, we regroup and take & 543 ten from the tens column and put 167 itin the ones column, 5, Read the new algorithm. Write the 5 74'3 angwer. 2167 6 6. Look at the tens column again, Students say "No" ead the algorithm, Can we do it? 7. Ifwe can't, we regroup and take. $5413 a hundred from the hundrecs 2167 column and pul itin the tens 6 calumn, 8 Read the new algorithm. Write the 5943 answer. 167 76 9. Look at the hundreds column 543 again. Read the algorithm. Write 167 tho answer 376 10. Read the whole algorithm with the answer. Note: These witten procedures ate nol io give to students. They are scripts for the teacher to say whien you are demonstrating how to do an operation. You write down the script for yourseft to make sure that you use the same words for each step. each time you demonstrate tho operation, After you have demonstrated the operation a couple of times, you can ask the class what comes rnaxt in each step. They will say the approximate words for the step. Praise them, then repeat the ‘exact words again as you demonstrate. Alter you have demonstrated several times, the class vril know the exact words for each step. ‘Then they can take turns to come out and soribe the steps on the board, as the other students tel them wt to write, with your guidance. You can demonstrate another example of the operation as each step is waiten. ‘They can all write the steps in their maths books as they go up on the board, All students will now be able to do the operation successfully Reading to Leain - Book 10 - Scaffolding mathsLesson planning activity Write a procedure for doing a maths algorithm that you could you use with your class. If you do not teach maths, think of any procedure that your students might use to do an activity or solve a problem, and write down the steps that you could use to explain it Reading e Learn - Book 10 - Scaffolding mathsUsing measurement fo teach number and data skill: Measurement provides a large set of real contexts for learning number systems and organising numerical data in tables and graphs, While the procedures for measuring and graphing are similar each time, the type of measurement and scale of numbers vary. This helos students fo practise how to choose and use mathematical operations across a variety of contexts, We can begin by measuring the height of each student in the class, and developing a procedure for doing so. This data will be written firs in a table, and we can then develop a procedure for plotting itn a graph, ‘Ask two students to measure the height of another student. As they do so, instruct them orally with stops in a procedure. The words ofthis procedure will eventually be written down, by the class, as a procedure for measuring height. As each new student is measured, the steps in the procedure will be repeated more by the students and less by the teacher. After all students have been measured, they will be ready to jointly write the procedure themselves with minimal support from the teacher. Steps in the procedure for measuring height could be as folows: 1, White the person's name in a list on the board 2. Stand the person against a wall 3, Hold a ruler level on top of their head, with one end against the wall 4, Draw amerk on the wall at the end of the ruler. 5. Hold a tape measure from the floor up to the mark on the 6. Read the number on the tape next to the mark, 7. Write this nunber next to the person's name on the board, Itis important that the teacher repeats these steps verbally as each one is performed. After two or thrae students are measured we can ask the class what we do first, what we do next, and so on, Accept and praise each response and elaborate with the exact wording you want for the step. Make sure that all students get a chance to respond, Once quicker students respond accuratoly, praise them and redirect the question to quieter students and confirm and praise their responses. Eventually all students should be able to accurately repeat each steo in the procedure. Once all students are measured, ask them to take tums writing each step on the board, and to number each step. (The teacher can write the first few words to kick off.) Use meaning ‘cues to remind writers of each element, @.g. Where did we write the person's name? Ensure that all students take turns - the class can help to remind each other. if a student cannot spell a word, write it for them to copy. Aitho ond of the procedure, write a definition for height, 2.9. Heightis the distance measured from the bottom to the top of an abject’ Reading to Learn - Book 10 -Seattolding mains(Once the class has jointly constructed the procedure on the board, ensure that they can all read it fluenty. They can then practise spelling words from the procedure, and then reconstructing it individually on their own whiteboards or books. Graphing measurements Reordor the list of heights from lowest to highest, asking each student to come out and write their own name and measurement, Show the class how to draw the axes of a graph on the board, again using the words that will eventually be written as a procedure for graphing data, \Write the numbers on the vertical axis. Then ask students to come out and write their names (or initials) on the horizontal as, from the lowest to highest, and plot their measurement in the graph above. Ask them to draw a line from the preceding mark to their own. Students can then practise reconstructing the graph on their own whiteboards, and then on graph paper. Again repeatedly use the words of the procedure for graphing, Measuring and graphing other types of measurement Repeat these activities for as many types of measurement as possible. These should include Jarge and small objects, such as the length of objects in a room and the length of buildings, in order to compare milimetres, centimetres, metres, grams, kilograms and so on. ‘Types of measurement may include: height + length + area + circumference © perimeter volume + weight ‘Some of these also involve adding or multiplying measurements, providing a series of real contexts for repeatedly practising these calculations, and writing procedures for doing them: Each time the class wil jointly write the procedure and defnition of the measurement, then practise spelling and reconstructing them Students will then take turns to construct the graph, agah orally repeating the steps for this procedure, until they are ready to jointly write, spell and reconstruct the procedure for graphing Reading to Learn - oak 10 - Seatfolding matheThese activities should enable students to do these tasks with ease, including: 1, reading, calculating and recording measurements writing procedures for measuring and detinitions of types of measurement 3. graphing measurement data 4, wilting procedures for graphing, Other related tasks can then be introduced, such as: © calouleting average measurements for types of objects, and finding these on the araphy ‘+ reading measurements of cistance and height from maps, recording and graphing them © calculating circumference and area of circles * caloulating perimeter and area of triangles and polygons ‘+ calculating volume of eylinders and cones. in each case, measuring, calculating, recording and granting should be done jointly, and then practised individually, along with writing procedures and definitions for each operation Reading to Learn - Book 10 - Scaffolding mathsThe problems with maths problems Below is an example of a maths worksheet with some very common elements. Have a read. After the catchy heading, it starts by defining the role of decimals in converting grams to kilograms. Then there is @ series of explanations, with ‘because’ and “if.then’. Then there is a sot of algorithms to solve, Then there is a maths word problem Why is this kind of worksheet so difficult for many students? Why can only some students get all the problems right? Decimals are used to show grams as a part of a total kilogram, Decimals show us the left overs of a whole, the litte bits left after a WHOLE is made. Exg, 300g can be written as 0.300 kg or 0.3kg, ‘We write it like this because we cannot make a full 1000, so we put a Zero because we do not have a full kilogram. We only have a little bit of the 10002, If the number of grams is over 1000, then we write the number of times 1000 can go into that number and we use 2 decimat point if there is a little bit left over (just like our remainders in division). Exg, 1200g can be written as 1.200 kg or 1.2kg 1000 + 200 = 1200 We write a 1 because there is one lot of 1000g (1kg) in 1200 and 200g left over that do not make 1000, Where an answer requires grams (g) only we never write 0.g. Ifthe answer requires kilograms (kg) as the answer and the total is less than 1000, we need to write a 0.kg as an answer. ‘Try these: 1. 1000g kg 5. 1456g= kg 2, 300g = 6.45672 = 3 Ig, kg 7.6543g= kg 4, 1300, 8.3452=_ Now try this word problem: James went shopping for his BBQ. This is his shopping list: 1200g of rissoles, 2000g of steak and 500g of sausages. How many kilograms of meat does James need altogether? (Convert all of the grams into Kg first and then add the numbers together). Reading to Loam - Book 10 Scaffolding mathsNotice there is no procedure in this shest for converting kilograms to grams, just definitions and explanations. The explanations depend on the students understanding how division works, ¢.g. the number of times 1000 can go into that number’. Definitions and explanations: should come after students understand and practise procedures for operations - not before, ‘And we wonder why some students have trouble with maths! ‘What is a procedure for converting kilograms to grams? Here is one simple suggestion, that doesn't require understanding division. We could start by saying how many grams make a kilogram. Then say how many zeros make 1000. 1 kilogram is 1000 grams. 1000 grams has three zeros. To change 1000 grams into 1 kilogram we have to take away three zeros. Stops (the teacher says thase steps) Example algorithm (isacher writes on board) 1. {the number of grams is more that 1000 1200 2, Puta decimal point after the number 1200. 8. Move the decimal point three places lett 1.200 4, Take away any zeros after the number 12 5. White kg after the number 1.29, 1. If the number of grams is less that 1000 300g 2. Puta dacimal point after the number 300. 3. Move the decimal point three places left 300 4, Puta zero before the decirnal point and take away any 03 zeros after the number 6, Writs kg after the number 0.3kg 1, Ifthe number of grams is less that 100 19 2. Puta decimal point after the number 1 3, Add zeras to the left until there are three numbers after 001 the decimal point 0.001 4, Puta zero before the decimal point 0.001kg Reading to Le Write kg after the number = Book 10 - Seatiolding maths 10" If you demonstrate these procedures with a range of examples, and the students then write the procedures down, all your students will be able to do the oroblems in the worksheet correctly, ‘And a definition can now begin to make sense to all your students, for example: A decimal point is used to show parts of a whole number. The numbers after a decimal point tellus how many tenths, hundredths and thousandths of a whole number. This could then be @ basis for teaching division using decimal points, again starting with a procedure for doing the operation. The important point is that students don’t need to understand @ maths concept before they can do the operation. Rather they need to know how to do the operation in order to understand the concept Solving maths word problems So many children find maths difficultto understand. If we look closely at how maths is taught in the classroom it's easy to understand why, as we explained above, under The problem with oral procedures. Only some students are able to follow and remember the procedures {for doing maths operations, that teachers give orally. Other students miss paris or alt of the procedure, and so have trouble doing the prablems or exercises. if they can’t do the maths operations well, they cannot undetstand the underlying concepts well. However this analysis of the problem is based on an understanding of spoken and written language as texts. So when we look atthe oral language in the maths classroom we can ask ‘what kind of texts we are hearing. The answer is procedures, explanations and definitions. ‘Then if we look at the maths problems that students have to do, we can see that the text they need to solve problems is a procedure — the same procedure that the teacher gave orally in the classroom, while demonstrating the operation an the board Of course as students do their maths probleme, the procedures they are using to do them are invisible ~ they are in thelr heads. But if you ask students or teachers to explain what they are doing, they wili give a procedure. In other words what is inside the student's head is a text - a procedure. But this is invisible if we don't think in terms of texts, and the oral procedure is also invisible because itis not written down, Instead of recognising that both speaking and thinking Is made up of texts, It Is widely assumed that thinking consists of ‘concepts’ that are somehow outside of language. This is the traditional view of cognitive psychology, that originated in the 19th century and has had a big influence on educational theory in the 20th century. This view does not recognise the that mental concepts originate in spoken texts. The social psychologist, Lev Vygotsky rejacted this view ‘Any function in the chile’s cultural development appears twice..First it appears betwean people as aninter-psycholagical category, and then withinthe child as an intracpsychological category (Vygotsky 1981, The genesis of higher mental tunctions). Reading i Leam - Book 10~ Scaffolding mathsBy ‘inler-psychological category’ of course Vygotsky means the categories of language, ‘or meanings, and by ‘intra-psychological category’ he means the categories of thinking, or ‘conoepts. There is no difference between mental concepts and linguistic meanings; they are one and the same thing - we think in texts just as we speak in texts. If we want fo teach a mental concept we can only teach it as meanings in texts. ‘But instead of focusing on the texts that teach maths concepts, cognitive psychology has ignored the role of language and insisted instead that maths concepts can only be learnt by practice ~ playing with blocks, coins, counters, and doing maths problems again and again until the student understands — no matter how many times they gett wrong, ‘Although students keep getting maths problems wrong, cognitive psychology has completely missed the role of oral procedures in teaching operations, and insisted instead that they can only learn by relating maths problems to children’s everyday experience. The result is. that we are stuck with the problem of maths word problems, like the following one from our worksheet James went shopping for his BBQ. This is his shopping list: 1200g of rissolas, 20009 of steak and 500g of sausages. How many kllograms of meat doos James need altogether? Every teacher knows that these word problems don’t make maths easier for struggling students. Because they muddy the maths problem with a lot of irrelevant information about BBQs, shopping lists, rissoles and sausages, they actually make the problem more confusing. But we are stuck with these word problems. The only thing we can do for our students is to teach them @ procedure for finding the necessary information, from amongst all the irrelevant words in word problems. This is relatively simple to do. Every maths problem contains three key elements that are neoded to solve it, Here they are, iustrated by the word probiem above. Elements of maths problem Example 1, The data or numbars given in the problem +2009, 2000g, 5009 2. The missing number, or solution required total kilograms (‘how many altogether’) by the problem 3. The operation, or operations, needed to salve it addltion, converting grams to kilograms ‘There, i's as simple as that. The procedure is Find the data, Find the missing number, Find the operation’ and so on. Then next time, ask the class ‘What co we find first? What do we find next?’ and so on, repeated with different problems untl all students can find these three elements in any word problem, in the maths topic you are studying Sometimes the elemenis may be containad in a diagram, or the students have to draw a diagram to work out the operation needed ta solve it. But the principle Is the same. Of ‘course you may also need to teach them the prooadures for the operations needed to solve the problem, and you will need to plan for that. But that is what scaffolding is all about — preparing for learning tasks so that all our students suoceed! Reading to Learn - Book 10 - Scafioiding maths 218 Reading 9 Leain - Book 19 - Seaifolding maths