NSW Education Standards Authority

Reasoning in Mathematics K–2

Learning to work mathematically draws on several interconnected processes. The working
mathematically processes in the NSW Mathematics syllabus are:

 communicating
 understanding and fluency
 reasoning
 problem-solving.

Students learn to work mathematically by using these processes in an interconnected way. The
coordinated development of these processes results in students becoming mathematically proficient.

When students are working mathematically it is important to help them to reflect on how they have used
their thinking to solve problems. This assists students to develop mathematical habits of mind.1

Students need many experiences that require them to relate their knowledge to the vocabulary and
conceptual frameworks of mathematics.

However, mathematical reasoning is the essence of working mathematically. With the development of
mathematical reasoning, students appreciate that mathematics makes sense, and can be understood.

‘In mathematics, adaptive reasoning is the glue that holds everything together, the lodestar that guides
learning. One uses it to navigate through the many facts, procedures, concepts, and solution methods
and to see that they all fit together in some way, that they make sense.’2

Within the NSW Mathematics K–2 syllabus (2021), reasoning involves thinking logically about
relationships, both spatial and quantitative.

Explaining ≠ reasoning
Reasoning in mathematics has been described using a variety of terms to characterise how a
conclusion has been reached. These include terms such as analysing, deducing, justifying, explaining,
inferring and generalising. The overabundance of terms has led many teachers to be unsure what
mathematical reasoning means, often perceiving it as synonymous with explaining.3

Students’ explanations can at times describe the procedures they have followed rather than the
mathematical reasoning. This can lead a teacher to believe that ‘…explaining the calculations one has
performed is tantamount to explaining one's reasoning’4 However, explaining and reasoning are not the
same. For example, if a student explains that they added 5 then doubled it to answer a problem, they
have explained the steps they used to solve the problem. To demonstrate reasoning, a student would
explain why their approach to adding 5 and doubling it can solve the problem. Reasoning draws on an
understanding of the relationships in a mathematics problem.
1
Cuoco A, Goldenberg EP and Mark J (2010) ‘Contemporary Curriculum Issues: Organizing a Curriculum around Mathematical
Habits of Mind’, The Mathematics Teacher MT, 103(9):682-688, doi:10.5951/MT.103.9.0682.
2
National Research Council (2001) Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics, Kilpatrick J, Swafford J, and Findell B (eds),
National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., doi:10.17226/9822.
3
Herbert S, Vale C, Bragg LA, Loong E and Widjaja W (2015) ‘A framework for primary teachers' perceptions of mathematical
reasoning’, International Journal of Educational Research, 74:26–37, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2015.09.005.
4
Thompson AG, Philipp RA, Thompson PW and Boyd BA (1994), ‘Calculational and conceptual orientations in teaching
mathematics’, In Coxford A (ed) 1994 Yearbook of the NCTM, NCTM, Reston, VA.

Reasoning in Mathematics K–2, last updated April 2023 Page 1 of 9

Reasoning about quantities and additive relations
The link between number and quantity is formed by connecting the order of number words in the
counting sequence and the magnitude of the quantity represented. The last number word stated only
describes the total if the correct sequence of number words, starting from ‘one’, has been matched one-
to-one to the objects (see ES1 Representing whole numbers: Connect counting and numerals to
quantities).

The Mathematics K−2 syllabus refers to students establishing number relations, and also working with
relationships between numbers. The terms ‘relation’ and ‘relationship’ have very similar meanings when
used as nouns. ‘Relation’ means the manner in which two things may be associated. ‘Relationship’
means connection or association. For example, there is a relation between the numbers 3, 5 and 8, and
their relationship is additive. Number bonds introduced in Stage 1 Combining and separating
quantities are the sums of pairs of numbers that have a unique answer (eg 3 + 7), while the relations
are the different combinations related through addition to make the same total.

Whole numbers can represent both quantities and relations. For some students, the numbers used to
represent quantity must always be formed by counting – they do not pre-exist. At this stage in their
learning these students could not use 4 + 4 = 8 to find 4 + 5. Reasoning that 5 is 1 more than 4 so the
sum must be 1 more than 8 involves the construction of relationships between numbers. Until numbers
exist for the student independent of counting, there is nothing to form the part–part–whole number
relationship.

Although whole numbers represent both quantities and relations, it is considerably more difficult for
students to use numbers to represent relations than to represent quantities. That is, getting eight
counters from a pile of counters (using the number word or symbol to represent the quantity) is typically
not as challenging as flexibly representing 8 as the sum of 5 and 3 or 6 and 2.

An important understanding in the Mathematics K-2 syllabus is understanding of the relationships

between quantities, relations and symbols. The following activities illustrate reasoning about quantitative
and spatial relationships in a primary classroom. They were designed to provide students with
opportunities to demonstrate their reasoning. These activities can be done using a variety of resources,
including concrete, visual and digital resources.

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Reasoning about number relations
A student at Early Stage 1 is provided with a shuffled set of number cards from 1 to 9. After the student
places the cards in order in a line, the first 5 cards are covered.

Number cards 1 to 9 with the first 5 cards covered

T: How many cards are covered?

S: 5 [Without counting]

T: How do you know?

S: Because there is 6, 7, 8 and 9 left and that leaves 5.

The cards are uncovered, and the student confirms 5 cards is correct, again without counting. The
number 10 card is placed above the row of 1 to 9 number cards.

T: Can you find two numbers from here [points at the row of cards] that add to make this
number? [Points at the 10]

S: [Selects the 1 and 9 cards.]

T: Do you know another two?

S: 2 … plus 8

T: Do you know another two?

S: [Moves the 7 and looks at the cards] plus 3

T: Are there any more?

S: Well, I think there are a couple. [Places the 4 above the 5 and taps the 5 a number of
times, checking the total]

[Moves the 4 and tries the total of 5 and 6] No more.

[After a while] … cause I tried 4 and 5 but the 4 made like 9

T: Ahh. The 4 and 5 make 9. OK.

In the case of this student, the numerals do not only represent quantities, they also represent relations.
Reasoning that five cards have been covered based on what remained uncovered suggests this student

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has applied a deeper understanding of number, demonstrating how whole numbers indicate quantity.
Similarly, the student’s responses to finding number pairs that add to ten are indicative of being able to
identify part–whole relationship in numbers.

Different numbers can add to the same total

Building an understanding of the relations students need to be able to use when reasoning with number
can draw on real and imagined contexts.

In the book One is a Snail, Ten is a Crab: A counting by feet book,5 a snail is said to have one foot, so 1
is a snail, 2 is a person, 4 is a dog, 6 is an insect, 8 is a spider and 10 is a crab. Other numbers are
made from combinations6. This is sometimes called additive composition. Additive composition
(numbers are made of other numbers) requires reasoning beyond counting individual items.

After reading the book, a K–2 group was asked the following question.

 I can see 12 feet. Who can I see?

One response using image cards and another using drawings and number sentences

In using the same image to form totals of 12, the first response reminds us that the task also relates to
ES1 Forming groups: Record grouping and sharing. This student has recorded groups, using
pictures to reason about relations.

In the second response, the number sentences show 12 can be partitioned in different ways,
highlighting the student’s reasoning about number relations.

Linking addition and subtraction (combining and separating)

As well as relations between numbers, students learn to reason about relations between processes like
combining and separating. Solving problems in addition and subtraction often relies on using the inverse
relation between the two. For example, when adding a number, then taking away the same number, the
total does not change. Reasoning about inverse processes establishes the basis for compensation in
arithmetic and solving equations in later years.

Longitudinal evidence from research7,8 shows that understanding the inverse relation between addition
and subtraction (eg  + 3 – 3 = ) is a strong predictor of children’s mathematical progress. When

5
Sayre A and Sayre J (2004). One is a snail, ten is a crab: A counting by feet book, Walker Books, London.
6
Stage 1. Combining and separating quantities B: Represent and reason about additive relations
7
Nunes T, Bryant P, Evans D, Bell D, Gardner S, Gardner A, and Carraher JN (2007), ‘The contribution of logical reasoning to the
learning of mathematics in primary school’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25:147–166,
doi:10.1348/026151006X153127.
8
Nunes T, Bryant P, Evans D and Barros R (2015), ‘Assessing quantitative reasoning in young children’, Mathematical Thinking
and Learning, 17:178–196, doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2015.09.005.

Reasoning in Mathematics K–2, last updated April 2023 Page 4 of 9

learning to reason about the relationship between addition and subtraction, students need opportunities
to explore problems where what has changed is unknown.

There were 23 feet, some walked away and now there are 10 left. Who walked away?

A Year 1 student’s response linking addition and subtraction

Students’ recordings often need to be reviewed carefully to appreciate the nature of their reasoning. The
following response9 suggests the student might have counted back to confirm how many feet walked
away. If the student had counted back to find the answer, 13 counts of 1 would have suggested 13
snails walked away.

Checking the answer

Reasoning about measurement units

In a Stage 1 classroom, the students gather around the teacher who has a length of cord on the floor
and an unmarked rectangular strip of cardboard in their hand.

T: This is the unit [shows the cardboard strip].

What is your estimate of the number of units that would make that length? [moves the
cardboard unit along the first part of the length of the cord to model measuring].

S1: Five.
9
This student’s response includes numerals written backwards. This is not uncommon in young students’ recordings. It does not
appear to have limited their reasoning.

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 S2: Four.

S3: Twenty.

S4: Seven.

S5: Seven and a quarter.

T: Very precise.

They are whole units. I haven’t got quarters. I just have whole units.

T: Does everyone have an estimate?

We will measure it. Everyone count. Remember you can change your estimate if you
wish. [Iterates the unit, keeping track of where the unit ends by placing a finger on the
point.]

All: One, two, three …

T: Stop! We are up to three. Does anyone want to change their estimate?

[A number of students raise their hands and state what they want to change their
estimates to.]

T: [Continues to measure the length, with the class confirming there are six units in total.
Carefully folds the rectangular strip in half.]

I had six of these. [opens out the cardboard strip] How many of these [refolds the
cardboard strip in half] would fit along that length?

S1: Twelve.

T: Why do you say twelve?

S1: Because you folded it in half.

T: What happened when I folded it in half?

S1: It doubles it.

T: Can anyone explain why it doubles?

S2: Because each one is half as long, so you need twice as many.

The lesson continues with the teacher halving the unit again, so that it is a quarter of the original size
and asking students to determine how many of these units would be the same as the length. Finally, the
unit of length is doubled, and students are again asked to explain how many would be needed and why.

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In this lesson, student 2 (S2) reasons about the relation between the number of units used in a
measurement and the size of the units.

Reasoning about spatial relations and quantities

Students need to learn to coordinate number representations with what they know about quantities.
Numbers can represent quantities. In Combining and separating quantities in the Mathematics K-2
syllabus, students learn that numbers can also be combined or separated into other numbers, just as
quantities can be combined or separated. Students’ reasoning about spatial and number relations can
become apparent when they solve problems that rely on comprehending the relationship among
quantities, rather than recalling number facts.

Q1. These two snails started from the same place. They travelled in the same direction. Snail A
went 6 cm. Snail B went 2 cm.

How far apart are the two snails?

Q2. These two snails started from the same place. They travelled in different directions. Snail A
went 5 cm in one direction. Snail B went 3 cm in the opposite direction.

How far apart are the two snails?

Once students have learnt about centimetres, the questions can provide an indication of their reasoning
about relationships, as in the following answers.

Supporting reasoning with number line diagrams

Responses can also indicate anomalies in students’ reasoning. An answer of 3 cm to the first question,
can suggest a fencepost error.

A student’s response showing a fencepost error

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A fencepost error occurs when a student counts the posts rather than the spans between the posts (or
unit markers), as in the above response. Sometimes students overlook the relationship between
quantities and use the same operation, addition or subtraction, for both questions.

Where to next?
Relational reasoning lays the foundations for algebra. Algebraic thinking involves recognising and
analysing patterns to represent general relationships. Students need to understand the relations
between quantities well enough to know how to use numerical operations to solve a problem.

The following examples are provided to show how reasoning about relations can develop beyond Stage
1. They use the same problem structure to highlight the different relationship statements (italicised).

Together Anne and Paul have 12 books.

Paul has 2 more books than Anne. [Additive relation]

How many books does each one have?

Together Anne and Paul have 12 books.

Paul has twice the number of books Anne has. [Multiplicative relation]

How many books does each one have?

Reasoning problems, such as the two snail problems above, that involve the need to operate on
relations without knowledge of the quantities are very challenging, and beyond the expectations of
Stage 1. They do, however, provide a strong sense of how reasoning about relations needs to develop.

Identifying reasoning in the syllabus

Opportunities to develop students’ reasoning about spatial and quantitative relationships in Mathematics
have been labelled in the syllabus. Reasoning about spatial relations and spatial structure contribute to
understanding spatial relationships,10 while reasoning about quantity and number relations are elements
of quantitative reasoning. Reasoning about patterns can draw on both spatial and quantitative
relationships.

The content identified in the syllabus provides opportunities to reason about spatial and quantitative
relationships.

10
Thom JS (2018), ‘(Re)(con)figuring Space: Three children’s geometric reasonings’, Contemporary research and perspectives on
early childhood mathematics education, 131–158, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73432-3_8.

Reasoning in Mathematics K–2, last updated April 2023 Page 8 of 9

References
Herbert S, Vale C, Bragg LA, Loong E and Widjaja W (2015) ‘A framework for primary teachers'
perceptions of mathematical reasoning’, International Journal of Educational Research, 74:26–37,
doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2015.09.005.

National Research Council (2001) Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics, Kilpatrick J,
Swafford J, and Findell B (eds), National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., doi:10.17226/9822.

Nunes T, Bryant P, Evans D, Bell D, Gardner S, Gardner A, and Carraher JN (2007), ‘The contribution
of logical reasoning to the learning of mathematics in primary school’, British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 25:147–166, doi:10.1348/026151006X153127.

Nunes T, Bryant P, Evans D and Barros R (2015), ‘Assessing quantitative reasoning in young children’,
Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 17:178–196, doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2015.09.005.

Sayre A and Sayre J (2004). One is a snail, ten is a crab: A counting by feet book, Walker Books,
London.

Thom JS (2018), ‘(Re)(con)figuring Space: Three children’s geometric reasonings’, Contemporary

research and perspectives on early childhood mathematics education, 131–158, doi:10.1007/978-3-
319-73432-3_8.

Thompson AG, Philipp RA, Thompson PW and Boyd BA (1994), ‘Calculational and conceptual
orientations in teaching mathematics’, In Coxford A (ed) 1994 Yearbook of the NCTM, NCTM,
Reston, VA.

Reasoning in Mathematics K–2, last updated April 2023 Page 9 of 9