Origin and Types of Rural Settlements 7 All these three categories of settlements may be found in rural areas, while all the urban settlements are usually compact, clustered and agglomerated and are neither dispersed nor semi-compact. 4. TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS A valuable contribution was made by August Meitzen (1895) in Germany at the end of the 19th century which was perhaps, the first exhaustive effort in the sphere of rural settlements. He classified the rural settlements of Europe into two broad categories : (1) nucleated village (dorf) and (2) single homestead or isolated dwelling. The basis of grouping was the arrangement of dwellings. Nucleated villages are closely located together giving birth to a single large village, while the isolated dwellings are scattered widely taking different sites for their location. Ahiman (1928) studying the rural settlements in some European countries (Italy, Germany, Denmark and Norway) has presented the factors that determine the character of human settlement and also visualized the types and forms of settlements. He recognized two types of settlements: (1) concentrated settlements, and (2) scattered dwellings. He observed three forms of villages in Denmark: (1) The close or round village with a farmstead enclosing a square or circle about an open space, (2) The long village with farmstead in two rows along a road, and (3) The irregular village. After the classic work of Meitzen which has provided momentum for the study of rural settlements, several geographers devoted themselves in the research of rural settlements of various parts of the world. R.B. Hall (1931) studying the rural settlement forms in Japan has recognized four main types of rural settlements: (1) compact village (2) the Satsuma type, (3) castles and walled village, and (4) the Echigo type. RE. Dickinson (1949) studying the rural settlements of Germany, has recognized two extreme types of rural settlements: (1) isolated farmstead, and (2) nucleated village. Within these two limits various gradations which are direct result of socio-economic history of people are found. He has associated various patterns of tural settlement with field system and historical and physical conditions of Germany. Some Indian geographers have made valuable contributions towards the classification of rural settlements of the particular regions of India. Among them Enayat Ahmad (1952), R.L. Singh (1955), L.R. Singh (1958), A. B. Mukherjee (1959), S. D. Kaushik (1959), A. Prasad (1973), R.C. Sharma (1975), V.N.P. Sinha (1976) etc. are most important. Enayat Ahmad (1952) has recognized the following types of rural settlements in Uttar Pradesh (India) : (1) Compact settlements in which all the dwellings of a mauza (revenue village) are concentrated at one central site. (2) Cluster and hamlet settlements in which besides a compact village, one or two hamlets are also situated away from the main village in a mauza.ae Settlement Geography (3) Fragmented or hamleted settlements : This type consists of main village with several hamlets or fragments. (4) Dispersed settlements in which dwellings are not generally concentrated at one place, but are isolated by some distance. RL. Singh (1955) has distinguished two broad categories with few intermediate types. Thus, however, he has recognized four main types of rural settlements in the Middle Ganga valley: (1) Compact settlements, (2) Semi-compact or hamleted clusters, (3) Semi-sprinkled or fragmented or hamleted settlements, (A) Sprinkled or dispersed type settlements. Along with these four major types of rural settlements, R.L. Singh has also Tecognized some minor types as serpentine-shaped settlements. The classification made by R.L. Singh is the same which have been presented by Enayat Ahmad. Thus, four major types of rural settlements are accepted widely: (1) Dispersed settlements, (2) Fragmented or hamleted settlements (3) Semi-compact or composite settlements, (4) Compact or agglomerated settlements, (1) Dispersed Settlements Dispersed settlement is also known as sprinkled settlement. It is characterised by complete diffusion of farmsteads or homesteads over the entire revenue village (mauza) land. There is long distance between dwellings compared with the congestion or compactness of the settlements in fertile plains. Dispersed settlements are quite common in the Prairies of the United States, Canada, Argentina and grasslands of Central Asia where the scattered settlements seem to be a superior form of organization. Dispersed settlements arc commonly found in the areas of unsuitable climates, mountainous and hilly areas, thick forests, agricultural lands with poor fertility, regions of extensive cultivation and the regions where it is essential or more fruitful that farmer should live on his farm rather than in a distant compact settlement. Actually the phenomena of dispersed settlements are not very old but they are relatively recent in age. In the regions of extensive cultivation, the dispersed settlements in the form of farmsteads or homesteads are very common phenomena. In the United States, Canada, Argentina, Russia each farm has its own farmstead. Such farmsteads are distributed quite far from each other. In some European countries including France, Germany, U.K. etc., the old compact arrangement of settlements has given place toa scattered order. As the cult of individualism began to spread, the communal institutions which were some times tyrannical, became intolerable and a free economy gradua'ly introduced which forced to break the traditional round of cultivations, Such examples of the scattering of the compact settlements are found in western European countries like Germany, France and United Kingdom.i Origin and Types of Rural Settlements 2 In Hokaido Island the Japanese authorities have favoured dispersed settlements instead of the traditional compact settlements since early twentieth century. In India in the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, in the forest lands of north-eastern states (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Tripura), in the regions of Siwaliks and on the higher altitudes of Himalayas (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) and in various parts of peninsular India, dispersed settlements may be seen in varying quantity. Dispersed settlements are also found in the under-populated areas of the world such as central Australia, western parts of the United States, northern Canada, Scandinavian countries (Norway and Sweden), South-west Asia, North Africa (Sahara Desert), major parts or tropical Africa (excluding only coastal areas and irrigated tracts), Factors Leading to Dispersion (1) Physical Factors : Topography or configuration plays an important role in the origin and distribution of scattered rural settlements. Blache (1922, 300) observed: "The scattered manner of grouping suits localities where as a result of the dissection of relief, soil and hydrography, the arable land is itself divided up." Various negative areas such as the flood-prone areas, undulating mountainous and forested areas, extremely hot, cold, humid or dry areas often promote dispersed settlements. Abundance of surface water and very high water table have also exerted centrifugal force in the distribution of dispersed settlements. Wastelands, poor pasture lands, stunted scrub lands, less fertile sandy soil and unproductive barren lands all have contributed to the origin of scattered settlements. But modern tendency towards dispersion of settlements has usually achieved its most complete development on the fertile soils. (2) Cultural Factors : Perpillou (1986, 452) observed : "Some times villages have been greatly disturbed by the economic development of the countryside that in some regions the old compact arrangement has given place to a scattered order. To grasp this decline of villages, it must be assumed that as the cult of individualism began to spread, newer methods of work more beneficial to the individual appeared, so that the communal institutions which were sometimes tyrannical, became intolerable ..... Furthermore, to obtain the higher yield necessary for a growing population, more fodder had to be produced so as to increase the number of cattle and the necessary amount of manure. High yields were only possible through the improvement of the property by draining damp ground, spreading fertilizers, and building walls so as to safeguard these new benefits for those who had undertaken the improvement of the land." Thus, it provided necessary ground for the development of dispersed settlements. "Scattered settlements is not always the result of the more or less complete break-up of a compact village. It is often due to the original manner in which settlers ‘occupied the land and it all took place as if scattering belonged to an original kind of rural settlement which seems to have begun very early in Western Europe and was2 Settlement Geography preferred at certain times in certain countries to village settlement, such preference depending mainly on a whole set of economic phenomena" (Perpil lou, 1986,457)- Dispersed Settlements Composite Settlements g2 a Clustered Settlements Fragmented Settlements l= rom a Lad a7L a Fig. 3.1 : Types of Rural Settlements. The factors leading to dispersion can be explained by human beings and their needs, The dispersed settlements are developed where there is no problem of defence and security. When defence needs became less significant, open country isolated living became more prevalent which provided essential ground for the development of dispersed settlements. "The dispersed settlements are characteristic of recent colonization which has been performed under peaceful conditions” (Singh, LR 2003, 217). —_ The development of roads and railways has played very important role in the origin and evolution of scattered settlements not only in developed countries of Europe, America and Russia but also in many developing countries like Brazil, Argentina, Central Asian countries etc.Origin and Types of Rural Settlements 23 Social structure has also promoted dispersed settlements in various regions particularly in Asia. The caste prejudices and the existence of low agricultural castes and tribal people in Indian sub-continent have been partly responsible for the development of the dispersed and hamleted settlements. Meitzen has also provided the ethnic explanation for the growth of dispersed settlements of the Slav and the Romanians in Eastern Europe. Political and administrative factors also influence considerably the dispersion of settlements in rural areas. For example, in the United States, the promulgation of the Homestead Act promoted dispersed settlement. In India, after Independence the dispersed settlements have been recently promoted by consolidation of landholdings. Besides, economic, social, cultural and political factors, the psychological change in social values has also played important role promoting individualistic tendencies and dispersion of rural settlements. (2) Fragmented or Hamleted Settlements This type of settlements consists of several hamlets or fragments. Sometimes, it is difficult to recognize the main site of the village (mauza). The fragmented and ‘hamleted’ terms are used by Enayat Ahmad and R.L. Singh in their studies of Indian villages. For this type of settlements, the term semi-sprinkled’ is also applied by R.L. Singh. Hamleted settlements are usually found in the Gangetic Plain particularly in Eastern U.P., Bihar and West Bengal. In some revenue villages (mauzas) of the northern plains, population is distributed throughout the land in small hamlets in which it is difficult to trace the main site. The number of hamlets vary generally from four to ten or more. The hamlets are separated by the presence of cultivated fields, low lands, garden, nala, or even tracts of forest. Hamleted tendency is caused by the absence of insecurity and economic advantages. Every hamlet has its own agricultural and pasture fields. Such types of settlements are found in various areas of Eastern U.P. and Bihar. (3) Semi-compact or Composite Settlements This type of settlement is termed as ‘cluster and hamlet settlement’ by Enayat Ahmad and 'hamleted cluster’ by R.L. Singh. In this type of settlements, beside a compact village, one or two hamlets are also situated away from the main village in a mauza (revenue village). It is an intermediate type between the two extremes i.e., nucleation and dispersion. So this type is characterised by both types. Such semi- compact settlements are also known as composite settlements. Such settlement is marked by one main village (site) with two to five or more hamlets having the population of 100 to 200 people. "These hamlets are linked with the main site by the foot paths or bullock cart tracks. The creation of hamlets around an original nucleated settlement has often occurred in the past, often related with the process of reclamation of land for agriculture." (Misra, J. P., 1989, 179). During historical period, original nucleated settlement broke up into small diffused group and the secondary dispersion of settlement established hamlets. "This diffusion might have taken place due to natural increase of population or addition of immigrants mainly agricultural labourers. In northern India, most of the hamlets are24 Settlement Geography inhabited by one or two particular castes. These hamlets are named mostly on the predominance of the castes. Some of the hamlets of a revenue village are inhabited by scheduled castes and scheduled tribes who work in the agricultural fields. Some physical factors are also responsible for such diffusion. In areas of narrow valley and near mountain slope where small cultivable tracts of land are distributed, to save time and to impart careful attention, people construct hamlets near the agricultural fields”. (Misra, J.P., 1989, 179), (4) Compact or Agglomerated Settlements In compact settlement all the dwellings are agglomerated at one single site or entire population of a village is concentrated in one cluster. A. Prasad (1973, 314) observed : "When the individual dwellings are grouped in a relatively small portion of occupied territory and number of dwelling varies from few dozen in small hamlets to thousand of houses in very large villages and exhibit a high degree of cohesion they produce agglomerations of varying shape and size". Such type of settlement is called compact, agglomerated or nucleated settlement. Compact settlement is the result of centripetal forces which are active in the village territory. The compact villages are found in the perennial river valleys and fertile tract of agricultural land and such settlements have been mainly the characteristic of the fertile plain since ancient times. Besides the river valleys of the Gangetic plain, compact settlements are also seen in flat plateau areas of the peninsular India. "Some attractive forces which have led to the origin of the compact villages are flat plains with fertile soils, sufficient rainfall, agglomeration of water point, a high water table, perennial river, need of cooperation, social, economic and religious thoughts, crop pattern, rich forest and insecurity in the past". (Misra, J.P., 1989, 175) \ Bactors Leading to Agglomeration Physical Factors (2) Topography and Soil Fertility : Uniformity of relief and fertile soils favour agglomeration of settlements. Clustered settlements are common in plain region with fertile soils. Blache (1952) observed," the clustered village is indigenous in districts where the arable land is continuous, admitting of uniform and extensive exploitation. Actually plains are more favourable for agglomerated settlements because of their high land capability. (2) Geological Structure and Availability of Water : Water plays a significant role in nucleation in regions of permeable rocks such as limestone or deserts, Compact settlement is characteristic of the region where sub-soil is porous and the availability of water is rigidly restricted. Compact villages are concentrated near the water bodies like well, tank and river. Similarly, the buildings of dams and irrigation channels for the storage and distribution of rain water have promoted the evolution of compact village.Origin and Types of Rural Settlements zs Cultural Factors The compact or nucleated settlements in their original form are traceable to agricultural pursuits. Such settlements have originated along with the development of sedentary agriculture. Most of the compact villages in India are dominated by agricultural communities which are associated with each other by close social ties. Agriculture is an economic activity which requires cooperation, so people constructed their residences at one single place, and thus, compact villages came into existence. Intensive cultivation has given rise to the greatest number of very large villages. Studying rural settlement forms in Japan, R. B. Hall (1952, 98) has observed that "the compact village (haufendorf) is well adopted to the mode of life of paddy area". The Cultivation of paddy requires cooperation in different activities from sowing to harvesting. This is the reason the typical clustered settlements are found in rice cultivated areas of Monsoon Asia like India, Bangladesh, China, Japan or elsewhere. In the past, defence played a vital role in determining the site and nature of settlement nucleation. "Primitive men often needed to unite in order to surmount great material difficulties; for instance, to protect themselves from wild beasts who had them at their mercy, and above all to cooperate in tilling the soil. At first sight, the compactness of the settlement seems to be a factor common to all primitive people; Neolithic remains always reveal large agglomerations of huts" (Perpillou, 1986442). The need for defence in the past was a very important factor for building of nucleated settlements. In the American West, the Mormons built large villages as they were threatened by the hostile Indian tribes. Such examples may also be traced from Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan or central India where the needs of defence and security were the major considerations. Besides the depredations of wild animals necessitated people to live in groups which promoted compact settlements. Compact villages have originated along with the development of sedentary agriculture and most of the compact villages in Indian sub-continent are dominated by agrarian communities which are correlated with each other by social ties. Likewise, where small-scale agro-based industries have been developed, the tendency of agglomeration is a marked characteristics, Means of transport is also one of the important factors for the development of compact settlements. There are many religious and tourist centres which have initiated for the concentration of population and dwellings at or around the main sites. 5. TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA According to the compactness and spacing between dwellings and their groupings, rural settlements in India are classified generally in four categories: (1) compact settlements, (2) semi-compact or composite settlements, (3) hamleted settlements, and (4) dispersed settlements. (1) Compact Settlements : Compact or clustered settlements are the characteristic feature of the whole Indo-Ganga valley from Punjab in the west to the West Bengal in the east. Such settlements are also found in Kerala, Assam, Tripura, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh particularly in the plains of26 Settlement Geography river valleys and coastal plain areas. The main factors responsible for the development of compact settlements in these areas include need of security, fertile soils, need for cooperation in agricultural activities etc. Within a compact village there is social segregation between different castes and religious groups. (2) Semi-Compact Settlements : Such settlements are marked by the presence of sizable and recognizable site (main village) and some small hamlets (from 1 to 5 or more in number) which are closely linked with the main village by footpaths or cart-tracks. Such hamlets represent either an outgrowth from the main village caused by increasing population pressure or the inhabitations of agricultural labourers or low caste people segregated by social taboos. Such settlements are also known as composite settlements and are well marked in the northern plains particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In many cases caste-based hamlets are seen at some distance from the main village within the revenue limit of the village. "The hamlet forming process started during the medieval period in which return of normalcy during the British period and land reforms and transport development during post Independence period have played boosting effects" (Tiwari, R.C., 2010, 806). (3) Hamleted Settlements : Hamleted or fragmented settlements are characterized by the presence of several small hamlets and separate individual habitation spreading over the entire revenue village (mauza). On an average the number of hamlets in a revenue village may be 5 to 10 or more. In these loosely connected settlements the struggling dwellings are separated by intervening cultivated fields or small gardens, "They arc attributed to old kings, local chiefs and zamindars, etc. who founded new villages to commemorate their memories or advanced grants to establish separate purwa or toli for various castes especially untouchables" (Tiwari, R.C., 2010, 807). Hamleted settlements are commonly found in the transition zone between compact and dispersed settlements. Such settlements are well marked in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. (4) Dispersed Settlements : Dispersed or scattered settlements are a common feature of the mountainous, hilly, forested or undulating areas of the country. Such settlements are generally placed on hillocks or knolls along the hill slopes. They are widely distributed in lower Himalayan region, Bhabar region (Uttar Pradesh), Siwalik range and northern part of West Bengal, in the plateau regions of Chota Nagpur, Central India, hilly areas of north-eastern states, Khadar (new alluvium) areas of Ganga-Ghaghra plains, Western Ghats, western Malwa plateau, Thar desert (western Rajasthan) etc. Scattered settlements are generally associated with the tribal communities in the different parts of the country. 6. REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL SETTLEMEN1S IN INDIA The types and characteristics of rural settlements in India is variously influenced by topography and terrain types. For this point of view the distribution of rural settlements is discussed according to four physiographic regions of India: (1) Himalayas and eastern mountainous region, (2) northern great plains, (3) peninsular plateau, and (4) coastal plains.Origin and Types of Rural Settlements 27 (1) Himalayas and Eastern Mountainous Region Three types of settlements including (1) hamleted or fragmented, (2) dispersed or scattered, and (3) isolated homesteads are found in the various parts of the Himalayan regions. Hamleted or fragmented type of settlements occupy low lying valleys having regular stretch of fairly level land. Dispersed or scattered settlements are found in patches while the isolated hamlets occur on high elevations. In Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh most of the rural settlements belong either to the hamleted type or dispersed type. In Jammu and Kashmir according to spatial sizes, the smaller villages are usually nucleated while the larger villages are dispersed. In the Kumaun Himalayas of Uttarakhand, undulating relief, paucity of agricultural land, subsistence farming and cattle grazing have promoted the growth of small dispersed settlements. In the eastern Himalayas and other mountainous regions the settlements are generally small in size and widely dispersed mainly due to undulating topography, steep slope, dense forest cover and multiplicity of tribes. The compact and well organised villages are established in the Assam valley while the hilly zone is characterized by dispersed settlements. In Meghalaya, Khasi villages occupy the hill slopes near the water bodies and ranges from isolated homesteads to dispersed and composite or semi-compact settlements. In Nagaland, villages are located mostly on the flat tops of hills, spurs and gentle hill slopes between 1200-2100 metres of height consisting of 20 to 100 houses. In Manipur and Mizoram, compact and semi-compact villages are found either on flat-topped ridges or in valleys. (2) Northern Great Plains All type of rural settlements may be traced in the Northern Great Plains. In the excessive arid areas of western Rajasthan (Thar desert) where there is predominance of sand dunes, hamleted settlements are found near the water-points. But in the north-west and eastern parts of Rajasthan large compact villages are common features. In Punjab widely spaced small sized villages are found in the areas of chaos and the flood prone areas of the River Ravi but in the canal irrigated areas, the villages are generally uniformly spaced and of compact type. Over the upper and Middle Ganga Plain the distribution and pattern of rural settlements are largely influenced by alluvial morphology. In the Tarai areas of Rohilkhand, settlements are unevenly distributed due to forest cover, marshy lands and seasonal floods. In this region, villages are mostly hamleted and are located at river bluffs and natural levees. In the Bhanger (old alluvium) areas, the settlements are usually compact and closely spaced. Hamleted, composite and compact settlements are typical of the Ganga-Ghaghara doab in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. In the flood prone areas of northern Bihar, settlements are relatively dispersed and irregularly scattered along the natural levees of dead channels or oxbow lakes. Areas of Eastern U.P. and Southern Bihar are marked by spatially small sized but closely spaced villages. The average population size of a village is found about 1400 in Uttar Pradesh and 1950 in Bihar. In the Lower Ganga Plains, the scattered settlements are very common in flood orone areas and Sundarbans in the southern part of West Bengal. Compact28 Settlement Geography settlements are predominant in the Damodar-Brahmani interfluves while hamleted settlements dominate in the Bhagirathi-Dwarka interfluve. In the Brahmaputra valley, most of the villages are compact and clustered situated along the natural levees of the river and transport arteries (mainly roads). Here spatial size of villages is relatively small but the population size is generally large. The average population size of a village in Assam is 950 people and in West Bengal it is 1550 people. (3) Peninsular Plateau Region The peninsular India shows great variation in the types and patterns of rural settlements. Rural settlements exhibit mixed types depending upon the nature of topography, soil fertility, availability of water and socio-economic development. Throughout the hilly tracts of Aravali and Mewar regions widely dispersed huts and isolated homesteads are very common. The plain valley regions of northern and eastern Rajasthan are characterized by compact to semi-compact settlements. Highly dissected and ravine tracts of Bundelkhand are characterized by compact villages for defence point of view, while badlands are marked with hamleted and semi-compact and dispersed settlements. In Malwa region, due to its fertile soils, large clustered settlements have been developed. In the different areas of Chotanagpur Plateau, various types of settlement are seen. This region shows great variation in types from dispersed and semi-compact to. compact settlement. Large compact and widely spaced villages are the characteristic feature of fertile plain areas of Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Lava plateau region of Maharashtra and Gujarat owing to its rich soils, sufficient water supply and agricultural development has favoured the development of y Clustered settlements. In the various dissected plateau areas and Mountainous regions semi-dispersed to scattered hamlets are common features. The forested areas along the Western Ghats have the predominance of isolated dwellings. (4) Coastal Plains In the deltas of Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri along the eastern coast are characterized by compact and clustered settlements mainly due to organized farming activities. Such villages are located along the canals and on high ground or natural levees. The Malabar coast (Kerala) is dominated by large compact settlements but the plantations of coconut and cashew have also promoted the growth of isolated dwellings. The Kokan coastal plains of Gujarat and Maharashtra are marked by nucleated settlements of medium to large size. The semi-arid lands in the Runn of Kachchh have a few widely spaced small hamlets. REFERENCES Ahlman, H.W. (1928) : "The Geographical Study of Settlements in Italy, Germany, Denmark and Norway", Geographical Review, Vol. 18, 114. Ahmad, E. (1952) : "Rural Settlement Types in Uttar Pradesh", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 42, 223-246. Blache, Vidal de la (1952) : Principles of Human Geography, New York. Clark, A.N. (1989) : Longman Dictionary of Geography, Longman, London.