ABSTRACT  
 
Creating  a  Foundation  for  Media  Literacy  Education:  A  Content  Analysis  of  Higher  
Education  Media  Literacy  Syllabi  
 
Amanda  G.  Earp,  M.A.  
 
Thesis  Chairperson:  Mia  Moody-­‐Ramirez,  Ph.D.  
 
 
Using  a  Constructivist  theoretical  learning  approach,  this  study  examines  syllabi  

from  higher  education  media-­‐related  departments  to  develop  a  uniform  foundation  for  

media  literacy  courses  by  finding  common  objectives  and  creating  an  ideal  syllabus.    

Findings  indicate  that  although  most  objectives  in  the  syllabi  appeared  throughout  the  

literature,  future  courses  should  place  more  emphasis  on  objectives  such  as  “effects”  

and  “economics.”    The  results  also  show  a  variation  between  the  types  of  objectives  

included  in  the  sample  syllabi,  most  notably  in  the  “other”  theme.    Finally,  the  study  

indicates  that  a  total  of  16  objectives  should  be  included  in  media  literacy  courses.      

 
Creating a Foundation for Media Literacy Education: A Content Analysis of Higher
Education Media Literacy Syllabi

by

Amanda G. Earp, B.A.

A Thesis

Approved by the Department of Journalism, Public Relations and New Media

___________________________________
Sara J. Stone, Ph.D., Interim Chairperson

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts

Approved by the Thesis Committee

___________________________________
Mia Moody-Ramirez, Ph.D., Chairperson

___________________________________
Sara J. Stone, Ph.D.

___________________________________
Gretchen E. Schwarz, Ph.D.

Accepted by the Graduate School

May 2012

___________________________________
J. Larry Lyon, Ph.D., Dean

Page bearing signatures is kept on file in the Graduate School.

  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Copyright  ©  2012  by  Amanda  G.  Earp  
 
All  rights  reserved  
 TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  

List  of  Tables                                          vii  

Acknowledgments                                      viii  

Dedication                                            ix  

Chapter  One                     1  

Introduction                   1  

Media  Literacy  Definition  and  Goals         4  

Media  Literacy  in  Education             8  

Summary                 11  

Chapter  Two                     13  

Literature  Review                 13  

Theoretical  Framework             13  

Skills  Versus  Theory               18  

Media  Literacy  Education  Confusion         24  

Examination  of  Media  Literacy  Courses         26  

Effectiveness  of  Media  Literacy  Courses         31  

Summary                 34  

Chapter  Three                   36  

Research  Methods                 36  

iv  
 Definition  of  terms               39  

Chapter  Four                     43  

Discussion  and  Findings               43  

Research  Question  One             43  

Research  Question  Two             48  

Research  Question  Three             50  

Research  Question  Four             51  

Summary                 69  

Chapter  Five                     70  

An  Ideal  Media  Literacy  Syllabus             70  

Summary                 70  

Chapter  Six                     75  

Conclusion                   75  

Limitation  of  Research             75  

Conclusion                 77  

Appendices                     80  

Appendix  A                   81  

Codebook                 81  

Appendix  B                     86  

Syllabi  Objectives                 86  

References                     95

v  
 LIST  OF  TABLES  
 
 
Table  1                     29  

  Linde’s  Core  Curriculum  (Linde,  2010)           29  

Table  2                     43  

  Results  of  Media  Literacy  Syllabi             43  

Table  3                     46  

  Media  Literacy  Syllabi  Results  Including  Categories       46  

vi  
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  
 
 
My  thanks  and  appreciation  goes  to  my  advisor,  Dr.  Mia  Moody-­‐Ramirez,  for  

helping  and  pushing  me  throughout  this  process.    You  gave  me  the  structure  I  

needed  to  complete  this.    To  my  thesis  committee,  Dr.  Sara  Stone  and  Dr.  Gretchen  

Schwarz,  thank  you  for  your  time,  expertise,  and  criticisms  to  make  my  work  better.  

I  also  must  acknowledge  the  Thesis  Crisis  Response  Intervention  Team  (T-­‐

CRIT)  of  many  family  and  friends  who  have  laughed  with  me,  talked  me  through  

this,  and  let  me  cry  on  their  shoulders.    To  my  brother,  thank  you  for  all  the  laughs  

and  being  one  of  my  biggest  supporters.    To  my  aunts,  uncles,  cousins,  and  Pop,  

thank  you  for  all  the  kind  words  along  the  way.    To  my  rock  for  over  the  past  year,  

Garrett,  thank  you  for  believing  in  me,  supporting  me,  sharing  this  experience  with  

me,  talking  me  through  meltdowns,  and,  most  importantly,  loving  me.    To  my  close  

friends,  thank  you  as  well  for  all  the  talks  and  encouragement  along  the  way.  

vii  
 This  thesis  is  dedicated  to  my  parents,  Eddie  and  Cynthia  Earp.    You  two  have  

believed  and  supported  me  every  step  of  the  way.    I  will  never  be  able  to  thank  you  

enough  for  giving  me  the  opportunities  that  you  have  both  given  me.    From  the  

bottom  of  my  heart,  thank  you  

viii  
 CHAPTER  ONE  
 
Introduction  
 
 
  Since  society  is  engulfed  in  media  messages,  thinking  critically  about  media  

content  is  a  necessity.    This  need  to  critically  examine  mass  media  is  an  essential  

part  of  media  literacy.    In  this  sense,  mass  media  is  defined  as  “means  or  

instruments  serving  as  carriers  of  messages  from  a  communicator  to  a  mass  

audience”  (Ceulemans  &  Fauconnier,  1979,  p.1),  while  media  literacy  is  most  

commonly  defined  as  the  ability  to  access,  analyze,  evaluate,  produce,  and  

communicate  information  in  a  variety  of  information  and  mediums  (Schwarz,  2005;  

Silverblatt,  2008;  “Media  Literacy  Defined,“  2012).    In  addition,  media  literacy  

involves  developing  an  appreciation,  as  well  as,  a  critical  eye  for  media  and  its  

messages.    This  may  help  people  question  everything  they  read  or  hear  without  

being  easily  manipulated  by  messages.    The  ability  to  be  critical  of  media  also  allows  

people  to  become  analytical  consumers,  explaining  their  own  consumer  choices  

(Nam,  2005;  Semali  &  Pailliotet,  1999).  

Many  higher  education  journalism  and  mass  communication  departments  

teach  media  literacy  to  help  students  combine  new  media  skills  and  theory  

curriculum  objectives  (Mihailidis,  2008).    However,  because  media  literacy  is  a  

relatively  new  subject  to  the  field,  departmental  faculty  are  often  uncertain  about  

1    
what  to  consider  media  literacy.    This  lack  of  agreement  results  in  an  inconsistency  

in  the  content  that  professors  choose  to  teach  in  media  literacy  courses  (Mihailidis,  

2008).      

College  students,  in  particular,  should  take  a  media  literacy  course  due  to  

their  constant  consumption  of  media  such  as  listening  to  iPods,  watching  television,  

updating  Facebook  statuses,  and  checking  e-­‐mail.    “Reports  show  that  youth  today  

may  spend  more  than  one  half  of  their  days  engaged  with  media,  and  upwards  of  53  

hours  per  week  in  front  of  some  media  platform”  (Mihailidis,  2011).    Oftentimes,  

students  engage  in  multiple  media  concurrently.    Illustrating  students’  dependency  

on  media,  the  International  Center  for  Media  and  the  Public  Agenda  (2010)  

challenged  200  students  from  the  University  of  Maryland  to  refrain  from  using  any  

media,  which  meant  not  using  newspapers,  television,  radio,  iPods,  computers,  

Smartphones,  and  the  Internet  (i.e.,  Facebook,  Twitter,  and  e-­‐mail).    Most  

participants  could  not  refrain  from  using  media  for  the  complete  24  hours  

(International  Center  for  Media  &  the  Public  Agenda  (a),  2010).    Many  students  

were  unaware  of  their  media  dependency,  and  used  words  such  as  “mood  changes,”  

“anxiety,”  and  “unbearable”  to  describe  their  feelings  when  abstinent  from  media  

(International  Center  for  Media  &  the  Public  Agenda  (b),  2010).    These  words  are  

often  associated  with  addiction  and  withdrawal.      

This  constant  craving  for  media  leads  to  a  nonstop  consumption.    Instead  of  

being  critical  of  media  and  analyzing  the  content,  consumers  overindulge,  feeding    

2    
the  addiction  and  creating  a  vicious  cycle.    The  evaluation  and  critique  of  media  that  

is  missing  from  college  curriculum  is  a  critical  step  in  teaching  students  how  to  be  

intelligent  media  users.  

Difficulties  in  both  defining  and  locating  media  literacy  initiatives  in  the  

university  have  often  led  to  vague  and  disparate  usage  of  the  term.    As  a  result,  the  

potential  value  of  media  literacy  to  higher  education  has  been  constrained    

(Mihailidis,  2008).    A  strong  foundation  in  media  literacy  classes  might  allow  for  a  

uniform  definition  of  the  term,  and  a  broader  acceptance  rate  of  the  courses  and  

ultimately  better  outcomes  in  the  classroom.  

The  current  problems  in  journalism  and  mass  communications  departments  

combined  with  the  increase  dependency  on  media  among  college  students  indicate  

the  necessity  of  media  literacy  classes  in  the  departments.    The  problem,  however,  

lies  with  the  lack  of  overall  foundation  for  these  courses,  media  literacy  being  

represented  negatively,  and  uncertainty  among  professors  on  what  constitutes  

media  literacy  and  how  to  teach  it.    

While  previous  studies  provide  valuable  insight  into  media  literacy  at  the  

elementary  and  secondary  level,  the  literature  lacks  studies  relating  to  media  

literacy  in  college-­‐level  journalism  and  mass  communication  courses.    Using  a  

constructivist  theoretical  learning  approach,  this  study  examines  syllabi  from  higher  

education  media-­‐related  departments  to  develop  a  uniform  foundation  for  media  

literacy  courses.    The  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  asserts  media  literacy  

is  “conceptualize[d]  .  .  .  as  knowledge  and  abilities  concerning  the  production,  

3    
interpretation,  and  content  of  media  information  within  a  socio-­‐cultural  context,  as  

well  as  knowledge  about  the  relations  between  these  elements”  (Rosenbaum,  2003).  

 The  use  of  constructivist  lens  allowed  the  researcher  to  compare  and  

contrast  the  “objectives”  and  “goals”  section  from  current  courses’  syllabi.    Based  on  

this  detailed  analysis,  the  researcher  created  an  “ideal”  media  literacy  syllabus  for    

future  courses  and  research.    A  uniform  curriculum  might  help  professors  know  

which  topics  to  teach  students  so  they  can  better  grasp  the  concept  of  media  

literacy.  

This  study  is  important  because  rapid  technology  development  is  creating  

huge  shifts  in  how  media  are  used  and  not  all  content  created  is  ethical.    Creators  of  

media  are  altering  photographs,  using  Internet  advertisements  to  directly  tailor  to  

the  user’s  interests,  and  users  are  scanning  QR  barcodes  to  their  Smartphones  

allowing  them  to  access  more  product  information.    Furthermore,  college  students,  

who  are  constantly  consuming  media,  need  the  knowledge  and  skills  to  critically  

think  about  the  technology  and  media  they  use  every  day.    In  addition,  media  and  

communication-­‐type  departments  are  currently  re-­‐examining  curriculum  to  

embrace  new  media  while  integrating  skills  and  theory-­‐based  courses.    Media  

literacy  courses  are  a  critical  step  to  combining  new  media,  skills,  and  theory  

objectives  while  teaching  students  to  think  critically  about  media  they  use.  

 
Media  Literacy  Definition  and  Goals  

The  most  accepted  definition  of  the  term,  mentioned  above,  describes  a  

media  literate  person  as  having  the  ability  to  access,  analyze,  evaluate,  produce,  and  

communicate  information  (Schwarz,  2005;  Silverblatt,  2008;  “Media  Literacy  

4    
Defined,”  2012).    Scholars  accepted  this  definition  at  the  National  Leadership  

Conference  on  Media  Literacy  held  in  1992  (Christ,  2004).    Conference  attendees  

clarified  the  definition  of  media  literacy  by  defining  media,  literacy,  media  literacy,  

and  media  literacy  education.    According  to  the  organization’s  website,  media  are  

“all  electronic  or  digital  means  and  print  or  artistic  visuals  used  to  transmit  

messages”  (“Media  Literacy  Defined,”  2012,  “Variety  of  Terminology”).      

In  addition,  the  organization  defined  literacy  as  the  ability  to  evaluate  

symbols  and  analyze  media  messages.    Thus,  media  literacy  is  the  ability  to  evaluate  

symbols  sent  through  media  while  having  the  skills  to  analyze  and  produce  

messages.    Media  literacy  education  is  the  teaching  of  the  media  literacy  field  

through  activities  while  expanding  previous  knowledge  and  experiences  (“Media  

Literacy  Defined,”  2012,  “Variety  of  Terminology”).    

Hobbs  (2005)  adds  that  “most  conceptualizations  of  media  literacy  now  

involve  a  type  of  critical  literacy  based  on  reflection,  analysis,  and  evaluation,  not  

only  the  content  and  structural  elements  of  specific  media  texts  but  of  the  social,  

economic,  political,  and  historical  contexts  in  which  messages  are  created,  

disseminated,  and  used  by  audiences”  (p.  866).    Hobbs’  characteristics  of  media  

literate  person  include  (1)  using  of  “texts,  tools,  and  technologies”  for  information  

and  entertainment  purposes;  (2)  possessing  the  skills  to  think  critically,  analyze,  

and  evaluate  media;  (3)  creating  media  content;  (4)  reflecting  and  thinking  

critically;  and,  (5)  participating  in  social  actions  upon  engaging  in  media  (2011).    

Moses  (2008)  defines  media  literacy  as  an  educational  approach  to  “empower”  

people  with  critical  thinking  skills  to  use  when  consuming  media,  creating  an  

5    
awareness  of  media  characteristics,  goals  of  messages,  techniques  used  to  

successfully  deliver  messages,  and  the  messages’  impact  on  society.    The  Center  for  

Media  Literacy’s  definition  expands  the  term  media  to  include  all  forms  of  

communication  “from  television  to  T-­‐shirts,  from  billboards  to  multi-­‐media  

environments”  (2011,  “FAQ,”  question  5).    This  definition  acknowledges  the  

escalation  of  media  surrounding  people  every  day,  calling  for  an  even  greater  need  

for  people  to  become  media  literate.      

The  National  Leadership  Conference  established  that  most  

conceptualizations  of  media  literacy  include  four  elements  (Aufderheide,  1997).    

These  characteristics  resemble  those  of  the  National  Association  for  Media  Literacy  

Education’s  Core  Principles  (2007).    First,  someone  must  make  decisions  and  use  

specific  techniques  to  create  media.    Media,  responsible  for  most  of  the  reality  the  

public  creates,  are  a  “constructed  reality.”    Next,  media  are  businesses  and  have  

“commercial  implications.”    Since  media  are  businesses  and  owned  by  a  handful  of  

people,  media  have  ideological  and  political  agendas.    Also,  each  medium  is  created  

differently  using  specific  techniques,  codes,  aesthetics,  conventions,  and  principles  

to  deliver  a  specific  message.    Lastly,  the  receivers  of  media  messages  control  the  

meaning  through  interpretation  (Aufderheide,  1997).      

  As  mentioned  previously,  media  literacy  helps  students  become  intelligent  

media  users,  but  it  also  teaches  them  how  media  works  and  makes  them  better  

democratic  citizens.    Nam  (2005)  said,  "[understanding]  media  literac[y]  .  .  .  [is]  vital  

to  the  conceptualization  of  critical  media  literacy,  as  it  demands  a  comprehensive  

understanding  of  the  specific  workings  of  content,  grammar,  forms,  technologies,  

6    
and  institutions  of  the  media  in  the  process  of  meaning  creation”  (p.  4).    Media  

literacy  “aims  to  increase  the  students’  understanding  and  enjoyment  of  how  the  

media  work,  how  they  produce  meaning,  how  they  are  organized,  and  how  they  

construct  reality”  (Mihailidis,  2006,  p.  417).    Mihailidis  (2006)  added  that  media    

literacy  gives  students  the  ability  to  create  their  own  media  products,  providing  

teachers  with  a  new  platform  to  engage  students  with  media  through  hands-­‐on  

learning.        

Linde  (2010),  who  provides  a  more  recent  definition  of  the  term,  confirms  

that  media  literacy  is  an  important  part  of  the  democratic  process  in  the  creation  of  

intelligent  citizens.    She  asserts  that  media  literacy  develops  critical  thinking  skills  

and  lets  students  challenge  media  messages  and  their  creators  (Linde,  2010).    This  

knowledge  gives  students  the  ability  to  deconstruct  the  political  and  cultural  

meanings  related  to  media  and  their  conglomerates  (Nam,  2005).      

Duran,  Yousman,  Walsh,  and  Longshore  (2008)  argue  that  citizens,  not  just  

passive  consumers,  must  have  an  understanding  of  the  commercial  side  of  media  

industries  and  the  political  and  ideological  implications  intertwined  with  them.    

They  added,  “[a]  person  who  is  truly  media  literate  is  also  knowledgeable  of  the  

political  economy  of  the  media,  the  consequences  of  media  consumption,  and  the  

activist  and  alternative  media  movements  that  seek  to  challenge  mainstream  media  

norms  and  create  a  more  democratic  system”  (Duran,  Yousman,  Walsh,  Longshore,  

2008,  p.  52).    The  goal  is  for  media  literacy  to  give  students  the  skills  to  make  better-­‐

informed  decisions,  which  leads  to  them  becoming  better  citizens  (Moses,  2008).    

 
 

7    
 Media  Literacy  in  Education  

  Countries,  other  than  the  United  States,  acknowledged  the  need  for  media  

literacy  more  than  40  years  ago  by  teaching  it  in  schools  and  universities.    England  

began  teaching  media  literacy  in  the  1960s,  followed  by  Australia,  Great  Britain,  

Norway,  Canada,  and  Germany  (Schwarz,  2005).    Finally,  between  1971-­‐1981,  the  

United  States  joined  the  effort  to  teach  media  literacy  in  elementary  and  secondary  

schools,  but  the  movement  eventually  lost  funding  (Schwarz,  2005).    Technologies    

developed  in  the  1990s  led  to  a  resurgent  of  the  movement  in  the  U.S.,  although  the  

country  is  still  lagging  behind  the  rest  of  the  world  (Schwarz,  2005;  Mihailidis,  

2006).  

To  relate  the  United  States’  media  literacy  movement  to  other  countries,  

Mihailidis  (2006)  compared  the  acceptance  of  higher  education  media  literacy  

courses  by  educators  in  the  United  States  to  that  of  Sweden.    The  part  of  the  study  

focusing  on  media  literacy  courses  in  the  United  States  found  three  common  

conceptions  among  educators.    Many  educators  were  either  critical  of  the  inquiry  

about  media  literacy,  thought  media  literacy  was  currently  being  taught  in  their  

program,  or  thought  the  term  media  literacy  did  not  deserve  a  place  in  academia.    

The  Swedish  portion  of  the  study  found  that  Swedish  departments  “acknowledge[d]  

.  .  .  the  importance  of  media  literacy  as  a  concept  and  initiative  for  higher  education  

and  the  importance  of  media  literacy’s  existing  or  soon  to  be  integrated  inclusion  in  

their  departments  and/or  programs”  (Mihailidis,  2006,  p.  421).    All  of  the  Swedish  

programs  examined  acknowledged  the  importance  of  teaching  media  literacy  

(Mihailidis,  2006).  

8    
   Although  the  United  States’  grassroots  movement  focuses  more  on  

elementary  and  secondary  schooling,  it  is  catching  on  in  higher  education  

journalism,  communication,  and  education  departments  (Hobbs,  2006).    These  

departments  are  struggling  to  determine  whether  it  should  focus  on  skills  needed  in  

the  field  or  theories  of  media,  while  also  trying  to  incorporate  new  media.    As  the  

literature  determines,  media  literacy  classes  integrate  all  three  areas.    Some  

university  officials  noticed  this  solution  and  began  incorporating  media  literacy  

classes  into  their  departments.    

Two  studies  conducted  by  Webster  University  showed  this  integration.    In  

2002,  the  university  found  that  61  out  of  74  universities  examined  in  the  United  

States  offered  media  literacy  courses:  34  of  which  were  as  a  specific  course  and  27  

that  only  included  the  topic  across  the  curriculum  (Silverblatt,  Baker,  Tyner  &  

Stuhlner,  2003).    Scholars  replicated  the  study  in  2007  with  results  indicating  an  

increase  in  media  literacy  in  higher  education  with  158  respondents  offering  media  

literacy  courses  and  135  of  the  242  respondents  offering  it  as  a  course  component  

(Mihailidis,  2008).      

  Findings  of  those  two  higher  education  media  literacy  studies,  however,  

differ.    In  the  first  study,  participants  resisted  studying  media  literacy  and  were  

uncertain  about  the  definition  of  the  term  (Mihailidis,  2008).    Furthermore,  

participants  disagreed  on  the  content  and  amount  of  media  literacy  taught  in  

general  media  courses.    In  the  list  of  media  literacy  courses  on  Webster  University’s  

website,  for  example,  eight  of  the  61  universities  that  said  they  offered  media  

literacy  courses  included  Introduction  to  Communications  or  general  mass  

9    
communications  courses  in  a  survey  asking  about  media  literacy  classes.    The  

courses  from  the  survey  varied  and  included  topics  from  Media  Ethics  to  History  of  

Broadcasting,  Basic  Photography,  Mass  Media  and  Society  (Silverblatt,  et.  al.,  2003).    

Findings  demonstrate  a  lack  of  consistency  among  faculty  and  staff  in  defining  and  

teaching  media  literacy.      

In  addition,  these  two  studies  examined  media  literacy  classes  in  various  

departments,  and  goals  varied  based  on  departmental  core  curriculum.    An  

education  class,  for  example,  might  focus  on  teaching  media  literacy  at  different  

grade  levels  as  opposed  to  a  communication  media  literacy  class  using  media  

literacy  when  creating  and  analyzing  the  media.    To  improve  the  study,  the  

researchers  should  have  narrowed  the  sample  to  focus  on  classes  in  specific  

disciplines.    Only  19  of  the  61  sample  universities  included  course  names  with  the  

words  “media  literacy”  actually  in  the  title  when  responding  to  the  survey  

(Silverblatt,  et.  al.,  2003).    Titles,  however,  varied  in  regards  to  teaching  media  

literacy  in  relation  to  different  topics  such  as  new  technologies,  gender,  and  theory.      

Currently,  there  are  no  standards  directly  addressing  media  literacy  for  

higher  education.    The  National  Communication  Association  indirectly  set  standards  

teachers  could  apply  to  media  literacy  classes  (Christ,  2004).    Similar  to  the  National  

Association  of  Media  Literacy  Education’s  Key  Questions  (2007)  used  when  

analyzing  messages,  the  standards  suggest  that  media  literate  communicators  are  

able  to  demonstrate  a/an  “(a)  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  ways  people  use  

media  in  their  personal  and  public  lives,  (b)  knowledge  and  understand[ing  of]  the  

relationships  among  audiences  and  media  content,  (c)  knowledge  and  

 
10  
understanding  that  media  content  is  produced  within  social  and  cultural  contexts,  

(d)  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  commercial  nature  of  the  media,  and  (e)  

ability  to  use  media  to  communicate  to  specific  audiences”  (Christ,  2004,  p.  95).    

These  standards  require  teaching  students  the  relationship  between  a  person’s  life  

and  media  and  the  relationship  between  media  industries,  audiences,  content,  the  

context  of  production,  and  the  use  of  media  to  communicate  (Christ,  2004).    Christ    

(2004)  added  that  there  is  a  difference  between  professors  saying  media  literacy  is  

being  taught  and  students  demonstrating  knowledge  and  media  literacy  skills  

learned  in  the  course.    

Mihailidis  (2008)  also  states  that  college-­‐level  educators  are  usually  

encouraged  to  teach  content  they  find  most  effective  and  to  use  classroom  

techniques  that  suit  their  teaching  style.    This  freedom  often  leads  to  “different  

interpretations  about  what  constitutes  media  literacy  education  in  universities,  

including  where  it  should  be  taught,  how  it  should  be  taught,  and  who  should  teach  

it”  (2008,  “Introduction,”  para.  5).    “This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  these  

courses  are  utilizing  media  literacy  educational  philosophies  to  teach,  but  that  they  

are  utilizing  the  term  to  implement  new  curricular  approaches  to  media  education”  

(Mihailidis,  2008,  “Courses,”  para.  3).    The  only  way  to  determine  if  media  literacy  

courses  actually  teach  media  literacy  techniques  is  through  a  review,  analysis,  and  

comparison  of  syllabi  between  classes.      

 
Summary  

In  sum,  this  chapter  defines  and  offers  an  overview  of  media,  literacy,  media  

literacy,  and  media  literacy  education.    It  explores  the  dependency  of  college  

 
11  
students  on  media  and  their  lack  of  ability  to  critically  use  it  (International  Center  

for  Media  &  the  Public  Agenda  (a),  2010).    In  addition,  it  examines  various  

definitions  and  goals  for  media  literacy  with  the  prevailing  definition  that  media  

literacy  is  the  ability  to  access,  analyze,  evaluate,  produce,  and  communicate  

information  in  a  variety  of  mediums  (Schwarz,  2005;  Silverblatt,  2008;  “Media  

Literacy  Defined,”  2012).    This  chapter  also  explains  the  goals  for  media  literacy  

ranging  from  being  able  to  analyze  media  to  becoming  a  more  informed  citizen  

(Hobbs,  2005;  Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).      

Finally,  the  chapter  indicates  that  although  the  United  States  is  behind  in  the  

media  literacy  education  movement,  programs  are  increasing  in  popularity  

(Schwarz,  2005;  Mihailidis,  2006).    The  literature  mentioned,  however,  indicates  

discrepancies  among  university  professors  as  to  what  constitutes  media  literacy  and  

how  to  teach  it  (Mihailidis,  2008).    This  uncertainty  hampers  the  potential  impact  

media  literacy  might  have  in  higher  education.      

The  next  chapter  addresses  the  theoretical  framework  used  for  this  study  

and  illustrates  how  media  literacy  classes  can  help  solve  an  ongoing  debate  on  

whether  to  teach  students  skills  or  theories.    Also,  the  literature  review  presents  

studies  dealing  with  media  literacy  courses’  syllabi  and  the  effectiveness  of  the  

courses.    The  end  of  the  second  chapter  addresses  the  research  questions  this  study  

seeks  to  answer.    

 
12  
 CHAPTER  TWO  
 
Literature  Review  
 
 
  A  review  of  the  literature  offers  insights  into  goals  and  objectives  that  

journalism  and  mass  communication  departments  often  use  to  integrate  new  media,  

skills,  and  theory  objectives.    Previous  studies  indicate  professors  in  journalism,  

media,  mass  communications,  and  communications  departments  have  noticed  the  

importance  of  media  literacy  classes,  which  is  evidenced  in  the  increased  number  of  

courses  offered  (Silverblatt,  et.  al,  2003;  Mihailidis,  2008).    Despite  an  increase  in  

classes  offered,  professors  often  debate  the  concepts  that  “media  literacy”  entails  

and  how  to  teach  them  (Silverblatt,  et.  al,  2003;  Mihailidis,  2008).    The  literature  

reflects  these  issues.    Two  landmark  studies  in  which  researchers  examine  their  

own  respective  course  and  syllabus  act  as  a  good  framework  for  this  thesis  in  terms  

of  which  objectives  to  consider.    This  review  of  the  literature  also  explores  

information  supporting  the  importance  and  effectiveness  of  media  literacy  courses  

in  journalism  media  and  mass  communications  departments.      

 
Theoretical  Framework  

  According  to  most  media  literacy  educators,  unlike  most  college  courses,  a  

media  literacy  course  should  not  be  taught  strictly  by  lecture.    Instead,  media  

literacy  educators  should  use  active  learning  to  expand  on  students’  current  

 
13  
knowledge,  opinion,  and  use  of  media.    Courses  educating  students  in  media  literacy  

are  “focused  on  instructional  methods  of  pedagogy  of  media  literacy,  integrating  

theoretical  and  critical  frameworks  rising  from  Constructivist  Learning  Theory,  

media  studies,  and  cultural  studies  scholarship”  (Hobbs  &  Jensen,  2009).      

 Constructivism  is  a  learning  theory  based  on  the  concept  that  students  

construct  or  build  knowledge  from  existing  knowledge  (Lattuca,  2006;  Tyner,  2010).    

Previously,  learning  was  thought  to  be  a  memorization  process  where  students  

regurgitated  the  information  on  assignments  and  exams.    Constructivism,  however,  

“helps  learners  to  internalize  and  reshape,  or  transform,  new  information”  (Brooks  

&  Brooks,  1993,  p.  15).    Instead  of  having  students  repeat  information,  students  

demonstrate  the  knowledge  learned.    An  influencer  of  the  theory,  John  Dewey,  said  

students’  experiences  from  their  own  day-­‐to-­‐day  lives  are  behind  their  “meaning-­‐

making”  process  (Hobbs  &  Jensen,  2009,  p.  2).    Brooks  and  Brooks  (1993)  agreed  

with  Dewey  that  students’  experience  is  essential  to  their  learning  process.  

Students’  points  of  view  are  windows  into  their  reasoning.    Awareness  of  
students’  points  of  view  helps  teachers  challenge  students,  making  school  
experiences  both  contextual  and  meaningful.    Each  student’s  point  of  view  is  
an  instructional  entry  point  that  sits  at  the  gateway  of  personalized  
education.    Teachers  who  operate  without  awareness  of  their  students’  
points  of  view  often  doom  students  to  dull,  irrelevant  experiences,  and  even  
sometimes  failure”  (Brooks  &  Brooks,  1993,  p.  60).      
 
In  constructivism,  “Students  are  not  perceived  as  vessels  waiting  for  

information  to  be  dumped  inside  their  minds.    Instead,  they  are  thought  to  be  

engaged  individuals  who  seek  understanding  of  the  world  around  them,  largely  

through  active  learning  and  discovery”  (Knabe,  2004,  p.  1).    Tyner  (2010)  said  the  

Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  uses  student  media  knowledge  and  habits  to  

 
14  
increase  their  understanding  of  media.    Linde  (2010)  referenced  Potter  (2004)  

suggesting  media  literacy  is  based  on  personal  experiences,  thus,  media  literacy  

classes  cannot  “prescribe  specific  procedures  because  everyone  approaches  media  

messages  from  their  unique  perspective”  and  “it  cannot  be  specific,  detailed,  or  

perspective,  but  can  provide  the  framework  for  generic  procedures  that  can  be  used  

to  approach  information  processing”  (2010,  p.  5).    Mihailidis  (2006)  added,  “Media  

literacy  fosters  critical,  practical,  and  participatory  approaches  to  media  in  which  

learning  is  based  on  student  engagement  and  reflexivity”  (p.  418).    The  students’  

knowledge  is  increased  by  the  professor  giving  students  the  access  to  the  tools  and  

information  needed  to  analyze  the  information,  in  this  case,  media  (Lattuca,  2006).      

  The  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  supports  Nam’s  (2005)  

suggestions  for  professors  teaching  media  literacy.    He  said  teachers  should  have  a  

general  guideline  of  media  literacy,  even  if  examining  different  forms  of  media  

literacy.    This  allows  for  the  teacher  to  be  the  “guide  on  the  side”  not  the  “sage  on  

the  stage”  (Knabe,  2004).    Continuing  to  allow  the  professor  to  be  the  “guide”  not  the  

“sage,”  constructivist  theory  encourages  student-­‐student  interaction  instead  of  just  

student-­‐teacher  interaction  (Hobbs  &  Jensen,  2009).    Constructivist  theory  also  

expands  on  the  students’  previous  knowledge.    Nam  (2005)  suggests  professors  be  

open  to  multiple  viewpoints  because  argument  and  free  speech  are  essential  in  

expressing  opposing  views.    Expanding  on  Nam’s  ideas,  Brooks  and  Brooks  (1993)  

said  that  constructivist  teachers  allow  student  responses  to  drive  discussions.      

Agreeing  with  Nam’s  (2005)  view,  media  literacy  experts  say  the  professor  

should  never  give  his/her  own  opinion  before  inquiring  students’  opinion  (Postman  

 
15  
&  Weingartner,  1969;  Brooks  &  Brooks,  1993).    Nam  (2005)  also  said  a  crucial  

component  to  media  literacy,  and  constructivist  theory,  are  allowing  students  to  

connect  media  literacy  to  things  that  interest  them.    He  noted  that  one  problem  

teachers  face  when  incorporating  media  literacy  classes  is  knowing  how  to  assess  

students’  progress  with  becoming  media  literate.    Using  a  constructivist  approach,  

Nam  (2005)  said  critical  media  literacy  could  not  be  measured  through  

standardized  tests,  but  through  evaluating  students’  progress  in  expanding  their  

knowledge.    He  also  suggested  professors  encourage  students  to  use  tools,  

specifically  the  Internet  and  technology,  to  increase  their  understanding  and  skills  of  

being  media  and  information  literate  (Nam,  2005).  

Reflecting  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Learning,  the  Constructivist  Model  of  

Media  Literacy  uses  nine  elements  to  conceptualize  media  literacy  (Rosenbaum,  

2003).    The  first  three  elements,  together,  are  called  the  “social  cultural  context  of  

media  use.”    The  first  element,  “media  institutions,”  focuses  on  economic,  political,  

and  legal  context  of  media  and  the  effects  on  the  content  produced.    Second,  the  

“social  network”  characteristic  refers  to  social  structures  pertaining  to  the  

individual  and  the  relationship  to  media  such  as  people  perceiving  messages  

different.    The  third  element,  “situation,”  refers  to  people  understanding  that  media  

are  a  skewed,  biased  reflection  of  reality,  not  a  perfect  representation.    Fourth,  the  

“information”  element  references  the  idea  that  media  are  a  representation  of  people,  

places,  events,  and  situations.    This  element  pertains  to  an  individual’s  awareness  of  

media  biases  in  its  construction,  its  skewed  representations,  and  the  techniques  

used  to  create  media  as  well  as  the  awareness  of  multiple  sources  of  information.      

 
16  
The  “social  cultural  context  of  media  use”  and  “information”  elements  are  in  relation  

to  each  other  since  institutions  and  social  structures  influence  media  content,  and  

media  influences  society  (Rosenbaum,  2003).  

The  last  five  elements  are  characterized  as  elements  relating  to  the  

interpretation  of  media.    “Interaction  situation,”  the  fifth  element,  suggests  media  

users  should  understand  the  way  they,  and  others,  use  the  media,  specifically  in  

relation  to  social  interactions  (Rosenbaum,  2003).    The  sixth  element,  “definition  of  

the  situation,”  refers  to  the  understanding  of  media  by  analyzing  and  interpreting  it.    

The  seventh  element  “action  strategies”  relates  to  the  action  of  the  individual  after  

receiving  information  about  media.    Examples  of  this  include  people  understanding  

why  they  use  media,  how  media  makes  them  feel,  what  media  makes  them  do,  and  

how  to  access  and  use  multiple  media.    “Objectification,”  the  eighth  element,  

suggests  that  individuals  should  understand  behavioral  patterns,  specifically  in  

media  use.    The  last  element,  “socialization,”  suggests  a  media  literate  person  has  

the  knowledge  to  recognize  how  media  socialize  people  in  society  through  societal  

norms,  behaviors,  and  values.    The  interpretation  elements  influence  each  other  due  

to  media  affecting  the  way  a  message  is  processed  and  the  way  an  individual  

perceives  social  norms  influencing  the  interpretation  of  the  message  (Rosenbaum,  

2003).  

The  elements  comprising  the  constructivist  media  literacy  model  reflect  the  

topics  mentioned  in  the  rest  of  the  literature.    Although  some  elements  are  

frequently  used,  all  nine  elements  are  represented  in  the  codebook  categories  used  

to  analyze  the  syllabi  for  this  study.    Media  literacy  education  is  grounded  in  the  

 
17  
constructivist  view  of  taking  a  “student-­‐centered”  approach  to  expand  students’  

knowledge  of  media,  including  the  nine  elements.    The  key  principles  of  the  National  

Association  of  Media  Literacy  Education  (2007),  for  example,  revolve  around  

individuals  using  their  own  knowledge,  opinions,  and  beliefs  to  understand  and  

evaluate  media—the  point  behind  constructivist  theory.  

The  idea  that  society  should  resist  media  opposes  the  constructivist  view.    

Those  supporting  this  resistance  feel  media  have  a  direct  effect  on  audiences;  and  

therefore,  influences  the  actions  of  said  audiences.    Instead  of  educating  society  

about  media,  some  politicians  and  parents  support  the  outright  blocking  of  offensive  

material.    For  instance,  the  U.S.  government  banned  cigarette  advertisements  on  

television,  and  parents  constantly  lobby  for  censorship  of  violence  and  sex  on  

television  and  video  games  (Considine,  1995).    Censorship  is  taking  the  easy  way  

out.    Instead,  scholars  should  teach  children  and  adults  how  to  evaluate  critically  

media  and  messages  they  are  consuming.        

 
Skills  Versus  Theory  

For  years,  administrators  of  higher  education  journalism  and  mass  

communication  departments  have  tried  to  determine  which  direction  to  take  their  

curriculum  (Cohen,  2001).    The  debate  is  between  professors  wanting  to  teach  skills  

versus  those  wanting  to  teach  theory.    The  arguments  consist  of  whether  

departments  should  focus  on  teaching  students  skills  to  be  media  professionals  or  

the  theories  and  issues  pertaining  to  the  field.      

Silverblatt’s  (2008)  description  of  six  elements  of  media  literacy,  supported  

by  the  National  Association  for  Media  Literacy  Education’s  “Core  Principles  of  Media  

 
18  
Literacy  Education  in  the  United  States”  (2007),  show  that  media  literacy  courses  

incorporate  both  skills  and  theory-­‐based  learning.    First,  media  literacy  education  

gives  people  the  ability  to  think  critically  about  their  own  choices  in  regard  to  which  

media  program  they  select,  the  reason  they  select  it,  and  their  interpretation  of  the  

information  they  receive  from  it  (Silverblatt,  2008;  National  Association  for  Media  

Literacy  Education,  2007).    Next,  media  literacy  education  creates  awareness  about  

the  impact  media  have  on  individuals  and  society.  

Third,  media  literacy  education  gives  people  the  skills  to  analyze  and  think  

critically  about  media  messages  (Silverblatt,  2008;  National  Association  for  Media  

Literacy  Education,  2007).    It  also  allows  them  to  discuss  media  messages  with  

other  media  literate  people  and  teach  media  literacy  to  those  who  are  not  media  

literate.    Then,  media  literacy  education  shows  how  media  are  a  reflection  of  today’s  

popular  culture  and  society.    Along  with  the  fourth  element,  media  literacy  

education  teaches  people  that  media  are  a  skewed  reflection  of  society  telling  

people  the  topics  to  think  about.    Fifth,  by  being  media  literate,  a  person  can  enjoy,  

understand,  and  appreciate  media  without  being  completely  susceptible  to  

manipulated  messages.    Finally,  media  literacy  gives  people  the  skills  and  ability  to  

produce  media  messages  effectively  and  responsibly.    This,  in  turn,  helps  with  the  

appreciation  of  media  and  the  deconstruction  of  messages  by  knowing  the  tricks  

and  techniques  used  to  create  those  messages  (Silverblatt,  2008;  National  

Association  for  Media  Literacy  Education,  2007).      

The  first  four  characteristics  relate  to  theory-­‐based  courses  teaching  media  

effects  and  its  relation  to  popular  culture  and  society.    The  last  characteristic  refers  

 
19  
to  a  media-­‐literate  person  producing  media  and  knowing  the  techniques  used  in  the  

creation  process,  the  main  focus  of  skills-­‐based  departments  and  courses.    Thus,  a  

media  literacy  course  should  cover  both  skills  and  theory-­‐based  objectives  helping  

integrate  the  academic  and  professional  sides.  

In  2001,  a  symposium  featured  nine  educators  and  professional  journalists  

discussing  their  thoughts  on  the  biggest  problems  pertaining  to  journalism  and  

mass  communication  departments  (Cohen,  2001).    Scholars  highlighted  their  

opinion  for  this  symposium  by  picking  what  they  felt  were  the  biggest  problems  in  

journalism  curriculum  in  2001.    Emerging  themes  from  the  topics  discussed  were  

“the  ethical  performance  of  communication  practitioners  and  institutions,  the  

influence  of  economic  interests  on  media  practices,  the  distinction  between  

communication  institutions  and  the  communication  publics  who  rely  on  them,  and  

the  placement  of  professional  norms  and  media  products  in  a  context  of  disciplinary  

knowledge  about  communication”  (Cohen,  2001,  p.  5).  

For  example,  University  of  Texas  journalism  professor  Steven  D.  Reese  said  

few  reform  issues  such  as  writing  across  the  curriculum,  critical  thinking,  and  

experimental  project  based  learning  were  taught.    He  described  a  critical  issue  in  

media-­‐related  studies  (Cohen,  2001):      

The  tugs  on  the  field  on  one  side  from  the  professional  community  needing  
trained  practitioners,  and  on  the  other  side  from  an  academic,  neo-­‐
administrative  style,  leads  to  symptoms  of  disconnect  and  fragmentation.    
Journalist  skills  training  gravitates  to  faculty  with  specific  prior  professional  
experiences  in  those  skills,  and  ‘studies’  courses  (history,  law,  theory)  toward  
those  with  the  academic  training  and  inclination,  with  the  whole  enterprise  
cut  off  from  the  larger  university.    This  risks  leaving  a  hollowed-­‐out  core,  a  
no-­‐man’s  land  in  our  field  where  nothing  of  any  great  interest  or  importance  
goes  on—unless  it  is  plugged  up  with  something  else  (p.  6).  
 

 
20  
This  “no  man’s  land”  problem  described  by  Reese  could  be  solved  by  media  literacy  

courses.    Media  literacy  looks  to  teach  the  critical  and  theoretical  side  of  the  media  

by  analyzing  the  content  of  the  messages,  addressing  social  issues,  and  discussing  

politics  and  economics  while  teaching  students  how  to  develop  and  produce  media  

content  responsibly.    

  Conversely,  Carol  Liebler,  director  of  the  Ph.D.  and  Master’s  program  in  

Media  Studies  at  Syracuse  University’s  S.I.  Newhouse  School  of  Publications,  

discussed  the  growing  need  to  establish  ethics  as  a  core  due  to  the  growing  global  

village.    “Recent  census  data  and  world  events  rejuvenate  the  realization  that  

education  in  a  homogeneous  setting  will  leave  our  students  ill-­‐prepared  to  be  well-­‐

informed  citizens,  let  alone  media  practitioners,  in  this  global  village”  (Cohen,  2001,  

p.  8).    She  suggested  that  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  students  today,  a  

program  should  include  a  committee  to  assess  the  needs  of  the  discipline  and  a  staff  

willing  to  challenge  small-­‐mindedness  and  “insensitivity.”    She  added  that  programs  

should  include  courses  that  discuss  diverse  problems  in  the  media,  while  teaching  

students  the  skills  to  handle  them  (Cohen,  2001).        

Liebler  concluded  that  the  programs  are  homogeneous  in  students  picking  

either  a  professional  track  to  become  journalists  or  an  academic  track  to  become  

professors.    An  integration  of  the  two  is  needed  to  create  well-­‐rounded  citizens  and  

future  employees.    A  journalist  needs  to  know  the  theories  of  media  such  as  effects  

and  roles  of  economics  and  politics,  while  a  professor  needs  to  know  the  skills    

 
21  
necessary  to  write  clearly  and  concisely,  interview,  and  create  content.    Students  

from  both  tracks  need  the  ability  to  think  critically  about  media,  structure,  and  

effects  to  fulfill  the  democratic  process.      

  Focusing  on  capitalism,  David  Branaccio,  a  PBS  journalist,  argued  that  media  

education  does  not  focus  on  the  economics  of  the  media  as  much  as  it  does  other  

things.    Branaccio  mentioned  that  financial  issues  are  not  just  in  journalism,  but  all  

mass  communication  disciplines  and  academia.    Thus,  why  not  equip  students  with  

the  knowledge  and  ethics  to  deal  with  the  situations  when  they  arise.    “Mass  

communication  programs  can  play  a  central  role  in  helping  students  of  all  

disciplines  understand  how  the  veracity  of  an  organization  suffers  when  money  

corrupts  the  integrity  of  the  information  that  organization  communicates”  (Cohen,  

2001,  p.  11).    Media  education  scholar  Masterman  (1985)  agreed  with  Branaccio,  

saying  economics  are  behind  media  and  students  should  be  taught  about  the  

economic  structure  constraining  and  influencing  decisions  in  media.    Media  literacy  

looks  to  teach  students  about  the  economics  of  media;  media  are  businesses  

wanting  to  make  money  (Moses,  2008).      

  Adding  a  new  perspective,  University  of  North  Dakota  professor  Lana  

Rakow’s  topic  of  the  symposium  addressed  the  debate  between  skills  versus  theory.    

She  explained  that  the  old  debate  was  between  professional  skills  and  academic  

theory,  but  now  the  debate  has  incorporated  politics  and  economics.    With  this  new  

debate,  Rakow  said,  people  will  have  to  think  critically  and  realize  that  it  is  principle  

over  practicum  and  that  there  is  a  difference  between  “professions  as  collections  of  

individuals  committed  to  public  service  rather  than  collections  of  industries  in  need  

 
22  
of  employees  and  trained  workers  in  need  of  jobs”  (Cohen,  2001,  p.  12).    She  

mentioned  that  the  curriculum  standard  of  the  Accrediting  Council  for  Education  in  

Journalism  and  Mass  Communication  calls  for  a  balance  between  skills  and  theory  

courses.    She  said  most  program  administrators  interpret  the  standards  to  mean  

teaching  mostly  skills  courses  and  an  occasional  theory  course.  An  occasional  

theory-­‐based  course,  however,  is  not  what  the  council  directed.    Five  skills  courses,  

for  example,  versus  only  one  theory  course  does  not  constitute  a  balanced  

curriculum.      

In  contrast,  Northwestern  University  professor  Loren  Ghiglione  and  interim  

dean  of  Communications  at  Temple  University  Tom  Jacobson  disagree  with  Rakow  

and  the  Accrediting  Council  for  Education  in  Journalism  and  Mass  Communication’s  

idea  that  journalism  curriculum  should  be  balanced.    Ghiglione  said  there  should  be  

more  skills,  while  Jacobson  wants  more  theory  and  core  teaching.    Ghiglione  said  

many  universities  are  “marginalizing”  journalism  education  and  trying  to  make  it  

“academically  respectable,  without  giving  highest  priority  to  the  needs  of  the  

students  and  to  the  craft  and  calling  of  journalism”  (Cohen,  2001,  p.  14).    He  states  

for  the  sake  of  democracy,  journalism  education  needs  to  be  at  its  best,  which  he  

thinks  is  when  skills  are  taught.    It  is  clear  Jacobson  disagrees  with  Ghiglione  when  

he  writes:  

It  seems  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  liberal  education  traditionally  

expected  of  journalists  must  now  go  beyond  the  ability  to  write,  beyond  a  
skepticism  towards  given  truth,  and  beyond  a  sense  of  the  drift  of  modern  
history.    It  seems  reasonable  to  expect  that  a  more  systematic  understanding  
of  economics  must  be  required,  a  more  sensitive  understanding  of  cultural  
diversity,  and  a  deeper  engagement  with  the  ethical  conundrums  we  
confront  given  advances  in  biotechnology  and  international  human  rights  
work,  to  name  a  few  (Cohen,  2001,  p.  19).      

 
23  
Jacobson  continued  that  this  knowledge  should  come  before  that  of  technical  skills  

(Cohen,  2001).    University  of  Oklahoma  professor  Ralph  Beliveau  (2009)  said  just  

teaching  skills  results  in  journalism  losing  its  meaning  and  journalists  only  

understanding  how  the  profession  works,  and  not  why  it  works.  

  Although  written  more  than  a  decade  ago,  these  issues  still  persist.    Most  of  

the  professors  wanted  to  focus  more  on  economics,  culture,  politics,  and  ethics  of  

media  as  opposed  to  just  skills.    Media  literacy  classes  would  be  the  best  way  to  

accomplish  all  of  these  things.    According  to  the  accrediting  council,  the  main  goal  is  

to  create  the  most  well-­‐rounded  students,  balanced  in  knowledge  of  both  skills  and  

theory.    This  is  exactly  what  media  literacy  classes  seek  to  do.  

 
Media  Literacy  Education  Confusion  

  Since  media  literacy  is  still  an  up-­‐and-­‐coming  topic,  there  is  little  research  

involving  media  literacy  classes  in  higher  education  media,  journalism,  and  

communication-­‐type  departments.    Members  of  communication  and  journalism  

departments  appear  to  not  fully  grasp  the  concept  of  media  literacy  classes.    Patricia  

Hinchey,  an  undergraduate  and  graduate  media  literacy  teacher  at  Penn  State,  

describes  the  media  literacy  conundrum:  “During  the  course  of  the  year,  I  learned  

that  invariably  when  a  colleague  asked  ‘What  are  you  doing  this  year?’  and  I  

answered  ‘Teaching  media  literacy,’  I  could  anticipate  the  same  follow-­‐up  

question—‘What’s  media  literacy?”  (2003,  p.  268).  

As  mentioned  previously,  studies  at  Webster  University  show  a  lack  of  

consistency  among  professors  about  what  constitutes  a  media  literacy  class  in  

higher  education  journalism  and  mass  communication  departments.    Departments’  

 
24  
administrators  claim  media  literacy  classes  are  offered—when,  in  reality,  the  classes  

are  just  standard  journalism  classes—or  that  media  literacy  is  an  integrated  part  of  

the  curriculum  as  a  whole  (Mihailidis,  2008).    Some  professors  even  refused  to  

admit  that  media  literacy  is  necessary  and  said  the  term  did  not  belong  in  academia  

(Mihailidis,  2008).    Similar  to  this  study,  a  different  study  in  Maryland  attempted  to  

locate  media  literacy  in  48  journalism  and  mass  communication  programs  across  

the  United  States  in  2004.    This  survey  found  results  similar  to  those  mentioned  

above:  

The  researchers  were  met  with  pessimism  towards  media  literacy:  The  
respondents’  negativity  was  exemplified  by  three  general  criticisms.    First,  
the  respondents  were  critical  of  a  survey  asking  about  media  literacy  in  
journalism  and  mass  communication  education.    One  respondent  went  so  far  
as  to  call  the  survey,  and  media  literacy,  “irrelevant.”    Second,  many  
respondents  balked  at  the  survey;  saying  their  programs  already  taught  
media  literacy.    Third,  most  respondents  were  negatively  disposed  to  adopt  
what  one  director  of  studies  deemed  “a  fifty-­‐cent  term  with  no  place  in  
professional  education.”    The  overall  tone  was  negative  and  occasionally  
reactionary  towards  what  some  deemed  a  “useless”  endeavor  (Mihailidis,  
2008,  “2004-­‐Maryland’s  attempt,”  para  3).          

Although  previous  studies  in  the  early  2000s  received  criticism,  the  addition  

of  media  literacy  classes  is  a  growing  trend  in  communication  and  journalism  

departments.    Reese  said  departments  need  to  focus  on  “educat[ing]  the  future  

leaders  of  this  profession”  and  not  just  teaching  them  skills  needed  for  entry-­‐level  

jobs  (Cohen,  2001,  p.  6).    Brynildssen  (2003)  adds  that  journalism  education  should  

address  the  ongoing  economic,  technological,  and  social  issues  in  the  media.    Media  

literacy  classes  examine  these  concepts.      

According  to  Brynildssen’s  (2003)  article  about  trends  in  journalism  

education,  mergers  in  media  and  new  technologies  greatly  increased  the  impact  of  

 
25  
financial  situations  on  media  content.    The  concepts,  established  at  the  National  

Leadership  Conference  on  media  literacy  in  1992,  said  media  are  a  constructed  

reality,  have  commercial  implications,  and  political  implications  (Aufderheide,  

1997).    Basically,  media  are  created  and,  in  most  cases,  controlled  by  a  

conglomeration,  which  decides  what  information  is  produced,  how  it  is  produced,  

and  the  inclusion  or  exclusion  of  content.      

As  far  as  technology  is  concerned,  Brynildssen  (2003)  argued  that  media  

educators  are  teaching  how  to  incorporate  new  technologies.    Media  literacy  classes  

explain  the  techniques  and  reasons  behind  media  using  certain  technologies  when  

producing  the  content.    The  classes  also  look  to  discuss  social  issues  addressed  in  

the  media  and  advertising.    This  allows  for  an  examination  of  stereotypes  and  bias  in  

the  messages.    Brynildssen  (2003)  said  there  is  still  work  to  be  done  to  make  

journalism  and  communication  departments  more  diverse.    Media  literacy  classes  

allow  this  diversity  because  a  variety  of  topics  and  themes  professors  taught  and  

discussed.      

 
Examination  of  Media  Literacy  Courses  

Since  1889,  the  term,  ‘syllabus,’  has  been  used  in  reference  to  a  course  or  

lecture  outline  (Parkes  &  Harris,  2002).    Syllabi  handed  out  in  college  classes  today  

generally  serve  three  purposes:  a  contract  between  the  professor  and  student;  a  

permanent  record;  and,  a  learning  tool.    As  a  contract,  the  syllabus  usually  provides  

a  clear  calendar  for  the  course  to  follow,  information  on  how  the  course  is  graded,  

and  policies  on  topics  such  as  attendance,  make-­‐up  assignments,  and  late  

assignments.    To  fulfill  the  role  of  permanent  record,  a  syllabus  includes  the  title  and  

 
26  
dates  of  the  course;  the  department  over  the  course;  the  name,  title,  and  rank  of  the  

professor;  the  amount  of  hours  earned  once  the  course  is  successfully  completed;  

prerequisites  needed  to  take  the  course;  texts  and  materials  that  are  required;  

course  objectives;  and,  descriptions  of  the  course  content  and  assessments.    When  

used  as  a  learning  tool,  the  syllabus  helps  the  students  with  planning  skills  and  

managing  time  spent  on  the  course  outside  of  class,  how  to  study  for  exams  or  other  

assessments,  and  deal  with  mistakes  made  in  the  class.    The  syllabus  provides  

students  with  information  for  helpful  resources  and  offices  on  campus,  explains  

what  it  takes  to  excel  in  the  course,  and  states  the  relevance  of  the  course  (Parkes  &  

Harris,  2002).      

Few  studies  have  focused  on  media  literacy  courses  in  media  and  

communication-­‐type  departments  through  an  examination  of  syllabi.    Linde  (2010)  

and  Nam  (2005)  each  examine  their  own  respective  course  syllabus  in  an  effort  to  

create  a  foundation.    Since  these  two  studies  only  focus  on  one  course  syllabus  each  

and  do  not  compare  them  to  other  syllabi,  a  bias  is  created.    In  order  to  create  a  

uniform  foundation,  multiple  syllabi  should  be  examined,  without  the  university  and  

professor’s  names  shown  so  there  is  not  a  bias.    Although  they  only  examine  their  

own  syllabi,  these  two  researchers  help  develop  a  foundation  in  which  syllabi  can  be  

compared  against  each  other.      

Linde’s  (2010)  study  examined  media  literacy  curriculum  in  South  African  

undergraduate  journalism  and  media  studies  departments  by  using  her  own  

syllabus  of  a  media  literacy  course.    She  used  five  foundational  topics  associated  

 
27  
with  media  literacy:  access,  awareness,  assessment,  appreciation,  and  action  

(Salzburg  Academy  on  Media  and  Global  Change,  2010  as  cited  by  Linde,  2010).    She    

did  not,  however,  define  the  terms.    Linde’s  course  outline  expands  on  key  concepts  

of  media  literacy  (see  Table  1)  and  aims  to  “foster  a  culture  of  critical  media  

consumption”  (2010).    

Linde  (2010)  suggested  that  upon  completion  of  a  course  following  this  

outline,  students  should  have  gained  multiple  skills  such  as  the  ability  to  create  

quality  content  for  various  media  platforms,  and  improved  writing  skills  from  the  

beginning  of  the  semester.    They  should  also  have  the  skills  to  critically  analyze  and  

identify  media  messages  and  underlying  meanings  of  those  messages.    Upon  

completion  of  the  course,  students  should  have  the  knowledge  to  monitor  media  

messages  gaining  perspective  on  media  and  their  messages.    Students  should  be  

able  to  identify  techniques  and  stereotypes  used  to  deliver  messages  while  

determining  the  target  audience  of  the  message  and  asking  questions  about  the  

content  that  was  included  or  excluded.    Finally,  by  completing  the  course,  students  

should  be  able  to  participate  actively  in  debates  about  ethical  issues  involving  media  

(Linde,  2010).    She  added  that  students  should  also  have  an  increased  sensitivity  

towards  media  issues  such  as  stereotyping,  bias,  propaganda,  and  psychological  

effects.    Linde  (2010)  suggested  that  media  literacy  education  should  be  included  as  

a  separate,  core  model  in  the  journalism  or  media  studies  curriculum  at  the  

undergraduate  level  to  allow  students  to  critically  analyze  the  increasing  number  of  

media  messages  they  are  exposed  to  daily.      

 
28  
  

Table  1  

Linde’s  Core  Curriculum  (Linde,  2010)  

 
 
Section  Name         Description  of  Section  
 

Introduction  to  Media  Literacy     Definition  of  the  term  media  literacy  

Importance  of  Media  Literacy     Media  literacy  education  is  important  in  a  global    

media  world  

Media  Literacy  Goals       Goals  and  reasons  for  learning  media  literacy  

Media  Industry         Broad  overview  of  media  industry  in  relation  to    

media  and  media  ownership,  globalization,  and  economic  

factors  impacting  messages  

Visual  Literacy         Critical  examination  of  images  and  their  meanings    

Creating  Media  Content       Deconstruction  and  construction  of  new  media  

Popular  Culture         Media  in  relation  to  popular  culture  and    

technological  advances  

Ethics   Rules  and  principles  of  the  journalism  profession  

Core  Concepts  and  Key  Questions     Concepts  and  questions  from  the  Center  of  Media    

Literacy  on  evaluating  media  in  South  African  context  

Stereotypes         Awareness  and  perception  of  stereotypes  in    

media    

Monitoring  and  Evaluation                               Monitoring  media  by  playing  the  watchdog  role  

to  ensure  all  sectors  of  society  are  represented  fairly  in  

media  

 
 

 
29  
 In  addition,  Linde’s  (2010)  study  over  media  literacy  classes  in  South  Africa,  

found  that  critical  analysis  skills,  developed  from  media  literacy  courses,  are  not  

generally  taught  as  a  specific  subject,  but  through  classes  such  as  media  history,  

ethics,  or  advertising.    She  added,  “Because  media  literacy  education  is  concerned    

with  the  process  of  understanding  media  instead  of  specific  content,  it  does  warrant  

becoming  a  stand-­‐alone  academic  subject  in  the  journalism  or  media  studies  

curriculum  at  an  undergraduate  level”  (Linde,  2010,  p.  3).      

Similar  to  Linde’s  research,  Nam  (2005)  studied  his  own  course  

(Communication  100:  Mass  Media  and  Society)  outline  and  objectives  to  build  a  

foundation  for  including  critical  media  literacy  into  introductory  communication  

courses.    His  course  examines  critical  media  literacy  through  creating  an  “integrated  

framework  that  students  can  develop  as  they  go  through  a  series  of  well-­‐planned  

pedagogical  practices  and  experiences,  with  each  stage  having  its  own  

accomplishable  goals”  (Nam,  2005,  p.  4).      

The  three  main  pedagogical  strategies  he  used  to  enhance  students’  critical  

media  literacy  skills  were:  a  media  critique  in  which  students  develop  the  

knowledge  and  skills  to  critically  analyze,  interpret,  and  evaluate  the  meanings  of  

media;  a  position  paper  where  students  develop  their  own  views  in  relation  to  

issues  in  media  and  communication  and  analyze  their  opinion  and  those  opposing  it;  

and,  a  case  study  in  which  students  synthesize  the  information  they  learned  in  the  

class  and  apply  it  to  real-­‐world  cases  (Nam,  2005).    By  including  the  three  activities,  

Nam  (2005)  said  it  “invited  students  to  the  site  of  cultural  politics  in  which  students  

critically  reflected  on  their  media  experiences,  repositioned  themselves  as  active  

 
30  
agents  of  knowledge  construction  and  application,  and,  most  importantly,  linked  

their  educational  experiences  with  the  vision  of  democracy”  (p.  21).    If  Nam’s  

students  demonstrated  these  skills,  then  the  media  literacy  integration  was  a  

success.  

Effectiveness  of  Media  Literacy  Courses  

Duran,  et.  al.  (2008)  provided  data  supporting  their  hypothesis  that  

constructivist  higher  education  media  literacy  courses  are  effective.    The  hypotheses  

suggests  that  upon  completion  of  the  media  literacy  course,  students  are  more  

aware  of  media  structures  such  as  “ownership  and  control,  alternative  media,  and  

media  activism  and  reform  issues;”  have  a  better  understanding  of  media  influence;  

and,  are  considered  more  critical  viewers  of  television  advertisements  than  students  

who  did  not  take  the  course  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008,  p.  54).    The  course  the  researchers  

examined  focuses  on  the  critical  analysis  of  media  and  students’  awareness  of  media  

structures,  impact,  involvement,  and  activism  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).      

For  the  course,  the  objectives  included  understanding  media  economics  and  

how  media  are  structured,  the  influences  media  have  over  audiences  individually  

and  as  a  whole,  and  the  audiences’  influence  on  media  institutions  and  their  

decisions.    Also,  the  professor  aimed  to  help  students  gain  the  ability  to  analyze  

media  messages  and  to  create  media  content  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).    To  organize  the  

course,  the  syllabus  was  broken  into  four  sections  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).    The  first  

section,  “Media  Literacy:  What  and  Why,”  focused  on  the  different  definitions  of  

media  literacy,  its  importance,  and  the  necessary  skills  needed  to  be  media  literate.    

The  second  section,  “Understanding  the  Production:  Who  and  Why,”  focused  on  

 
31  
students  understanding  institutions,  economics,  and  politics  in  relation  to  media.    

The  “Analyzing  Media  Content:  What  and  How”  section  centered  on  students  

learning  to  analyze  media  such  as  news,  entertainment  mediums,  and  

advertisements.    The  last  section,  “Getting  Involved:  How,  When,  and  Where,”  

teaches  students  to  take  action  with  their  newfound  media  literacy  skills  by  looking  

at  media  activism,  different  alternative  media,  and  creating  a  website  supporting  

media  literacy  activism  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).      

The  results  also  indicated  that  students  who  completed  the  course  were  

significantly  more  aware  of  media  structures  such  as  ownership  and  control  issues,  

alternative  media,  and  media  activism  and  reform  than  students  who  did  not  

complete  the  course  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).    Furthermore,  results  showed  that  

students  who  completed  the  course  were  significantly  more  aware  of  the  influence  

media  have  on  their  lives  than  those  who  did  not  take  it.    The  last  result  indicated  

that  students  who  completed  the  course  were  considered  more  sophisticated  

(Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).      

Overall,  study  findings  indicated  that  media  literacy  classes  could  be  

successful.    After  taking  the  course,  students  were  knowledgeable  about  the  

structures  of  the  media  and  the  important  role  of  economics  and  politics.    

Participants  of  the  experimental  group  were  aware  of  the  effect  media  have  on  other  

people  and  themselves,  recognizing  advertising  schemes  used  to  persuade  

consumers  to  buy  their  products.    This  knowledge  is  crucial  to  creating  intelligent  

students  and  citizens.      

 
32  
 Although  media  literacy  has  a  place  in  the  core  curriculum  of  journalism  and  

mass  communication,  professors,  however,  are  unsure  of  how  to  incorporate  media  

literacy  classes  into  their  curriculum  (Silverblatt,  et.  al.,  2003;  Mihailidis,  2008).    

Mihailidis  (2008)  expressed  the  need  for  scholars  to  conduct  more  research  in  

higher  education  media  literacy  classes  to  allow  professors  to  get  a  better  grasp  on  

the  topic.    This  thesis  seeks  to  fill  the  gaps  of  the  literature  by  evaluating  and  

analyzing  syllabi  of  media  literacy  courses  in  journalism,  media,  mass  

communication,  and  communication-­‐type  departments  across  the  country.    This  

examination  allows  for  common  themes  to  be  established  and  for  a  comparison  of  

them  to  be  done.    For  a  better  understanding,  this  thesis  incorporates  an  ideal  

syllabus  for  a  media  literacy  class  based  on  the  findings  of  the  data  and  literature.    

Analyzing,  comparing,  and  contrasting  these  syllabi  helps  form  the  necessary  

groundwork  for  professors  to  establish  and  evaluate  their  media  literacy  courses.    

To  create  this  foundation,  this  study  addresses  the  following  research  

questions:  

RQ  1  What  objectives  were  most  likely  to  occur  when  examining  syllabi  from  
higher  education  media  literacy  courses  in  journalism,  media,  mass  
communication,  and  communication  departments?  
 
RQ  2  How  do  the  objectives  found  compare  and  contrast  with  the  objectives  
mentioned  in  the  literature  on  media  literacy?  
 
RQ  3  How  do  course  syllabi  compare  and  contrast  with  one  another?  
 
RQ  4  By  examining  the  syllabi,  what  might  be  included  in  media  literacy  
courses  in  journalism,  media,  mass  communication,  and  communication  
departments  and,  why?  
 
  These  questions  were  selected  to  create  a  media  literacy  foundation.    The  

first  research  question  seeks  to  give  an  understanding  of  how  many  syllabi  use  

 
33  
specific  objectives.    This  question  is  the  basis  of  the  foundation  as  it  determines  

topics  professors  deem  important  when  studying  media  literacy.    The  second  

question  aims  to  tie  the  answers  to  the  first  question  back  to  the  literature.    With  

this  question,  a  comparison  is  made  between  those  objectives  the  professors  view  as  

crucial  to  media  literacy  to  those  objectives  the  experts  mention  in  the  literature.    

The  third  question  examines  the  relationship  between  the  syllabi  used  in  the  study.    

It  studies  the  differences  found  in  the  objectives  between  the  syllabi.    The  last  

question  uses  answers  to  the  first  three  questions  to  determine  the  objectives  that  

should  be  included  in  a  media  literacy  course.    This  question  combines  the  

objectives  professors  and  experts  think  are  or,  are  not,  important  to  create  a  media  

literacy  foundation.    Lastly,  this  fourth  question  helps  create  an  ideal  media  literacy  

syllabus.      

 
Summary  

  In  sum,  this  chapter  highlights  previous  journalism  and  mass  communication  

studies  that  explore  departmental  perceptions  of  media  literacy  (Cohen,  2001).    

Findings  indicate  that  integrating  a  media  literacy  component  into  the  core  

curriculum  might  solve  most  of  the  issues.    For  example,  most  of  the  contributors  

felt  it  was  necessary  to  include  ethics,  economics,  politics,  and  culture  while,  at  the  

same  time,  including  skills  and  practicum  classes  in  the  curriculum.  

Furthermore,  this  chapter  explores  professors’  disagreements  about  the  

importance  of  media  literacy  courses  and  explores  how  integrating  such  courses  

into  college  curricula  might  alleviate  conflicts.    Finally,  this  chapter  examined  the  

 
34  
tenets  of  Constructivism,  the  theory  in  which  this  thesis  is  grounded,  and  presented  

the  research  questions  this  thesis  seeks  to  answer.    

The  following  chapter  explains  the  methods  used  to  complete  this  study  by  

describing  the  sample  criteria,  defining  the  codebook  terms,  and  detailing  the  

analyzing  process.

 
35  
 CHAPTER  THREE  
 
Research  Methods  
 
 
The  researcher  used  a  census  and  content  analysis  to  answer  the  four  

research  questions.    The  sample  consisted  of  syllabi  collected  from  higher  education  

journalism,  media,  mass  communications,  and  communications  departments.    Based  

on  Linde’s  (2010)  study,  the  researcher  examined  the  objective’s  section  of  syllabi  

themes  and  the  nine  constructivist  elements  for  media  literacy  mentioned  in  the  

literature.      

The  content  analysis  part  of  the  analysis  conducted  answers  the  first  

research  question  of  which  objectives  appeared  in  the  most  syllabi,  while  the  census  

section  of  the  study  addresses  the  last  three  research  questions  comparing  the  

sample  syllabi  to  each  other  and  the  literature.    Both  sections  are  essential  to  

creating  the  ideal  media  literacy  syllabus.    The  researcher  selected  a  content  

analysis  because  it  is  a  “systematic,  replicable  technique  for  compressing  many  

words  of  text  into  fewer  content  categories”  based  on  coding  (Stemler,  2001,  para.  

1).    Based  on  this  definition,  this  research  design  allows  the  objectives  of  each  

syllabus  to  be  analyzed.  

Since  the  syllabus  sets  the  framework  for  each  course,  it  is  the  focus  of  this  

study.    To  create  a  foundation  for  media  literacy  courses,  this  research  conducts  a  

census  and  content  analysis  of  undergraduate  media  literacy  syllabi  in  journalism,  

media,  mass  communication,  and  communication  departments  across  the  country.    

 
36  
 One  criteria  for  a  syllabus  to  be  included  in  this  study,  is  it  must  be  from  an  

undergraduate  course  in  a  journalism,  media,  mass  communication,  or  

communications  program.    The  researcher  selected  these  department  types  because  

most  media  and  communications-­‐related  departments  have  changed  their  

curriculum  to  feature  skills,  theory,  and  new  media.    Another  requirement  is  the  

course  title  needed  to  contain  “media  literacy”  because  previous  research  

mentioned  in  the  literature  review  by  Webster  University  (Silverblatt,  et.  al.,  2003)  

showed  confusion  about  what  constituted  a  media  literacy  class.    Due  to  time  

constraints,  the  cut-­‐off  date  to  receive  syllabi  was  January  27,  2012.      

Next,  the  researcher  conducted  a  search  on  the  Internet  search  engine,  

Google,  using  the  words  “media  literacy  journalism  course.”    Forty  pages  of  results  

were  examined  with  11  syllabi  meeting  the  criteria  and  used  for  data.    Most  syllabi  

found  online  came  from  the  respective  university’s  website.    If  a  syllabus  did  not  

come  from  a  university-­‐related  website,  the  researcher  sent  an  e-­‐mail  to  the  

professor  of  the  class  for  verification  of  its  authenticity.      

The  researcher  selected  other  syllabi  by  referring  to  the  2002  Webster  

University  study  (Silverblatt,  et.  al.,  2003)  mentioned  in  the  literature  review.    The  

Webster  University  research  included  a  list  of  higher  education  media  literacy  

classes.    This  thesis  included  an  evaluation  process  for  the  courses  on  the  list  based  

on  the  aforementioned  criteria.    When  a  class  met  the  criteria,  the  respective  

university’s  website  in  which  the  class  is  held  was  examined  to  find  a  copy  of  the  

syllabus.    If  the  syllabus  could  not  be  found  on  the  university’s  websites,  the    

 
37  
researcher  e-­‐mailed  the  professor  of  the  class,  or  director  of  the  program  offering  

the  class,  asking  for  a  copy  of  the  syllabus.    In  total,  the  study  included  four  syllabi  

from  this  list.      

Finally,  the  researcher  examined  each  departmental  website  of  universities  

accredited  by  the  Accrediting  Council  on  Education  in  Journalism  and  Mass  

Communications  (ACEJMC,  2012)  to  collect  syllabi  meeting  the  criteria.    Eight  

universities  included  in  the  sample  met  the  criteria,  with  one  being  found  from  the  

previous  Google  search.    The  seven  remaining  departments’  deans  or  department  

heads  received  e-­‐mails  from  the  researcher  asking  for  syllabi.    This  resulted  in  a  

collection  of  five  syllabi,  resulting  in  20  syllabi  collected  and  used  for  this  analysis.      

The  first  part  of  the  study  examined  common  themes  found  in  syllabi  of  these  

media  literacy  classes  using  a  quantitative  content  analysis.    This  was  conducted  by  

using  this  study’s  codebook  (see  Appendix  A)  created  by  the  researcher.    Then,  the  

researcher  numbered  the  syllabi,  assured  they  fit  the  criteria  mentioned  prior,  and  

read  the  complete  syllabi.    Next,  the  researcher  analyzed  the  course  objectives  

section  of  each  document  by  using  the  titles  of  the  themes—“access,”  “assessment,”  

“awareness,”  “appreciation,“  and  “action”—which,  Linde  (2010)  used  in  her  study.      

Although  Linde  (2010)  examined  curricula  and  classes  in  South  Africa,  most  

themes  and  objectives  are  applicable  to  classes  in  the  United  States  with  a  little  

modification.    Linde’s  outline  provided  a  good  foundation  for  this  study,  which  seeks  

to  bring  her  study  to  the  United  States  and  take  it  a  step  further  by  analyzing  syllabi,  

finding  similar  themes,  and  creating  a  base  for  future  curriculum  to  be  established.    

Because  Linde  did  not  define  her  themes,  the  researcher  defined  them  by  using  the  

 
38  
nine  elements  of  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy,  the  National  

Association  for  Media  Literacy  Education’s  Key  Questions  used  when  analyzing  

media,  and  categorizing  the  goals  of  media  literacy  found  in  the  literature.    To  help  

narrow  the  terms,  each  theme  was  broken  down  into  multiple  categories.  

 
Definition  of  Terms  

“Access”  theme  refers  to  students  learning  about  different  mediums  and  the  

positive  and  negative  aspects  of  each  one.    It  also  discusses  the  students’  media  

usage,  the  reason  they  use  media,  and  teaches  them  about  alternative  media.    This  is  

labeled  in  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  as  the  “interaction  situation,”  

referring  to  people  being  aware  of  which  media  they  use  and  the  reason  for  

choosing  them  (Rosebaum,  2003).    Thus,  the  “access”  category  had  two  selections  in  

the  codebook:  “mediums”  and  “access.”      

“Assessment”  theme  refers  to  students  learning  to  think  critically  about  media  

and  messages  while  learning  skills  needed  to  analyze  the  content,  meaning,  and  

techniques  used  by  media  creators.    This  theme  is  represented  as  the  “definition  of  

situation”  element  in  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  (Rosenbaum,  

2003).    The  “assessment”  theme  definition  broke  the  theme  into  three  categories:  

“critical  thinking  skills”  about  media,  “analyze”  media  and  its  messages,  and  

“techniques.”      

“Awareness”  theme  allows  students  to  further  examine  structure  of  media.    

This  theme,  represented  as  the  first  three  elements  in  the  Constructivist  Model  of  

Media  Literacy,  teaches  students  about  the  economics,  politics,  biases,  stereotypes,  

and  effects  of  media.    It  also  focuses  on  media  creating  popular  culture  and  creating  

 
39  
a  skewed  reflection  of  society.    The  selections  under  the  “awareness”  theme  are:  

“economics,”  “politics,”  “bias,”  “stereotypes,”  “media  creates  popular  culture,”  

“media  creates  the  thoughts  of  society,”  and  “media  effects.”    

“Appreciation”  theme  refers  to  students  learning  to  appreciate  media  by  

creating  their  own  media  content,  and  enjoy  media  while  thinking  critically  

concurrently.    The  “appreciation”  theme  selections  are  “create  own  content”  and  

“enjoy  media  while  thinking  critically.”      

“Action”  theme  refers  to  students  using  the  knowledge  gained  after  successful  

completion  of  the  course.    This  theme  reflects  teachers  encouraging  students  to  

actively  participate  in  debates,  teach  others  about  media  literacy,  and  think  critically  

about  the  media  they  choose.    Teaching  students  to  challenge  social  norms  such  as  

media,  popular  culture,  and  corporations,  as  seen  in  the  “socialization”  element  of  

the  Constructivist  model,  is  another  important  aspect  of  this  theme.    This  theme’s  

subcategories  are  “actively  participate  in  debates,”  “challenge  media,  corporations,  

and  popular  culture,”  “teaching  media  literacy  to  others,”  and  “thinking  critically  

when  choosing  media.”    

The  researcher  included  an  “other  theme”  in  case  the  objectives  of  the  syllabi  

did  not  fall  into  the  prior  categories.    For  clarification  purposes,  the  researcher  or  

coder  provided  an  explanation  for  checking  the  “other  theme.”    This  category  was  

examined  separately  from  the  others  since  it  was  not  a  theme  found  from  the  

literature.      

The  codebook  required  at  least  one  theme  to  be  checked,  but  allowed  for  as  

many  themes  or  all  themes  to  be  included.    This  is  necessary  as  most  syllabi  have  

 
40  
more  than  one  objective  for  the  class.    To  ensure  intercoder  reliability,  the  

researcher  explained  the  codebook  to  another  journalism  graduate  student  to  verify  

the  researcher’s  coding.    The  researcher  and  graduate  student  each  coded  the  same  

five  syllabi  to  test  for  intercoder  reliability.    Each  codebook  contains  18  categories  to  

check  per  each  of  the  five  syllabi.    Resulting  in  a  total  of  90  categories,  the  coders  

disagreed  on  six  categories.    Thus,  intercoder  reliability  was  93  percent.    To  

conclude  the  quantitative  section,  the  data  was  inputted  into  Microsoft  Excel  for  an  

ordinal  examination  of  the  objectives  and  syllabi  to  organize  the  information.    The  

researcher  focused  on  the  number  of  syllabi  relating  to  each  objective,  the  number  

of  objectives  included  in  each  syllabus,  and  the  number  of  objectives  found  

pertaining  to  the  “other”  theme.  

To  support  the  content  analysis,  the  census  answers  the  final  three  research  

questions  by  describing  the  most  common  themes  in  detail  through  examples  found  

in  the  syllabi  and  literature.    This  approach  may  offer  professors  a  better  

understanding  of  important,  reoccurring  themes  in  these  classes.    Using  the  data  

from  the  study  supported  by  information  found  in  the  literature,  the  final  section  

outlines  an  “ideal”  syllabus  created  by  the  researcher.    This  section  used  the  

quantitative  results  to  create  a  foundation  of  what  objectives  and  themes  may  be  

necessary  for  media  literacy  classes.      

In  conclusion,  methodology  for  this  study  includes  the  examination  of  

current  syllabi  from  undergraduate  media  literacy  classes  found  in  journalism,  

media,  mass  communication,  and  communication  departments.    A  sample  of  20  

syllabi  was  collected  for  a  census  and  content  analysis.      

 
41  
 The  next  chapter  presents  the  results  and  findings  from  the  data  and  uses  

that  information  to  answer  the  four  research  questions.    The  chapter  shows  the    

common  objectives  from  sample  syllabi  and  relates  it  to  the  other  samples  and  the  

literature.    The  end  of  the  next  chapter  also  presents  objectives  that  should  be  

included  in  a  media  literacy  course.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
42  
 CHAPTER  FOUR  
 
Discussion  and  Findings  
 
 
The  data  from  the  study  created  a  starting  place  to  develop  a  foundation  for  

media  literacy  courses.    With  the  knowledge  gained  from  the  literature  and  analysis  

of  syllabi,  assumptions  were  made  about  essential  elements  for  media  literacy  

courses  and  course  objectives.    Answering  the  four  research  questions  provides  a  

solid  foundation  for  reaching  study  goals.    

 
Research  Question  One  

  The  first  research  question  asked  what  objectives  were  most  likely  to  occur  

in  media  literacy  syllabi.    Table  2  shows  the  number  of  syllabi  included  in  specific  

themes.    The  information  in  this  table  was  calculated  by  how  many  times  at  least  

one  category  of  a  theme  appeared  in  a  syllabi.    The  “other”  section  is  not  included  

with  this  information  because  of  the  large  number  of  categories  under  this  section  

and  the  inclusion  would  provide  an  inaccurate  representation  of  study  findings.  

Table  2  

Results  of  Media  Literacy  Syllabi  

 
 
Theme         Number  of  syllabi           Percentage  
 
Access           16             80  
Assessment         20             100  
Awareness         20             100  
Appreciation         4             20  
Action           17             85  

 
43  
 According  to  Table  2,  out  of  the  nine  elements  of  the  Constructivist  Model  of  

Media  Literacy,  four  were  related  to  the  “awareness”  theme,  two  related  to  the  

“action”  theme,  one  related  to  the  “access”  theme,  and  one  related  to  the  

“assessment”  theme.    As  seen  in  Table  2,  the  “awareness”  and  “assessment”  themes  

each  appeared  in  all  20  syllabi,  the  “action”  theme  appeared  in  17  syllabi,  and  the  

“access”  theme  appeared  in  16  syllabi.    Thus,  one  can  conclude  that  the  

Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  elements  are  reflected  among  the  syllabi  

examined.      

To  go  a  step  further,  Table  3  includes  the  number  of  times  each  category  

appeared  in  a  syllabi.    Nine  of  the  18  categories,  not  including  the  “other”  theme,    

appeared  in  more  than  half  of  the  syllabi.    Thus,  half  of  the  categories  appeared  in  at  

least  half  of  the  syllabi.    Of  those  nine  categories,  six  categories  appeared  in  more  

than  70  percent  of  the  syllabi.      

After  coding  the  syllabi,  there  were  22  themes  included  in  the  “other”  

category.    Of  these  themes,  only  two,  “theories”  and  “history,”  appeared  in  more  

than  one-­‐fourth  of  the  syllabi.    The  categories  appeared  in  the  syllabi  as  followed:  

“critical  thinking  skills”  (20);  “analyzing  media”  (17);  “thinking  critically”  (15);  

“effects”  (14)  “media  creates  culture”,  and  “media  creates  what  society  thinks  

about;”  “mediums”  (11),  “economics,”  and  “politics;”  “techniques”  (8);  “access”  (7);  

“bias”  (5),  “challenging  norms,”  “history  of  media,”  and  “media  cultural  theories;”  

“teach”  (4),  “create  content,”  and  “stereotypes;”  “media  models”  (3),  “ethics,”  and  

“new  media;”  “debate”  (2),  “deregulation,”  “definition,”  “key  strategies,”  “first  

amendment,”  and  “diversity;”  “journalistic  integrity  versus  entertainment”  (1),”  

 
44  
alternative  and  mainstream  media  comparison,”  “importance  of  media,”  “impact  of  

culture  on  media,”  “market  forces,”  “cognitive  abilities,”  “real-­‐world  knowledge,”  

“cumulative  messages,”  “target  audience,”  “research,”  “statistics,”  and  “technology;”  

and,  lastly,  “enjoy  media”  (0).      

The  “critical  thinking”  objective  appears  in  all  20  syllabi.    In  this  objective,  

students  develop  critical  thinking  skills  used  to  analyze  media.    This  objective  is  

reflected  with  an  objective  in  Syllabus  19  wanting  students  to  “employ  critical  

thinking  skills  to  examine  mass  media  messages  and  influences  with  the  goal  of  

becoming  a  more  knowledgeable  media  consumer”  (see  Appendix  B).      

In  contrast,  the  objective  “enjoy[ing]  media”  did  not  appear  in  any  of  the  

syllabi.    This  objective,  derived  from  Silverblatt  (2008),  helped  define  a  media  

literate  person  as  someone  who  enjoys  media  without  being  manipulated  by  the    

messages.    Despite  his  definition,  this  objective  was  not  represented  in  the  data.    

This  lack  of  inclusion  could  be  from  the  professor  being  unsure  of  how  to  assess  the  

objective  or  taking  an  anti-­‐media  point  of  view.  

For  the  most  part,  the  themes  found  in  the  literature  and  elements  of  the  

Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  were  common  among  the  themes  found  in  

the  syllabi.    For  example,  the  “analyzing”  objective  appeared  in  17  of  the  20  syllabi  

and  was  a  reoccurring  concept  in  the  literature  such  as  with  Linde  (2010)  and  Nam  

(2005).    This,  however,  was  not  always  the  case.    The  “technique”  objective  only  

appeared  in  eight  of  20  syllabi  despite  being  listed  as  an  important  aspect  of  media  

literacy  by  both  the  National  Center  for  Media  Literacy  (Aufderheide,  1997)  and  

Silverblatt  (2008).  

 
45  
 Table  3  

Media  Literacy  Syllabi  Results  Including  Categories  

 
Theme     Category       Number  of  Syllabi       Percentage  

 
Access    

Mediums         11         55  

Access           7         35  

Assessment  

    Critical  Thinking  Skills       20         100  

    Analyze           17         85  

    Techniques         8         4  

Awareness    

    Economics         11         55  

    Politics           11         55  

Bias           5         25  

    Stereotypes         4         20  

    Media  creates  culture       14         70  

Media  and  society       14         70  

    Effects           14         70  

Appreciation                    

    Create  content         4         20  

    Enjoy           0         0  

Action                  

    Debate           2         10  

    Challenge         5         25  

    Teach           4         20  

    Think  critically         15         75  

(continued)  

 
46  
  

Theme     Category       Number  of  Syllabi      Percentage  

Other  

    Media  culture  theories       5         25  

    History           5         25  

    Ethics           3         15  

    Integrity  vs.  entertainment     1         5  

    Media  models         3         15  

    Alternative  vs.  mainstream       1         5  

    Deregulation         2         10  

    Importance  of  media       1         5  

Impact  of  culture  on  media     1         5  

    New  media         3         15  

    Market  forces         1         5  

    Cognitive  abilities       1         5  

    Real-­‐world  knowledge       1         5  

    Definition         2         10  

    Cumulative  messages       1         5  

    Key  strategies         2         10  

    Target  audience         1         5  

    Research         1         5    

    Statistics         1         5    

    First  Amendment       2         10  

    Diversity           2         10  

    Technology         1         5  

 
 

 
47  
 The  data  is  a  representation  of  the  topics  current  media  literacy  teachers  

deem  important  or  not  important  for  their  students  to  learn.    The  results  of  the  

study  show  that  four  of  the  five  themes  occurred  in  more  than  80  percent  of  syllabi  

(see  Table  2).    It  also  indicates  that  half  of  the  categories  appeared  in  half  of  the  

syllabi  (see  table  3).    This  significance  allows  for  a  better  understanding  of  media  

literacy  classes.    In  comparison  to  the  information  presented  in  the  literature,  these  

results  will  show  which  objectives  should  be  included  in  a  media  literacy  course.      

 
Research  Question  Two  

  The  second  research  question  asked  how  the  syllabi  results  compare  and  

contrast  to  the  information  presented  in  the  literature.    In  general,  the  objectives  

mentioned  in  most  syllabi  were  frequently  mentioned  in  the  literature  such  as  

“critical  thinking  skills,”  “analyzing,”  and  “thinking  critically”  when  choosing  media.    

The  difference  between  the  objectives  and  important  topics  mentioned  in  the  

literature  is  the  topics  stressed  in  the  literature  not  receiving  enough  emphasis  in  

the  syllabi.          

  The  objectives  represented  in  a  high  percentage  of  syllabi  accurately  reflect  

the  information  presented  in  the  Literature  Review.    For  example,  the  “analyze”  

theme  was  well  received  in  the  syllabi  as  well  as  in  the  literature.    The  literature  

alludes  to  this  being  the  most  important  theme  because  of  the  “critical  thinking”  and  

“analyzing”  objectives.    Many  of  the  definitions  of  media  literacy  include  thinking  

critically  and  analyzing  media  (Moses,  2008;  Schwarz,  2005;  Silverblatt,  2008).    The  

categories’  importance  is  supported  by  the  “critical  thinking”  category  appearing  in  

all  of  the  syllabi  and  the  “analyzing”  category  occurring  in  17  of  the  syllabi.    Another  

 
48  
example  of  this  representation  is  seen  by  the  categories  in  the  “awareness”  theme  

such  as  “media  creating  popular  culture”  and  “media  influencing  society’s  thoughts.”    

Experts  often  mentioned  these  two  categories  in  the  literature  review.    Findings  

indicate  they  were  equally  represented,  with  both  appearing  in  14  of  the  syllabi.      

Not  all  categories  in  the  syllabi,  however,  accurately  reflected  the  literature.    

This  is  clear  by  the  number  of  syllabi  including  “economics”  and  “politics”  in  relation  

to  the  objectives  frequently  mention  in  the  literature.    Although  included  in  a  little  

more  than  half  of  the  syllabi  (11),  these  two  categories  were  often  stressed  in  the  

literature.    The  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy’s  first  element,  for  example,  is  

the  knowledge  about  economics  and  politics  in  relation  to  media  institutions  

(Rosenbaum,  2003).    As  mentioned  in  the  literature,  knowledge  about  economics’  

and  politics’  influence  over  media  is  a  key  factor  in  improving  the  democratic  

process.      

To  continue  supporting  this  idea  of  syllabi  not  accurately  reflecting  the  

importance  given  to  an  objective  in  the  literature,  the  “effects  of  media”  category  is  a  

prime  example.    This  category,  mentioned  throughout  the  entire  literature  review,  

only  appeared  in  70  percent  of  the  sample  syllabi.    More  syllabi  should  have  

included  it  because  one  of  the  goals  of  media  literacy  is  to  minimize  the  impact  

media  have  on  individuals  and  society.    As  Silverblatt  (2008)  noted,  college  

graduates  deny  the  effect  media  have  on  them  at  the  same  rate  as  high  school  

graduates.    This  shows  that  even  though  this  category  was  included  in  14  of  the  20  

syllabi,  it  should  actually  be  in  all  20.      

 
49  
   Although  not  going  through  all  objectives  in  detail,  the  previous  examples  

supported  the  fact  that  most  syllabi  reflected  the  information  in  the  literature,  but  

there  is  a  problem  with  not  all  of  the  syllabi  portraying  the  importance  of  certain  

objectives  expressed  in  the  literature.    The  inclusion  of  some  categories  such  as  

“economics”  and  “effects”  should  be  in  all  of  the  syllabi.    The  inclusion  of  objectives  

in  all  media  literacy  courses  is  discussed  in  detail  along  with  research  question  four.        

 
Research  Question  Three  

  The  third  research  question  examines  the  similarities  and  differences  of  the  

syllabi  in  comparison  to  each  other.    In  general,  most  objectives  sections  of  the  

syllabi  included  a  few  key  points  that  students  should  expect  to  learn  by  the  end  of  

the  semester.    Many  of  the  syllabi,  for  example,  said,  upon  completion  of  the  course,  

students  should  be  able  to  satisfy  course  objectives  as  seen  with  Syllabus  17,  

Syllabus  13,  and  Syllabus  Three  (see  Appendix  B).    Most  sections  included  these  

points  as  bullets  as  opposed  to  sentence  forms.      

The  differences  of  this  section  come  from  the  variation  of  objectives  in  

syllabi.    Nine  of  the  18  original  categories  appear  in  more  than  50  percent  of  the  

syllabi.    Of  the  20  syllabi,  most  included  objectives  such  as  “critical  thinking  skills,”  

“analyze,”  “thinking  critically  when  choosing  media,”  “media  creates  popular  

culture,”  “media  influences  what  society  thinks  about,”  and  “media  effects.”    The  

high  frequency  shows  the  importance  of  these  categories  to  media  literacy  classes.  

The  major  difference  between  the  syllabi  came  from  the  inclusion  of  

objectives  not  included  in  the  codebook  causing  it  to  fall  under  the  “other”  theme.    

There  were  22  categories  included  in  this  section.    Seventeen  of  the  20  syllabi  had  a  

 
50  
category  that  fell  under  the  “other”  theme.    To  show  the  difference  among  syllabi  in  

this  section,  the  “history”  category  under  the  “other”  theme  appeared  in  the  syllabi  

the  most,  occurring  five  times.      

This  difference  among  the  syllabi  can  also  be  seen  in  the  variance  of  syllabi  

including  certain  categories  such  as  “techniques”  appearing  in  eight  syllabi,  

“challenge”  in  five,  “bias”  in  five,  and  “stereotypes”  in  four.    This  variance  among  the  

syllabi  shows  a  lack  of  a  general  foundation  among  the  courses.    If  a  foundation  

existed,  there  would  be  a  consensus  among  which  themes  to  include  and  exclude.      

Research  question  three  indicates  that  although  the  formats  of  the  syllabi  

were  the  same,  the  content  included  in  the  syllabi  varied.    Examining  the  “other”  

theme  and  the  variation  among  the  categories  mentioned  previously  supports  this  

finding.    Another  reflection  of  some  of  the  variants  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  

foundation  of  “core”  topics  such  as  55  percent  of  syllabi  including  the  “economics”  

and  “politics”  theme  and  the  other  45  percent  do  not.    The  foundation  of  media  

literacy  courses  will  be  further  addressed  within  research  question  four.  

 
Research  Question  Four  

  As  stated,  the  lack  of  consistency  shown  by  the  syllabi  objectives  reflects  a  

lack  of  foundation  among  media  literacy  courses.    Overall,  the  themes  of  the  syllabi  

were  consistent,  but  the  categories  of  the  syllabi  objectives  varied.    This  idea  is  also  

supported  by  information  in  the  literature  mentioning  the  confusion  between  what  

constitutes  a  media  literacy  course  and  what  professors  teach  in  these  courses.    

According  to  the  data  and  literature,  it  seems  as  though  professors  are  attempting  to  

teach  the  right  themes  such  as  “accessing,”  “analyzing,”  and  “awareness,”  but  not  

 
51  
fully  focusing  on  specific  categories  of  the  themes  such  as  “effects,”  “economics,”  and  

“politics.”    Through  an  examination  of  the  literature  and  an  analysis  of  syllabi,  a  

foundation  could  address  these  issues.    This  leads  to  research  question  four,  which  

asks  what  objectives  should  be  included  in  a  media  literacy  course.    

  Overall,  a  comparison  of  the  literature  and  data  allowed  for  development  of  

16  core  objectives  to  include  in  media  literacy  classes.    These  objectives  helped  

develop  the  foundation  for  media  literacy  courses  presented  in  this  thesis.    The  

objectives  include  “critical  thinking  skills,”  “analyzing  media,”  “media  techniques,”  

“economics,”  “politics,”  “media  stereotypes,”  “media  in  relation  to  popular  culture,”  

“media  in  relation  to  society,”  “media  effects,”  “creating  content,”  “challenging  the  

‘norm’  of  media  and  popular  culture,”  “thinking  critically  when  choosing  media  

content,”  “history  of  media,”  “media  theories,”  “ethics,”  and  “new  media.”    Although  

others  may  be  included,  it  seems  logical  that  these  should  be  included  in  the  courses.    

These  objectives  are  needed  to  develop  media  literate  students  and  help  create  

intelligent  citizens.    The  following  explains  why  each  category  should  or  should  not  

be  included  in  the  syllabus  by  explaining  how  the  category  was  represented  in  the  

sample  syllabi,  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy,  and  literature.      

Objective:  Medium  

Fifty-­‐five  percent  of  the  syllabi  included  the  “medium”  objective,  which  

focuses  on  students  understanding  the  basics  of  the  different  types  of  media  and    

 
52  
how  they  work.    An  emerging  pattern  found  in  these  syllabi  is  teaching  students  the  

processes  of  media  creation.    For  example,  six  syllabi  featured  outcomes  of  students  

understanding  the  various  media  structures  (see  Appendix  B).      

Objective:  Access  

Other  than  knowing  the  structure  of  media,  it  is  important  to  know  how  to  

use  the  different  forms,  the  purpose  of  the  “access”  objective.    This  objective  was  

featured  in  35  percent  of  the  syllabi.    For  example,  Syllabus  Two  proposed  that  

students  effectively  use  the  Internet  upon  completion  of  the  course  (see  Appendix  

B).    The  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy  presents  the  “access”  category  in  

element  nine,  “interaction  situation,”  suggesting  that  media  users  should  be  aware  

of  the  reason  they  use  media  and  to  what  extent.      

Objective:  Critical  Thinking  

The  objective  of  “critical  thinking”  was  featured  in  all  of  the  syllabi.    For  

example,  Syllabus  Nine  defined  the  “critical  thinking”  objective  as  the  “[ability]  to  

examine  media  from  a  critical  perspective  .  .  .  question[ing]  why  things  are  the  way  

they  are  and  how  they  came  and  continue  to  be  as  such”  (see  Appendix  B).    An  

expected  outcome  for  students  in  that  course  was  for  them  to  establish  foundations  

of  media  criticism.    The  fact  that  all  of  the  syllabi  focus  on  the  “critical  thinking  

skills”  objective,  as  does  the  information  given  in  the  Literature  Review,  proves  it  is  

one  of  the  major  points  in  media  literacy  and  should  be  a  core  objective  when  

designing  a  media  literacy  class.      

 
53  
 Another  example  is  an  objective  of  Syllabus  Seven  wanting  students  to  

“critically  assess  media  and  its  coverage  of  daily  events”  (see  Appendix  B).    

Reflecting  this  in  the  literature,  University  of  Texas  professor  Steven  D.  Reese  said  

more  classes  teaching  critical  thinking  skills  should  be  taught  in  journalism  and  

mass  communications  departments  (Cohen,  2001).    Since  critical  thinking  is  such  a  

crucial  part  to  media  literacy  it  is  included  in  the  definition  of  media  literacy  

mentioned  in  Chapter  One.    The  definition  said  media  literacy  is  “an  educational  

approach  with  the  purpose  of  empowering  people  with  the  ability  to  use  critical  

thinking  skills  when  consuming  media  thereby  creating  awareness  for  the  

characteristics  of  the  media,  the  intent  of  its  messages,  the  techniques  used  and  its  

impact  on  society”  (Moses,  2008,  p.  2).      

Expanding  on  this,  Silverblatt  (2008)  said  critical  thinking  is  a  skill  necessary  

for  people  to  make  critical  and  responsible  choices  in  regards  to  their  media  usage  

and  the  message  interpretation.    An  example  of  this  is  represented  by  an  objective  

from  Syllabus  Two,  that  upon  completion  of  the  course,  “[Students  will]  recognize  

and  assume  responsibility  as  a  citizen  in  a  democratic  society  by  learning  to  think  

for  oneself,  by  engaging  in  public  discourse,  and  by  obtaining  information  through  

the  news  media  and  other  appropriate  information  sources  about  politics  and  public  

policy”  (see  Appendix  B).    Another  syllabus,  Syllabus  10,  implied  that  upon  

completion  of  the  course,  students  should  be  more  effective  consumers  of  media  due  

to  analyzing  media  and  information  received  (see  Appendix  B).    As  the  Introduction  

and  Literature  Review  states,  with  this  responsibility  and  skill  set  comes  awareness,  

which  is  creating  responsible  consumers  and  intelligent  citizens.      

 
54  
Objective:  Analyzing  

  “Critical  thinking  skills”  and  “analyzing”  media  messages  go  hand-­‐in-­‐hand,  

which  is  the  reason  there  are  almost  as  many  syllabi  containing  “analyzing”  media  

message  objectives  (17)    as  there  are  “critical  thinking  skills”  (20).    As  with  the  

“critical  thinking”  objective,  a  goal  for  the  “analyzing”  objective  is  being  a  

responsible  media  consumer.    Syllabus  Three,  for  example,  featured  an  objective  of  

students  analyzing  and  defending  their  own  standards  of  information  of  media  

content  as  consumers  while  Syllabus  14  asked  students  to  deconstruct  media  and  

have  the  skills  to  analyze  and  critique  it  (see  Appendix  B).        

    With  85  percent  of  the  syllabi  containing  the  “analyze”  category,  it  coincides  

with  Linde’s  (2010)  objectives  that  upon  completion  of  the  class  students  should  

have  the  ability  to  analyze  media  messages.    Also  in  the  Literature  Review,  Nam’s  

(2005)  assignments  for  his  class  contained  objectives  focused  on  developing  the  

skills  to  analyze  media  with  a  media  critique.    Silverblatt  (2008)  said  the  ability  to  

analyze  media  messages  is  important  to  thinking  critically  about  media  and  

discussing  the  messages  with  media  literate  and  non-­‐media  literate  people.    As  with  

the  “critical  thinking”  objective,  the  importance  of  the  “analyzing”  objective  is  

supported  by  the  definitions  of  media  literacy.    The  National  Leadership  Conference  

on  media  literacy  said  that  along  with  analyzing,  a  media  literate  person  knows  how  

to  access,  evaluate,  and  produce  media  (Schwarz,  2005).      

 
55  
Objective:  Technique  

  One  of  the  ways  to  analyze  media  is  to  recognize  techniques  used  by  creators  

to  produce  the  content.    Although  only  eight  syllabi  included  the  “technique”  

objective,  it  was  a  reoccurring  theme  in  the  literature,  suggesting  that  it  should  be  in  

more  of  the  syllabi.    In  the  syllabi,  the  objectives  frequently  referred  to  the  students  

knowing  how  media  are  created.    Syllabus  13’s  objective  was  for  students  to  identify  

media  codes  and  messages,  such  as  production  values  like  editing,  lighting,  sound,  

and  color,  which  are  portrayed  to  the  audience  (see  Appendix  B).    In  addition,  

Syllabus  14  called  for  students  to  “show  an  awareness  of  how  mediated  messages  

are  produced”  by  “showing  a  knowledge  of  production  techniques,  message  

strategies,  and  the  professional  lives  of  media  producers”  (see  Appendix  B).    

Relating  to  the  literature,  Linde’s  (2010)  objectives  included  students  

knowing  techniques  used  to  produce  content.    Knowing  media  are  created  by  people  

using  production  techniques,  is  the  first  characteristic  of  being  media  literate,  

according  to  the  National  Center  for  Media  Literacy’s  list  featured  in  the  literature  

(Aufderheide,  1997).    This  objective  is  also  mentioned  as  the  fourth  characteristic  of  

the  same  list  since  each  medium  is  created  using  different  techniques  (Aufderheide,  

1997).    Silverblatt  (2008)  included  the  same  characteristics  in  his  list  of  a  media  

literate  person.      

Objective:  Economics  

  With  11  of  the  20  syllabi  focusing  on  “economics”  of  media,  it  is  one  of  the  

more  important  objectives  discussed—and  should  be  included  in  all  syllabi.    PBS  

 
56  
Host  David  Branaccio  noticed  this  important  objective  and  was  quoted  in  the  

Literature  Review  for  mentioning  the  lack  of  attention  economics  is  receiving  in  

media  education  (Cohen,  2001).    It  is  important  for  students,  especially  journalism,  

media,  mass  communication,  and  communication  students,  to  understand  the  role  

economics  plays  in  media  because  media  are  businesses.      

Of  the  syllabi,  11  indicated  students  should  recognize  the  relationships  and  

impact  economics  has  on  media.    For  example,  an  objective  of  Syllabus  Two  is  for  

students  to  “analyze  the  effects  of  historical,  social,  political,  economic,  cultural,  and  

global  forces  as  they  relate  to  world-­‐wide  media  processes”  (see  Appendix  B).    

Syllabus  Five  asked  for  students  to  examine  the  relationship  between  “media  

deregulation,  market  forces,  economics,  content,  and  effects”  (see  Appendix  B).    This  

relationship  between  media  and  economics  affects  the  content,  bias,  and  

stereotypes  of  media.    As  Branaccio  mentioned  in  the  literature,  with  as  big  of  a  role  

that  economics  plays  in  media,  it  should  be  included  in  more  education  courses  

(Cohen,  2001).    The  fact  that  media  are  businesses  and  have  commercial  

implications  was  included  in  the  National  Center  for  Media  Literacy’s  Elements  of  

Media  Literacy  mentioned  in  the  literature  (Aufderheide,  1997).    Also  in  the  

Literature  Review,  Lana  Rakow  said  economics  is  entering  the  debate  of  skills  

versus  theory  (Cohen,  2001).    In  fact,  one  of  the  syllabi  examined  in  the  Literature  

Review  dedicated  a  section  of  the  course  to  understanding  the  economics  of  media  

(Duran,  Yousman,  et.  al.,  2008).      

 
57  
Objective:  Politics  

“Politics”  is  similar  to  “economics”  in  its  effect  on  media.    Like  “economics,”  it  

was  included  in  11  of  the  syllabi,  but  should  be  included  in  more.    For  the  most  part,  

the  same  syllabi  that  focused  on  “economics”  mentioned  “politics”  as  well  because  

with  economics  comes  political  implications.    Syllabus15  illustrates  representation  

of  the  overall  “politics”  objective:  “Students  will  also  develop  an  enhanced  critical  

judgment  about  the  practices  and  policies  of  media  organizations  and  important  

issues  involving  the  media  and  their  impact  upon  people’s  social  and  political  

values,  ideas,  and  relationships”  (see  Appendix  B).    Syllabus  Nine  described  a  course  

objective  as  looking  at  media  as  constructed,  political  texts  (see  Appendix  B).      

Both  the  “economics”  and  “politics”  objectives  were  mentioned  alongside  

each  other  in  the  first  Constructivist  element  discussing  the  relationship  between  

economics,  politics,  media,  and  media  institutions  (Rosenbaum,  2003).    Along  with  

“economics,”  Lana  Rakow  said  “politics”  should  be  included  in  journalism  

departments  (Cohen,  2001).    This  objective  was  also  included  on  the  National  Center  

for  Media  Literacy’s  Elements  of  Media  Literacy  mentioned  previously  (Aufderheide,  

1997).    Since  media  are  businesses  with  commercial  and  economic  implications,  

there  are  usually  political  implications  as  well.    It  is  argued  that  having  the  

knowledge  of  the  political  implications  of  media  stops  people  from  being  passive  

consumers  and  leads  to  more  intelligent  citizens  (Duran,  et.  al.,  2008).    To  show  the  

importance  of  politics  in  media,  Duran,  et.  al.,  (2008)  included  a  section  on  politics  

in  media  in  their  course  syllabus  for  the  study  that  identified  the  effectiveness  of  

media  literacy  courses.    Since  “politics”  and  “economics”  in  media  are  examined  

 
58  
together,  it  makes  sense  that  a  suggested  increase  in  “economics”  in  curriculum  

would  come  with  a  suggested  increase  in  “politics”  in  curriculum.      

Objective:  Bias  

  Resulting  from  economic  and  political  agendas  in  media  is  bias.    Usually,  

journalism  and  communication  departments  focus  much  of  attention  on  teaching  

students  to  stay  neutral  in  their  professions.    The  “bias”  objective,  however,  was  

only  mentioned  once  in  the  literature  and  appeared  in  only  five  syllabi.    Syllabus  

Four  from  the  study  included  the  objective  of  students  assessing  bias  in  media  

messages  (see  Appendix  B).    As  with  Syllabus  Four,  Linde’s  (2010)  syllabus  for  her  

media  literacy  course  expected  students  to  recognize  and  be  aware  of  bias  in  media.    

It  seems,  however,  that  little  importance  was  placed  on  “bias”  in  both  the  sample  

syllabi  and  literature.  

Objective:  Stereotype  

  As  with  “bias,”  Syllabus  Four  included  an  objective  of  students  being  aware  of  

“stereotypes”  in  media  (see  Appendix  B).    This  objective  was  featured  in  only  four  

syllabi,  but  Syllabus  Nine  placed  quite  a  bit  of  emphasis  on  the  matter.    The  goals  of  

this  class  were  to  answer  multiple  questions  of  which  two  related  to  “stereotypes:”  

“What  is  the  relationship  between  media  representations  and  existing  social  

inequalities?”  and  “How  have  media  images  and  messages  changed  over  time,  and  

how  have  these  changes  helped  to  shape  our  contemporary  media  culture?”  (see  

Appendix  B).    These  questions  relate  to  media  stereotypes  in  relation  to  their  effect  

 
59  
on  society  and  popular  culture.    Linde’s  (2010)  syllabus  in  the  Literature  Review  

also  dedicated  a  whole  section  to  making  students  aware  of  stereotypes  in  media.      

Whole  classes  are  devoted  to  the  subject  of  “stereotypes”  and  it  plays  an  important  

role  when  assessing  media  images  and  content,  thus  it  should  be  included  in  more  

syllabi  objectives.  

Objective:  Media  and  Popular  Culture  

  Silverblatt  (2008)  conceptualized  six  characteristics  of  what  media  literacy  

should  teach.    The  fourth  element  was  that  “media  creates  and  reflects  popular  

culture”  (Silverblatt,  2008).    This  objective  was  noted  in  14  syllabi.    Syllabus  Nine  

posed  questions  that,  upon  completion  of  the  class,  students  should  have  the  

knowledge  to  answer.    One  of  the  questions  asked  “How  have  media  images  and  

messages  changed  over  time,  and  how  have  these  changes  helped  to  shape  our  

contemporary  media  culture?”  (see  Appendix  B).      

This  objective  was  also  mentioned  in  the  literature  and  featured  in  the  

Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy’s  nine  elements  in  the  “situations”  and  

“information”  (Rosenbaum,  2003).    For  example,  a  section  of  Linde’s  (2010)  syllabus  

was  dedicated  to  students  learning  how  media  works  in  relation  to  popular  culture.    

Also,  this  objective  was  reflected  by  a  characteristic  of  a  media  literate  person  by  the  

National  Communication  Association  included  in  the  literature.    This  characteristic  

said  a  media  literate  person  should  demonstrate  an  understanding  that  media  

content  is  created  within  social  and  cultural  contexts  (Aufderheide,  1997).    Most  

people  do  not  realize  the  impact  media  have  on  popular  culture,  which  increases  the  

 
60  
importance  of  examining  the  subject.    This  topic’s  importance  is  shown  with  it  being  

a  key  component  in  media  literacy  characteristics  as  reflected  by  the  Literature  

Review  and  is  featured  in  almost  all  of  the  syllabi.      

Objective:  Media  and  Society  

  The  next  objective,  “media  influencing  society’s  thoughts,”  is  complementary  

to  the  previous  objective.    Media  do  not  tell  their  audiences  what  to  think,  but,  

instead,  shows  them  what  to  think  about.    Media  are  the  public’s  main  source  of  

information,  thus,  society  thinks  about  the  topics  presented  to  them  and  does  not  

think  about  ones  that  are  excluded.    This  is  reflected  by  a  conceptualization  created  

by  the  National  Leadership  Conference  that  states  media  are  responsible  for  the  

reality  that  society  creates  (Aufderheide,  1997).    

 Mirroring  that  concept,  this  objective  appeared  in  14  of  the  20  syllabi.    To  

expand,  a  goal  of  Syllabus  13  featured  students  understanding  the  ways  media  

“reflect,  reinforce,  and  shape”  society’s  “values,  attitudes,  and  behaviors”  (see  

Appendix  B).    Syllabus  Nine  wanted  students  to  examine  how  have  has  changed  the  

way  they  think  about  society  (see  Appendix  B).    This  reflection  is  necessary  for  

students  to  realize  the  importance,  priority,  and  authority  our  society  gives  media.    

Agreeing,  Silverblatt  (2008)  said  a  component  to  becoming  an  educated  person  is  

developing  the  skills  to  recognize  that  media  shapes  our  society.      

Objective:  Effects  

  Recognizing  how  much  our  society  revolves  around  media  and  its  messages  

is  a  step  toward  noticing  the  effect  media  have  on  individuals  and  society  as  a  whole.      

 
61  
The  “media  effect”  objective  was  included  in  70  percent  of  sample  syllabi.    It  is  

important  for  students  to  recognize  that  media  impacts  them  and  not  just  everyone  

else.      

To  show  an  example,  Syllabus  14  suggested  students  will  “come  to  

understand  the  many  ways,  often  subtle,  that  media  influence  our  beliefs,  values,  

and  perceptions  of  the  world”  (see  Appendix  B).    Other  syllabi,  such  as  Syllabus  One,  

focused  more  on  media’s  impact  on  society  as  well  as  individuals  (see  Appendix  B).      

Silverblatt  (2008)  supported  this  idea  when  he  said  the  first  step  to  

becoming  media  literate  is  realizing  the  effect  media  have  on  one’s  attitudes,  beliefs,  

values,  and  thoughts.    He  continued,  the  more  people  deny  this  impact,  the  more  

susceptible  they  are  to  media.    Interestingly,  people  with  college  degrees  are  just  as  

likely  as  those  with  high  school  diplomas  to  recognize  media’s  impact  on  society,  

while  not  admitting  that  they  affect  them  as  well.    Since  students  are  not  being  

properly  educated  on  the  topic,  it  needs  to  become  a  bigger  focus  in  curriculum.      

Objective:  Creating  Content  

Referring  back  to  Chapter  Two,  the  literature  does  not  focus  much  attention  

on  students  learning  how  to  create  content,  but  it  still  recognizes  that  it  is  an  

important  step  in  becoming  media  literate.    Silverblatt  (2008)  and  Mihailidis  (2006)  

expressed  that  media  literacy  should  teach  students  to  create  their  own  media  

content.    Syllabus  Two  and  20  mirrored  Silverblatt’s  and  Mihailidis’  opinions  

wanting  students  to  create  content  up-­‐to-­‐par  with  professional  standards  (see  

Appendix  B).    This  allows  students  to  use  the  “techniques”  objective  that  shows  

 
62  
them  how  media  are  created.    Students  creating  content  prepares  them  for  their  

possible  future  in  journalism  by  teaching  them  the  skills  needed  to  produce  media.    

It  may  not  be  the  most  crucial  aspect  of  media  literacy,  but  it  is  important  for  a  

media  literacy  course  to  focus,  at  least  briefly,  on  this  objective.    An  objective  like  

this  should  have  been  included  in  more  than  four  of  the  20  syllabi.  

Objective:  Enjoying  Media  

  Once  students  become  media  literate,  they  should  be  able  to  think  critically  

while  “enjoying  media.”    Understanding  the  hard  work  it  takes  to  produce  media  

allows  students  to  appreciate  it  more.    A  media  literate  person  is  defined  as  

someone  who  is  able  to  “enjoy,  understand,  and  appreciate  media  without  being  

completely  susceptible  to  its  messages”  (Silverblatt,  2008,  p.  4).    Although  no  

syllabus  directly  said  the  goal  was  for  students  to  “enjoy”  and  appreciate  media,  it  

could  be  assumed  that  upon  completion  of  any  class  examining  media,  a  student  will  

develop  a  new-­‐found  appreciation.    As  far  as  an  objective  for  a  class,  however,  it  

would  be  hard  to  measure  and  grade  a  student  on  his/her  enjoyment  of  media.      

Objective:  Debate  

The  idea  that  students  should  actively  “debate”  about  media  was  included  in  

Linde’s  syllabus  objectives  (2010).    One  of  the  two  syllabi  featuring  this  objective,  

Syllabus  13,  said  students  should  “become  familiar  with  qualitative  strategies  with  

which  to  analyze  and  discus[s]  media  messages”  (see  Appendix  B).    The  other  

syllabus  that  included  this  objective  wanted  students  to  debate  topics  featured  in  

media  literacy  courses  such  as  ethics.    Although  “debate”  is  essential  for  a  college-­‐

 
63  
level  course,  the  objective  is  not  necessary.    Since  the  topic  of  media  is  controversial,  

most  people  have  their  own  opinions  about  media  and  will  want  to  discuss  them  

with  others.    Upon  completion  of  a  class,  most  students  will  have  the  knowledge  to    

discuss  or  debate  if  the  opportunity  presents  itself.    Due  to  the  results  of  the  sample  

syllabi  and  the  information  presented  in  the  literature,  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  

have  a  single  objective  dedicated  to  this  topic.      

Objective:  Teach  

Included  in  four  syllabi  was  the  category  of  “teaching”  media  literacy  to  

others.    An  example  of  this  objective  is  a  goal  from  Syllabus  10  that  said,  “It  is  [the  

professor’s]  intention  that  [the  student]  will  be  able  to  help  others  improve  their  

‘media  literacy  skills’  as  a  result  of  .  .  .  completing  this  course”  (see  Appendix  B).    

Although  most  professors  want  their  students  to  share  the  skills  learned  in  their  

classes,  it  is  not  necessary  for  this  to  be  an  objective.      

Objective:  Social  Norms  

A  goal  of  a  media  literacy  class  is  for  students  to  think  critically  about  what  

they  have  come  to  accept  as  “normal”  about  media.    As  students  begin  to  challenge  

media,  they  will  also  challenge  other  institutions  such  as  corporations.    For  example,  

Syllabus  13  encouraged  students  to  question  media,  corporations,  government,  and  

themselves  (see  Appendix  B).    Another  syllabus,  Syllabus  Nine,  asks  students  to  

question  what  might  be  taken  for  granted  about  media,  culture,  democracy,  and  

themselves,  asking  students  to  think  critically  about  the  norms  they  have  accepted  

(see  Appendix  B).      

 
64  
 As  reflected  in  the  literature,  Nam  (2005)  suggested  that  media  literacy  

classes  should  teach  students  to  think  about  media  assumptions  and  phenomenon.    

Also  in  the  literature,  Duran,  et.  al.,  (2008),  said  a  media  literate  person  will  

challenge  mainstream  media  norms,  as  well  as  corporations,  helping  the  democratic  

process.    The  “challenging  social  ‘norms’”  objective  also  appears  in  the  final  element  

of  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy,  “socialization,”  suggesting  that  a  

media  literate  person  should  “be  able  to  see  how  the  media  socialize  people  into  

society  by  teaching  them  the  dominant  norms  and  values”  (Rosenbaum,  2003,  p.  4).      

Objective:  Think  Critically  about  Media  Choices  

The  last  category  of  the  “action”  theme  asked  students  to  “think  critically”  

about  their  future  media  choices.    This  category  was  featured  in  75  percent  of  the  

syllabi  and  is  an  important  outcome  of  the  class.    In  order  for  a  media  literacy  class  

to  be  successful,  students  need  to  take  away  skills  and  knowledge  to  wisely  choose  

their  media.    This  is  not  only  a  critical  step  in  becoming  media  literate,  but  also  in  

becoming  an  intelligent  citizen.    

To  show  an  example,  Syllabus  One  states  that  by  the  end  of  the  course,  

“students  will  have  a  better  understanding  of  [how]  the  various  media  .  .  .  are  

structured,  how  they  operate  and  their  potential  for  impacting  society  and  

individual  members  of  media  consumption  and,  therefore,  become  better  able  to  

pick  and  choose  content  and  be  informed”  (see  Appendix  B).    Also,  the  objectives  

from  Syllabus  Five  suggested  students  would  evaluate  their  own  “media  

consumption  patterns”  and  the  part  media  plays  in  their  lives  (see  Appendix  B).    

 
65  
Relating  to  the  literature,  Silverblatt  (2008)  said  media  literacy  gives  people  the  

skills  to  make  their  own  critical  choices  about  media  programming  such  as  which  

they  select,  why  they  chose  them,  and  how  the  information  is  interpreted.    The  

literature  and  syllabi  suggest  this  objective  is  the  third  most  important  objective  

observed  in  this  study.      

Objective:  History  

The  “history  of  media”  objective  appeared  under  the  “other”  theme  due  to  a  

lack  of  relevance  in  the  literature.    The  coders  included  this  in  the  “other”  section  

because  it  seemed  not  to  fall  under  any  of  the  categories’  definitions.    The  few  syllabi  

that  mention  this  subject  want  students  to  understand  the  history  of  media  and  its  

structure  such  as  Syllabi  11,  19,  and  20  referring  to  students  understanding  the  

general  history  of  mass  media  and  the  role  it  played  in  shaping  communications  (see  

Appendix  B).    

Despite  mention  in  five  syllabi,  the  literature  does  not  reference  the  “history  

of  media.”    Generally,  media  history  is  taught  in  introductory  courses  or  sometimes  

given  its  own  course.    Thus,  the  inclusion  of  history  in  media  literacy  courses  could  

act  as  a  refresher  objective.    Since  the  topic  was  not  featured  in  the  literature  review  

and  is  generally  covered  in  other  courses,  it  could  serve  as  a  reminder  objective  in  a  

media  literacy  course.    This  way,  the  topic  is  not  a  core  objective,  but  is  included  to  

serve  as  a  review  for  students.      

 
66  
Objective:  Theory  and  Media  Models  

Unlike  “history  of  media,”  the  literature  stresses  the  importance  of  

integrating  theory  and  skills  in  a  media  literacy  course.    Thus,  both  the  “theory”  and  

“mass  media  models”  objectives  have  a  place  in  media  literacy  courses.    Media  

theories  are  important  to  understand  the  structure  and  impact  of  media,  as  Syllabi  

Five  and  11  suggest  (see  Appendix  B).    As  Syllabus  Two  states,  media  theories  such  

as  entertainment  theory  also  relate  to  one’s  belief  about  media  (see  Appendix  B).      

For  example,  there  are  multiple  theories  about  how  media  impact  individuals  and  

society  that  one  can  relate  to  his/her  own  beliefs.    Syllabus  16  required  students  to  

use  theories  when  presenting  in  the  course  (see  Appendix  B).      

As  the  literature  states,  it  is  important  for  students  to  understand  and  apply  

different  theories  as  well  as  know  journalism  skills.    Rakow  said  the  standards  for  

the  Accrediting  Council  for  Education  in  Journalism  and  Mass  Communications  

wants  students  to  receive  a  balance  of  theory  and  skills,  not  just  one  or  the  other  

(Cohen,  2001).    If  journalism  and  mass  communication  departments  are  currently  

teaching  skills,  more  “theory”  objectives  need  to  be  incorporated  into  courses,  

specifically  media  literacy  classes.      

Objective:  New  Media  

The  objective  of  “new  media”  was  included  in  three  of  the  20  sample  syllabi.    

Media  literacy  courses  examine  both  old  and  new  media.    With  media  technology  

ever  changing,  scholars  are  having  a  hard  time  keeping  up.    Education  is  slowly  

catching  up  to  the  trend  of  examining  “new  media,”  which  is  evident  in  the  category  

 
67  
only  being  included  in  three  syllabi.    Looking  at  two  of  these  three  syllabi,  Syllabus  

16  examines  new  media  such  as  social  media  in  relation  to  mainstream  media,  while  

Syllabus  12  examines  new  communication  media  by  analyzing  digital  media  (see  

Appendix  B).    Relating  to  the  literature,  Linde’s  (2010)  core  syllabus  included  a  

section  devoted  to  students  creating  and  deconstructing  new  media  specifically.    

Thus,  this  important  subject  should  be  examined,  at  least  briefly,  in  all  media  

literacy  courses.    

Objective:  Ethics  

  Although  mentioned  in  the  Literature  Review,  an  “ethics”  objective  was  not  

included  in  the  codebook  since  most  departments  require  students  to  take  a  

separate  law  and  ethics  course  in  their  junior  or  senior  year.    Since  students  receive  

a  whole  semester’s  worth  of  information  about  this  topic,  this  objective  could  

introduce  students  to  ethics  of  media  as  a  consumer  instead  of  a  journalist  creating  

media.    In  the  sample  syllabi,  Syllabus  20  featured  a  goal  of  students’  “explain[ing]  

the  ethical  consequences  of  decisions  and  actions  concerning  the  environment  to  

strengthen  commitment  to  local,  national,  and  global  citizenship”  (see  Appendix  B).    

To  complete  this  objective,  students  examined  ethical  media  issues  and  messages  at  

local,  national,  and  global  levels.    Relating  to  the  literature,  Liebler  addressed  the  

need  for  more  “ethics”  objectives  when  she  said  without  ethics  students  are  ill-­‐

prepared  to  be  journalists  as  well  as  intelligent  citizens  (Cohen,  2001).    Despite  the  

objective  being  a  focus  of  courses  at  most  universities,  the  topic  could  still  be    

 
68  
 discussed  in  media  literacy  courses  as  seen  in  Syllabus  20  and  Libler’s  call  for  more  

“ethics”  objectives.    Students  discussing  ethics  in  multiple  classes  would  stress  the  

importance  of  the  topic.  

 
Summary  

In  reference  to  the  Constructivist  Model  of  Media  Literacy,  the  results  show  

that  the  nine  elements  are  well  represented  throughout  the  syllabi  (Rosenbaum,  

2003).    The  results  indicate  the  number  of  times  a  specific  theme  or  category  

appeared  in  the  syllabi.    The  data  show  that  the  themes  as  a  whole  are  represented  

throughout  all  of  the  syllabi  and  literature.    When  broken  down  into  specific  

categories,  however,  there  is  some  commonality  of  objectives  appearing  frequently  

in  syllabi  such  as  “critical  thinking  skills”  and  “analyzing,”  but  also  variation  as  seen  

with  “creating  content”  not  appearing  in  enough  syllabi.      

The  study  also  supports  the  idea  that  relationships  between  the  objectives  of  

the  syllabi  and  the  Literature  Review  exist,  with  the  literature  frequently  

mentioning  the  most  common  objectives  among  the  syllabi.    Many  times  an  

objective  should  be  represented  in  more  syllabi,  however,  to  reflect  the  amount  it  is  

mentioned  in  the  Literature  Review  such  as  with  the  objectives  “economics”  and  

“politics.”    Also,  by  analyzing  the  data  and  literature,  assumptions  were  made  about  

which  objectives  and  themes  should  be  seen  in  a  media  literacy  course.    The  data  

and  literature,  for  example,  suggested  that  objectives  such  as  “effects”  and  “media  in  

relation  to  popular  culture”  should  be  included  in  media  literacy  syllabi  while  

“debate”  and  “enjoying  media”  should  not.    This  information  will  be  illustrated  in  an  

ideal  syllabus  presented  in  the  next  chapter.      

 
69  
 CHAPTER  FIVE  
 
An  Ideal  Media  Literacy  Syllabus  
 
 
  After  reviewing  the  literature,  coding  syllabi,  and  analyzing  the  results,  an  

ideal  syllabus  was  developed  to  guide  media  literacy  educators  in  creating  their  own  

syllabus.    This  syllabus  builds  on  research  question  four  and  the  objectives  

mentioned  in  the  previous  chapters.    The  previous  chapters  name  objectives  that  

should  be  included  in  this  type  of  course,  but  they  do  not  explain  the  way  the  

objectives  should  be  used.    By  using  the  literature  and  examples  from  the  syllabi,  

this  chapter  establishes  the  ideal  media  literacy  syllabus,  shown  below,  for  an  

introductory  media  literacy  undergraduate  course  in  journalism,  media,  mass  

communications,  or  communications  department.  

 
Summary  

Figure  1  reflects  the  information  gathered  from  the  Literature  Review  and  

syllabi  examined  for  the  study.    It  is  an  ideal  syllabus  for  a  media  literacy  course  

including  the  objectives,  texts,  and  tentative  schedule.    This  syllabus  expands  on  

research  question  four,  providing  a  detailed  look  at  what  the  literature  and  data  

describe  as  an  ideal  media  literacy  syllabus.    This  syllabus  and  other  data  provided  

allow  for  the  creation  of  a  higher  education  media  literacy  course  foundation.    The  

next  chapter  summarizes  the  study  and  explains  why  the  study  is  pertinent  to  

developing  the  foundation  for  media  literacy  courses  in  higher  education  

journalism,  media,  mass  communication,  and  communication-­‐type  departments.        

 
70  
 Ideal  Media  Literacy  Syllabus  

University  Name  
Course  Number,  Section  Number,  Course  Name  
Instructor  Name:         Phone  Number:      
E-­‐mail:         Office  Hours:  
 
I. Course  Description  
This  course  is  designed  to  teach  students  the  knowledge  and  skills  needed  to  
become  media  literate.    As  the  definition  of  media  literacy  states,  these  skills  
include  the  ability  to  access,  analyze,  and  produce  media.    This  course  also  
explores  the  relationship  between  media  and  economics,  politics,  society,  and  
popular  culture.    Students  in  this  course  will  learn  about  different  effects,  
theories,  and  issues,  such  as  stereotypes,  surrounding  media.    Lastly,  students  in  
the  course  will  gain  critical  thinking  skills,  specifically  in  relation  to  media  and  
messages,  allowing  them  to  examine  their  own  views  on  media.  
 
II. Goals  
This  course  has  three  specific  goals:  (1)  to  introduce  students  to  the  concept  
and  ideas  surrounding  media  literacy;  (2)  to  teach  students  skills  and  knowledge    
needed  to  become  media  literate;  (3)  to  encourage  students  to  think  critically  
about  media.  
 
III. Objectives  
Upon  completion  of  the  course,  students  should  have  the  knowledge  and  ability  
to:  
• Understand  the  basic  history  and  structure  of  media,  including  media  
theories  
• Think  critically  about  media  and  its  relationship  to  ethics,  economics,  
politics,  society,  and  popular  culture  
• Analyze  and  evaluate  media  messages  by  recognizing  techniques  used  to  
create  the  message  and  ask  key  questions  
• Learn  how  to  produce  professional  media  content  
• Challenge  societal  “norms”  such  as  media,  products,  corporations,  etc.      
This  involves  critically  assessing  the  “norms”  and  alternatives  of  media  and  
society  
• Think  critically  when  choosing  media  content  as  well  as  why  and  how  it  is  
being  consumed  
• Understand  new  media  and  their  influences  on  media,  journalism,  society,  
and  popular  culture  
 
(continued)  

 
71  
 IV.   Texts    
Textbooks  and  materials  will  vary  among  departments,  classes,  and  
professors.    In  addition  to  textbooks,  excerpts  from  supplemental  readings  allow  
students  to  receive  various  viewpoints  on  different  topics.    Using  multiple  
textbooks  and  articles  helps  broaden  students’  understanding  on  the  topics.    
These  textbooks,  journal  articles,  and  books  were  mentioned  in  the  literature  or  
found  in  the  sample  syllabi:  
a. Textbooks  
Baran,  S.  J.  (2012).  Introduction  to  mass  communication:  Media  literacy    
and  culture  (7th  ed.).  New  York,  NY:  McGraw  Hill.  
Gorham,  J.  (Ed).  (2011).  Annual  editions:  Mass  media  11/12  (17th  ed.).    
Boston,  MA:  McGraw  Hill  
Moses,  L.  (2008).  An  introduction  to  media  literacy.  Dubuque,  IA:    
Kendall/Hunt  Publishing  Co.  
b. Supplemental  Reading    
Alexander,  A.  &  Hanson,  J.  (2009).  Taking  sides:  Clashing  views  in  mass    
media  and  society  (10th  ed.).  Boston,  MA:  McGraw-­‐Hill  
Bok,  S.  (1999).  Mayhem:  Violence  as  public  entertainment.  Reading,  MA.:    
Perseus  Books  
Campbell,  R.  (2012).  Media  and  culture:  An  introduction  to  mass    
communications  (8th  ed.).  Boston,  MA:  Bedford  St.  Martins  
Jenkins,  H.    (2008).  Convergence  culture:  Where  old  and  new  media    
collide  (revised  paperback  edition).  New  York  University  Press  
Manjoo,  F.  (2008).  True  enough:  Learning  to  live  in  a  post-­fact  society.    
Hoboken,  NJ:  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.    
Paul,  R.  &  Elder,  L.  (2008).  How  to  detect  media  bias  and  propaganda.    
Tomales,  CA:  Foundation  for  Critical  Thinking  
Postman,  N.  (1985).  Amusing  ourselves  to  death:  Public  discourse  in  the
  age  of  showbusiness.  New  York:  Delacote  Press  
Potter,  W.J.  (2010).  Media  literacy  (5th  ed.).  Thousand  Oaks,  CA:  Sage  
Silverblatt,  A.  (2008).  Media  literacy:  Keys  to  interpreting  media  messages    
(3rd  ed.).  Westpoint,  CT.:  Praeger    
Tyner,  K.  (2010)  Media  literacy:  New  agendas  in  communication.  New  
York,  NY:    
Routledge  
Vivian,  J.  (2009).  The  media  of  mass  communication  (9th  ed.).  Pearson    
(Allyn  and  Bacon)  
 
IV. Evaluation  
Class  participation             10%  
Weekly  media  analysis  blog           25%  
Projects  requiring  students  to  create  media     30%  
Paper  about  media’s  relationship  with    
politics,  economics,  society  and  popular  culture     35%  
 
(continued)  

 
72  
 V. Assignments  
a. Weekly  media  analysis  blog  
The  weekly  media  analysis  blog  is  a  chance  for  students  to  practice  analyzing  
media  while  familiarizing  themselves  with  new  media.    Every  week,  students    
should  create  a  blog  post  analyzing  some  form  of  media  (i.e.,  advertisement,  
newspaper/magazine  article,  television  newscast).    During  each  class,  a  few  
students  will  share  their  blog  posts  with  the  class.  
b. Students  creating  media  
To  teach  students  appreciation  of  media  and  the  process  of  creating  it,  each  
student  will  create  some  form  of  media  product.    Examples  of  this  could  include,  
but  are  not  limited  to,  a  newspaper/magazine  article  and  layout  design,  a  
television/radio  broadcast,  or  an  advertisement.    This  allows  students  to  
practice  creating  content,  a  skill  necessary  for  journalists  and  a  media  literate  
individual.  
c. Media  Paper  
In  this  assignment,  students  will  write  and  present  a  five-­‐page  paper  about  
media  in  relation  to  economics,  politics,  society,  popular  culture,  or  other  issues  
surrounding  media.    This  is  designed  for  students  to  use  critical  thinking  skills    
about  issues  surrounding  media.    This  final  assignment  gives  students  a  chance  
to  show  the  knowledge  gained  in  the  class.  
 
VII.  University  Policies  
a. Academic  Dishonesty  
Students  are  expected  to  abide  by  the  university’s  honor  code.    
Consequences  of  this  violation  are  determined  by  the  professor  and,    
depending  on  the  incident,  may  result  a  zero  for  the  assignment  or  removal  
from  the  class  with  a  grade  of  an  “F.”    
b. Disabilities  
Students  needing  special  assistance  should  meet  with  me  to  discuss  
arrangements.  
 
VII.  Schedule  
Weeks     Topic  
1   Definition  and  concepts  of  media  literacy:  students  will  learn  the  
various  definitions,  concepts,  goals,  and  general  information  about  
media  literacy.      
2-­‐4   Examine  the  history,  ethics,  theories,  economics,  and  politics  of  media:  
students  will  briefly  learn  about  the  history  and  usage  of  various  old  
and  new  media.    Students  will  also  examine  various  media  theories  
and  learn  the  roles  economics  and  politics  plays  in  media.  
5-­‐6   Examine  society  and  popular  culture  in  relation  to  media:  students  
will  learn  about  the  influence  and  effect  media  have  over  society  and  
popular  culture.  
 
(continued)  

 
73  
7-­‐8   Issues  in  media:  students  will  learn  about  popular  issues  in  media  
such  as  effects,  stereotypes,  and  problems  surrounding  
advertisements.  
9   Present  paper  on  media  issues:  students  will  present  their  papers  
about  media  in  relation  to  economics,  politics,  society,  popular  
culture,  etc.  
10-­‐12   Explain  media  techniques  and  key  questions/concepts  for  analyzing  
media:  students  will  learn  about  the  importance  of  analyzing  media  by  
using  different  media  techniques  and  strategies  such  as  National  
Association  for  Media  Literacy  Education’s  Key  Questions  (2007).      
13-­‐14   Learn  the  techniques  needed  to  create  media:  students  will  learn  to  
use  the  various  tools  needed  to  produce  their  own  media  content.  
15   Present  media  creation  project:  students  will  share  and  explain  the  
media  product  they  created.    
 

 
74  
 CHAPTER  SIX  
 
Conclusion  
 
 
  This  study  examined  media  literacy  courses  in  higher  education  journalism,  

media,  mass  communication,  and  communication  departments.    It  sought  to  fill  the  

gaps  of  the  literature  by  developing  a  foundation  for  these  courses  through  an  

examination  of  current  syllabi.    Objectives  were  compared  to  sample  syllabi  and  the  

Literature  Review,  leading  to  an  indication  that  16  objectives  should  be  included  in  

all  media  literacy  courses.    With  this  information,  the  researcher  developed  an  ideal  

media  literacy  syllabus  to  show  professors  the  objectives  and  topics  that  should  be  

the  focus  of  these  courses.  

  As  with  all  research,  this  study  had  multiple  limitations  due  to  the  lack  of  

resources  and  courses  available.    This  chapter  examines  the  limitations  of  the  study  

and  makes  suggestions  for  future  researchers  that  seek  to  replicate  the  study  or  

focus  on  the  topic.    The  chapter  then  summarizes  the  study,  data,  and  conclusions.            

 
Limitations  of  Research  

  Though  media  literacy  is  increasing  in  popularity,  it  is  still  not  a  common  

subject  among  journalism,  media,  mass  communications,  and  communication-­‐type  

departments.    This  fact  led  to  the  limitations  of  the  study,  such  as  lack  of  syllabi  and  

previous  research.    Due  to  the  infancy  of  these  courses,  there  is  still  research  to  be  

done  on  the  subject.      

 
75  
 The  main  limitation  of  this  study  is  the  lack  of  course  syllabi  to  examine.    As  

the  literature  shows,  many  department  administrators  may  state  or  think  they  offer  

a  media  literacy  course,  but  that  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  objectives  taught  

create  media  literate  students  (Mihailidis,  2008).    Since  the  number  of  courses  

meeting  the  criteria  for  this  study  was  low,  all  20  syllabi  collected  were  analyzed  in  

the  study.    Thus,  this  study  was  not  a  random  sampling,  but  a  census.    Future  studies  

should  try  to  include  more  of  a  random  sampling  from  more  universities.  

Also,  future  studies  should  examine  why  department  administrators  believe  

their  entire  curriculum  teaches  media  literacy  by  examining  the  course  descriptions.    

Researchers  should  explore  the  course  descriptions  looking  for  objectives  of  media  

literacy  courses,  such  as  those  this  study  presents.    Some  departments,  for  example,  

may  offer  courses  such  as  Media  in  Popular  Culture,  Media  and  Society,  or  

Journalism  and  Democracy,  which  are  objectives  of  media  literacy  courses.    This  

would  show  if  the  courses  offered  satisfy  media  literacy  requirements  or  if  a  media  

literacy  course  is  needed.    If  examining  this  idea,  future  researchers  should  also  see  

if  department  administrators  are  planning  on  incorporating  a  media  literacy  course  

into  the  curriculum.    Future  researchers  should  also  examine  students’  perspective  

and  feelings  while  taking  and  after  taking  media  literacy  courses.  

  Another  limitation  was  lack  of  research.    Few  studies  have  examined  media  

literacy  courses  in  higher  education.    Even  fewer  have  focused  specifically  on  

examining  media  literacy  classes  in  journalism,  media,  mass  communications,  or  

communication-­‐type  departments.    With  more  research,  better  definitions  of  

objectives  could  be  developed  and  supported.      

 
76  
 Once  more  information  is  available  about  the  subject,  future  researchers  

should  replicate  this  study.    This  would  allow  for  a  comparison  between  new  

objectives  to  old  objectives.    Also,  future  researchers  could  compare  whole  syllabi  as  

opposed  to  just  the  objectives  section  as  this  thesis  did.    This  would  be  a  better  

replica  of  an  examination  of  syllabi.      

The  last  limitation  is  the  bias  of  the  researcher.    The  researcher  gained  

interested  in  media  literacy  courses  upon  completion  of  a  media  literacy  course  in  

an  education  department.    This  interest  could  be  considered  a  bias  of  the  study.  

Although  this  study  had  a  few  limitations,  given  the  lack  of  research  and  

syllabi,  the  researcher  answered  the  four  research  questions  and  developed  an  ideal  

syllabus.    Hopefully,  future  studies  will  not  have  these  limitations,  allowing  for  an  

increased  understanding  of  media  literacy  courses.      

 
Conclusion  

With  the  confusion  among  professors,  faculty,  and  department  heads  in  

journalism,  media,  mass  communications,  and  communication-­‐type  departments  

about  what  constitutes  a  media  literacy  course,  a  foundation  was  needed  to  help  

develop  the  media  literacy  course.    This  foundation  allows  for  more  academic  

inclusion  of  the  course  and  a  more  concrete  groundwork  for  what  media  literacy  

classes  should  entail.    This  should  help  increase  the  understanding  of  the  class  and  

promote  the  importance  of  integrating  a  media  literacy  course.  

  This  study  sought  to  begin  developing  a  more  uniform  foundation  for  media  

literacy  courses.    After  an  extensive  review  of  the  literature,  the  researcher  collected  

and,  with  the  help  of  a  coder,  coded  20  syllabi  from  media  literacy  courses  in  

 
77  
journalism,  media,  mass  communications,  and  communication-­‐type  departments  

across  the  country.    Upon  completion,  an  analysis  was  conducted  comparing  the  

syllabi  to  each  other  and  the  literature  to  answer  four  research  questions.    The  

research  questions  focused  on  contrasting  the  objectives  of  media  literacy  courses’  

syllabi  against  each  other  and  the  Literature  Review  to  develop  a  framework  for  

media  literacy  courses.    Objectives  were  evaluated  to  determine  if  they  were  

essential  to  media  literacy  courses,  and  whether  the  researcher  felt  they  should  be  

included  in  the  foundation  of  the  courses.      

Overall,  16  objectives  were  included  to  make  up  the  foundation.    The  

objectives  were:  “critical  thinking  skills,”  “analyzing,”  “techniques,”  “media  in  

relation  to  economics,”  “media  in  relation  to  politics,”  “stereotypes  of  media,”  

“media  in  relation  to  culture,”  “media  in  relation  to  society,”  “media  effects,”  

“creating  content,”  “challenging  the  ‘norm’  of  media,  society,  and  popular  culture,”  

“thinking  critically  when  choosing  media  content,”  “the  history  of  media,”  “theories  

of  media,”  “ethics,”  and  “information  about  new  media.”    Although  the  objectives  

developed  by  the  course  are  not  required  for  media  literacy  courses  to  include,  the  

literature  and  the  20  syllabi  examined  support  the  inclusion  of  them.      

These  objectives  appear  to  be  necessary  for  students  to  successfully  

complete  a  media  literacy  course  and  become  media  literate.    An  increase  in  media  

literate  students  will  lead  to  more  intelligent  consumers  and  a  better  democratic  

process.    These  objectives  seem  like  the  perfect  way  to  further  the  positive  image  of  

media  literacy  in  academia  by  creating  media  literate  students.      

 
78  
    This  study  helps  fill  the  gap  and  adds  to  previous  literature  by  starting  the  

framework  for  media  literacy  courses.    A  study  of  this  nature  is  the  first  of  its  kind  

for  media  literacy.    It  is  important  due  to  the  confusion  among  media  literacy  

professors  about  the  topics  that  constitute  media  literacy.    With  this  study,  a  

uniform  curriculum  for  media  literacy  courses  among  journalism  and  

communication-­‐type  departments  can  be  developed,  leading  to  less  confusion  

among  professors  and  students  who  are  more  intelligent  about  their  media  

consumption.  

 
 

 
79  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDICES  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
80  
 APPENDIX  A  

Codebook  

 
Analysis  of  Syllabi:  Media  Literacy  Courses  

1. Number  each  syllabus  in  your  packet.  

2. Make  sure  each  syllabus  is  from  an  undergraduate  journalism,  mass  

communication,  or  communication  department.    Omit  those  that  are  not.  

3. Make  sure  each  course  title  contains  the  words  “media  literacy.”  Omit  those  

that  do  not.  

4. Read  the  syllabus  completely  to  get  the  gist  of  it.  

5. On  the  code  sheet,  fill  in  the  number  that  you  wrote  down  when  you  

numbered  syllabus  

6. Focusing  on  the  objectives,  place  a  check  mark  next  to  the  category/(ies)  that  

best  describe  the  syllabus’  objectives.  

7. There  can  be  more  than  one  category  checked.  

8. If  you  mark  the  other  category,  please  include  an  explanation  

9. Make  sure  all  syllabus  objectives  are  completed.  

Thank  you  for  your  participation.  

Please  sign  below  to  signify  that  you  have  read  these  instructions  and  understand.  

Name:  ________________________________________     Date:  ________________________________  

 
81  
 Explanation  of  Syllabi  Coding  Sheet  

1. Access  

a. Students  learn  how  to  access  mediums,  what  mediums  they  access  

and  why    

b. Students  learn  about  the  different  forms  of  media  and  the  positives  

and  negatives  for  each  

2. Assessment  

a. Students  learn  how  to  think  critically  about  media  

b. Students  learn  to  analyze  and  evaluate  media  and  their  messages  

c. Students  learn  about  techniques  used  in  media  

3. Awareness  

a. Students  learn  about  the  economics  of  media  such  as  how  they  are  

funded,  what  the  backers  want  in  return,  the  positives  and  negatives  

for  different  kinds  of  sponsors  

b. Students  learn  about  politics  of  media  such  as  political  agendas,  

politicians  backing  media,  and  media  backing  politicians  

c. Students  learn  about  media  bias  

d. Students  learn  about  stereotypes  in  media  

e. Students  learn  about  media  creating  and  selling  popular  culture  

f. Students  learn  about  media  telling  people  what  they  need  to  think  

about  

g. Students  learn  about  the  effects  media  have  on  them,  individuals,  and  

society  

 
82  
 4. Appreciation  

a. Students  learn  how  to  appreciate  media  by  creating  their  own  media  

content  

b. Students  learn  to  enjoy  media  while  thinking  critically  

5. Action  

a. Students  gained  enough  knowledge  to  participate  in  media  literacy  

debates  

b. Students  learn  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  challenge  media,  popular  

culture,  and  corporations  

c. Students  share  media  literacy  knowledge  with  others  

d. Students  learn  to  use  media  literacy  skills  outside  of  class  and  to  think  

critically  when  choosing  mediums,  products,  etc.  

6. Other  

a. Any  other  theme  that  did  not  fit  into  the  parameters  mentioned  above  

 
83  
 Syllabi  Code  Sheet  

Syllabus  number:________         Coder  name:  _________________________  

1.  Access:  Objectives  include  students  learning  about  different  mediums  and  how  to  

access  them  

 Mediums  

 Access  

2.  Assessment:  Objectives  include  students  learning  how  to  think  critically  and  

analyze  media,  its  messages,  and  the  techniques  used    

   Critical  thinking  skills  about  media  

   Analyze  media  and  its  messages  

   Techniques  

3.  Awareness:  Objectives  include  students  learning  about  how  media  are  structured  

   Economics  

   Politics  

   Bias  

   Stereotypes  

   Media  creates  popular  culture  

   Media  creates  the  thoughts  of  society  

 Media  effects  

4.  Appreciation:  Objectives  include  students  appreciating  media  

 
84  
    Create  own  content  

   Enjoy  media  while  thinking  critically  

5.  Action:  Objectives  include  students  learning  what  to  do  with  new  media  literacy  

skills  

   Actively  participate  in  debates  

   Challenge  media,  corporations,  and  popular  culture  when/if  necessary  

   Teaching  media  literacy  to  others  

   Think  critically  when  choosing  media  

6.  Other:  Objectives  include  something  that  cannot  be  categorized  into  the  above  

sections.    Please  include  explanation.  

_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________  

 
85  
 APPENDIX  B  
 
Syllabi  Objectives  
 
 
The  objectives  of  the  syllabi  included:  
 
 
Syllabus  One  
 
• Understand  the  goals  and  methods  of  various  media  industries  
• Identify  and  understand  the  effects  media  has  on  us    
• Understand  benefits  and  potential  negative  effects  of  media  content    
• Identify  techniques  to  become  more  media  literate  as  individuals  and  a  
society  
• At  the  end  of  this  course,  students  will  have  a  better  understanding  of  the  
various  media  that  are  structured,  how  they  operate  and  their  potential  for  
impacting  society  and  individual  members  of  media  consumption  and,  
therefore,  become  better  able  to  pick  and  choose  content  and  be  informed  
 
 
Syllabus  Two  
 
• To  develop  and  communicate  alternative  explanations  for  contemporary  
social  issues.    
• Apply  mass  media  culture  theories  to  the  student’s  belief  systems.  
• Analyze  the  effects  of  historical,  social,  political,  economic,  cultural,  and  
global  forces  as  they  relate  to  world-­‐wide  media  processes.  
• Analyze,  critically  assess,  and  develop  creative  solutions  to  public  policy  
problems.  
• Recognize  and  assume  responsibility  as  a  citizen  in  a  democratic  society  by  
learning  to  think  for  oneself,  by  engaging  in  public  discourse,  and  by  
obtaining  information  through  the  news  media  and  other  appropriate  
information  sources  about  politics  and  public  policy.    
• Use  a  word  processor  to  create  works  done  according  to  a  professional  
format.    
• Navigate  the  Internet  effectively  for  enrichment  in  and  continuing  study  of  
Social  and  Behavioral  Sciences.    
• Understand  the  different  persuasive  effects  that  electronic,  print  and  other  
media  forms  have  on  the  political  and  cultural  landscape.  

 
86  
 Syllabus  Three  
 
• Describe  the  mass  communication  model  
• Identify  commercial  concerns  that  drive  mass  media  industries  
• Discuss  the  history  and  debate  over  questions  of  ethics,  entertainment  versus  
journalistic  integrity,  standards  and  practice  versus  market  share    
• Describe  the  perceptual  framework  through  which  individuals  view  the  media,  
interact  with  it,  and  create  understanding  from  it    
• Analyze  and  defend  their  own  standards  of  acceptance  or  rejection  of  
information  and  influence  as  knowledgeable  consumers  of  media  content  
 
 
Syllabus  Four  
 
• To   examine   aspects   of   the   mass   media   and   popular   culture   that   expand   our  
notions  of  literacy  
• To  explore  the  difference  between  lived  reality  and  media  representation  
• To  explore  how  the  media  are  used  to  construct  meaning  and/or  to  persuade  
• To  investigate  how  the  categories  of  race,  class,  gender,  region,  and  sexuality  
are  represented  in  the  mass  media  
• To  assess  bias,  stereotypes,  data,  and  information  sources  in  the  mass  media  
• To  study  the  relationship  between  technology  and  cultural  production  
• To  compare  alternative  and  mainstream  media  
 
 
Syllabus  Five  
 
Media  Literacy  is  an  introductory  course  designed  to  provide  students  an  overview  
of  the  structure  and  effects  of  the  media.    In  addition  to  gaining  greater  knowledge  
about  media  industries  and  their  impact  on  individuals,  groups  and  cultures,  
students  will  clarify  their  own  values  concerning  the  role  and  impact  of  the  media  in  
American  culture  in  the  early  twenty-­‐first  century.    
Upon  completion  of  this  course  students  should  demonstrate,  through  class  
discussions  and  exams,  an  enriched  understanding  of:  
• The  roles  and  effects  of  the  mass  media  industries  on  cultures  in  the  United  
States  and  throughout  the  world.  
• Several  primary  mass  media  models  and  theories  of  media  effects  
• The  fundamental  history  and  structure  of  U.S.  media  model.  
• The  relationship  between  media  deregulation,  market  forces,  economics,  
content  and  effects.  
• Your  own  media  consumption  patterns  and  the  role  of  media  in  your  
understanding  of  the  world.  
 
 
 
 

 
87  
 Syllabus  Six  
 
After  taking  this  course,  the  student  will  have  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  
media's  practices,  importance,  form  and  operation  as  well  as  its  role  and  influence    
 
in  our  society.  The  student  will  understand  how  to  practice  modern  media  literacy  
skills  by  deciphering  21st  century  messages.  
 
 
Syllabus  Seven  
 
Upon  successful  completion  of  this  course,  student  should  be  able  to:    
• Critically  assess  media  and  its  coverage  of  daily  events  
• Articulate  the  influence  of  media  on  lifestyle,  attitudes,  and  values  
• Understand  the  impact  of  media  on  culture,  and  the  impact  of  culture  on  media  
• Better  understand  the  role  of  how  media  influences  you  in  your  decision  
making  
 
 
Syllabus  Eight  
 
• Understand  the  goals  and  methods  of  various  media  industries  
• Identify  and  understand  the  effects  media  has  on  us  
• Understand  benefits  and  potential  negative  effects  of  media  content    
• Identify  techniques  to  become  more  media  literate  as  individuals  and  a  society  
 
 
Syllabus  Nine  
 
Our  collective  task  this  summer  is  to  develop  skills  to  critique  media  images  and  
messages.  To  examine  media  from  a  critical  perspective  is  to  question  why  things  
are  the  way  they  are  and  how  they  came  and  continue  to  be  as  such.  In  this  class  we  
will  look  at  media  texts  and  practices  as  historical,  constructed,  and  political.  We  
will  ask  and  try  to  answer  tough  and  pressing  questions  including:  
• How  have  media  texts  and  practices  contributed  to  my  sense  of  who  I  am  and  
how  I  think  about  my  social  world?  
• How  powerful  is  the  media?  
• What  is  the  relationship  between  media  representations  and  existing  social  
inequalities?  
• How  have  media  images  and  messages  changed  over  time,  and  how  have  these  
changes  helped  to  shape  our  contemporary  media  culture?  
Toward  these  ends,  the  course  pursues  three  major  areas  of  engagement:  
establishing  foundations  of  media  criticism;  looking  at  media  representations  and  
social  identity;  and  engaging  with  new  media  cultures.  Your  job  this  semester  will  be  
to  articulate  your  own  critical  arguments  about  the  political  and  social  significance  
of  particular  media  texts  and  practices.  This  work  will  require  you  to  question  much  

 
88  
of  what  we  might  normally  take  for  granted  about  the  media,  our  culture,  our  
democracy  and,  ultimately,  ourselves.  This  endeavor  will  likely  be  both  a  
pleasurable  and  challenging  investigation  into  the  politics  of  our  everyday  lives.  
 
 
Syllabus  10  
 
When  you  complete  this  course  you  should  be  able  to  demonstrate  that  you  are  a  
more  effective  consumer  of  the  mass  media  by  your  increased  ability  to  analyze  and  
judge  the  information  you  receive.  In  addition  you  should  be  able  to  demonstrate  an  
increased  understanding  of  the  history  and  the  role  of  mass  media  in  American  
culture.  It  is  my  intention  that  you  will  be  able  to  help  others  improve  their  “media  
literacy  skills”  as  a  result  of  your  completing  this  course.  
               
 
Syllabus  11  
 
Media  Literacy  is  an  introductory  course  designed  to  provide  students  an  overview  
of  the  structure  and  effects  of  the  media.  In  addition  to  gaining  greater  knowledge  
about  media  industries  and  their  impact  on  individuals,  groups  and  cultures.  
Students  will  clarify  their  own  values  concerning  the  role  and  impact  of  the  media  in  
American  culture  in  the  early  21st  century  
Upon  completion  of  this  course  students  should  demonstrate,  through  class  
discussions  and  exams,  an  enriched  understanding  of:  
• The  roles  and  effects  of  the  mass  media  industries  on  cultures  in  the  United  
States  and  throughout  the  world.  
• Several  primary  mass  media  models  and  theories  of  media  effects.    
• The  fundamental  history  and  structure  of  U.S.  media  model.    
• The  relationship  between  media  deregulation,  market  forces,  economics,  
content  and  effects.    
• Your  media  consumption  patterns  and  the  role  of  media  in  your  understanding  
of  the  world.  
 
 
Syllabus  12  
 
This  course  is  designed  to  help  students  develop  an  informed,  critical,  and  practical  
understanding  of  new  communication  media  including  analysis  of  digital  media.  We  
will  explore  the  goals  and  methods  of  various  media  industries,  identify  the  effects  
media  has  on  us,  understand  benefits  and  potential  negative  effects  of  media  
content,  and  identify  techniques  to  become  more  media  literate  as  individuals  and  a  
society.    This  course  helps  students  develop  their  media  literacy  and  analytical  
skills.  Such  topics  as  the  influence  of  advertising  on  content;  the  effects  of  media  on  
our  cognitive  abilities;  and  the  importance  of  real-­‐world  knowledge  are  addressed.          
We  will  explore  the  messages  sent  out  from  the  media  and  how  they  implant  
themselves,  often  subtly  and  even  subliminally,  in  the  real  world  of  people,  

 
89  
locations,  and  events.  The  goal  is  to  better  understand  media  content,  media  
industries,  and  how  they  affect  us.  
 
 
Syllabus  13  
 
• To  become  more  alert  to  media  messages  and  the  effects  of  media  on  
individuals.  
• To  understand  the  ways  that  media  reflect,  reinforce,  and  shape  societal  
attitudes,  values,  and  behaviors  
• To  become  familiar  with  critical  approaches  which  can  be  applied  to  the  
understanding  of  media  and  culture.  
• By  the  end  of  the  course,  the  student  will  demonstrate  the  ability  to:  
o Demonstrate  familiarity  with  the  definition  and  focus  of  media  
literacy.  
o Develop  the  ability  to  make  independent  choices  about  the  selection  
and  interpretation  of  content  delivered  through  the  channels  of  mass  
communication.      
o Identify  media  codes  and  the  messages  that  they  convey  to  the  
audience.  
 Production  values  (e.g.,  editing,  color,  lighting,  sound,  relative  
placement)  
 Formulaic  elements  of  genre  (e.g.,  function,  structure,  plot,  
theme,  characters)    
 Ownership  patterns  
 Point  of  View  of  Media  Presentations  
 Media  Stereotyping  
• Apply  media  literacy  concepts  to  media  and  media  programming:  
o Cumulative  Messages  
o Media  as  Construction  of  Reality  
o Culture  and  Meaning  of  Text  
o Become  familiar  with  qualitative  strategies  with  which  to  analyze  and  
discuss  media  messages  (Keys  to  Interpreting  Media  Messages).  
 
 
Syllabus  14  
 
• Understand  basic  media  economics.  The  student  should  understand  the  basic  
financial  structure  of  media  organizations,  including  who  owns  and  controls  
the  media,  how  media  profits  are  made,  who  pays  for  content,  and  how  
economic  considerations  affect  content.  
• Deconstruct  the  content  of  various  media.  The  student  should  be  able  to  
analyze  and  critique  television  programs,  advertisements,  web  pages,  public  
relations  messages,  news  stories,  etc.  
 
     

 
90  
 • Understand  media  impact.    The  student  should  come  to  understand  the  many  
ways,  often  subtle,  that  media  influence  our  beliefs,  values,  and  perceptions  
of  the  world.  
• Show  an  awareness  of  how  mediated  messages  are  produced.  Show  
knowledge  of  production  techniques,  message  strategies  and  the  professional  
lives  of  media  producers.    
• Locate  information  on  specific  groups  in  the  media  audience  who  seek  to  
influence  media  structures  and  content.  The  student  should  be  aware  of  the  
key  groups  and  their  strategies  for  affecting  change  in  media  policies.    
• Influence  media  institutions.  The  student  should  know  how  to  locate  and  
respond  to  owners,  editors,  producers,  webmasters,  publishers,  writers,  
directors,  and  other  gatekeepers,  and  how  to  influence  their  decision  making.    
 
 
Syllabus  15  
 
This  seminar  introduces  students  to  critical  analysis  of  a  range  of  mass  media  
practices  and  products  that  have  potential  to  influence  individuals,  social  groups,  
and  society  as  a  whole.    Through  reading,  writing  assignments,  discussion  and  
activities,  students  will  explore  the  varied  facets  of  media  content  and  form,  thereby  
developing  strategies  that  can  be  used  to  analyze  specific  media  messages.    Students  
will  also  develop  an  enhanced  critical  judgment  about  the  practices  and  policies  of  
media  organizations  and  important  issues  involving  the  media  and  their  impact  
upon  people’s  social  and  political  values,  ideas,  and  relationships.  
 
 
Syllabus  16  
 
The  purpose  of  this  course  is  to  instill  literacy  of  the  media  in  the  student.  Literacy  
doesn’t  mean  just  familiarity,  or  even  comprehension;  it  refers  to  the  ability  to  
understand  the  economic,  social  and  political  motivations  of  media  producers.  In  
recent  research  that  I  have  been  involved  with,  it  needs  to  also  involve  
understanding  of  the  cultural  commons,  which  is  now  largely  digitally  mediated,  and  
copyright,  whose  aims,  while  purportedly  supportive  of  this,  are  now  seen  by  many  
critics  as  at  odds  with  our  cultural  heritage.  We  will  examine  such  things  as  the  
remixing  culture,  and  how  contemporary  tools  make  it  astonishingly  easy  to  create  
media  of  our  own.  
• Learn  about  differing  traditions  in  the  study  and  analysis  of  media,  how  and  
where  they  agree  and  where  they  are  at  variance  
• Learn  to  be  a  discriminating  “consumer”  of  media,  able  to  separate  the  signal  
from  the  noise  
• Learn  about  the  emerging  world  of  social  media,  and  how  it  co-­‐exists  with  
the  MSM  (mainstream  media).  
• Theory  -­‐  Understand  concepts  and  apply  theories  in  the  use  and  
presentations  of  images  and  information.  

 
91  
 • Critical  Thinking-­‐  Think  critically,  creatively  and  independently.  
• Research  -­‐  Conduct  research  and  evaluate  information  by  methods  
appropriate  to  the  communication  professions  in  which  they  work.  
• Writing  -­‐  Write  correctly  and  clearly  in  forms  and  styles  appropriate  for  the  
communication  professions,  audiences  and  purposes  they  serve.  
• Editing  -­‐  Critically  evaluate  their  own  work  and  that  of  others  for  accuracy  
and  fairness,  clarity,  appropriate  style  and  grammatical  correctness.  
• Basic  Statistics  -­‐  Apply  basic  numerical  and  statistical  concepts.  
• Technology  -­‐  Apply  tools  and  technologies  appropriate  for  the  
communication  professions  in  which  they  work.  
 
 
Syllabus  17  
 
On  completion  of  this  course,  students  will  be  able  to:  
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  the  origin,  development  and  function  of  
various  types  of  media  and  programming.    
• Evaluate  media's  implicit  and  explicit  messages  against  standards  of  ethical,  
moral  and  social  principles.    
• Demonstrate  an  awareness  of  First  Amendment  and  other  legal  principles  
affecting  media.    
• Reflect  on  the  role  of  communication  media  in  addressing  values  and  
meaning  of  life  for  individuals  and  society.    
• Articulate  and  defend  critically  informed  values  about  the  impact  of  media  
texts  (broadly  defined  to  include  written,  audiovisual  and  related  formats)  on  
individuals,  diverse  /  specialized  audiences,  and  society  at  large.    
• Recognize  and  demonstrate  creative  thought  in  producing  answers  to  
individual  and  social  questions  related  to  media.  
 
 
Syllabus  18  
 
• Students  will  critically  interpret  the  powerful  texts  and  images  of  a  multimedia  
culture.    
• Students  will  participate  more  fully  in  democratic  governance  and  collective  
wisdom  by  creating  and  disseminating  effective  messages  in  multiple  
formats.  Students  will  understand  what  peoples  are  left  out  of  messages  and,  
as  appropriate,  participate  in  establishing  more  inclusive  messages  and  
processes.    
• Students  will  be  lifelong  learners  using,  rather  than  accumulating,  media  data  
and  updating  their  creative  and  participative  skills  continually  and  
independently.    
• Students  will  learn  to  evaluate  claims  in  terms  of  clarity,  credibility,  reliability,  
and  accuracy.  
• Students  will  use  the  Media  Lit  five  key  questions  and  concepts  to  critically  
analyze  messages  in  different  media.    

 
92  
 • Students  will  trace  the  ownership  and  interests  of  communications  produced  
by  commercial  and  other  large  institutions.    
• Students  will  learn  to  identify  and  analyze  key  issues  in  media  at  a  given  point  
in  time.    
• Students  will  use  the  insights  from  producing  messages  in  a  medium  to  help  
others  understand  the  "tricks  of  the  trade"  working  from  the  perspective  of  
media  producers.    
• Students  will  write  a  scholarly  research  paper  demonstrating  media  literacy  
competency  and  critical  writing  skills.    
• Students  will  develop  and  present  traditional  media  literacy  training  for  at  
least  one  target  population.    
• Students  will  be  able  to  effectively  apply  McLuhan’s  concepts  of  figure,  ground,  
medium  and  message,  and  tetrad  to  analyze  six  different  forms  of  media.    
 
 
Syllabus  19  
 
• Students  will  employ  critical  thinking  skills  to  examine  mass  media  messages  
and  influences  with  the  goal  of  becoming  a  more  knowledgeable  media  
consumer.  
• Students  will  demonstrate  an  understanding  of  some  basic  First  Amendment  
issues  as  they  relate  to  mass  media/communications.  
• Students  will  recognize  some  basic  mass  communications  research  and  
theories.  
• Students  will  recall  and  have  a  basic  knowledge  of  mass  
media/communications  history.  
• Students  will  recall  and  define  some  terminology  used  by  various  mass  
media/communications.  
• Students  will  demonstrate  an  awareness  of  some  of  the  ethical  issues  
involved  with  mass  media/communications.  
• Students  will  demonstrate  an  awareness  and  understanding  of  some  of  
diversity  and  multicultural  issues  as  they  relate  to  mass  
media/communications.    
• Students  will  recognize  and  recall  the  structure/organization  and  
roles/responsibilities  in  various  mass  media/communications.  
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  mass  media/communications  motives  
(economic,  social,  political  and  aesthetic)  and  how  they  interact.  
 
 
Syllabus  20  
 
Students  will  acquire  knowledge  about  the  world’s  peoples  –  their  cultures,  arts  and  
environments  –  that  prepares  them  for  further  study,  deepens  their  understanding  
of  the  human  condition  and  strengthens  their  commitment  to  social  and  
environmental  responsibility.  As  a  result  of  taking  the  course,  students  will:  
 

 
93  
 • “Articulate  the  ways  in  which  different  people  express  an  understanding  of  the  
human  condition  and  respond  to  environmental  opportunities  and  
constraints.”  
o To  meet  this  outcome  students  will  identify  and  explain  the  
contribution  of  other  cultures  from  the  perspective  of  selected  
disciplines.  Students  will  evaluate  current  human  conditions  and  
environmental  opportunities  and  constraints  in  a  variety  of  cultures  
and  discuss  them  in  class  through  group  discussions  to  gain  other  
viewpoints.  This  student  outcome  will  be  assessed  through  quizzes  
and  graded  group  discussions.  
• “Describe  how  personal  choices  derive  from  and  affect  social,  cultural  and  
environmental  contexts.”  
o To  meet  this  outcome  students  will  discuss  the  history  and  how  the  
role  of  culture,  diversity  and  ethics  affect  those  choices.  Students  will  
study  different  cultures  and  critically  assess  society,  culture  and    
environment  affect  different  cultural  perspectives.  This  student  
outcome  will  be  assessed  through  written  assignment  of  a  reaction  
paper.  
• “Explain  the  ethical  consequences  of  decisions  and  actions  concerning  the  
environment  to  strengthen  commitment  to  local,  national  and  global  
citizenship.”  
o To  meet  this  outcome  students  will  identify  and  assess  the  impact  of  
media  institutions  on  a  global  community.  Students  will  evaluate  print  
publications,  television  and  internet  media  to  assess  the  affect  of  each  
type  of  media  on  society.  This  student  outcome  will  be  assessed  
through  a  presentation  with  a  discussion.  
This  course  also  meets  the  following  competencies  for  the  Accrediting  Council  on  
Education  in  Journalism  and  Mass  Communication  (ACEJMC):  
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  the  history  and  role  of  professionals  and  
institutions  in  shaping  communications.  
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  gender,  race  ethnicity,  sexual  orientation  
and,  as  appropriate,  other  forms  of  diversity  in  domestic  society  in  relation  to  
mass  communications.  
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  the  diversity  of  peoples  and  cultures  and  of  
the  significance  and  impact  of  mass  communications  in  a  global  society.  
• Understand  concepts  and  apply  theories  in  the  use  and  presentation  of  images  
and  information.    
• Demonstrate  an  understanding  of  professional  ethical  principles  and  work  
ethically  in  pursuit  of  truth,  accuracy,  fairness  and  diversity.    
• Think  critically,  creatively  and  independently.    
• Critically  evaluate  their  own  work  and  that  of  others  for  accuracy  and  fairness,  
clarity,  appropriate  style  and  grammatical  correctness.  
• Apply  tools  and  technologies  appropriate  for  the  communications  professions  
in  which  they  work.  
 
 

 
94  
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