What is Research?

– It always starts with a question or a problem.

– Its purpose is to find answers to questions through the application of scientific methods
– It is a systematic and intensive study directed towards a more complete knowledge of the subject studied.

– Research tackles the problem which seems to have immediate commercial potential.

– An organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific study about a specific problem with an
objective to find the answers to the questions.

– Research is a logical & systematic search for new & useful information on a particular topic.
– Must have a purpose

– Undertaken to understand various phenomenon

– To solve specific problem

The growth of RESEARCH

– Research is a tool that is a building block and a sustaining pillar of every discipline— scientific or
otherwise—that one knows of.
– Decision makers can be found in every type of organization: businesses, not-for-profit organizations, and public
agencies. Regardless of where these decision makers are found or whether their resources are abundant or
limited, they all rely on information to make more efficient and effective use of their budgets.
– Over the past several decades, there has been a gradual development in the field of marketing re- search. The
first evidence of formal research techniques employed could be traced as far back as 1824. However, for
almost one century thereafter, research developed rather slowly and sporadically.

Several factors have contributed to the growth of marketing research.

• As a result of large scale production, producers do not have direct contact with the consumers. This leads to
problems in marketing of goods. It is necessary for a manufacturer to know the potential areas where his
goods could be marketed, the probable demand for the same and the extent of profitability and competition.
This is possible only when a systematic investigation is undertaken.
• There has been a shift from a seller’s to a buyer’s market. This necessitates a better understanding of buyer
behavior. This aspect is studied in marketing research.
• The emergence of specialists such as statisticians, psychologists and behavioral scientists in a fairly large
number has also enhanced the importance of marketing research in no small measure. These specialists have
helped in the development of marketing research as a separate discipline and strengthened its techniques.
• Changes in the composition of population, particularly the shift from the rural to the urban areas, has
widened the scope for marketing of various types of goods and services in the urban areas.
• There is now increasing realization on the part of both marketing researchers and management to have
meaningful dialogue whenever a project is to be undertaken. This results in improving the quality of
marketing research. Finally, the changing marketing environment has given enormous boost to marketing
research in recent years.
 Why one should study research methods and
tactics?
1. Information overload: Although the Internet and its search engines present extensive amounts of information,
the information’s quality and credibility must be continuously evaluated. The ubiquitous access to information
has brought about the development of knowledge communities and the need for organizations to leverage this
knowledge universe for innovation—or risk merely drowning in data.
2. Technological connectivity: Individuals, public-sector organizations, and businesses are adapting to changes in
work patterns (real-time and global), changes in the formation of relationships and communities, and the
realization that geography is no longer a primary constraint. With the increased acceptance and use of mobile
technology, information snacking, short online visits to get specific answers, has become the norm for
information gatherers. This could have a profound influence on information collection designed to serve the
needs of managers who want quick, smaller chunks of information, each of which is more decision relevant.
While this influence is expected in quantitative techniques such as surveys, qualitative research is also
increasingly embracing smaller iterative engagements with research subjects to drive research.
3. Shifting global centers of economic activity and competition: The rising economic power of Asia and
demographic shifts within regions highlight the need for organizations to expand their knowledge of consumers,
suppliers, talent pools, business models, and infrastructures with which they are less familiar. This shift
increases the value of research designs that can accommodate different norms, values, technologies, and
languages. Some in the research industry believe innovation in research methodology will come from the
developing world, not the developed economies, as countries in the developing world are already embracing
mobile/social research methodologies to a greater degree.

Is Research always Problem- Solving Based?

Researchers often are asked to respond to “problems” that managers need to solve.

1. Pure research or basic research is also problem-solving based, but in a different sense. It aims to solve
perplexing questions or obtain new knowledge of an experimental or theoretical nature that has little direct or
immediate impact on action, performance, or policy decisions. Basic research is defined as the work of scientists
and others who pursue their investigations without conscious goals, other than the desire to unravel the
secrets of nature.
2. Applied research has a practical problem-solving emphasis. Whether the problem is negative, like rectifying an
inventory system that is resulting in lost sales, or an opportunity to increase stockholder wealth through
acquiring another firm, problem solving is prevalent. The problem-solving nature of applied research means it is
conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action, performance, or policy needs. Applied
research carries the findings of basic research to a point where they can be exploited to meet a specific need,
while the development stage of research and development includes the steps necessary to bring a new or
modified product or process into production.

Thus, both applied and pure research are problem-solving based, but applied research is directed much more to
making immediate managerial decisions. In answer to the question posed at the beginning of this section, Is
research always problem-solving based? The answer is yes. Whether the typology is applied or pure, simple or
complex, all research should provide an answer to some question. If managers always knew what was causing
problems or offering opportunities in their realm of responsibility, there would be little need for applied research
or basic research; intuition would be all that was necessary to make quality decisions.

What will you get from research?

❖ Research generates solutions to many problems which were assumed to be non-solvable.

❖ It helps to understand the actual needs of the customers and how much the company’s product deviates
from the actual demands.
❖ It generates a wider view of the concerned problem and helps the management to make decisions based on
the obtained results.
❖ The information derived from research helps the decision makers to make decisions relating to
organizational mission, goals, strategies, and tactics.
❖ On the basis of which Strategy is defined which is nothing but the general approach an organization will
follow to achieve its goals.
❖ Management will have access to information generated by business research. Understanding the
relationship between business research and these other information sources—decision support systems and
business intelligence—is very important.

Research & Development

– The concept of research is as old as science; the concept of the intimate relationship between research and
subsequent development, however, was not generally recognized until the 1950s.
– Research and development is the beginning of most systems of industrial production. The innovations that
result in new products and new processes usually have their roots in research and have followed a path
from laboratory idea, through pilot or prototype production and manufacturing start-up, to full-scale
production and market introduction. 
– The foundation of any innovation is an invention. Inventions come from research—careful, focused, sustained
inquiry, frequently trial and error. 
– In the areas in which technology advances fastest, new products and new materials are required in a constant
flow, but there are many industries in which the rate of change is gentle. Although ships, automobiles, and
telephones, have changed over the last quarter of a century, the changes have not been spectacular.
Nevertheless, a manufacturer who used methods even 10 years old could not survive in these businesses. The
task of R and D laboratories working in these areas is to keep every facet of the production process under
review and to maintain a steady stream of improvements. Although each in itself may be trivial, the total effect
is many times as large as the margin between success and failure in a competitive situation.
When is Research unnecessary?
❖ Many firms, whether in production or services, would like to know as to what consumers feel about their
products and services. As such information is available with consumers, many marketing research studies are
done to collect it. In addition, consumers willingly provide the information insights. However, there are certain
situations where getting the required information becomes extremely difficult so much so that one has to
relinquish the idea of collecting it. In such situations, it is not advisable to undertake research.

❖ Given below are some situations where research is unnecessary.

• When a firm finds that the cost of undertaking research is going to be more than the benefit it can
derive by implementing the research findings.
• When the research project attempts to collect information relating to the distant past. Here, the
respondents would not remember the desired information. Even if they are approached, they are likely
to arbitrarily give some information, which obviously will not be correct.
• When information is very personal, the respondents would be quite reluctant to give it. This is
understandable as they consider it as an intrusion into their personal lives.
• At times, respondents may find it difficult to communicate their emotions and sensations to the
researcher. For example, respondents may be asked to taste two types of tea and then let the
researcher know which is better. While they may tell this but they may be unable to reveal as to how
they have come to this conclusion.
• The nature of some products is such that there is hardly any time to conduct research. This is especially
true in the case of those products which have a very short life cycle. As research requires some time,
the extremely short life cycle of the products does not permit it.

Examples where Research is necessary

– Cadbury Perk was introduced in the market in 1996. It created a new demand in the market for wafer
chocolates in India. However, with the introduction of Nestle’s Munch, it had to face tough competition. As a
result of continued competition between Cadbury and Nestle, the chocolate wafers’ market saw stagnation in
the demand, despite an array of competitive advertisements.
– Videocon entered the telecom sector in March 2010 with ambitious plans. Videocon Mobile Services (VMS)
was poised to rapidly build its subscriber base. It had planned to invest Rs.14,000 crore in VMS over the next
three years. However, the report of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), January 30, 2010 showed
that Videocon’s share in the wireless component was merely 0.78 percent, which was less than small players,
not to talk of bigger players such as Airtel, Vodafone, Reliance and BSNL among others.
– Nano was the most awaited car in India, and surged pride for being indigenous—from the Tata house. It was
the dream of millions. Yet, after 23 months of its launch, it has not been able to sell even a lakh units. The
monthly sales of Nano started falling from July 2010 and reached a record low of just 509 units in November
2010. An important reason for this performance was lack of strong communication to its core target group
(TG)— the two-wheeler owners in small towns aspiring to buy a car.
– Almost a decade ago, UK’s leading retailer Marks & Spencer (M & S) entered the Indian market. But,
unfortunately, the brand has been struggling to gain a foothold in the country. As against this, many global
 brands that entered the country around the same time or after M & S have raced ahead of it. M & S faces stiff
competition from global brands like Benetton, Zara, Tommy Hilfiger, as well as Indian retailers. Notwithstanding
such challenges, M & S is determined to operate in India, considering the potential of the Indian retail space.

Scope of Business Research

❖ It helps decision makers to shift from intuitive information gathering to systematic and objective investigation.

❖ While researchers in different functional areas may investigate different phenomena, they are comparable to
one another because they use similar research methods.
❖ The scope of business research is limited by one’s definition of ‘business’.

❖ The term ‘Business Research’ is utilized because all of its techniques are applicable to business settings.

❖ Divisions of Marketing Research

• Product Research
• Sales Research
• Customer Research
• Pricing Research
• Advertising Research

Limitations of Research
The discussion should not lead any one to assume that research can solve all the problems. While it can be
extremely rewarding to a firm, it is wise to know that it is subject to certain limitations. One must be aware of these
limitations in advance so that one is clear about what marketing research can and cannot do.
❖ First, very many times, research tends to be fragmentary in its approach as a result of which it becomes
difficult to have an overall perspective in which a marketing problem is to be viewed and studied.
❖ Second, research is criticized on the ground that it becomes too superficial and faulty in industry. While the
principles of research are good based on scientific lines, in industry, marketing research is very often used by
those who have had no formal training in the subject. Such persons avoid using detailed investigations and
sophisticated techniques which require both time and patience on the part of researchers.
❖ Third, there is an absence of a meaningful dialogue between the management and the research team. As a
result, researchers get divorced from the main stream of marketing. This denies them any opportunity to test
their findings in the practical marketing situation.
❖ Fourth, research is not an exact science. There are several imponderables which come in the way of getting
accurate results. For example, consumer behavior is an area which is rather elusive and the theory does not go
very far in disclosing it very precisely. Analytical tools of marketing research are still deficient and cannot give
us a precise idea, especially on the behavioral aspects.
❖ Sometimes it is miss-used or misinterpreted
○ A major misuse of research is found when one uses it to support or substantiate his viewpoint or position.
In such a case, objectivity, which is the soul of research, is non-existent. To collect data and to interpret
them deliberately to prove or disprove a certain point does not qualify as legitimate research.
○ Another misuse of research is found in deliberately delaying decision-making. In the hands of vested
interests, it may be used to avoid taking a certain decision or delaying it until the findings of research are
available.
○ Finally, it is used to grab power and authority in an organization. Executives who are over-ambitious may
use marketing research to consolidate and strengthen their position in the organization as also to extend
their authority over their colleagues.

Status of Research in INDIA

❖ A major constraint is on account of the heterogeneity of the country with the vast geographical area. Added
to this is the language problem. So many languages are spoken in the country that a nation-wide survey using
the questionnaire method becomes extremely difficult. In addition, this method becomes quite expensive.
❖ Another problem in the use of research is the non-availability of relevant secondary data. On account of this,
sampling frames, on the basis of which samples are to be drawn, are usually incomplete and inadequate.
❖ Many business firms believe that research is too expensive. They are, therefore, quite indifferent to the use of
research. Although, some problems can be taken up for research within a limited budget.
❖ At times, the relationship between the researchers and management may also act as a constraint. This may
happen in those business firms where management and researchers do not understand and appreciate each
other’s viewpoint. This problem may be found more frequently in those firms which do not have professional
management.
❖ Many business firms in India think that research is not necessary. They believe that experience of running the
business, coupled with intuition on the part of the top management, can be helpful in solving the problem.

Issues with Research

❖ The quality of any information collected through research surveys will be considerably affected on account of
lack of transparency in business. This problem can be overcome by having more and more professionalization
and institutionalization of marketing research.
❖ Research is frequently seen as a separate activity undertaken by professionals and is not linked with short or
long term strategies. It is advisable to involve operational staff in a company with research activity. This will be
advantageous to both professionals and operational staff and will make research more useful to the business.
❖ A major issue at the institutional level is the allocation of budget to research activity.

❖ Marketing research has so far remained confined to the urban market. The marketing problems in rural India
 are vast and complicated and have hardly been addressed. However, with the improved standard of living in
rural areas, there will be a larger consumption of packaged goods and consumer durables. In view of this,
marketing researchers have to think seriously as to how far their techniques can be applied to a rural setting. It
is, no doubt, a challenge to profession- als but it offers them a great opportunity as well.

Characteristics of Good Research

• Clarity of purpose
The researcher should be clear about the purpose of the proposed research. The research problem should be
formulated carefully, indicating its scope and limitations. Both the manager and the re- searcher should have
the same understanding of the research problem and how they should proceed in different stages of the
research.
• Research process
The research process should be properly planned. The researcher should ensure that significant procedural
steps are taken care of. In their absence, it would not be possible to estimate the validity and reliability of data,
which, in turn, will weaken the confidence of the reader in the research itself.
• Selection of proper research design
There are several research designs, out of which one is chosen. In some cases, a combination of two research
designs may be used. However, the choice of a research design has to be based on the nature of the research
problem. If a research design involves primary data collection, a proper method of sampling should be chosen.
The main questions to be answered are: Whether probability sampling or non-probability sampling? Within
the probability sampling, which specific design is to be used?
• Data collection
After having selected a research design, the researcher should take the necessary steps to collect data. He
should exhaust all the sources of information already available on the research problem. In the case of primary
data, a suitable questionnaire should be developed.
• Proper analysis and Interpretation of Data
The method used should be appropriate keeping in mind the nature of the problem and the purpose of the
research study. A detailed analysis should be undertaken so that a deeper insight into the research problem
can be obtained.
• Reporting the results
The research report should be written in a simple and unambiguous language. It should be objective in the
presentation of results. In case there are any limitations, then these should be specified. After reading the
report, the reader should be convinced about the sincerity, objectivity and competence of the researcher.
• Compliance with ethical standards
It is necessary to ensure that ethical standards or norms are followed through all the stages of the research
process. The compliance with ethical norms will improve the image of the research project as well as the
entire research team.
Purpose of Research
❖ The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
❖ 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)
❖ 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)
❖ 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies)
❖ 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Research Method vs Research Methodology

❖ Research methods are the methods used by researchers to collect data to conduct research on a particular
research topic.
Research method may be understood as all the techniques/methods that are used for conduction of research.
❖ A Research methodology is a systematic approach to solve the research problem and to reach a conclusion.
Research methodology not only talks about the research method but also the logic behind the methods used
in the context of research.

Types of Research

Basic Research
❖ Basic research is defined as the work of scientists and others who pursue their investigations without
conscious goals, other than the desire to unravel the secrets of nature.
❖ Aim: Concerned with generalization & formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
❖ It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest.

❖ Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to
the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
❖ Attempts to explain why, how things happen

Applied Research
❖ Applied Research directed towards finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
❖ Aim: To find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness and develop innovative techniques rather than just
collecting the information.
--Or to obtain certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem
❖ Applied research carries the findings of basic research to a point where they can be exploited to meet a
specific need, while the development stage of research and development includes the steps necessary to bring
a new or modified product or process into production.
❖ Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize. Most of the experimental research,
case studies and inter-disciplinary research are essentially applied research.
❖ Examples:
• To improve an organization’s hiring process.
• To improve workplace efficiency.
• To identify the side effects of using COVEXIN.
• Improve agricultural crop production

Exploratory Research
❖ Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or thoroughly
investigated in the past to have a better understanding of the problem which usually doesn't lead to a
conclusive result.
❖ This is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.

❖ Aim: To provide insights into and an understanding of the problem faced by the researcher and to identify key
issues & key variables of the concerned problem.
❖ Exploratory research helps to determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of
 subjects.
❖ The results of exploratory research are not always useful for decision making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insights into a given situation.
❖ Not typically generalizable to the population at large.

❖ This research is quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or
data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or
competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, protective methods, case
studies or pilot studies.
❖ The role of this research is to provide direction to subsequent & more structured research.

❖ Advantages:
○ Flexibility and adaptability to change
○ Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
○ Exploratory studies can potentially save time and other resources by determining at the earlier stages the
types of research that are worth pursuing

❖ Disadvantages:
○ It generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is subject to bias
○ These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately
represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized to a
wider population.
○ Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.
❖ Exploratory Research Example on Murder Investigation
■ A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be investigated using exploratory research because it has not
been investigated clearly in the past. To gain a better understanding of how exploratory research is used to
conduct a murder investigation,
■ QUESTIONS: how he was killed, Murder weapon, how it was used, the time he was murdered, etc and
why?
❖ Exploratory Research Example on Product Research

❖ Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is
conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development. 
❖ The exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing
stage of product development. 
❖ If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers will want to investigate whether
the feature will be well received among the users. If the feature added to the app is something that is already
in existence, then the research is not exploratory. 
❖ For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage of the app is not exploratory.
 This is because this feature is something that is already in existence, and they can easily get enough
information from WhatsApp.
❖ However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came out, the research is explanatory. In
this case, exploratory research is carried out using a focus group of beta testers. 

Conclusive Research
❖ The findings and propositions developed as a consequence of exploratory research might be tested and
authenticated by conclusive research.
❖ This kind of research study is especially carried out to test and validate formulated hypotheses.

❖ Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify the insights gained from exploratory
research.
❖ The variables of these studies are more structured & clearly defined and quantified.

❖ Conclusive research can be sub-divided into two major categories:

❖ Descriptive research, and

❖ Causal research

Descriptive Research
❖ Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is being
studied.
❖ This methodology focuses more on the ‘‘who, what, when and where’’ of the research subject than the “why”
of the research subject.
❖ Aim: To describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied.

❖ The term descriptive research refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis conducted
on that topic.
❖ Purpose:
• To determine the characteristics of a certain group.
• To estimate the proportion of people in a given population who have behaved in a particular manner.
• To make specific predictions.
❖ Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
• Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect
quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research
tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This
uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their
behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
 •Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different
sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from
descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types
of research methods used for the subsequent research.
❖ Applications of Descriptive Research
• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete
conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of
the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the
phenomenon. For example, understanding from students the hours per week they spend on browsing
the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business
decisions.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s
statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age
groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t
take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand
drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
❖ Advantages of Descriptive Research

● Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like
observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all
primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used
for future research or even developing a hypothesis of your research object.
● Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a
research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
● Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
● Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data
collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
❖ Examples of Descriptive Research
❖ Let’s assume if a UK based brand is trying to establish itself in New York and wants to understand the
demographics of the buyers who generally purchase from brands similar to it. Here, the information
gathered from the survey will uncover details on the buying patterns of different age cohorts in New
York. It will not study why such patterns exist, because the brand is trying to establish itself in New
York. All that they want to understand is the buying behavior of the population, and not why such
associations exist.
❖ Annual census carried out by the Government of India. (what is the annual census carried out by
GOI?)
❖ What are the characteristics of the customers who buy normal petrol and those who buy
higher-octane petrol.
❖ A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors
of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this
type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also
 surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of
different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in
that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model
and amplify marketing in core markets.

Casual Research
❖ It aims at establishing cause & effect relationships between variables.

❖ Causal research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable
on another.
❖ It is also known as explanatory research. A variation in an independent variable is observed, which is assumed
to be causing changes in the dependent variable. The changes in the independent variable are measured due
to the variation taking place in the dependent variable.
❖ It clarifies why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

❖ This type of research attempts to explain.

❖ It is quantitative in nature and requires statistical testing of the information collected.

❖ Advantages
○ Causal research helps identify the causes behind processes taking place in the system. Having this
knowledge helps the researcher to take necessary actions to fix the problems or to optimize the
outcomes.
○ Causal research helps identify the impacts of changing the processes and existing methods.
○ In causal research, the subjects are selected systematically. Because of this, causal research is helpful for
higher levels of internal validity.
○ Causal research provides the benefits of replication if there is a need for it.
❖ Disadvantages
○ The causal research is difficult to administer because sometimes it is not possible to control the effects
of all extraneous variables.
○ Causal research is one of the most expensive research to conduct.
○ The findings of causal research are mostly inaccurate because there will always be a few previous causes
or hidden causes that will be affecting the outcome of your research.
○ The results of your research can be contaminated as there will always be a few people outside your
market that might affect the results of your study.
○ Another disadvantage of using causal research is that it takes a long time to conduct this research.
○ Sometimes, it is easy for a researcher to identify that two variables are connected, but to determine
which variable is the cause and which variable is the effect is challenging for a researcher.
❖ Examples
○ To test the market for a new product by collecting data about its sales potential.
○ To check the performance or effectiveness of a new advertising campaign to decide whether to continue
it or not.
○ To measure the improvement in the performance of employees after providing them training on a new
skill.
○ To examine the effects of re-branding initiatives based on the level of loyalty of customers
 ○ How the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement.

Other Types of Research

1. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
a. Quantitative

i. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
ii. Refers to systematic empirical investigation of any phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques.
iii. Objective: To develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomenon.
iv. Advantages:
1. Allows researchers to measure and analyze data.
2. The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.
v. Disadvantages:
1. The context of the study or experiment is sometimes ignored.
2. This research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things have for
different people.
3. A large sample of population must be studied for accurate results

b. Qualitative research
i. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind that are difficult and impossible to quantify.
ii. For instance, investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
their beliefs.
iii. Aim: Discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.

iv. Techniques:
1. Word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other
projective techniques.
2. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
v. Advantages:
a. It enables more complex aspects of a person's experience to be studied.
b. Fewer restrictions or assumptions are placed on the data to be collected
 c. The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way
vi. Disadvantages:
a. It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data
b. More subjectivity involved in analyzing the data
c. Time consuming

Different Types of Research

❖ Different types of research can be classified on the basis of either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factor.
❖ From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research.
In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is
carried on over several time-periods.
❖ Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research, depending upon the environment in which it is
to be carried out.
❖ Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study
methods or in depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices.
❖ The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
❖ Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
❖ Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
❖ Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

Unit of Analysis
❖ A unit of analysis is the entity that you wish to say something about at the end of your study, and it is
considered the focus of your study. In other words, it refers to the main parameter that you’re investigating in
your research project or study.
❖ More specifically, your unit of analysis will be determined by your research question.

❖ Your unit of analysis is the “who” or the “what” that you are analyzing for your study

❖ For instance, any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a study:

• individuals
• groups
• artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
• geographical units (town, census tract, state)
• social interactions (dyadic relations, divorces, arrests)

Unit of Analysis and Unit of Observation

❖ The unit of analysis should also not be confused with the unit of observation.

❖ The unit of observation is a subset of the unit of analysis. It is the item (or items) that you observe, measure,
or collect while trying to learn something about your unit of analysis.
❖ A study may have a differing unit of observation and unit of analysis: for example, in community research,
the research design may collect data at the individual level of observation but the level of analysis might be at
the neighborhood level, drawing conclusions on neighborhood characteristics from data collected from
individuals.
❖ Together, the unit of observation and the level of analysis define the population of a research enterprise.

❖ These may differ slightly in quantitative and qualitative research designs. These two items concern what the
researcher observes in their data collection and what they hope to say about those observations

Unit of Analysis: Individual

❖ Individuals are the most common unit of analysis within sociological research. This is the case because the
core problem of sociology is understanding the relationships between individuals and society, so we routinely
turn to studies composed of individual people in order to refine our understanding of the ties that bind
individuals together into a society. Taken together, information about individuals and their personal
experiences can reveal patterns and trends that are common to a society or particular groups within it, and
can provide insights into social problems and their solutions.
❖ For example:
• If your research is based around data on exam grades for students at two different universities, then the
unit of analysis is the data for the individual student due to each student having an exam score
associated with them.
• Let’s say that we are going to explore which students are most likely to be addicted to their electronic
 gadgets. Our unit of analysis would be the individual students. 
RESEARCH QUESTION: Which students are most likely to be addicted to their electronic gadgets?
DATA COLLECTION: Survey of students on campus

Unit of Analysis: Organization

❖ Organizations are yet another potential unit of analysis that social scientists might wish to say something
about. Organizations include entities like corporations, colleges and universities, and even nightclubs.
❖ Organizations differ from groups in that they are considered more formal and, well, organized ways of
collecting people together around specific goals and norms.
❖ At the organization level, a study of students’ electronic gadget addictions might explore how different colleges
address this social issue. In this case, our interest lies not in the experience of individual students but instead
in the campus-to-campus differences in confronting gadget addictions. 
RESEARCH QUESTION: How do different colleges address the problem of electronic gadget addiction?
DATA COLLECTION: Content analysis of policies
❖ Social scientists who study organizations might be interested in, for example, how corporations like Apple,
Amazon, and Walmart impact various aspects of social and economic life, like how we shop and what we shop
for, and what work conditions have become normal and/or problematic within the country. Sociologists who
study organizations might also be interested in comparing different examples of similar organizations to reveal
the ways in which they operate, and the values and norms that shape those operations

Unit of Analysis: Groups

❖ Sociologists are keenly interested in social ties and relationships, which means that they often study groups of
people, be they large or small. Groups can be anything from families, to people who fall into particular racial or
gender categories, to friends groups, to whole generations of people. By studying groups sociologists can
reveal how social structures and forces affect whole categories of people on the basis of race, class, or gender,
for example.
❖ Groups vary in size, but almost no group is too small or too large to be of interest to social scientists.
❖ Families, friendship groups, and group therapy participants are some common examples of micro-level
groups examined by social scientists.
❖ Employees in an organization, professionals in a particular domain (e.g., chefs, lawyers, social workers),
and members of clubs (e.g., Girl Scouts, Rotary, Red Hat Society) are all meso-level groups that social
scientists might study.
❖ Finally, at the macro-level, social scientists sometimes examine citizens of entire nations or residents of
different continents or other regions.
❖ RESEARCH QUESTION: Do certain types of social clubs have more gadget-addicted members than other sorts
of clubs?
❖ DATA COLLECTION: Survey of students on campus
Errors in Unit of Analysis
❖ One common error people make when it comes to both causality and units of analysis is something called
the ecological fallacy. This occurs when claims about one lower-level unit of analysis are made based on data
from some higher-level unit of analysis.
❖ In many cases, this occurs when claims are made about individuals, but only group-level data have been
gathered. For example, we might want to understand whether electronic gadget addictions are more common
on certain campuses than others. Perhaps different campuses around the country have provided us with their
campus percentage of gadget-addicted students, and we learn from these data that electronic gadget
addictions are more common on campuses that have business programs than on campuses without them. We
then conclude that business students are more likely than non-business students to become addicted to their
electronic gadgets. However, this would be an inappropriate conclusion to draw. We only have addiction rates
by campus, so we can only draw conclusions about campuses, not about the individual students on those
campuses. Perhaps the social work majors on the business campuses are the ones that caused the addiction
rates on those campuses to be so high. The point is we simply don’t know because we only have campus-level
data. Therefore, we run the risk of committing the ecological fallacy if we draw conclusions about students
when our data are about the campus.
❖ In addition, another mistake to be aware of it reductionism. Reductionism occurs when claims about some
higher-level unit of analysis are made based on data from some lower-level unit of analysis. In this case, claims
about groups or macro-level phenomena are made based on individual-level data.
❖ An example of reductionism can be seen in some descriptions of the civil rights movement. On occasion,
people have proclaimed that Rosa Parks started the civil rights movement in the United States by refusing to
give up her seat to a White person while on a city bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in December 1955. Although
Parks played an invaluable role in the movement and her act of civil disobedience inspired courage in others, it
would be reductionist to credit her with starting the movement. Surely, many factors contributed to the rise
and success of the American civil rights movement, including legalized racial segregation, the historic 1954
Supreme Court decision to desegregate schools, and the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee to name a few. In other words, the movement is attributable to many factors—some social, others
political and others economic. Rosa Parks played a very important role in this development in American
history, but to say that she caused the entire civil rights movement would be reductionist.

Language of research
❖ To understand and communicate information about objects and events, there must be a common ground on
which to do it. Concepts serve this purpose.
❖ A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events,
objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors.
❖ Classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond any single observation
creates concepts. When you think of a spreadsheet or a warranty card, what comes to mind is not a single
example but your collected memories of all spreadsheets and warranty cards, from which you abstract a set of
specific and definable characteristics.
❖ We abstract such meanings from our experiences and use words as labels to designate them. For example, we
see a man passing and identify that he is running, walking, skipping, crawling, or hopping. These movements
all represent concepts. We also have abstracted certain visual elements by which we identify that the moving
object is an adult male, rather than an adult female or a truck or a horse. We use numerous concepts daily in
our thinking, conversing, and other activities To understand and communicate information about objects and
events, there must be a common ground on which to do it

Constructs
❖ Concepts have progressive levels of abstraction—that is, the degree to which the concept does or does not
have something objective to refer to. Table is an objective concept. We can point to a table, and we have
images of the characteristics of all tables in our mind.
❖ An abstraction like personality is much more difficult to visualize. Such abstract concepts are often called
constructs. In other words Constructs are concepts or ideas about an object, attribute, or phenomenon that
are worthy of measurement.
❖ A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building
purpose. We build constructs by combining the simpler, more concrete concepts, especially when the idea or
image we intend to convey is not subject to direct observation.
❖ Typical marketing constructs are brand loyalty, satisfaction, preference, awareness, knowledge.
❖ Research objectives typically call for the measurement of constructs.
❖ Definition
➢ Confusion about the meaning of concepts can destroy a research study’s value without the researcher or
client even knowing it. If words have different meanings to the parties involved, then the parties are not
communicating well. Definitions are one way to reduce this danger.
➢ Researchers struggle with two types of definitions: dictionary definitions and operational definitions.
➢ In the more familiar dictionary definition, a concept is defined with a synonym. For example, a customer is
defined as a patron; a patron, in turn, is defined as a customer or client of an establishment; a client is
defined as one who employs the services of any professional and, loosely, as a patron of any shop.
➢ Circular definitions may be adequate for general communication but not for research. In research, we
measure concepts and constructs, and this requires more rigorous definitions
➢ Researchers and statisticians use variables to describe and measure the items, places, people or ideas they
are studying. Many types of variables exist, and you must choose the right variable to measure when
designing studies, selecting tests and interpreting results. A strong understanding of variables can lead to
more accurate statistical analyses and results. In this article, we describe the types of variables and answer
some frequently asked questions.

Variables
❖ A variable is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we
assign values.
❖ In other words, variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and research. For
purposes of data entry and analysis, all studies analyze a variable, which can be done by assigning a numerical
value to a variable based on its properties which describe a person, place, thing or idea.
❖ In practice, the term variable is used as a synonym for construct, or the property being studied.
❖ Height, age, income, province or country of birth, grades obtained at school and type of housing are all
 examples of variables.
❖ Variables may be classified into two main categories: categorical and numeric.
❖ CATEGORICAL
➢ NOMINAL : Nominal data is defined as data that is used for naming or labelling variables, without any
quantitative value. It is sometimes called “named” data - a meaning coined from the word nominal. There
is usually no intrinsic ordering to nominal data. For example, Race, country, gender, hair color are nominal
variables having a number of categories, but there is no specific way to order from highest to lowest and
vice versa. Nominal data is a group of non-parametric variables
➢ ORDINAL : Ordinal data is a type of categorical data with an order. The variables in ordinal data are listed
in an ordered manner. The ordinal variables are usually numbered, so as to indicate the order of the list.
However, the numbers are not mathematically measured or determined but are merely assigned as labels
for opinions. For example: ordinal data includes having a position in class as “First” or “Second” Ordinal
data is a group of non-parametric ordered variables
❖ NUMERIC
➢ DISCRETE: Discrete data can only assume specific values that you cannot subdivide. Typically, you count
discrete values, and the results are integers. Discrete variables are countable in a finite amount of time.
For example, you can count the change in your pocket. If you work at an animal shelter, you’ll count the
number of cats. You can count the money in your bank account. You could also count the amount of
money in everyone’s bank accounts. It might take you a long time to count that last item, but the point
is—it’s still countable
➢ CONTINUOUS: Continuous data can assume any numeric value and can be meaningfully split into smaller
parts. Consequently, they have valid fractional and decimal values. In fact, continuous variables have an
infinite number of potential values between any two points. Generally, you measure them using a scale.
Continuous Variables would (literally) take forever to count. In fact, you would get to “forever” and never
finish counting them. For example, you have continuous data when you measure weight, height, length,
time, and temperature. Distance, temperature, age, are examples of continuous variables. These variables
may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.

Independent Variables
❖ An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone and is a singular
characteristic that the other variables in your experiment cannot change.
❖ “Age” is an example of an independent variable. Other factors (Where someone lives, such as what they eat,
how much they go to school, how much television they watch or how much they exercise ) aren't going to
change a person's age.
❖ “Promotional Effort” is an example of an independent variable.
❖ “Time spent in studying” is an example of an independent variable.
❖ Many times the term predictor variable is used as a synonym for independent variable.
❖ Independent variables can, however, change other variables.
❖ In fact, when researchers are looking for some kind of relationship between variables they try to find out
whether an independent variable causes other variables to change and in what way.
❖ We recognize that there are often several independent variables and that they are probably at least somewhat
“correlated” and therefore not independent among themselves.
Dependent Variables
❖ A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. It is something that depends on
other factors.
❖ The term criterion variable is used synonymously with dependent variable. This variable is measured,
predicted, or otherwise monitored and is expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable.
❖ Independent variables can influence dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot influence
independent variables.
❖ “Sales” is an example of a dependent variable.
❖ For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors
such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how
hungry you were when you took it. Usually when you are looking for a relationship between two things you are
trying to find out what makes the dependent variable change the way it does

Intervening variables
❖ An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a theoretical variable the researcher uses to
explain a cause or connection between other study variables —usually dependent and independent ones. They
are associations instead of observations.
❖ The variables mentioned with regard to causal relationships are concrete and clearly measurable—that is, they
can be seen, counted, or observed in some way.
❖ Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that’s why they are hypothetical).
❖ For example,
Wealth —> Life span
If wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a dependent variable, the researcher might
hypothesize that access to quality healthcare is the intervening variable that links wealth and life span.
Wealth —> Access to Health Care —> Life span
❖ For example,
Level of education —> Level of income
Level of education —> Occupation —> Level of income

Moderating variables
❖ A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship between dependent and independent variables
by strengthening or weakening the intervening variable's effect.
❖ A moderating or interaction variable is a second independent variable that is included because it is believed to
have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original relationship between dependent and
independent variables.
❖ For example:
➢ In a study looking at the relationship between economic status (independent variable) and how frequently
people get physical exams from a doctor (dependent variable), age is a moderating variable. That
relationship might be weaker in younger individuals and stronger in older individuals.
➢ The introduction of a four-day working week will lead to higher productivity, especially among younger
workers. In this case, there is a pattern of relationship between the four-day week and productivity that
results from age differences among the workers. Hence, after the introduction of a four-day working week,
the productivity gain for younger workers is higher than that for older workers.

Extraneous variables
❖ Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not originally
consider when designing the experiment. These unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's
results or how a researcher interprets those results.
❖ An almost infinite number of extraneous variables exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship.
Some can be treated as IVs or MVs, but most must either be assumed or excluded from the study. Fortunately,
an infinite number of variables has little or no effect on a given situation. Most can safely be ignored because
their impact occurs in such a random fashion as to have little effect.
❖ For example:
➢ Taking the example of the effect of the four-day working week, one would normally think that weather
conditions, the imposition of a local sales tax, the election of a new mayor, and similar events and
conditions would have little effect on working week and office productivity.
➢ A study assessing whether private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students'
Spanish test scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence the outcome include
parental support, prior knowledge of a foreign language or socioeconomic status.

Control variables
❖ There may be some variables which might influence the DV, but their effect is not at the core of the problem
we investigate. Still, we want to check whether our results are influenced by them. Therefore, we include them
as control variables (CVs) in our investigation to ensure that our results are not biased by not including them.
❖ Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are constant and do not change during a study.
Researchers might intentionally keep a control variable the same throughout an experiment to prevent bias.
❖ They have no effect on other variables.
❖ For example, in an experiment about plant development, control variables might include the amounts of
fertilizer and water each plant gets. These amounts are always the same so that they do not affect the plants'
growth.

Advantages of Research Proposal

There are some advantages to getting a research proposal from an outside consulting firm.
● First, there is fresh thinking on the marketing problem referred to by the company. This is because the
outsider’s approach is not subject to any constraints which may be applicable within the company.
● Second, it enables the company to evaluate the research capability of the consulting firm and its dependability.
When the company invites research proposals from more than one consulting firm, it can compare them in
respect of the nature and extent of work involved, the quality of proposals, cost and time. This comparison will
enable it to choose the most appropriate proposal.
● Third, a research proposal is always desirable as it offers some sort of a commitment from the consultant to
the company. In its absence, there may arise some misunderstanding and differences between the two parties
regarding the specifications, time or price.
● Finally, the research proposal, once approved by the company, becomes a contract, binding both the parties.
The company can then turn to other problems, since it is sure that the research will be taken care of by the
consulting firm.

Research Process
● All research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all
traverse through certain basic stages, forming a process called the research process.
● The research process is the paradigm of a research project which involves a number of interrelated activities
which overlap and follow a particular sequential and structured path. A researcher is often required to think a
few steps ahead.
● Although each research project is unique in some ways, and involves some common activities.
● For example, if a researcher has formulated a research problem and is considering the sampling plan, he is
supposed to consider the type of data to be collected as well as the detailed tabulation. This is because the
various steps are interwoven into each other and each step will have some influence over the following step.
● In research, even though our focus is on one particular step, other interrelated steps or operations are also
being looked into simultaneously. As we complete one activity or operation, our focus naturally shifts from it
to the subsequent one, i.e. the focus is not concentrated exclusively on one single activity or operation at any
particular point of time.
● It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher during each of the stages of the research
process. But, violation of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.
● A research process can be compared with a route map.
Step 1:Formulating the Research Problem
❖ The first step in research is formulating a research problem. It is the most important stage in applied research.
A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the research process,
starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.
❖ Further, poorly defined problems will not yield useful results. Poorly defined problems create confusion and do
not allow the researcher to develop a good research design.
It is rightly said that
“A problem well defined is half-solved”
❖ It may be mentioned that the problem formulation from the researcher’s point of view represents translating
the management problem into a research problem. In order to formulate an appropriate research problem
on the basis of a management problem, it is necessary to have a meaningful dialogue between the researcher
and the manager. The conflicting viewpoints between the top management and marketing researchers must
be reconciled if research has to be effective and useful. Without a meaningful dialogue, the problem is likely
to be defined poorly. The research carried out on that basis will hardly have any value for the management.
❖ A person with an inquisitive nature and the necessary background would recognize a problem or an
opportunity in less time than another who lacks these qualities. Once the researcher has identified two or
more problems or opportunities, the next question he should be concerned with is—which of the problems is
to be selected? This is necessary as he will not be in a position to take up all the problems on account of
limited finances and time constraints. In such a case he has to determine priorities, carefully examining their
importance to his organization. choosing a relatively less important problem would amount to wasting limited
resources. He should look into the value and cost aspects as explained in the preceding chapter. He should
then select that problem which gives the maximum net value of research.
○ The next core question is: whether all problems require research?.
○ We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research problems, and
thus, these do not need to be researched.
○ Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and a non-research problem.
❖ A complete problem definition must specify each of the following:
○ Sample and sampling units: The individuals or objects whose characteristics are to be measured are called
sampling units. The sampling units always identify the objects to be studied. It is necessary that the
universe is well defined.
○ Time and space boundaries: Marketing managers continually run the risk of making the right decision at
the wrong time. Opportunities are transient, the marketing executive who assumes a static environment is
doomed to failure.
○ Product features, and consumer preferences: The researcher may be interested in only one characteristic
of the product. It is necessary that the problem definition specify one or more characteristics to be
measured and the fact that the nature of relationships amongst them is to be determined. Further, the
preference of the consumer should be considered while defining the research objective.
○ Specific environmental conditions: The management is sometimes interested in knowing the behavior of
certain types of firms under specific economic conditions. In such cases, the problem definition must spell
out those conditions precisely. In other words, the problem definition must specify the environment for
which the company wants research results. It may also spell out the possibilities of changes as well as the
direction of change in the environment so that the results of the research study do not become irrelevant.
❖