Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging SECTION 3 B GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING AND LOGGING 3B.1 OVERVIEW Accurate geological information is an essential prerequisite for effective open pit mine design and operation. The need for reliable geological information is paramount in all aspects of the mining cycle, including: * Theaccurate estimation of ore reserve or resource including estimates of grade and tonnage; . An understanding of the controls on orebody geometry - including the influence of lithology, structure and alteration; * An-understanding of the groundwater regime and its likely influence on mining operations; © The provision of appropriate geotechnical data for the design of stable slope geometries; © Grade control of production operations an reconciliation of ore reserve sand, mine production in terms of metallurgical grade and tonnage estimates. The geological mapping of exposed outcrops and pit wall faces and logging of open hole and cored boreholes provide the basic data that underpins the achievement of the objectives outlined above. Geotechnical mapping and logging is a specialist subset of geological mapping and logging, in which special attention is paid to the distribution, properties and nature of the various defects or discontinuities in the rock mass. Section 3B, Page 1Australian Cenire for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3B.2 ROCK MASS DEFECTS Virtually all rock masses consist of an aggregate of blocks of solid or intact rock, or various sizes, which are bounded by discontinuities or defects. These defects can include one or more of the following: © bedding, foliation or schistosity; . contacts between rock types; © faults or fault zones; © joints; «veins, ‘The major properties of rock mass defects, in an engineering sense are: i) type eg fault, joint, bedding plane, etc; ii) orientation - defined by strike and dip, or more concisely, by dip direction and dip, of the plane which best fits the defect surface iii) persistence - the two dimensional extent of the defect within its plane; iv) spacing - the distance between adjacent defects of the same family, measured in the direction normal to the planes; v) shape - degree of correspondence, or otherwise, to a perfect plane, in the overall dimension of the defect; vi) roughness - nature of the surface of the defect, on a small scale; vii) aperture and infill - separation and nature of filling between the two faces of a defect. ‘These properties are inter-related to some degree. For example, the type of defectis usually related to its persistence. Bedding planes, foliation or schistosity and faults often have high persistence whereas joints usually do not. In addition these various parameters interact to influence the potential of a block of rock, or, depending on the scale (Figure 1), the whole slope to develop instability. Section 3B, Page 2Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 1 - Scale Effects in Rock Slope Stability 0 ‘Two discontinuities Several discontinuities ao Rock slope Jointed rock mass pasa unEnO ns SanONEnSEnEs ERASE SSNS EESESSnennnnEEEESSSSES NOES NEEEES ES NSONENEEE Section 38, Page 3Australian Contre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging ‘The influence of the various parameters on rock slope stability is outlined below. a) orientation - a critical parameter that largely controls the potential or a block to fail - a simple illustration is given in Figure 2; b) persistence - the persistence or trace length of a discontinuity can influence the ultimate extent of instability (Figure 3); ©) spacing - influences the number of unstable blocks that may occur, and ultimately the extent of the subsequent instability that may develop (Figure 4); d) shape & roughness - are important parameters that contribute to the shear strength of the discontinuity, and therefore the ability ofa potentially unstable block to slide; rough or undulating discontinuities have a correspondingly higher shear strength than smooth or polished discontinuities; Figure 5 shows a potentially unstable block ABC which, although it has an unfavourable geometry which may permit a sliding failure, may not fail due to the roughness of the discontinuity; e) _ infilling materials - may have a strong influence on the ability of a block to fail - similar to the influence of undulations on the actual discontinuity surface, the nature of the infilling materials will control the shear strength available along the discontinuity surface (Figure 5). 3B.3 FACE MAPPING PROCEDURES ‘The purpose of geological and geotechnical face mapping is to obtain sufficient geological and other information to enable a model of the rock mass to be formulated for subsequent stability analysis and design studies. Section 3B, Page 4Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 2 - The Influence of Discontinuity Orientation on Pit Wall Stability SET Os SET D1 IN THE PLANE OF THE DRAWING, HB Primary unstable blocks Section 3B, Page 5Australian Cenire for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 3 - The Influence of Discontinuity Persistence on Pit Wall Stability SET D2 ‘SET D2 CONTINUOUS: SET D3 LESS CONTINUOUS SET D2 ~ ser ps SET D1 IN THE PLANE OF SET 02 VARIABLE CONTINUITY ‘SET D3 CONTINUOUS, HE Primary unstable blocks ‘Section 3B, Page 6Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 4 - The Influence of Discontinuity Spacing on Pit Wall Stability SET D3 SET D1 IN THE PLANE OF THE DRAWING HEE rrimary unstable blocks fgg) Secondary unstable bocks Section 3B, Page 7Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 5 - The Influence of Discontinuity Shape and Roughness on Pit Wall Stal CLAY FILLED DEFECT HE Primary unstabie blocks Section 3B, Page 8Australian Cenire for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging ‘The principles for mapping surface and underground mine exposures are generally similar - however the technique that is adopted in a particular location may be dependent on a number of factors, including the degree of geological complexity, the time the excavation will remain open, and other design and operational considerations. There are three basic stages in the mapping process for open pit faces, namely: i) major feature mapping; ii) detailed mapping; and iii) specific mapping of critical features. 3B.3.1 Major Defect Mapping ‘Major defects are defined as those which could individually influence the stability of a bench face or series of faces and their predominant characteristics will be a high persistence (Figure 6). For purpose of definition, it is recommended that a major defect should be continuous over at least half a bench face, or approximately 7.5 m to 10 m. Features likely to constitute major defects are: © foliation or bedding planes; © faults; © rock type contacts; © prominent joints. These features are expected to be widely spaced and can be mapped using standard surveying techniques, such as: © taping between survey reference points, or © direct pick-up by EDM. These defects should be plotted on plans, with symbols showing dip and dip direction and numbered using some convenient system (e.g, Figure 6). A detailed description of each defect should be recorded, including relevant properties such as: . type; © orientation; © persistence; © planarity; . roughness; © aperture and infill. Section 3B, Page 9Australian Cenire for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 6 - Major Defect Mapping ‘SIDEWALL VIEW HANGINGWALL MAIN KINEMATIC FAILURE MODES RECOGNISED AND //// > GENERALISED //)/ FOOTWALL SUBJECTIVE + MAIN KINEMATIC POSSIBILITIES FOR FAILURE RECOGNISED AND JOINTS DESCRIBED SELECTIVELY Section 3B, Page 10Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Photogrammetric techniques provide a viable method of obtaining major feature mapping data for open pit mines. 3B.3.2 Detailed Mapping Once the major features have been delineated, it is possible to decide which areas should be mapped in more detail. ‘The objective of detailed mapping is to obtain information on smaller scale defects which in groups or sets could influence wall stability. In general, these defects will have a persistance less than 5 to 10 m, Since a very large number of these features will be exposed on the pit walls, some judgement is required in determining the amount of effort which should be expended in this, type of mapping, The overall geology will define several basic domains in the open pit area, for example: © the footwall amphibolites; © the hangingwall acid volcanic mine series, or * the hangingwall lower mafic sequence - the eastern mafics. ‘The major domains may, in turn, have subdivisions, both in rock type and locality. The same rock type may have different structural patterns in different parts of the area, depending on the development particular structures e.g, the frequency of the north dipping faults ete It will therefore be necessary, using the above and perhaps other criteria, to subdivide the open pit area into a number of structural domains, which are anticipated to have consistent structural pattems within themselves. Detailed mapping will then be required in each domain to establish this pattern Three different techniques are available for detailed mapping. These are: i) joint set mapping; ii) window mapping or cell mapping; and iii) Tine mapping. The first two methods are quite effective if used by an experienced geologist. The line mapping method is objective and can be used by less experienced personnel. Section 3B, Page 11Ausiralian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3B3.21 Joint Set Mapping In this method, a particular domain is inspected and the various defect sets identified visually. The characteristics of each set are then measured. If possible, 50 to 100 measurements should be made on each set. 3B3.2.2 Window Mapping or Cell Mapping (Figure 8) ‘This method involved mapping all defects within representative segments or windows along the bench faces. This form of mapping can be combined with standard geological mapping with little additional time requirement. ‘The sizes of the "windows" and the intervening unmapped sections should be chosen to suit the particular geological and structural conditions. However, experience has shown that 20m windows every 100 m on every second bench face is a satisfactory starting point. The length and spacing of windows should be altered as geological conditions dictate. 3B.3.2.3 Line Mapping (Figure 8) This technique consists of stretching a measuring tape at waist height along the exposed face and recording relevant data for each defect which intersects the tape. Although this method is the most precise method of survey, itis tedious and time consuming, However, it has the advantages of being objective and systematic and readily allows mathematical and statistical analysis of defect characteristics. 3B.3.3 Specific Mapping of Critical Features Depending on the geological complexity of a particular area or the sensitivity of a particular part of a pit wall toa particular mode of instability, it may be necessary to further refine the level of geological detail. In these cases specific structural features may need to be mapped in detail, e.g. an individual major fault zone, or the variability of bedding plane surfaces in the case of an unbenched dip slope. 3B.3.4 Mapping Technique The following points should be noted: i) Ingeneral, features with a persistence less than 1 m should not be mapped, unless they are members of prominent sets. ii) Fractures obviously resulting from blasting should not be mapped. Section 3B, Page 12Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geologival and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 7 - A Typical Geological Plan i Feu DeddngFotaton Trace Beading Dip ana Orection > Joni Dip and Diesen imnor Fee Punge and St Dracton Grest * Too Section 3B, Page 13Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 8 - Detailed Mapping Techniques -—- rr ce Winpow aa MAPPING ' LINE SURVEY Data corrected for sampling bias Section 3B, Page 14Ausiralian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 9 - Cell Mapping |_| BFP a SERSSEGs ono eae: pales GEOTECHNICAL AREA LOG esurneng — oow oMORDIS scum: ta Sins ther zen oe Hoe 2 fem Sim (areoay: hen war face onaaron FONG Mande ‘oe oem i [2 lel |e ig ja [5 (5 iglalsle| laf fe |e fe esle fe [els 5 [= Fels 5 is Sayconmvan qursveretast dco nr taueson ree dp Neve Section 3B, Page 15Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging iii) Care should be exercised, particularly in line mapping, that flat dipping defects are not ignored. If prominent flat dipping features occur, consideration should be given to vertical line mapping in selected areas, this will be especially important on hangingwall slopes where these joints could contribute to toppling failures. iv) Attempts should be made to map several faces in various orientations to minimise bias in mapping. 3B.3.5 Priority in Geological and Geotechnical Mapping ‘The information presented in the preceding sections should be treated as a guide. Each geologist and/or engineer involved in a pit wall mapping program should appreciate that some degree of flexibility is required. In particular, in many cases it may be necessary to merge the various mapping approaches discussed above. Priorities for the order of importance (and therefore mapping requirements) for the various discontinuity parameters is as follows: 1. Orientation and location of major faults/weak zones and infilling materials. 2. Orientation and location of contacts of major rock types. 3. Orientation of persistent discontinuities, 4, The spacing of persistent discontinuities. 5. The infilling of discontinuities. 6. The surface properties of discontinuities and other defects. 3B.4 DATA RECORDING Detailed mapping data should be systematically recorded on standard forms, which are designed to permit computer processing of the data. A typical form is shown in Figure 10. The recording form is specifically designed for line mapping but can be adapted to suite joint set or window mapping, if required. 3B, Page 16Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 10 - Line Traverse BFP Log Sheet “i GEOTECHNICAL LINE TRAVERSE LOG _AABFP PLUNGETEARNG: Baan Be fo Section 3B, Page 17Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3B4.1 Structural Compass It is recommended that a specialised structural compass be used for detailed mapping. ‘These compasses have the very great advantage that the dip and dip direction of a planar feature can be directly measured in one operation, and this significantly increases the rate of mapping, 3B.5 GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING FROM DIAMOND DRILL CORE 3B.5.1 Overview Diamond core drilling is one of the most expensive methods of geological and geotechnical datacollection, Itis essential therefore that the maximum amount of data are obtained from drill core. Drill core can provide the following data for use in open pit wall design: © geological, lithological and structural data; * ore grade and metallurgical information (where the cored hole intersects the ore body); © water level and rock permeability data; © detailed geotechnical information on discontinuities; © when oriented core is available, the dip and dip direction of discontinuities may be obtained. Accurate discontinuity orientations are only possible when the logged orientations are corrected for hole deviation at close intervals along the hole. Hole surveys should be taken at regular intervals - to be varied according to the likely degree of deviation, the prevailing geological conditions and the depth of the hole. A variety of borehole techniques and drilling equipment may be used to obtain high quality drill core, particularly for the engineering assessment of pit slope stability. Some of these techniques are described in more detail below. Section 3B, Page 18Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3B.5.2 Requirements for Geotechnical Drilling ‘The requirements for geotechnical drilling are more stringent than conventional exploration drilling, The emphasis is placed on maximising the recovery of intact core, methods of orienting the recovered core and in some cases the use of specialist techniques such as down-hole geophysics to improve the overall volume and quality of geological and geotechnical data ‘The overall aim in geotechnical drilling is to recover both samples of rock substance and the rock mass complete with discontinuities. ‘The emphasis should be placed on core recovery rather than drilling meterage - and as a result, the cost of this type of drilling is likely to be higher, although the additional cost should be considered in light of the volume of geological and geotechnical information that can be obtained. 3B5.21 Drilling Techniques For all engineering/geotechnical drilling programs, the maximum level of intact core recovery is essential. In particular, the recovery of soft or weak zones, so often of considerable importance to the assessment of slope stability, is often crucial. However, these zones are often the most difficult to recover. Following extensive field evaluation over a number of years, the Longyear Q-3 series triple tube wireline core barrel has proven successful in geotechnical drilling programs, particularly in respect of optimising core recovery. ‘Atypical wireline system is shown in Figure 11. As the rotating drill bit advances into the ‘ground, the cylindrical core sample is held within an inner split tube that does not rotate during the drilling process. When the drilling run is completed, rotation ceases and the drill rods and bit are pulled back from the base of the hole. At this point, the core sample tends to slide from the inner tube, ‘The core is prevented from falling out of the drill bit by an inner split tube and a wedge shaped core catcher which jams the core sample causing it to break off - often at the nearest discontinuity. ‘The inner tube is retrieved using an overshot arrangement lowered down inside the drill rods, and the spit tube is removed from the main inner tube usually by water pressure. Section 3B, Page 19Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 11 - Wireline Drilling System WIRELINE ©@ oversnor artackMent (LOWERED AT ENO OF RUN TO RETRIEVE TUBE] Drilling Mud Passes Between Drill Rods & Inner Tube, Then Over Drill Bit, (See Arrows) @ wer twee (NOT ROTATING DURING DRILLING} oritt pos ©) (ROTATING DURING DRILLING) @ cone carcnen Section 3B, Page 20Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3BS.2.2 Core Orientation Knowledge of the dip and dip direction of discontinuities is fundamental to the rational engineering design of open pit slopes. Therefore every attempt should be made to orient cored boreholes drilled specifically for geotechnical purposes. ‘Two main techniques are available for orienting recovered core, namely; relative orientation in relation to @ prominent and consistent structural feature ~ e.g, consistent bedding orientation; © absolute orientation - in which a direct attempt is made to orient the core sample itself, typically using some form of orientation device. a) Relative Orientation The approach is typically adopted when drilling programs are undertaken in geological situations with consistent and prominent structural features. For example in a situation where bedding dips consistently at 30° towards 180*, a borehole inclined at 60° towards (000° will intersect these planes at right angles. The orientation of other discontinuities can then be oriented in relation to the bedding fabric. b) Absolute Orientation ‘The more common approach to core orientation involves the orientation of the core sample itself, usually by the scribing of a reference line of known orientation on the recovered core. One of the most commonly used orientation devices is the Craelius Core orienter (Figure 11), ‘The Craclius orientation operation is carried as follows: 1. When the run is completed and the inner tube removed, an inclined break is commonly left at the base of the hole. 2. ‘The Craelius device is lowered on the wireline with a series of metal ;prongs' protruding from the face. On gentle contact with the rock surface, the prongs assume the shape of the contact ‘As the device is completely lowered, the unit slides back into a sleeve, and pushes a small steel ball into a lead washer. 4, The unit is withdrawn, Section 3B, Page 21Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phit Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Login Figure 12 - The Craelius Core Orienter and its Operation ORIENTING TOP QRIENTING REMAINDER OF RUN PIECE OF CORE BALL MARK TRANSFERRED I | [core From | |Next “RUN. ‘SCRIBE ORIENTATION UNE ALONG JOINED PIECES OF CORE. Section 3B, Page 22Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotecinical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging ‘The next run is drilled, and the prongs of the device are then aligned with the rock at the top of the run, following removal from the core barrel. ‘The ball mark is transferred down on to the drilleore, and after aligning the pieces from the next run, the line is carried down the drillcore as for as possible. Figure 10 shows the stages of the operation, Using this technique, the line is transferred back up the core with a clear arrow marked on each piece to show the down-hole direction. Transferring the line up the core allows cross-checks to be made on the accuracy and consistency of each orientation run. In weak rock, core losses are frequent, and broken zones in the core limit the distance over which a single orientation can be carried. For this reason, core orientation should be attempted at regular intervals, and run lengths should be restricted to 1.5 m or less, An orientation takes about 10 minutes at depths of up to 100m, and the driller can readily carry out the orientation after some practice. Alternative orientation devices include: i) Christensen-Hugel core barrel - in this system three tungsten carbide points scribe the core continuously while coring. The reference marks are oriented bya magnetic or gyroscopic survey instrument mounted in the core barrel, ii) Borehole impression devices - in which hydraulic or pneumatic pressure is used to inflate a packer or other device that presses a thermoplastic film against the borehole wall, thereby gaining an impression of the drill core. Orientation is achieved by marking the drill string or by using a Craclius or other orientation device. iii) An acid etch system in which a glass vial or bottle is partly filled with a dilute solution of hydrofluoric acid and lowered to the base of the hole in a specially shortened and marked core barrel. The tube is left at the base of the hole, allowed to etch, removed and then a short length of coring completed. From the etched line showing the base of the borehole it is possible to orient the core and mark a reference line in the same way as for the Craelius system. iv) Lowering pointed "spears" to mark the lowest side of the hole. In soft rock this technique has been found to have only 20% to 30% of the success of the Craelius device. vy) Loweringa glass phial containing paint which dribbles onto the base of the hole and sets, Very time consuming and not very successful. Section 3B, Page 23Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging 3B5.23 Borehole Surveying An essential part of any oriented core logging program is ‘the determination of the orientation of the borehole. For accurate orientation of the core - and therefore the orientation of any measured structural features, it is essential that the dip and dip direction of the hole is known in sufficient detail to interpolate the deviation at any depth. A number of survey tools are used including: © Photographic methods - generally using magnetic survey instruments which are used to obtain records on photographic film of the dip and dip direction at various depth down the borehole. Examples include the Sperry one-shot and the Eastman camera systems. + Mechanical/Photographic methods using a clamping device to enable a similar compass system to be clamped against the borehole wall and the orientation recorded. The disadvantage with this system is that generally only one orientation ata time can be made. © Geophysical techniques - generally based on magnetic and gravity methods using slimline logging equipment; often a continuous record of borehole dip and dip direction can be provided using this technique. . Acid etch techniques similar to those used for actual orientation of the core. The simplest of techniques, generally gives a measure of hole inclination only. 3B.5.3 Geotechnical Logging Techniques ‘The objective of the geotechnical core log is to record information from the cored hole that reflects the condition of the ground penetrated, This will include information both from the drilling process and from the actual recovered core, Similar to geological and geotechnical mapping procedures, there is a range in approaches to geotechnical logging, based on the degree of detail obtained during the logging process Two levels of logging can be carried out, namely: a) summary logging; and b) detailed logging. Section 3B, Page 24Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight, Geological and Georechnical Mapping. and Logging a) Summary Logging Summary engineering logging can provide fairly detailed engineering data from drill core at the same time as geological logging is performed, without an appreciable decrease in the rate of logging. Performed on exploration and development core, this type of logging can provide much of the information necessary for preliminary slope design studies, and can be used as a basis for planning detailed geotechnical programs. The summary engineering data can be recorded on a structural summary log (see Figure 13). The principal features to be recorded in summary logging are: 1. Discontinuity Orientation = The angle between discontinuity or bedding planes and the core axis, recorded by fracture type, 2. Rock Properties ~ type; - hardness; ~ alteration. 3. Location of Gouge Zones, Broken Core, Core Loss Zones = depths concerned identified with an appropriate symbol; = comments on the nature of gouge; = percent core loss determined, 4 Fracture Log = Acount of the number of natural fractures in each metre. 5) Detailed Logging Detailed core logging is equivalent to the more detailed techniques such as scaline mapping. ‘The logging technique is often performed immediately the core is recovered and, consequently, usually requires full-time rig supervision. It can be carried out conjunctively with geological logging and oriented core logging. Section 3B, Page 25Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 13 - Manual Geological Logging Sheet lliitn Hoaesseuae alnlin nll aR5cRESE gull Ee e849 “SAVPLING AND TESTING Description Be aude Section 3B, Page 26Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Using the descriptions a consistent set of the following should be described (where appropriate): © rock type; © relationship of interbedded rock types; © colours; * grain size; © strength; © lithological adjectives; © mechanical adjectives; © description of bedding; © description of porosity (in sandstones); © friability and cement (in sandstones). The following information should also be recorded in the course of drilling: © depth and type of casing; © anyproblems which necessitated casing; © drilling fluids used and amounts; «© finid Losses; © bad drilling zones; © zones of severe bit wear; © problems with caving; . zones of severe core loss; © drilling method(s) and dates; © drilling machine make and model; © groundwater levels and dates measured. In addition to the generalised geological information discussed above, detailed core logging involves the detailed description of rock mass characteristics, most particularly in relation to the detailed description of discontinuities. This type of logging includes information on the following parameters: © — RQDor Rock Quality Designation - a measure of rock fracturing determined by the sum of the individual lengths of intact pieces of core in excess of 100 mm within a core run divided by the length of the core run and expressed as a percentage. RQD is only measured in moderately weathered or better quality rock ‘Section 3B, Page 27Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging and any core loss sections are included in the run as having zero length. © Discontinuity type - defects are categorised by generic type and a subsidiary description to denote whether they have been induced by drilling or are in-situ. * Orientation - if the core has been oriented then dip and dip direction should be recorded as described below. . Spacing - the distance for each defect - measured down the hole should be recorded. © Surface properties - the shape and roughness of the discontinuity surface should be described in detail. © Infilling - the nature and thickness of the infilling materials should be recorded, ‘As a result of the level of detail involved in detailed logging - each individual fracture should be logged for the parameters discussed above - it is often appropriate to log using a coded system rather than by manual methods. Examples of typical manual and coded logging sheets are given in Figures 14 and 15. ‘The advantages of a coded logging system is that it enables rapid recording of geological and geotechnical data in addition to providing the basis for subsequent computer processing to make data analysis more efficient. ©) Oriented Core The logging of oriented core requires special procedures in relation to measuring the orientation of a discontinuity in a piece of oriented core. Two measurements are required to be taken (Figure 15) © Theangle (1) of the discontinuity relative to the core axis - this is measured using a simple core protractor, with all angles being measured to the nearest degree: * The orientation angle of the discontinuity - or apparent dip direction (B) measured relative to the orientation line; this is measured using a linear protractor (Figure 15) for the particular core size; the angle between the orientation line and the lower ellipse of the discontinuity is recorded; measurements are always made clockwise from the reference line looking down the core. Section 3B, Page 28Australian Centre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 14 - BFP Core Logging Sheet GEOTECHNICAL CORE LOG bane. Section 3B, Page 29Australian Contre for Geomechanics Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 15 - Measurements Required for Oriented Core CORE DIP DIRECTION ANGLE RELATED TO REFERENCE LINE ‘MEASURED CLOCKWISE, . LOOKING DOWN CORE MAXIMUM DIP VECTOR REFERENCE LINE DISCONTINUITY CORE DIP ANGLE x as, » le IY . \ | SESE? z g = & @ Section 3B, Page 30Australian Centre for Geomechanies Geotechnical Engineering for Open Pit Mines Phil Dight LINEAR PROTRACTOR, Geological and Geotechnical Mapping and Logging Figure 16 - Linear Core Protractors Has. NX Section 3B, Page 31