FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS IN CHINA

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

BY
K.Meghana
2018LLB039
SEMESTER X
5 YEAR INTEGRATED B.A., LL.B. (HONS.) COUR

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

DR. I. DURGAPRASAD

SUBJECT
COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTION

DATE OF SUBMISSION
25-03-2023

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

“NYAYAPRASTHA”, SABBAVARAM, VISAKHAPATNAM-531035
ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express sincere gratitude to my Professor MR. DR. I. DURGAPRASAD Sir who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful Seminar Paper on the topic
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS IN CHINA- A CRITICAL
ANALYSIS.

While drafting this Seminar Paper, I came to know many new things which will help me a lot in
the journey of life which I am about to embark. I would also like to thank my Librarian Sir,
seniors, friends and family who supported me a lot in completing this Seminar Paper within the
deadline.

2
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF
CITIZENS IN CHINA- A CRITICAL ANALYSIS for the Seminar Paper COMPARATIVE
CONSTITUTION submitted to DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW
UNIVERSITY, VISAKHAPATNAM; is a record of original work done by MRS.
K.MEGHANA under my supervision and guidance to my satisfaction.

VISAKHAPATNAM SIGNATURE OF THE GUIDE

DATE:

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………...…….4
AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY…………………………………………...
………...4
SCOPE OF THE STUDY……………………………………………………………..…………4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………..……………...5
REVIEW OF LITERATURE…………………………………………………..………….……5
HYPOTHESIS…………………………………………..……………………………………….5
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..………………………………...6
1954 CONSTITUTION……………………………………………………………..……………
7
1975 CONSTITUTION………………..…………………………………………………………
9
1978 CONSTITUTION…………………………………………………………………………
11
1982 CONSTITUTION…………………………………………………………………………
12
THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION OF
CHINA………………….......16
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS IN CHINESE CONSTITUTION………………………………
19
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES IN CHINESE CONSTITUTION………………………………33
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS WHICH ARE PART OF FUNDAMENTAL
DUTIES……….36
JUDICIALIZATION OF THE CHINESE
CONSTITUTION……………………………….37
SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION……………………………………………………….48
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………...….49

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 ABSTRACT

The legal term “fundamental rights” has been well recognized in international treaties and
legislations. The present study investigates the stipulations on fundamental rights and duties in
the four versions (1954, 1975, 1978, and 1982) to the Constitution of the People’s Republic of
China (PRC) from a Legal perspective. The findings in this study indicate that the provisions in
the Constitution are crafted in such a manner that the dominant social and political participants
employ them to maintain their ruling position and promote social and economic developments.
In the successive versions and Amendments to the PRC Constitution, the evolution of the
provisions on fundamental rights not only demonstrates the development of fundamental rights
in China, but also illuminates the underlying mediation mainly among the Chinese government,
the Communist Party of China (CPC), and Chinese people. The connotation and validity therein
is constructed through communication and competition among various participants. It is
therefore argued that the status quo of fundamental rights and duties in China is the result of
mediation among the relevant participants under the impact of the social and economic
development. The State and the CPC are thus suggested to loosen their grips to promote Chinese
people’s participation in the mediation process with more attention to the social and economic
reality. This Seminar Paper is an attempt to critically analyse the legal provisions regarding the
fundamental rights and duties of Chinese citizen as per the Chinese Constitution.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The Aim and Objective of this Seminar Paper is to critically analyse the legal provisions

5
regarding the fundamental rights and duties of Chinese Citizen as per the Chinese Constitution.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study for this Seminar Paper will be restricted to the laws, legal principles and
jurisprudence with regard to the concept of the fundamental rights and duties of Chinese Citizen
as per the Chinese Constitution.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology used in this Seminar Paper will be doctrinal research. The author
would analyse judgments of the various courts to determine the aim of the study. The data
collected is mainly secondary in nature. The sources of data for this Seminar Paper include the
literature published by various magazines, Journals, Books and research papers dealing with the
concept of the fundamental rights and duties of Chinese Citizen as per the Chinese Constitution.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 Chen, J. F. 1999. Chinese law: Towards an understanding of Chinese law, its nature,
and development. Hague: Kluwer Law International: In this Article the Author
discusses about the nature and development of law in the context of China.
 Edwards, R. R., L. Henkin & A. J. Nathan. 1986. Human rights in contemporary
China. New York: Columbia University Press: In this Article the Author critically
analyses the scope and extent of the Human Rights aspect in China.
 Lin, F. 2000. Constitutional law in China. Hong Kong: Sweet & Maxwell Asia.
Lubman, S. B. 1999. Bird in a cage: Legal reform in China after Mao. Stanford:
Stanford University Press: In this Article the Author has done a detailed and
comprehensive analyses of Legal reforms related to Constitutional Law in China.
 Mo, J. H. 2008. Constitutional law of China and its development. Paper presented at
the Conference on Constitutionalism in China in the past one-hundred years and its
future, City University of Hong Kong: In this Research Paper an attempt is made to

6
 encapsulate the Constitutional Law in China and its development.

HYPOTHESIS

For decades, the Chinese Constitution has been thought to lie outside judicial purview and hence
it is perceived that the fundamental rights and duties are under great threat but then also an
invisible constitutional framework has evolved which safeguards the basic Human Rights.

INTRODUCTION

Once Napoleon said about China, “There lies a sleeping giant. Let it sleep, for when he wakes he
will shake the world.” Actually, if Napoleon would have been alive in this 21 st century he surely
would have praised his own back, as his sayings have turned out to be very much true. China has
witnessed many various kingdoms taking their shape & then dying out, like the first Chinese
empire being created in around 221 BC to the Manchu dynasty, where it crumbled down in the
foots of the exploring & exploitative European bosses. This crumbling down incident, as far now
was the last phase where the Chinese bowed down to an external dominance. The Chinese soon
asserted their independence under their undisputed leader of the Communist party of China, of
which Mao Tse-tung was an exceptional name since 1935.

China has had fought bravely against their main ideological rival, & i.e.; the capitalists, feudal-
lords & exploiters of the Social classes & the mere public. Thus, gained their independence in
1949 under the guidance of Mao Tse-tung, who had rocked the nation under the umbrella of one
single ideology of running a state, so as to bring peace & stability in the country against the
public enemies & to safeguard & protect the rights of the society as a whole, this ideology was
first given birth by Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, & later experimented & given the element of
o2 by Vladimir Lenin in Russia as the sun had set in the backdrop of Czar`s name & fame. Thus,
for the whole world it was known as the ideology of Marxist-Leninist ideology as well, which in
turn in China had added the essence of Mao Zedong as well.

China has till now, faced with the 3 constitutions at least, from the 1954 constitution (a.k.a.
Transitional Constitution) to the 1978 constitution, & the latest & the current running

7
constitution being that of 1982, which was adopted on December 4, 1982 & later amended in
1993 & 1999 with a few minor & few substantial amendments in the constitution of 1978. The
Constitution of 1982 is still being practiced in China & it`s main party, i.e.; the Communist Party
of China. The present constitution of China is very much credited to be unique in nature & style
than its predecessor constitutions. Such as the inclusion of Rights & Duties as a Fundamental
subject.
1954 CONSTITUTION

The 1954 Constitution is the first official Constitution for the PRC. On March 24, 1954, the
drafting committee of the Constitution had its first meeting and approved the draft, which was
later passed on to and adopted at the first meeting of the National People’s Congress (NPC) on
September 20, 1954 (Wen 1994: 18–30). The 1954 version, as Wen (1994: 55–94) describes,
bore deep imprints from the Soviet model in terms of its structure, general principles, and basic
contents. Scholars such as Zhang and Wang (1989: 151) suggest that the 1954 version borrowed
too much from the Soviet Union both in terms of the rhetoric and contents, while no sufficient
regard was given to China’s own situation. The third Chapter of the 1954 Constitution,
comprising eighteen articles (from Article 86 to Article 103), was about fundamental rights and
obligations, with coverage ranging from basic human rights, such as equality in law and the
freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession, and of demonstration,
to the rights of socialist characteristics, such as the rights to work and rest. The basic subjects to
such fundamental rights were zhonghua renmin gongheguo gongmin (“the PRC citizens”).
Gongmin (“citizen”) was, however, not an indigenous but imported legal term, and was
referentially problematic. In times of momentous social changes, the meaning of gongmin was
inevitably devalued by the propaganda of revolution and a longstanding tradition of feudal
collective morality. For more than 2000 years, Chinese people had been living in the name of
chenmin (subordinate), as pointed out in Xu’s (1989) Shuowen Jiezi: “Chen means to drag.
[Chen] is to serve the emperor. This Chinese character is shaped like a lowered eye. Any word
composed of chen has the connotation of chen” (Xu 1989, emphasis added).1

Chenmin enjoyed nothing and was unconditionally subordinate to the emperor. The western

1
Chen, A. H. Y. 2004. An introduction to the legal system of the People’s Republic of China. Hong Kong,
LexisNexis.
8
concept of “citizen” as an individual invested with civil and political rights burgeoned as early as
the end of Qing Dynasty, which was championed by the reformer Liang Qichao in his pioneering
works, typically in New Citizen (1902–1903; cf. Liang 2003). But such a concept was soon
displaced by the rhetoric of class struggle and collectivism during the ensuing revolutionary
period (1958–1976). The Chinese mentality and tradition of being chenmin had not changed
overnight. According to a government survey in 1995 that aimed to ascertain people’s
knowledge of Chinese citizenship, many people were confused about what constituted
citizenship and were uncertain about the rights and obligations entailed in citizenship as
stipulated in the Constitution. Moreover, the concept of gongmin was never expressly defined in
the 1954 Constitution. Semantically, gongmin in the 1954 Constitution referred to Chinese
people; nevertheless, Chinese people were not ready to adapt themselves into the role they were
gaining from the hard-fought revolution. They were in general unaware of such fundamental
rights, let alone enjoying them.2

In the 1960s, the distinctiveness of the fundamental rights for the PRC citizens was also
embedded within an authoritarian mode of governance and a collectivist understanding of rights.
The encroaching hand of the State penetrated into every corner of the 1954 Constitution. In all
the eighteen provisions on fundamental rights, eight of them were explicitly stipulated to be
guaranteed by the State, taking Article 87 as an example:

“Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly,
of association, of procession and of demonstration. The State supplies indispensible material
convenience to ensure citizens to enjoy thereof.”
(1954 Constitution)

According to Article 87, the most essential fundamental rights for the PRC citizens, namely the
freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession, and of demonstration,
required the guarantee of the State. The provision connoted that such fundamental rights were
hard to realize without the intervention of the State. It was an explicit sign of the State’s power
over the citizens’ fundamental rights. Although the concept of fundamental rights was wholly
western, it was attached with the mentality of “nation first” (Han 2008). These attached symbols

2
Chen, J. F. 1999. Chinese law: Towards an understanding of Chinese law, its nature, and development. Hague:
Kluwer Law International.
9
wholly repudiated the authentic meaning and validity of such fundamental rights. Such a
deviation could be attributed to the underlying discrepancies in legal philosophy. Western legal
philosophy regarded fundamental rights as inborn and natural as best exemplified in the US
Constitution, in which fundamental rights are regarded as springing from the dignity of human
being. However, fundamental rights in China were deemed as benefits from the State. The
fundamental rights stipulated in the 1954 Constitution thus deviated from their authentic
meanings, and the effectiveness and validity also became negotiable.

In conclusion, the fundamental rights stipulated in the 1954 Constitution were profoundly vague.
The breakdown of the semiotic interpretation process (Cheng and Sin 2008) reduced the
provisions on fundamental rights to meaninglessness or ineffectiveness. The subjects of the
provisions on fundamental rights were either without clear referents or with referents but not
recognized in the social process. The provisions of fundamental rights were immersed in the
guarantees and promises of the State, which cast clouds on the spirit of fundamental rights. The
absolute control of the State rendered participation of social groups impossible and hence
authentic communication cut off. The 1954 Constitution is mostly a clone of the Soviet Union’s
Constitution inserted with Chinese feudal symbols. The provisions of fundamental rights
exhibited a hybrid of the feudal ideological heritage and new aspirations of modernity enveloped
in the western rhetoric.3
1975 CONSTITUTION

The first experiment with constitutional law in China was rather short-lived. By 1957, all means
of production in China had been nationalized, despite the fact that two articles of the 1954
Constitution gave legal protection to private ownership of the means of production (Articles 11
and 12). The 1975 version was a brief document filled with revolutionary phraseology and fitting
complement to the frantic years of the Cultural Revolution. This version embodied the
continuing struggle of the proletariat against capitalist elements of society and abolished most of
the legal protections prescribed in the 1954 Constitution.

There were all together only four articles on fundamental rights in the 1975 Constitution (from
Article 26 to Article 29). A number of fundamental rights were deleted from the 1954
3
Edwards, R. R., L. Henkin & A. J. Nathan. 1986. Human rights in contemporary China. New York: Columbia
University Press.
10
Constitution, such as equality before the law and right to heritage. Following the leadership of
the CPC, upholding Socialism and obeying the PRC Constitution and laws were placed at the
beginning of the chapter on fundamental rights, as indicated in Article 26:

“The fundamental rights and obligations of citizens are to follow the leadership of the
Communist Party of China, uphold Socialism, and obey the Constitution and laws. It is the
sacred duty of every citizen to defend the motherland and resist aggression. It is the honorable
duty of citizens to perform military service and join the militia in accordance with the law.”
(1975 Constitution)

This article was an extreme depiction of the turmoil of the times of the Cultural Revolution.
Citizens’ fundamental rights were expressly ignored and gave way to the leadership of the CPC
and socialism. Even the wording was compromised. No respect was paid to the protection of the
fundamental rights of the PRC citizens. Citizens were only to be blatantly employed by the State
to consolidate its governance. The “nation first” mentality and collectivism morality (e.g., Han
2008; Zhao et al. 2003) culminated in the 1975 Constitution. In that sense, the 1975 Constitution
was a big step backward from the 1954 Constitution with regard to the stipulations on
fundamental rights, representing a victory of the Leftist party in China. The aspiration for the
ideal of constitutionalism was wholly abandoned.

The provisions of fundamental rights and duties are the signs of the prevailing of the State’s
power over Citizens’ rights. If the 1954 Constitution is a trial compromise between the new era
and the old tradition, the 1975 Constitution is the whim of the State power’s holder as a way to
once again consolidate the ruling position of the CPC.

The 1975 Constitution, proposed for the purpose of political propaganda, upset the dynamic
balance of the State and the citizens and could never be affirmed by the social process. It was
doomed to be a failure. The social process after all can also influence the legislation. The
Chinese society is to spontaneously generate its own legislation under the pressure of the existing
chaotic social conditions. Indeed, the 1975 Constitution, as notorious as it might be, vividly
reflects the reality of the frantic times.4
4
Han, D. Y. 2008. The concept of fundamental rights in the context of the PRC constitution law: The origin and
evolution of fundamental rights in China. Paper presented at the Conference on Constitutionalism in China in the
past one-hundred years and its future, City University of Hong Kong.
11
 1978 iCONSTITUTION

In ithe i1978 iConstitution, ithe irhetoric iof iclass istruggle iwas iretained, ialthough imuch iof
ithe iradical ilanguage iof ithe i1975 iConstitution iwas ideleted. iIt icould ibe iviewed iagainst
ithe ihistorical ibackdrop iof itop-level ileadership icompetition iand istruggles iin ithe iParty
iand igovernment ibetween iDeng iXiaoping’s ifaction iand iHua iGuofeng iand ihis imore
iavowedly iMaoist ifollowers. iSuch icompetition iand istruggle iis iexplicitly iexhibited iin ithe
iwording iof ithe iprovisions ion ifundamental irights, isuch ias ithe irights ito i“speak iout
ifreely, iair iviews ifreely, ihold igreat idebates iand iwrite ibig-character iposters” iin iArticle
i45. iChinese ipeople ithen idid inot ihave iany idiscursive ipower. iSuch irights iwere ide ifacto
inot irights iat iall. iThey iwere iemployed iby ithe iruling iParty ito iprosecute iand ioppress iits
iopponents. iIndeed, ieven ithe iprovisions iof iCitizens’ ifundamental irights iwere iturned iinto
ithe ibattlefield ifor isuch ia ipolitical istruggle ias ishown iin iArticle i45: i

“Citizens ienjoy ifreedom iof ispeech, iof ithe ipress, iof iassembly, iof iassociation, iof
iprocession, iof idemonstration iand iof istrike. iCitizens iare ientitled ito ispeak iout ifreely,
iair iviews ifreely, ihold igreat idebates iand iwrite ibig-character iposters.” i
(1978 iConstitution)

Citizens’ ifundamental irights istill iremained inull iand ivoid. iChinese ipeople iwere inot ieven
iregarded ias iparticipants ito ibe iheard iin ithe istruggle. iAlthough imost iof ithe iprovisions iof
ifundamental irights iwere ivery isimilar ito ithose iin ithe i1954 iConstitution, ithe i1978
iConstitution iwas inot ia icomplete ireturn. iThe iinterferences iby ithe iState iand ithe iCPC
iwere iactually istrengthened. iThe ifundamental ilines iof ithe iCultural iRevolution icontinued
iunder ithe ileadership iof ithe iParty ileader iHua iGuofeng ias iindicated iin iArticle i56: i

“Citizens imust ifollow ithe ileadership iof ithe iCommunist iParty iof iChina, iuphold

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 iSocialism iand iobey ithe iConstitution iand ilaws.”
(1978 iConstitution)

In ithe i1978 iConstitution, iwhich iwitnessed iand iencoded ithe ipolitical istruggle iamong
idifferent ifractions iof ithe iCPC, ithe idisregard iand idisrespect ifor ithe ifundamental irights
iof ithe iPRC icitizens icontinued? iThe iprovisions iin ithe i1978 iConstitution isimply
ireiterated ithe irhetoric iin ithe iCultural iRevolution, iand ihence iremained inull iand ivoid. iAs
iin ithe i1954 iConstitution, ithe idegree iof iautonomy, iself-regulation, iand ithe ibinding
ipower iof ithe iChinese ipeople iwas iextremely ilow iin ithe i1978 iConstitution. iThe
icommunication iavenue iamong iChinese ipeople, ithe iState iand ithe iCPC ihad inot iyet ibeen
iestablished, ilet ialone ithe iparticipation iand imediation ion ithe ipart iof iChinese ipeople.

1982 iCONSTITUTION

The ivictory iof iDeng iXiaoping iover iHua iGuofeng ias ithe inew iParty ileadership iushered
iin ithe ienactment iof ithe i1982 iConstitution, iwhich irepudiated ithe iCultural iRevolution
iand ishifted ithe iParty’s ifocus ifrom ipolitical imovements ito ieconomic idevelopment, ias
ioutlined iby iDeng iXiaoping iin ihis ireport iat ithe ienlarged imeeting iof ithe iPolitburo iof
ithe iCentral iCommittee iof ithe iCPC iin iAugust i1980:

“iThe iCentral iCommittee iwill isubmit iproposals ifor irevising ithe iConstitution iof ithe
iPeople’s iRepublic ito ithe iThird iSession iof ithe iFifth iNational iPeople’s iCongress. iOur
iConstitution ishould ibe imade imore icomprehensive iand iprecise iso ias ito ireally iensure
ithe ipeople’s irights ito imanage ithe iState iorgans iat iall ilevels ias iwell ias ithe ivarious
ienterprises iand iinstitutions, ito iguarantee ito iour ipeople ia ifull ienjoyment iof itheir irights
ias icitizens, ito ienable ithe idifferent inationalities ito iexercise igenuine iregional iautonomy,
ito iimprove ithe imulti-level isystem iof ipeople’s icongresses, iand iso ion. iThe iprinciple iof
ipreventing ithe iover-concentration iof ipower iwill ialso ibe ireflected iin ithe irevised
iConstitution.” i

(Deng i1984: i322)

As ia iDengist iConstitution, ithe i1982 iConstitution iaffirmed ithe isocialist ilegal iprinciples

13
ithat iwere ifirst iexpressed iin ithe i1954 iConstitution. iIn i1982 iConstitution, ithe ichapter ion
ifundamental irights iwas imoved ifrom ithe ithird ichapter ito ithe isecond, iwhich iis ioften
iregarded ias ia igrand igesture iof ithe iParty’s iwillingness ito igive ipriority ito ithe iCitizens’
ifundamental irights i(e.g., iMo i2008; iZhao iet ial. i2003). iIt iis iin ireality ithe iresult iof iboth
ithe iinner imotivation iof isocial iand ieconomic iconditions iand ithe iexternal imediation
iamong iChinese ipeople, ithe iCPC, iand ithe iState. iWith ithe idevelopment iof iChinese
ieconomy, ithe iPRC icitizens istarted ito iplay ias iactive iparticipants ito istrive ifor itheir
ifundamental irights. iSince ithe i1982 iConstitution, iwe ihave iseen imore ifractions iof
iparticipants irepresenting idifferent iinterest igroups ito ibe iheard iand icontemplated ion ithe
ilegislative iprovisions ion ifundaments irights. iThe idynamic iparticipation iand imediation
iplatform iseems ito ihave ibeen iestablished. iTherefore, iit iis inot ifair ito isay ithat ithe
idevelopment iin istipulation iof ithe iprotection iof ihuman irights iis imotivated iby ithe iParty
imerely ito irebuild ilegitimacy iand idomination.5

In ithe i1982 iConstitution, igongmin i(“citizen”) iwas ifor ifirst itime iexpressly iand isuccinctly
idefined iin ithe ifirst iArticle iof ithe ichapter ion ifundamental irights. iThe icore iconcepts iof
ithe ifundamental irights, isuch ias iperson iand ipersonality, iwere iincorporated, ias istipulated
iin iArticles i33 iand i38:

Article i33
“All ipersons iholding ithe inationality iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iare icitizens iof
ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina. iAll icitizens iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iare
iequal ibefore ithe ilaw. iThe iState irespects iand iprotects ihuman irights. iEvery icitizen iis
ientitled ito ithe irights iand iat ithe isame itime imust iperform ithe iduties iprescribed iby ithe
iConstitution iand ithe ilaw.” i

Article i38
“The ipersonal idignity iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iis iinviolable. iInsult,
ilibel, ifalse iaccusation ior ifalse iincrimination idirected iagainst icitizens iby iany imeans iis
iprohibited.” i(1982 iConstitution)

The isign iren i(“person”) imeans ian iindividual ihuman ibeing. iThe iconcept icontained iin
5
iKeith, iR. iC. i1994. iChina’s istruggle ifor ithe irule iof ilaw; iNew iYork: iSt. iMartin’s iPress.
14
ithis isign iis ia inatural ione ifree ifrom iany ipolitical ior isocial iqualities. iOnce ithe ilegal
iterm igongming i(“citizen”) iis ibacked iup iby ithe iconcept iin iren i(“person”), iits ireferents
iare iclearly idefined iand ihence iprovisions iof ithe ifundamental irights ibecome imeaningful.
iThe iexplicit istipulations ion ithe iprotection iof iCitizens’ ipersonality iconsolidate ithe
isignificance iof ithe iprovisions iof ithe iprotection iof ifundamental irights. iAfter iyears iof
iendeavors iof iChinese ipeople iengineered iin ia ifast ichanging isocial iprocess, iArticle i13 iof
i2004 iAmendment iof ithe iConstitution idesignated i“Citizens’ ilawful iprivate iproperty” ias
i“inviolable” iand iexpanded ithe ialready iguaranteed ilegal iprotection iof iinherited iprivate
iproperty ito ia iprotection ifor ithe i“rights iof icitizens ito iprivate iproperty iand ito iits
iinheritance.” iMost isignificantly, irenquan i(“human irights”; iCheng iand iLam i2010) ias ia
ilegal iterm iwas iintroduced ifor ithe ifirst itime iin ithe i2004 iAmendment:

Article i33
“All ipersons iholding ithe inationality iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iare icitizens iof
ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina. iAll icitizens iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iare
iequal ibefore ithe ilaw. iThe iState irespects iand iprotects ihuman irights. iEvery icitizen iis
ientitled ito ithe irights iand iat ithe isame itime imust iperform ithe iduties iprescribed iby ithe
iConstitution iand ithe ilaw.” i
(2004 iAmendment)

Though ithe istipulation ion ithe iprotection iof ihuman irights iis ionly ia iprinciple iin inature,
ino ispecific ireferents icould ibe imade ito irender iit ivalid iand ienforceable. iThis iprinciple,
ihowever, isignifies ian iunprecedented ivictory ifor iChinese ipeople iin ithe imediation iprocess
iwith ithe iCPC iand ithe iState, iand ithe ivoices iof iChinese ipeople iare ifinally iand iactually
iheard iin ithe ilegislation iprocess. iA ilandscape iin iwhich iChinese ipeople, ithe iCPC, iand
ithe iState icould icommunicate iand istruggle ihas ibeen ieventually iinstituted. iSuch ia
ibalanced istructure iwill inot ionly ifacilitate ithe idevelopment iof ithe ilegislation ion ithe
iprotection iof ifundamental irights, ibut ialso ifunction ias ia icompass ito isteer ithe ifuture iof
ithe iChinese ilegislation. iAs ilong ias ia ibalanced iand ihealthy imediation ivenue iis iforged,
iit iwill ibuild iand ishape ithe ilegislation ion ifundamental irights ion iits iown.6

However, ithe iState iis istill ieverywhere iin ithe iprovisions ion ifundamental irights. iIt
6
iLi, iB. iY. i1994. iTwo itheoretical iissues irelating ito ihuman irights. iChinese iLegal iScience; i3. i40 – 41.
15
iprotects iCitizens’ irights, imanages ito ifacilitate iworking, iand idevelops inational ieconomy,
ias ishown iin iArticle i42: i

“Citizens iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ias iwell ias ithe iduty ito iwork.
iThrough ivarious ichannels, ithe iState icreates iconditions ifor iemployment, ienhances
ioccupational isafety iand ihealth, iimproves iworking iconditions iand, ion ithe ibasis iof
iexpanded iproduction, iincreases iremuneration ifor iwork iand iwelfare ibenefits. iWork iis ia
imatter iof ihonor ifor ievery icitizen iwho iis iable ito iwork. iAll iworking ipeople iin iState
iowned ienterprises iand iin iurban iand irural ieconomic icollectives ishould iapproach itheir
iwork ias ithe imasters iof ithe icountry ithat ithey iare. iThe iState ipromotes isocialist ilabor
iemulation, iand icommends iand irewards imodel iand iadvanced iworkers. iThe iState
iencourages icitizens ito itake ipart iin ivoluntary ilabour. iThe iState iprovides inecessary
ivocational itraining ifor icitizens ibefore ithey iare iemployed.”
(2004 iAmendment)

The iState iis istill ireluctant ito irelinquish iits icontrol iover iits icitizens, iwhich iimplies ithat
ithe ihard-earned idiscursive ipower iof iChinese ipeople iis iextremely ifragile, ias
idemonstrated iin iArticle i51 iin ithe i2004 iAmendment ithat iprioritizes iState’s iand
icollective iinterests iover icitizens: i

“Citizens iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina, iin iexercising itheir ifreedoms iand irights,
imay inot iinfringe iupon ithe iinterests iof ithe iState, iof isociety ior iof ithe icollective, ior
iupon ithe ilawful ifreedoms iand irights iof iother iCitizens” i
(2004 iAmendment)

In iArticle i51, iguojia i(“state”), ishehui i(“society”), iand ijiti i(“collective”) iare iall ivery
ivague iwithout iclear iinterpret iants i(Cheng iand iSin i2008), iwhich imakes ithe
iimplementation iineffective iand iunpredictable. iIt iseems ithat ithe ibottom iline iof ito iwhat
iextent ithe iState ican icompromise iin ithe imediation iamong iparticipants ilies ihere. iNo
imatter iwhether iit iis ivalid ior inot, ithe iState ineeds isuch ia isymbol. iThe iremainder iof
isuch irhetoric icould ibe iattributed ito ithe ifact ithat ithe imentality iof icollectivism iis istill
iaccepted iand iheld iby iChinese ipeople. iApart ifrom ithe iexplicit istipulations ion ithe
irestrictions ito ifundamental irights, ithe imoral iteaching iis ialso istrengthened. iThe iState ihas

16
iattempted ito iengineer ia icultural itemplate iof ihaogongmin i(“good icitizen”) ito imaintain
isocial iorder, ipromote ieconomic idevelopment, ias iwell ias ito iconsolidate ithe iruling
iposition. iThe inotion iof ihaogongmin iis ipromoted iin iChina inationwide ito irebuild iparty
ilegitimacy, istrengthen iparty idomination, ias iwell ias iestablish ia istable isocial iorder ifor
ismooth ieconomic idevelopment. iThe icultivation iand irefashioning iof ithe iethical iconduct
iin iChina iis ito ifit iboth ithe iexpectation iof ithe iruling iParty iand ithe ieconomic
idevelopment, iwhich iis iindeed ia idelicate isign iof ithe iState’s iinterferences ion ifundamental
irights. iIn iother iwords, ian iappeal ito iideologies ihas ibeen ichanged iinto ia imore ipragmatic
iand icovert iapproach. iMoreover, iChina ihas iattempted ito iestablish ithe iauthority iof
ilegislation iby ireference ito ithe iconcept iof isocialist ilegality, iaccording ito iwhich ithe ilaw
iembodies ithe iwill iof ithe ipeople iin ia isocialist istate.7

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION OF CHINA

A SOCIALIST CONSTITUTION
“The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a socialist state under the people’s democratic
dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants”, as per
article 1 of the constitution of China.

CONTINUED FAITH IN MARXISM, LENINISM, & MAOISM

This is the basis of the salient features of the China Constitution, also known as Moa Zedong
Ideology. While admitting past mistakes of the Cultural Revolution, the constitution expresses
full faith in Marxism, Leninism, and Maoism. Hence, it created a new faith in the
decentralization and liberalization of the new economy.

FAITH PANCHSHEEL & OPPOSITION TO IMPERIALISM

China consistently opposed imperialism, hegemonism, and colonialism. It works to strengthen
unity with the people of other countries. Besides, it also supports the oppressed nation and the
developed countries in their struggle to win and preserve their national independence, and to

7
iOu, iA. iM. i2006. iAn iexploration iinto ithe inature iof ithe iconstitutional irights iin ithe iconstitutionalism
icontext. iLaw iReview i136(2). i11–18.
17
develop their nation’s economies and strive to safeguard world peace and promotes the cause of
human progress.

WRITTEN & ENACTED CONSTITUTION OF CHINA

The 1982 constitution which contains 138 articles, stands divided into 4 chapters.

A RIGID CONSTITUTION
In theory, the salient features of the constitution of China is a rigid constitution. It provides for a
special method of amendment. Besides, the National People’s Congress (NPC) has the power to
amend by a majority of two-thirds votes. The domination by the communist party of the entire
system, the unitary character of the state, the lack of opposition by the communist party makes
the constitution, in reality, a flexible constitution.

RESTORATION OF THE REPUBLICAN CHARACTER OF THE STATE

The 1975 salient features of China constitution abolished the office of the President of Republic
who used to work as the head of the state under the 1954 constitution. The 1982 constitution of
China restore the office of the President of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and provide for
his election by the National People’s Congress (NPC) for a term of 5 years. However, while
restoring this office the 1982 constitution has not restored all the powers which belonged to him
under the 1954 constitution.

UNITARY STATE
Despite being a big and multi-cultural society, the Chinese have decided to keep the state a
unitary state. Regardless of accepting the need for democratization and decentralization, the 1982
constitution seeks to affect a balance between the central and local authorities. Therefore, the
local authorities enjoy the right to take initiative under the unified leadership of the central
authorities.

PROVISION REGARDING ECONOMIC POLICIES

The salient features of the China Constitution reaffirm faith in the socialist economy but accept
the emergence of the private sector walking within the socialist system.

18
PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM
The 1982 constitution of China lays down a form of government that resembles the
parliamentary form of government. The state council is the real executive of the state and the
highest organ of state administration. The premiere is chosen by the National People Congress
upon the nomination of the president. Besides, the NCP appoints the members of the state
council. Hence, the word Political democracy is very minute.

UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
The Chinese legislature is unique. It is the highest organ of state power. Therefore, it alone can
amend the constitution.

NO JUDICIAL REVIEW
The Supreme Court has no power to declare a law enacted by the NPC unconstitutional.

A MULTI-NATIONAL STATE
The People’s Republic of China is a single multi-national state. There are 56 nationalities that
have integrated to form the Chinese nation. Besides, article 4 declares that all Nationalists are
equal.

ELECTED & RESPONSIBLE JUDICIARY

There is a Supreme People’s Court whose president is elected by the NPC. The Standing
Committee appoints both the Vice President and the judges of the Supreme Court.

DEMOCRACY CENTRALISM
The NPC and the local people congress are instituted through a democratic election. Therefore,
they are responsible for them and subject to their supervision.

ECONOMIC POLICIES
Right from the beginning China adopted planning for the regulation and improvement for its
economy, by launching a 5-year plan for agriculture and industrial development.

SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION

The constitution of China is the supreme law of the land. No law or administrative or local rules
and regulations shall contravene the constitution. Therefore, all state organs, the armed force, all

19
political parties, public organizations, and all enterprises must abide by the constitution of
China.8

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION OF CHINA

A SOCIALIST CONSTITUTION
“The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a socialist state under the people’s democratic
dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants”, as per
article 1 of the constitution of China.

CONTINUED FAITH IN MARXISM, LENINISM, & MAOISM

This is the basis of the salient features of the China Constitution, also known as Moa Zedong
Ideology. While admitting past mistakes of the Cultural Revolution, the constitution expresses
full faith in Marxism, Leninism, and Maoism. Hence, it created a new faith in the
decentralization and liberalization of the new economy.

FAITH PANCHSHEEL & OPPOSITION TO IMPERIALISM

China consistently opposed imperialism, hegemonism, and colonialism. It works to strengthen
unity with the people of other countries. Besides, it also supports the oppressed nation and the
developed countries in their struggle to win and preserve their national independence, and to
develop their nation’s economies and strive to safeguard world peace and promotes the cause of
human progress.

WRITTEN & ENACTED CONSTITUTION OF CHINA

The 1982 constitution which contains 138 articles, stands divided into 4 chapters.

A RIGID CONSTITUTION
In theory, the salient features of the constitution of China is a rigid constitution. It provides for a
special method of amendment. Besides, the National People’s Congress (NPC) has the power to
amend by a majority of two-thirds votes. The domination by the communist party of the entire
8
Kapur, A.C; Select Constitutions; 6th Edition, 2020; S. Chand Publications.
20
system, the unitary character of the state, the lack of opposition by the communist party makes
the constitution, in reality, a flexible constitution.

RESTORATION OF THE REPUBLICAN CHARACTER OF THE STATE

The 1975 salient features of China constitution abolished the office of the President of Republic
who used to work as the head of the state under the 1954 constitution. The 1982 constitution of
China restore the office of the President of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and provide for
his election by the National People’s Congress (NPC) for a term of 5 years. However, while
restoring this office the 1982 constitution has not restored all the powers which belonged to him
under the 1954 constitution.

UNITARY STATE
Despite being a big and multi-cultural society, the Chinese have decided to keep the state a
unitary state. Regardless of accepting the need for democratization and decentralization, the 1982
constitution seeks to affect a balance between the central and local authorities. Therefore, the
local authorities enjoy the right to take initiative under the unified leadership of the central
authorities.

PROVISION REGARDING ECONOMIC POLICIES

The salient features of the China Constitution reaffirm faith in the socialist economy but accept
the emergence of the private sector walking within the socialist system.

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM
The 1982 constitution of China lays down a form of government that resembles the
parliamentary form of government. The state council is the real executive of the state and the
highest organ of state administration. The premiere is chosen by the National People Congress
upon the nomination of the president. Besides, the NCP appoints the members of the state
council. Hence, the word Political democracy is very minute.

UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
The Chinese legislature is unique. It is the highest organ of state power. Therefore, it alone can
amend the constitution.

21
NO JUDICIAL REVIEW
The Supreme Court has no power to declare a law enacted by the NPC unconstitutional.

A MULTI-NATIONAL STATE
The People’s Republic of China is a single multi-national state. There are 56 nationalities that
have integrated to form the Chinese nation. Besides, article 4 declares that all Nationalists are
equal.

ELECTED & RESPONSIBLE JUDICIARY

There is a Supreme People’s Court whose president is elected by the NPC. The Standing
Committee appoints both the Vice President and the judges of the Supreme Court.

DEMOCRACY CENTRALISM
The NPC and the local people congress are instituted through a democratic election. Therefore,
they are responsible for them and subject to their supervision.

ECONOMIC POLICIES
Right from the beginning China adopted planning for the regulation and improvement for its
economy, by launching a 5-year plan for agriculture and industrial development.

SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION

The constitution of China is the supreme law of the land. No law or administrative or local rules
and regulations shall contravene the constitution. Therefore, all state organs, the armed force, all
political parties, public organizations, and all enterprises must abide by the constitution of
China.9

9
Kapur, A.C; Select Constitutions; 6th Edition, 2020; S. Chand Publications.
22
 FUNDAMENTAL iRIGHTS iIN iCHINESE iCONSTITUTION

The iChapter iII iof ithe inew iConstitution igives ius ithe ipicture iof ithe iFundamental iRights
i& iDuties iof iCitizens, istraight iaway ifrom iarticles i33-56. iThis inew iconstitution iis, ivery
imuch iimpressive iin inature ias ifar ias ithe irights i& iduties iare iconcerned i& iit ieven itries
ito imake iother ifellow idemocracies iblush iwith ishame. iThough ithere istands ia igreat igulf
ibetween ithe inotions iof itheory i& ipractice. iThe iFundamental iRights ican ifurther ibe
icategorized iin ithe ipurview iof ieconomic, isocial, ipolitical, icultural i& icivil irights. iThe
inew iChinese iconstitution iof i1982 ialso ihas ia ibranch iof imiscellaneous irights.10 i

RIGHT iTO iEQUALITY:

Article i33 iof ithe iConstitution istates ithat: i

“All ipersons iholding ithe inationality iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina iare icitizens iof
ithe icountry. iThey iare iequal ibefore ilaw iand ienjoy iall ifundamental irights.”

All iare iequally ibound iby ithe iduties ias ispecified iby ithe iConstitution iand ilaw. iAs isuch,
iequality ibefore ilaw iand iequal ientitlement iof iall ito iall irights iand ifreedoms iis ia isalient
ifeature iof ithe iChinese iBill iof iRights. iAll iChinese icitizens iare iequal ibefore ilaw iand
ithere iis ino idiscrimination ion ithe ibasis iof inationality, irace, isex, ioccupation, ifamily
ibackground, ireligious ibelief, ieducation, iproperty istatus ior ilength iof iresidence.

Article i33 i

10
iWen, iZ. iB. i1994. iGongheguo ixianzheng ilichen i[The ihistory iof iconstitutionalism iof ithe iPeople’s
iRepublic iof iChina]. iZhenzhou: iHenan iPeople’s iPress.
23
 “All ipersons iholding ithe inationality iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iare icitizens iof
ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina. iAll icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iare
iequal ibefore ithe ilaw. iEvery icitizen ienjoys ithe irights i& iat ithe isame itime imust iperform
ithe iduties iprescribed iby ithe iConstitution i& ithe ilaw.”

As iper ithe idiktats, ithe ifirst iarticle iitself, iapparently isymbolizes ithe itrue inature i& ithe
irole iof ithe irights i& iduties, iwhich iis ito ibe ipracticed iby ithe icitizens iof iChina.

ECONOMIC iRIGHTS:

RIGHT iTO iWORK:

Article i42 iof i1982 iConstitution ideclares ithat iwork iis iboth ithe iright iand iduty iof ithe
icitizens. iThe istate ihas ithe iresponsibility ito iprovide iwork iwall ias ipayment iin ilieu iof
iwork ito iall icitizens. iThe istate ihas ibeen icalled iupon ito iprovide iemployment ito ithe
ipeople iin iaccordance iwith ithe iprinciple iof ioverall iconsideration.

On ithe ibasis iof iincreased iproduction, ithe istate iis ito igradually iincrease ipayment ifor
ilabour. i“Every icitizen iis iensured ifood, iclothing, ishelter, iprimary ieducation iand idecent
iburial.”

In iorder ito iensure ithe ienjoyment iof ithe iright ito iwork, ithe istate iprovides inecessary
ivocational itraining ito ithe icitizens ibefore ithey iare iemployed. iUsing ivarious ichannels, iit
icreates iconditions ifor iemployment. iNo ione iis iallowed ito iremain iwithout iwork.

Article i42
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ias iwell ias ithe iduty ito
iwork.”

Using ivarious ichannels, ithe istate icreates iconditions ifor iemployment, istrengthens ilabour
iprotection, iimproves iworking iconditions iand, ion ithe ibasis iof iexpanded iproduction,
iincreases iremuneration ifor iwork iand isocial ibenefits. iWork iis ithe iglorious iduty iof ievery
iable-bodied icitizen. iAll iworking ipeople iin istate ienterprises i& iin iurban i& irural
ieconomic icollectives ishould iperform itheir itasks iwith ian iattitude iconsonant iwith itheir

24
istatus ias imasters iof ithe icountry. iThe istate ipromotes isocialist ilabour iemulation, i&
icommends i& irewards imodel i& iadvanced iworkers. iThe istate iencourages icitizens ito itake
ipart iin ivoluntary ilabour. iThe istate iprovides inecessary ivocational itraining ito icitizens
ibefore ithey iare iemployed.11

RIGHT iTO iREST:

Along iwith ithe iright ito iwork, ithe iConstitution igrants ithe iright ito irest. i‘Rest iafter iwork’
iis iconsidered iessential ifor isocialist ilabour idiscipline iand ithe igoal iof ihigh iproduction.
iThe istate iprovides ifacilities ifor irest iand irecuperation iof ithe iworking ipeople iand
iprescribes iworking ihours iand ivacations ifor iworkers iand iother istaff.

Article i43
“Working ipeople iin ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ito irest. iThe istate
iexpands ifacilities ifor irest i& irecuperation iof iworking ipeople, i& iprescribes iworking
ihours i& ivacations ifor iworkers i& istaff.”

RIGHT iTO iRETIREMENT:

The istate iprescribes iby ilaw ithe isystem iof iretirement ifor iworkers iand istaff iin iall
iestablishments. iThe ilivelihood ifor ithe iretired ipersons iis iensured iby ithe istate iand
isociety. iThe iearlier iconstitutions iof iChina idid inot iprovide ifor iretirement iand ia
iguaranteed ilivelihood ifor ithe iretired ipersonnel.12

Article i44
“The istate iprescribes iby ilaw ithe isystem iof iretirement ifor iworkers i& istaff iin ienterprise
i& iundertakings i& ifor ifunctionaries iof iorgan iof istate. iThe ilivelihood iof iretired
ipersonnel iis iensured iby ithe istate i& isociety.”

RIGHT iTO iMATERIAL iASSISTANCE:

11
iThomas iE. iKellogg, i“The iConstitution iin ithe iCourtroom: iConstitutional iDevelopment iand iCivil
iLitigation iin iChina,” iin iChinese iJustice: iCivil iDispute iResolution iin iContemporary iChina, iedited iby
iMargaret iY. iK. iWoo iand iMary iE iGallagher i(Cambridge: iCambridge iUniversity iPress, i2011), ipp. i364–
372.
12
https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/constitution/chapter2.html#:~:text=Article%2044,by%20the%20state%20and
%20society.
25
Under iArticle i45 iof ithe iConstitution, ithe icitizens ihave ithe iright ito imaterial iassistance
ifrom ithe istate iand isociety iduring iold iage iand iwhen ithey iare isick ior isuffer ia
idisability. iFor ithis ipurpose, ithe istate iensures isocial iinsurance, isocial irelief iand imedical
iand ihealthcare iservices.

This iArticle ialso iprovides ithat ithe istate iand ithe isociety ishould iprovide ihelp iin imaking
iarrangements ifor ithe iwork, ilivelihood iand ieducation iof ithe iblind, ideaf iand iall iother
ihandicapped icitizens. iDisabled isoldiers iare ilooked iafter iby ithe istate. iPreferential
itreatment iis igiven ito ithe ifamilies iof imilitary ipersonnel, ipension iis iprovided ito ithe
ifamilies iof ithe imartyrs.

Article i45
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s irepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ito imaterial iassistance ifrom
ithe istate i& isociety iwhen ithey iare iold, iill ior idisabled. iThe istate idevelops ithe isocial
iinsurance, isocial irelief i& imedical i& ihealth iservices ithat iare irequired ito ienable icitizens
ito ienjoy ithis iright. iThe istate i& isociety iensure ithe ilivelihood iof idisabled imembers iof
ithe iarmed iforces, iprovide ipensions ito ithe ifamilies iof imartyrs i& igive ipreferential
itreatment ito ithe ifamilies iof imilitary ipersonnel. iThe istate i& isociety ihelp imake
iarrangements ifor ithe iwork, ilivelihood i& ieducation iof ithe iblind, ideaf-mute i& iother
ihandicapped icitizens.”

THE iREALITY: i
China, itoday iis ienjoying iwith ithe iprestigious itagline iof ibeing ione iof ithe ifastest
iemerging ieconomy iof ithe iworld, igiving ia istiff icompetition ito iits iadversaries isuch ias
iAmerica i& ithe iEU iallied inations ior imaybe iit iher ineighboring icountry, iJapan iin iAsia
i& ialso ito ia icertain iextent ito iIndia, iwhich iis ialso icementing iitself iwith iits ishare iof
ieconomy iin ithis iglobalised ifree imarket. iChina`s isuccess ilies ion ithe ifundamental irights
iwhich iher icitizens ienjoy iaccording ito ithe i1982 iconstitution, iwhich igoes iparallel iwith
ithe ieconomic irights iwhich iwere ionce ienjoyed iby ithe ierstwhile iSoviet icitizens.

The iChinese ipeople iactually ihave ia ifond i& ilove, ior ia itrue isense iof iaffection ican ibe
iseen iin itheir ibody ilanguage i& imental istrength. iThe iright ito iwork i(Article i42) ihas
imade ithe iChinese ipeople, iwho ilike ito ihave ia iforever igoing iromance iwith itheir iwork,
26
ithey ifeel ihappy i& iprestigious, ifor ithem iit`s ian ihonorable iduty ito iperform i& iin iturn
iwhich ishall igive ithem iremunerative iemployment iwith ia iview ito isupport ioneself i&
ione`s idependents. iAs ithe iChinese ipeople ibelieve iin ithe ifamous iprinciple iof, i“He iwho
idoes inot iwork ineither ishall ihe ieat”. i i

The istate itries ito ifind iwork ifor ievery iable-bodied iperson, ias ithe iChinese istate ihas
iembarked iupon ia iprogramme iof ieconomic idevelopment i& iit igoes ito iher icredit ithat
iemployment ihas ibeen igreatly ireduced iin iChina. iBut iit inot ijust icreates ithe irate iof
iemployment ioffers ifor iits icitizens ibut ialso icreates iconditions isuitable ifor ithe iemployers
ito iwork iin ian iadvanced i& iimproved iatmosphere, igiving iher imere icitizens ithe iright ito
irest i(Article i43), igiving ithe ibenefits ito iher ifellow iworkers i& iemployers ithe iright ito
irest i& ileisure i& iprescribing ithe iworking ihours i& iholidays, iso ithat iits icitizens ido inot
iturn iout ito ibe inamed ias i“Cog iin ithe iMachine”, ijust ilike ithe iworkers i& ithe iproletariat
iclass iof ithe icapitalist icountries ihave ibeen ilabeled iwith ithe iname idue ito ipressure
iescalating idue ito iglobalization i& imassive iscale iof iindustrialization. i i i

Social iinsurance, irelief, i& imedical i& ihealth iassistance iare iensured iby ithe istate
iaccording ito iright ito imaterial isecurity i(Article i45), iso ias ito iensure ithat, ithe iold iage iof
iits icitizens ido inot iget ienjoyed iby iher isubjects, ias ithese ioldie ipeople ihad ienjoyed iin
itheir iyounger idays.. iNo ione iis igiven imuch imore iimportance iupon iothers, ias ithe iState
iis ithe imother i& ino imother idiscriminates iwith iher ichildren ibe iit ideaf ior iblind. iYes,
ithe iphysically ichallenged ipeoples iare ialso ibenefitted iby ithe istate, ias iit ihas iprovided ia
ibetter ilivelihood ifor ithem itoo. iThe iChinese ienjoy ithe istatus iof ipreserving iits icountry
i& icountrymen iwith ithese iunique isets iof ifundamental irights iwhich iwe ido inot ifind iin
ithe iWestern-Liberal icountries….!!13 i i i

RIGHT iTO iFREEDOM iOF iRELIGIOUS iBELIEF:

The icitizens iof ithe iPeoples iRepublic iof iChina ienjoy ithe iFreedom iof iReligious iBelief.
iArticle i36 ideclares ithat ino istate iorgan, ipublic iorganisation ior iindividual imay icompel
icitizens ito ibelieve iin, ior inot ito ibelieve iin iany ireligion. iNor imay ithey idiscriminate
iagainst icitizens iwho ibelieve iin, ior ido inot ibelieve iin iany ireligion.

13
iEdward iWong; iJonathan iAnsfield i(February i3, i2013). i“Reformers iAim ito iGet iChina ito iLive iUp ito
iOwn iConstitution” iThe iNew iYork iTimes.
27
The istate iprotects inormal ireligious iactivities. iBut ino ione iis ipermitted ito imisuse
ireligious ifreedom. iNo ione ican iuse ireligion ifor iengaging iin iactivities ithat idisrupt ipublic
iorder, iimpair ithe ihealth iof ithe icitizens ior iinterfere iwith ithe ieducational isystem iof ithe
istate. iReligious ibodies iand iaffairs iare inot isubject ito iany iforeign icontrol ior
idomination.14

SOCIAL i& iCULTURAL iRIGHTS:

The iConstitution iof i1982 iprovides iseveral isocial, ieducational iand icultural irights ito ithe
icitizens ifor ienabling ithem ito ibecome ifully iqualified iand ilearned icitizens. iRight ito
ieducation iand ifreedom ito iengage iin iscientific iresearch iare iavailable ito iall icitizens.

Primary ilevel ieducation iis icompulsory ifor iall icitizens. i“No ione iis idenied ieducation iand
ino ione ican irefuse ieducation.” iThe istate ipromotes iall-round imoral, iintellectual iand
iphysical idevelopment iof ithe ichildren iand iyoung ipeople. iCitizens ialso ienjoy ithe ifreedom
ito iengage ithemselves iin iscientific iresearch, iliterary iand iartistic icreation iand iother
icultural ipursuits. iThe istate iencourages iand iassists iall icreative iendeavours iprovided ithey
iare iconducive ito ithe iinterests iof ithe ipeople.15

EDUCATION:
Article i46
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iduty ias iwell ias ithe iright ito
ireceive ieducation. iThe istate ipromotes ithe iall-round imoral, iintellectual i& iphysical
idevelopment iof ichildren i& iyoung ipeople.”

RESEARCH:
Article i47
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe ifreedom ito iengage iin iscientific
iresearch, iliterary i& iartistic icreation i& iother icultural ipursuits. iThe istate iencourages i&
iassists icreative iendeavours iconducive ito ithe iinterests iof ithe ipeople imade iby icitizens
iengaged iin ieducation, iscience, itechnology, iliterature, iart i& iother icultural iwork.”

14
iFreedom iof iReligious iBelief iin iChina; iRetrieved iFrom: ihttp://www.china-un.ch/eng/bjzl/t168753.htm i
15
iCommittee ion iEconomic, iSocial iand iCultural iRights iconsiders ireports iof iChina iSpecial iAdministrative
iRegions iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?
NewsID=14580&LangID=E i
28
THE iREALITY:
The icurrent iongoing iconstitution iof i1982 ihas iprovided iits icitizens iwith icertain isocial i&
icultural irights ias iwell, iwhich iare iof iresembles iof ivery imuch ihigh isignificance iin ithe
iChinese ination, iwhich ihad ito isee ifrom ithe igreat irevolution iof i1949 ito ithe iemergence
iof inationalism iunder ithe icommon iideology iof iMarxism-Leninsm, idirected iby iMaoist
imindset. i

Be iit, iright ito ieducation i(Article i46) ior ifreedom ito iengage iin iscientific iresearch i&
icultural ipursuits i(Article i47); ithese itwo ihave iplayed ia icrucial iin istrengthening iChina i&
igiving iit ithat iplatform iin iwhich iit istands iwith ithe ideveloped icountries iof ithe iwest. iIt
iis ithat ibase iwhich ihas icemented ithe idreams iof ithe iChinese isupremacy iover iits irivals.
iThough, iright ito ieducation iis ionly imade ipossible itill ithe iearly ilevel iof ischooling ito iits
icitizens. iAs ieducation ihas ibeen igiven ithe iprominence i& ia ipivotal iauthority iin icreating
iits icitizens ito ia irational i& ieducated ifigures iin ithe iworld idomain, ienlightening ithe
imasses.

The ifreedom ito iengage iin iscientific iresearch i& icultural ipursuits, ion ithe iother ihand itries
ito icreate iit`s istrength iof iits icitizens iin iall ithose icreative iendeavours, iprovided ito ithe
iinterests iof ithe ipeople. iThe iscientific iresearch i& iother isort iof iliterary i& iartistic
iagendas ican icreate iin inurturing ito iboost iup ithe iroots iof inationalism iin ithe ination. iThe
iCommunist iParty, ihere ialso iis ithe isole iauthority iin iplanning ithe iordeals iof ithe ination
iin ia isystematic ifashion, iwhich iwould ibe ihelpful ifor ithe ination.16 i i

Here ialso iit`s ithe iState i& inot ithe ipeople ithemselves iappears ito ibe ithe ireal iarchitect iof
ilatter`s iinterests. i i

POLITICAL iRIGHTS:
All icitizens iwho ihave iattained ithe iage iof i18 iyears ior iabove ihave ithe iright ito ivote iand
iseek ielection ito iany ioffice iof ia istate iorgan. iThis ipolitical iright iis iavailable ito iall
iwithout iany idiscrimination ion ithe ibasis iof inationality, irace, isex, ieducation, ioccupation,
iproperty, istatus ior ilength iof iresidence. iOnly ipersons ispecifically idebarred iby ilaw ifrom

16
iEducation iin iChina; iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.chinaeducenter.com/en/cedu.php i

29
iexercising ithe ipolitical irights iconstitute ian iexception ito ithe iabove iprinciple. iArticle i35
idoes inot ispecify igrounds iof iineligibility iof ia iparticular icategory iof ipersons. iIn ipractice,
iit iincludes ithose ipersons iwho iare iopposed ito ithe iMarxist-Leninist-Maoist iideas. iArticle
i41 igives ito ithe icitizens ithe iright ito icriticize iand imake isuggestions ito iany istate iorgan
ior ifunctionary. iThe icitizens ican ireport iagainst iany iperson ior iorgan iwhich iviolates ia
ilaw ior iis iconsidered iguilty iof idereliction iof iduty. iThe iconcerned iauthorities ito iwhom
ithe icomplaint iis imade iare irequired ito ideal iwith ithe icomplaint iin ia iresponsible
imanner.17

ELECTORAL iRIGHTS iAND iEQUALITY:

Article i34
“All icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iwho ihave ireached ithe iage iof i18 ihave
ithe iright ito ivote i& istand ifor ielection, iregardless iof inationality i, irace, isex, ioccupation,
ifamily ibackground, ireligious ibelief, ieducation, iproperty istatus, ior ilength iof iresidence,
iexcept ipersons ideprived iof ipolitical irights iaccording ito ilaw.”

FREEDOM iOF iSPEECH:

Article i41
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ito icriticize i& imake
isuggestions ito iany istate iorgan ior ifunctionary. iCitizens ihave ithe iright ito imake ito
irelevant istate iorgans icomplaints i& icharges iagainst, ior iexposures iof, iviolation iof ithe
ilaw ior idereliction iof iduty iby iany istate iorgan ior ifunctionary; ibut ifabrication ior
idistortion iof ifacts iwith ithe iintention iof ilibel ior iframe-up iis iprohibited. iIn icase iof
icomplaints, icharges ior iexposures imade iby icitizens, ithe istate iorgan iconcerned imust ideal
iwith ithem iin ia iresponsible imanner iafter iascertaining ithe ifacts. iNo ione imay isuppress
isuch icomplaints, icharges i& iexposures, ior iretaliate iagainst ithe icitizens imaking ithem.
iCitizens iwho ihave isuffered ilosses ithrough iinfringement iof itheir icivil irights ito
icompensation iin iaccordance iwith ithe ilaw.”

THE iREALITY:
The iupper iPolitical irights iare iallowed ito ithe ipeople ito ienjoy iit, ibut iin iactual iterms, iit
iis ilimited ijust ilike ithe iother irights. iChina iis igoverned iby ithe icommon iideology iof ithe
17
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/asia-and-the-pacific/china/report-china/ i
30
iMarxist-Leninst iconcept inavigated iby ithe ivision iof iMao iZedong`s ithought. iThe ipeople
iof iChina ienjoy iin ithis iparadigm iof itheir ipolitical irights, iwhich iare iright ito ivote i&
icontest ielection i(Article i34), i& iright ito icriticize i& imake isuggestions.

In ithe iformer ipolitical iright, ithe iChinese ipeople ienjoy ithe iright ito ivote, iwithout
idiscrimination ion ithe igrounds iof inationality, isex, irace, ioccupation, ireligion, ieducational
iattainments, ior ifamily ibackgrounds, iwhich iis igiven ito ithe icitizens, iwho iare i18 iyears iof
iage iat ithe itime iof ielections ior ihave iexceeded ithe iage iof i18 iyears i& iplus. iThe
iChinese ipeople ienjoy ithis iadult isuffrage, ijust ilike ithe ifellow idemocratic icountries ihave
ifor itheir icitizens. iBut ithe itwisting ipoint iin ithis ifundamental iright ibeing ithat isame
icommon iideology iof iMarxism-Leninism i& iMao`s ithoughts. iDue ito ithis icommon
iideology iprevailing iin iChina, ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina, ihave ia isingle iparty
isystem ior idominance iin itheir icountry. iThus, ithere iis ino iactual imeaning iin ithe igiven
ifundamental iright iunder iarticle i34 iof ithe iChinese iConstitution iof i1982. iPeople imay
iexercise itheir ipower ior iright ito ivote ia icandidate, ibut ithis isort iof iright ibecomes iuseless
iwhen iwe iknow, ithat ithere iwould ibe ithose icandidate iwho iwould iattain ithe iage iof i21
iyears iof iage ior imore, i& ihave ia icommitted iparty ifaith i& isubmission ito ithat isame i&
icommon iideology iwhich iis iruling ithe ination. iThe iCommunist iParty igives iits iparty
iticket ito iit`s ivery iselective ifavourites, ithus ireducing ithe imoral istandard iof ithe iVoting
iprocedure ito ia imere isham i& iformality.

The iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iaccording ito ithe ipresent iongoing iConstitution iof i1982,
ihas igiven iits icitizens ithe iright ito idenounce ithe iworking iprocedures iof iits iCongress,
iwhich iin iitself iis ia iunique ifeature, ibut ithe ipeople iare inot ijust iallowed ito icause
idisruptions iwith ithe isense iof ia iverbal iaccusations iagainst itheir igovernment, iwhether ibe
iit iat ithe ibottom ilevel iwith idue iregards ito ithe ilocal ipeople`s iCongress ior iat ithe
itopmost iof ithe ihierarchy, ithe iNational iPeople`s iCongress. i

There ialso isome iother ibeneficiary imatters iwhich ifall iunder ithis isame iarticle i34, iwhich
iare ithat, iif ia iperson iwho idoes inot ilike ithe ifunctioning iof ithe icongress i& iit`s
irepresentatives i, ithen ihe/she imust ihave icharged ithe icongress ion ithe igrounds iof
idereliction iof iduty i& iviolation iof ilaw, imust ibe iprotected iin iany imanner ifrom ithe iuse

31
iof ipower iby i ithe ilocal iauthority ibodies i& ithe igovernment ifunctionaries, ihe/she imust
inever ibe iharassed ior isubdued iagainst ithat iparticular icitizen iwho ihas ilodged ithe
icomplaint. iThis isurely iindicate, ithat iChina iin imodern itimes, i& iaccording ito ithe i1982
iconstitution ihas iadopted ia imore iliberal iattitude ion ipolitical i& iadministrative ifront, ithan
ithe inostalgic iMao`s iera.

CIVIL iRIGHTS i& iPERSONAL iLIBERTIES:

The i1982 iConstitution igrants ia inumber iof icivil irights iand ipersonal ifreedoms ito ithe
icitizens. iThe ipeople iof iChina ihave ithe iright ito ifreedom iof ispeech, ifreedom iof ithe
ipress, ifreedom iof iassembly, ifreedom iof iassociation iand ifreedom iof iprocession iand
idemonstration.

The iConstitution ipromises ipersonal ifreedom ito iall icitizens. iArticle i37 iguarantees i“the
ifreedom iof ithe ipersons iof icitizens.” iArbitrary iarrests icannot ibe imade. iThe ifreedom iof
iperson iis iinviolable. iNo ione ican ibe iarrested iexcept iwith ithe iapproval iof ia icompetent
iauthority. iUnlawful idetention ior ideprivation iis iprohibited. iSearches ican ibe icarried iout
ionly iwith ithe ipermission iof ithe icompetent iorgan ior ifunctionary iof ithe istate.

Article i38 iof ithe i1982 iConstitution ideclares ithat ithe ipersonal idignity iof ithe icitizens iis
iinviolable iand iprohibits iinsults, ilibel, ifalse icharging ior i‘frame iup’s’ idirected iagainst
icitizens iby iany imeans ior iform. iArticle i39 iguarantees ithe iinviolability iof ithe ihome iof
icitizens.

The ilaw iprotects ithe ifreedom iand iprivacy iof icorrespondence iof ithe icitizens. iNo iperson
ior iorganisation iis iallowed ito iviolate ithe iprivacy iof icorrespondence iunder iany
icircumstance. iHowever, iin ithe iinterest iof ithe isecurity iof ithe istate ior iin icases iof
iinvestigation iinto icriminal ioffences, icertain iorgans iof ithe istate isuch ias iprocurators’
ioffices iare ipermitted ito icensor icorrespondence iaccording ito ithe iprocedure iprescribed iby
ilaw.18

FREEDOM iOF iSPEECH, iPRESS, iASSEMBLY iAND iASSOCIATION:

Article i35
18
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/global i
32
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ienjoy ifreedom iof ispeech, iof ithe ipress, iof
iassembly, iof iassociation, iof iprocession i& iof idemonstration.”

RELIGION:
Article i36
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ienjoy ifreedom iof ireligious ibelief. iNo istate
iorgan, ipublic iorganization ior iindividual imay icompel icitizens ito ibelieve iin, ior inot ito
ibelieve iin, iany ireligion; inor imay ithey idiscriminate iagainst icitizens iwho ibelieve iin, ior
ido inot ibelieve iin, iany ireligion. iThe istate iprotects inormal ireligious iactivities. iNo ione
imay imake iuse iof ireligion ito iengage iin iactivities ithat idisrupt ipublic iorder, iimpair ithe
ihealth iof icitizens ior iinterfere iwith ithe ieducational isystem iof ithe istate. iReligious ibodies
i& ireligious iaffairs iare inot isubject ito iany iforeign idomination.”

PERSONAL iFREEDOM:
Article i37: i
“The ifreedom iof ipersons iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iis iinviolable. iNo
icitizen imay ibe iarrested iexcept iwith ithe iapproval ior iby idecision iof ia ipeople`s
iprocuratorate ior iby idecision iof ia ipeople`s icourt, i& iarrests imust ibe imade iby ia ipublic
isecurity iorgan. iUnlawful ideprivation ior irestriction iof icitizen`s ifreedom iof iperson iby
idetention ior iother imeans iis iprohibited; i& iunlawful isearch iof ithe iperson iof icitizens iis
iprohibited.”

PERSONAL iDIGNITY:
Article i38: i
“The ipersonal idignity iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iis iinviolable. iInsult,
ilibel, ifalse icharge ior iframe-up idirected iagainst icitizens iby iany imeans iis iprohibited.”

HOME:
Article i39: i
“The ihome iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iis iinviolable. iUnlawful isearch
iof, ior iintrusion iinto, ia icitizen`s ihome iis iprohibited.”

CORRESPONDENCE:

33
Article i40: i
“The ifreedom i& iprivacy iof icorrespondence iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof
iChina iare iprotected iby ilaw. iNo iorganization ior iindividual imay, ion iany iground, iinfringe
iupon ithe ifreedom i& iprivacy iof icitizens icorrespondence iexcept iin icases iwhere, ito imeet
ithe ineeds iof istate isecurity ior iof iinvestigation iinto icriminal ioffences, ipublic isecurity ior
iprocuratorial iorgans iare ipermitted ito icensor icorrespondence iin iaccordance iwith
iprocedure iprescribed iby ilaw.”

GENDER iEQUALITY:
Women ienjoy iequal irights iwith imen iin iall ispheres iof ilife ipolitical, ieconomic, icultural
iand isocial, iincluding ifamily ilife. iThe istate iprotects iequality, irights iand iinterests iof
iwomen. iIt iapplies ithe iprinciple iof iequal ipay ifor iequal iwork ifor imen iand iwomen ialike,
iand itrains iand iselects icadres ifrom iamong ithem.

Article i48
“Women iin ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ienjoy iequal irights iwith imen iin iall ispheres
iof ilife, ipolitical, ieconomic, icultural i& isocial, i& ifamily ilife. iThe istate iprotects ithe
irights i& iinterests iof iwomen, iapplies ithe iprinciple iof iequal ipay ifor iequal iwork ifor imen
i& iwomen ialike i& itrains i& iselects icadres ifrom iamong iwomen.”

MARRIAGE, iFAMILY, iPARENTAGE:

Right ito imarriage iand ifamily ilife ihas ibeen igranted ito iall ithe icitizens. iMarriage, ithe
ifamily iand ithe imother iand ithe ichildren ienjoy istate iprotection. iArticle i49 iof ithe i1982
iConstitution iprohibits iviolation iof ithe ifreedom iof imarriage iand imaltreatment iof iold
ipeople, iwomen iand ichildren.

Article i49
“Marriage, ithe ifamily, i& imother i& ichild iare iprotected iby ithe istate. iBoth ihusband i&
iwife ihave ithe iduty ito ipractice ifamily iplanning. iParents ihave ithe iduty ito irear i&
ieducate itheir iminor ichildren, i& ichildren iwho ihave icome iof iage ihave ithe iduty ito
isupport i& iassist itheir iparents. iViolation iof ithe ifreedom iof imarriage iis iprohibited.
iMaltreatment iof iold ipeople, iwomen i& ichildren iare iprohibited.”

34
THE iREALITY:
The ilist iis igreat iin iproviding ifor iits icitizens ia iplatform ifor iCivil iRights i& iPersonal
iLiberties, ibut ihere ialso ithese irights i& iliberties ihas ibeen ijust ibasically igiven ithe
iweightage iof ia ilip ihomage. iThere iare iincidents isuch ias ithe istudents iprotesting iin i1989
iat ithe iTiananmen iSquare iof iBeijing ifor ia imore ilucid idemocracy iin iChina, igiving imore
irights i& ifreedoms i& iliberties, ijust ilike ithe iother ifellow icountries iof ithe iworld, ior ithe
iproviding imore ifreedom iof ithe ipress i& ijournalists, ias i1013 ijournalists ihad idemanded
ifor ifreedom iof ipress. iThe iformer iincident iwas icrushed iwith ian iiron ihand iby ithe
iintervention iof ithe iarmy. iButchering inot ijust ithe imere istudents ior iprotestors, ibut
idemocracy iin itotality. i

The ilatter iissue iof ithe ijournalist iagitation iwas isomehow idid inot ihad ito isee ibloodshed
i& iatrocities. iThey ihave itried ito iunderstand ifor ithemselves, ithat iit iis ifor itheir igood
ihealth, ito ibe ia ipart iof ithe icommon iideology iwhich iruns ithe ination i& inot icounter
ioppose itheir iideological igods, iwho irun ithe ination. i

No icitizen iof iPeople`s iRepublic iOf iChina i(Article i36) iis inever idisregarded iof ihis ior
iher ireligion, iuntil i& iunless iit ihampers ior ihas ia iside ieffect ifor ithe iunity iof ithe ination.
iPersonal ifreedom iis iinviolable iin iChina. iNo iwill iface ithe iwrath iof ithe igovernment
iofficials i& iagencies iuntil i& iunless ithey ihave ia ilegal iwarrant iagainst ithat iperson,
iprovided iby ia icompetent iorgan ior ifunctionary iof ithe istate. iNo iorganization ior iperson
ican iviolate ithe iprivacy iof ithe iindividual. iBut ithis iright ialso iis ihedged iwith isome
irestrictions iof ithe istate iinfluence; iall ithese irights imay ibe itaken iback iby ithe istate iin
ithe iinterest iof ithe isecurity iof ithe istate. i

Women iin iChina ihave ia ihigh inoble irole ito iplay iaccording ito iArticle i48 iof ithe iChinese
iconstitution iof i1982; ithe iwomen ienjoy iequal irights iin irespect iwith ithe imen iof ithe
isociety. iThey ienjoy ithese irights iin ievery isphere iof ilife- ieconomic, isocial, ipolitical,
ifamily, ietc. iEqual ipay ifor iwork iis ipracticed ifor iboth imen i& iwomen. iRight ito ivote i&
icontest ifor ielections, iare ialso ienjoyed iby ithe iwomen iin iChina. iRight ito ifreedom iof
ireligion i& ipersonal iproperty i& ialso iright ito ireceive ieducation, iall ithese irights icomes
iunder ithe ipurview iof ithe iunbiased igender iequality irights. iMaltreatment iof iwomen,

35
ichildren i& ithe iaged iis idisregardful iin iChina.19

MISCELLANEOUS iRIGHTS:
NATIONALS iABROAD:
Article i50
“The iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iprotects ithe ilegitimate irights i& iinterests iof iChinese
inationals iresiding iabroad i& iprotects ithe ilawful irights i& iinterests iof ireturned ioverseas
iChinese i& iof ithe ifamily imembers iof iChinese inationals iresiding iabroad.”

PROTECTION iOF iPRIVATE iPROPERTY:

Article i13: i
“The istate iprotects ithe irights iof icitizens ito iown ilawfully iearned iincome, isavings, ihouses
i& iother ilawful iproperty. iThe istate iprotects iby ilaw ithe iright iof icitizens ito iinherit
iprivate iproperty.”

RIGHTS iOF iFOREIGNERS:

Article i32: i
“The iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iprotects ithe ilawful irights i& iinterests iof iforeigners
iwithin iChinese iterritory, i& iwhile ion iChinese iterritory iforeigners imust iabide iby ithe ilaw
iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina. iThe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina imay igrant iasylum
ito iforeigners iwho irequest iit ifor ipolitical ireasons.”
THE iREALITY:
The iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iafter ienjoying ia iset iof ifundamental irights, ialso ido
ienjoy isome imiscellaneous irights, iwhich ido inot ifall iunder ithe iArticle i33-50, ibut iwhich
ihave igained, i& irun ithrough iparallel ipriority ibasis iin ithe iChinese isociety i& inational
iimportance. iArticle i13 i& i32 iare iactually ia ipart iof ithe iGeneral iPrinciples. iBut ithese
ilisted, irights iare ialso ipracticed iseriously i& ilays idown ithe iprohibition ifor ithe istate i&
iit`s icountrymen ito iabide iby iit, ias ithey iabide iby ithe iFundamental iRights i& iDuties iof
i1982 iconstitution.

China, i(article i13) iwhich ipropounds iitself ito ibe ia isocialist istate, i& iwhich ihas igiven ifor

19
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/13/china-in-darkest-period-for-human-rights-
since-tiananmen-says-rights-group i
36
ithe ifirst itime ithe iright ito iits icitizens ito iacquire iindividual iproperty, iwhich icannot ibe
iseen iin iany iof ithe icommunist ior ia isocialist istates. iHence, ismall iscale iproperty iin
iChina ihas ibeen iallowed ito ithe icitizens. iAs iendorsing iof iPrivate iProperty iis ia igreat
imilestone iachieved, iit iis iregarded ias ia irevolutionary istep iin ia iCommunist icountry.

On ithe iother ihand iin iarticle i32, iof ithe iconstitution, ithe irights i& iinterests iof ithe
iforeigners ishall ibe iprotected, ibut iat ithe isame itime ithe iforeigners imust ialso iabide iby
ithe icustoms iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iOf iChina, iwhen ibreathing iair ion itheir iChinese
isoil. i

It ialso italks iabout ithe iword iasylum, iwhich iit iwould ior imay igrant ito ithose iwho irequest
ior ipleads ifor iit ito ithe iChinese iauthority. iBut iin iactual ipractice ior iwith iits iinner
imeaning, ithe iChinese iauthority igrants iasylum ionly ito ithose iforeigners iwho`s iideology
imatches iwith ithat iof ithe iChinese iatmosphere, i& ii.e.; ithe iMarxis-Leninst iideology iof
iMao iZedongs iapproach.

Article i50, iwhich ido ifall iunder ithe ifundamental irights iof ithe i1982 iChinese iconstitution,
istates ithat iit iwill ibe idutiful i& ibound ito iwork ito ilegitimize ithe irights i& iinterests iof
iChinese inationals iresiding iabroad iplus ialso iis iobliged ito iprotect ithe ilawful irights i&
iinterests iof ireturned ioverseas iChinese i& iof ithe ifamily imembers iof iChinese inationals
iresiding iabroad. iThe igreatest iexample imay ibe iseen iin ithe iArunanchal iPradesh iof ithe
iIndian iside iof ithe iborder, iwhich ifor ithe iChinese iauthorities ihas ibeen ithe iland iof ithe
iPeople`s iRepublic iOf iChina, i& iit`s iresidents iits iown icitizens i& ibrothers, ithus ialways
iready ito ihelp itheir icitizens i& iraise itheir ivoices iconsiderably ifor ithem.20

FUNDAMENTAL iDUTIES iIN iCHINESE iCONSTITUTION

Along iwith ithese iFundamental iRights, ithe iConstitution iof i1982 ialso ilists ithe
ifundamental iduties iof ithe iChinese icitizens. iThe iConstitution isubscribes ito ithe iview ithat
ithere ican ibe ino irights iwithout iduties. iAs isuch, iwhile iexplaining ia iparticular iright iof
ithe icitizens, ithe iconstitution isimultaneously istates itheir iduties ialso. iEvery icitizen ienjoys
ihis ifundamental irights iand ifreedoms ionly iwhen ihe iperforms ihis ifundamental iduties.
20
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34592336 i
37
Rights i& iDuties iare icorrelative. iThey iare iin ifact itwo isides iof ithe isame icoin. iA
inumber iof ifundamental iduties ihave ibeen iincorporated iin ithe iconstitution iof ivarious
icountries, isuch ias ithe ierstwhile iSoviet iUnion ior iin iIndia iin ithe i42nd iamendment iof ithe
iIndian iconstitution iin i1976. iChina iin igeneral ihas inot ileft ianything ito ichance ior iwhims
iof ithe ipeople. iThere iare icertain iimperatives iwhich ithe iChinese isubjects iare iexpected ito
ikeep iin imind ifor iall itimes ito icome. iThanks ito ithe i1982 iConstitution iof iChina.21 i

INTEREST iOF iTHE iSTATE:

Article i51
“The iexercise iby icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina iof itheir ifreedoms i& irights
imay inot iinfringe iupon ithe iinterests iof ithe istate, iof isociety i& iof ithe icollective, ior
iupon ithe ilawful ifreedoms i& irights iof iother icitizens.”

DUTY iTO iSAFEGUARD iTHE iUNITY iOF iTHE iNATION:

It iis ione iof ithe iforemost iduties iof ithe icitizens iof iChina ito isafeguard ithe iunity iof ithe
icountry iand ithe iunity iof iall iits inationalities. iIt iis ithe iresponsibility iof iall ithe icitizens
ito ihelp ithe istate iin ipreserving ithe iunity iof iall inationalities iand iin isuppressing
itreasonable iand iother icounter- irevolutionary iactivities, iand iactivities iagainst ipublic iorder
iand isecurity.

Article i52
“It iis ithe iduty iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ito isafeguard ithe iunity iof
ithe icountry i& ithe iunity iof iall iits inationalities.”

DUTY iTO iFOLLOW iTHE iCONSTITUTION:

The iforemost ifundamental iduty iof ia iChinese icitizen iis ito iabide iby ithe iConstitution iand
ithe ilaw iand ito irespect ithe irights iof ihis ifellow icitizens. iArticle i53 ienjoins ion iall
icitizens i“to iabide iby ithe iConstitution iand ithe ilaw, ikeep istate isecrets, iprotect ipublic
iproperty iand iobserve ilabour idiscipline iand ipublic iorder iand irespect isocial iethics.” iNo
iorganisation ior iindividual iis iabove ithe iconstitution iand ithe ilaw.

21
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttps://advocatetanmoy.com/2020/11/17/fundamental-rights-and-duties-constitution-of-china/ i
38
All istate iorgans, ithe iarmed iforces, iall ipolitical iparties iand ipublic iorganisations iand iall
ienterprises iand iundertakings imust iabide iby ithe iconstitution. iThe iConstitution iis ithe
isupreme ilaw iof ithe iland iand iit iis ithe iduty iof ieveryone ito iuphold ithe idignity iof ithe
iConstitution iand iensure iits iimplementation.

Article i53
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina imust iabide iby ithe iconstitution i& ithe ilaw,
ikeep istate isecrets, iprotect ipublic iproperty i& iobserve ilabour idiscipline i& ipublic iorder
i& irespect isocial iethics.”

DUTY iTO iSAFEGUARD iTHE iHONOUR iOF iCHINA:

To isafeguard ithe isecurity, ihonour iand iinterests iof ithe imotherland iis ithe isacred iduty iof
iall ithe icitizens. iThey iare inot ito iget iinvolved, iin iacts idetrimental ito ithe isecurity,
ihonour iand iinterests iof ithe imotherland. iThe iJune i1989 imilitary icrack idown iupon ithe
iChinese istudents iand itheir isubsequent itrials iwere ijustified iby ithe istate iauthorities iin ithe
iname iof isecuring ithe iunity, iintegrity, isecurity iand iinterests iof ithe imotherland.

Article i54
“It iis ithe iduty iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ito isafeguard ithe isecurity,
ihonor i& iinterests iof ithe imotherland; ithey imust inot icommit iacts idetrimental ito ithe
isecurity, ihonor i& iinterests iof ithe imotherland.”

DUTY iTO iPERFORM iMILITARY iSERVICE iAND iDEFEND iTHE

iMOTHERLAND:
It iis ithe iduty iof ievery icitizen iof ithe iPeople’s iRepublic iof iChina ito idefend ithe
imotherland iand iresist iaggression. iAll icitizens ihave ithe iduty ito iundergo imilitary itraining
iand ijoin ithe imilitia iin iaccordance iwith ithe ilaw. iIn iother iwords, ithe i1982 iConstitution
iprovides ifor icompulsory imilitary itraining iand iservice ifor iall iable-bodied icitizens iwho
iare iyoung iand iwithin ithe iage irange ispecified iby ilaw.

Article i55 i
“It iis ithe isacred iobligation iof ievery icitizen iof iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ito idefend
ithe imotherland i& iresist iaggression. iIt iis ithe ihonorable iduty iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s
39
iRepublic iof iChina ito iperform imilitary iservice i& ijoin ithe imilitia iin iaccordance iwith ithe
ilaw.”

DUTY iTO iPAY iTAXES:

It iis ia iconstitutional iduty iof iall icitizens ito ipay iall itaxes ipunctually iand iregularly iand
ito ienable ithe igovernment ito iperform iits ifunctions iadequately, iefficiently iand ieffectively.
iA itax iis ia icompulsory icontribution iof iall icitizens itowards inational ireconstruction iand
idevelopment.

Article i56
“It iis ithe iduty iof icitizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ito ipay itaxes iin iaccordance
iwith ithe ilaw.”

OTHER iSPECIFIC iDUTIES iOF iA iCHINESE iCITIZEN:

Several ispecific iduties iof ithe iChinese icitizens ihave ibeen imentioned iin ithe iArticles
iwhich iexplain itheir irights. iUnder iArticle i42, ithe iChinese icitizens ihave ibeen iassigned
ithe iduty ito iwork. i“Work iis ithe iglorious iduty iof ievery iable ibodied icitizen.” iArticle i46
imakes iit ithe iduty iof ievery icitizen ito ireceive ieducation. iMarried iChinese icouples ihave
ibeen iassigned ithe iduty ito ipractice ifamily iplanning iand ihelp ithe istate iin icontrolling ithe
igrowth iof ipopulation. iFurther, iparents ihave ithe iduty ito irear iand ieducate itheir iminor
ichildren. iIt iis ithe iduty iof ithe iadult ichildren ito ilook iafter iand ihelp itheir iparents.
iWorkers ihave ithe iduty ito ido itheir iwork iefficiently iand ifollow ithe ilabour idiscipline.
iThe i1982 iConstitution iof iChina iincorporates ia idetailed ia iBill iof iRights iand iDuties iof
ithe icitizens. iIt igives iadded iimportance ito ithe irights iand iduties. iIt igives itheir
idescription iin ia itotal iof i24 iArticles iwhereas iunder ithe i1978 iConstitution ionly i16
iArticles ihad ibeen idevoted ito ithe ifundamental irights. iThe iBill iof iRights ienshrined iin
ithe ipresent iConstitution iincludes iseveral inew irights iand ifreedoms iwhich iwere inot ithere
iin ithe iBill iof iRights iof ithe i1978 iConstitution.22

FUNDAMENTAL iRIGHTS iWHICH iARE iA iPART iOF iFUNDAMENTAL iDUTIES

WORK:
22
iRetrieved iFrom: ihttp://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Constitution/2007-11/15/content_1372964.htm i
40
Article i42
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iright ias iwell ias ithe iduty ito iwork.
iUsing ivarious ichannels, ithe istate icreates iconditions ifor iemployment, istrengthens ilabour
iprotection, iimproves iworking iconditions iand, ion ithe ibasis iof iexpanded iproduction,
iincreases iremuneration ifor iwork iand isocial ibenefits. iWork iis ithe iglorious iduty iof ievery
iable-bodied icitizen. iAll iworking ipeople iin istate ienterprises i& iin iurban i& irural
ieconomic icollectives ishould iperform itheir itasks iwith ian iattitude iconsonant iwith itheir
istatus ias imasters iof ithe icountry. iThe istate ipromotes isocialist ilabour iemulation, i&
icommends i& irewards imodel i& iadvanced iworkers. iThe istate iencourages icitizens ito itake
ipart iin ivoluntary ilabour. iThe istate iprovides inecessary ivocational itraining ito icitizens
ibefore ithey iare iemployed.”

EDUCATION:
Article i46
“Citizens iof ithe iPeople`s iRepublic iof iChina ihave ithe iduty ias iwell ias ithe iright ito
ireceive ieducation. iThe istate ipromotes ithe iall-round imoral, iintellectual i& iphysical
idevelopment iof ichildren i& iyoung ipeople.”

MARRIAGE, iFAMILY, iPARENTAGE:

Article i49
“Marriage, ithe ifamily, i& imother i& ichild iare iprotected iby ithe istate. iBoth ihusband i&
iwife ihave ithe iduty ito ipractice ifamily iplanning. iParents ihave ithe iduty ito irear i&
ieducate itheir iminor ichildren, i& ichildren iwho ihave icome iof iage ihave ithe iduty ito
isupport i& iassist itheir iparents. iViolation iof ithe ifreedom iof imarriage iis iprohibited.
iMaltreatment iof iold ipeople, iwomen i& ichildren iare iprohibited.”

JUDICIALIZATION iOF iTHE iCHINESE iCONSTITUTION

It iis iconventional iwisdom ithat iChina’s iConstitution iis iunenforceable, iand iplays ilittle
irole iin iChina’s ilegal isystem, iother ithan ias ia isymbolic idocument. iThis iview irests ion
ithe ifact ithat ithe iSupreme iCourt ihas ino ipower ito iinterpret ithe iConstitution. iThe iformal
ibody iwith iinterpretive ipower, ithe iStanding iCommittee iof ithe iNational iPeople’s

41
iCongress, ihas inever iissued ian iofficial iinterpretation. iDespite ithis iapparent ilack iof
ienforcement, iwe iargue ithat iChina’s iConstitution iindeed iplays ian iincreasingly iimportant
irole iwithin ithe iparty-state. i

It idoes iso inot ithrough ithe icourts ibut ithrough ithe ilegislative iprocess, iin iwhich iformal
irequirements iof iconstitutional ireview ihave ihelped ithe ilegislature ito iresolve icomplex
idisputes iabout ithe irelationship iamong idifferent igovernment iorgans, ithe ieconomic
isystem, iand ieven irights iclaims. iUnderstanding ithis ihidden imechanism icontributes ito iour
iknowledge iof ithe iinternal iconstitutional iworkings iof iauthoritarian isystems, iwhich idiffer
ifrom ithose iof iliberal idemocracies. iBut iit iis ialso iconsistent iwith ibroader iliteratures ion
ithe iconstitution ioutside ithe icourts, iin iwhich iinternal ilegislative iprocesses ihave ireceived
irelatively ilittle iscrutiny.23 i

THE iQI iYULING iCASE:24

On ithe iheels iof iboth ijudicial igestures itoward iconstitutional idecision imaking iand ithe
igrowth iof ithe ischolarly iconversation iregarding ijudicialization icame ithe i2001 iQi iYuling
icase. iThe icase isprang ifrom ia igarden-variety icivil idispute iover iidentity itheft. iIn i1990,
iChen iXiaoqi, ia iclassmate iof iQi iYuling iat ithe iEighth iMiddle iSchool iin iTengzhou,
iShandong iProvince, istole iQi’s icollege ientrance itest iscores iand isuccessfully iused ithem
ito iget iinto ia ilocal ibusiness ischool iunder iQi’s iname. iQi idid inot ifind iout iabout ithe
iidentity itheft iuntil iyears ilater, iand iwhen ishe idid, ishe isued. iQi’s iidentity itheft iclaim
iwas ion isolid iground: ithe iright ito ione’s iown iidentity iis iprotected iby ithe iGeneral
iPrinciples iof iCivil iLaw, iand ithere iwas ilittle idoubt ithat iChen’s iactions ihad iviolated
iQi’s icivil irights. iBut iQi ialso isought ito irecover idamages ion ithe igrounds ithat iChen ihad
iviolated iher iconstitutional iright ito ieducation. iThe iprovincial icourt iin iShandong, ihearing
ithe icase ion iappeal, isought iguidance ifrom ithe iSupreme iPeople’s iCourt ion ithe
iconstitutional irights iclaim, iand ithe iSPC ianswered ithat iQi icould irecover idamages ifor
ithe iinfringement iof iher iright ito ieducation. i

In iits ianswer, ithe iSPC iseemed ito isuggest ithat ithe iChinese iConstitution iwas idirectly
23
iJiang iMing’an, iJiang iPing, iHe iWeifang, i& iCai iDingjian, iRoundtable iDiscussion ion iJudicialization iof
ithe iConstitution i, iN iANFANG iZ iHOUMO i[SOUTHERN iWEEKEND i] i(Aug. i13, i2001).
24
iChina’s iMarbury: iQi iYuling iv. iChen iXiaoqi i– iThe iOnce iand iFuture iTrial iof iBoth iEducation i&
iConstitutionalization; iRetrieved iFrom: i ihttp://www.tsinghuachinalawreview.org/articles/0202_Morris.htm
42
ienforceable iby iChinese icourts, iat ileast iin isome icases. iWhen iseen iin ithe icontext iof
iearlier ijudicial iuse iof ithe iConstitution, ithe iSPC’s ianswer iin ithe iQi iYuling icase iseems
ito ibe ian iattempt ito iformalize ithe iauthority iexercised iboth iby iit iand iby ilower-level
icourts iin iprior icases. iAs iwith ithe i1988 iZhang iLianqi icontract icase, ithe iCourt iwas inot
iattempting ito ipass iconstitutional ijudgment ion inational ilaw ibut, iinstead, isaw iitself ias
iusing ithe iConstitution ito ifill ia ilegal igap. iAs iwith imost iof ithe iearlier icases, ithe
ilitigation iconcerned itwo iprivate iactors iengaged iin ia icivil ilaw idispute iand ihad ilittle ito
ido iwith ithe iprotection iof iindividual irights iagainst iinfringement iby ithe istate. i

Unsurprisingly, ithe iSPC’s iintervention iled ito ian iexplosion iof icommentary. iFor imany,
ithe ivalue iof ithe icase iwas imore isymbolic ithan ilegal. iIn iissuing iits idecision, ithe iSPC
ihighlighted isome iof ithe ishortcomings iin ithe icurrent isystem iand ifocused iboth ischolarly
iand ipublic iattention ion ithe ineed ifor iaction. iIn iessence, ithe iQi iYuling icase iprovided ia
imuch-needed iopportunity ifor ia iwide iranging ipublic idiscussion iof ia irange iof iissues,
iincluding iconstitutional idevelopment, ithe ishortcomings iof iChina’s icurrent ilegal istructure,
irights iprotection iunder ithe ilaw, iand ieven, iin ian iindirect imanner, ithe islow ipace iof
ipolitical ireform. i

The ischolarly iresponse ihas inot ibeen iall ipositive, ihowever. iSome ischolars ihave ivoiced
idoubts ithat ithe idevelopment iof ia iconstitutional ireview isystem ishould ibe ithe ifirst
ipriority ifor ilegal ireform. iOthers, iciting ithe ihistory iof iChina’s i1982 iConstitution ias ia
iprimarily isocialist idocument, ihave iquestioned ithe iappropriateness iof ithe iSPC’s
iintervention iunder ithe iexisting iframework iof i“parliamentary isupremacy.” iShanghai-based
ischolar iTong iZhiwei ihas iargued ithat isupporters iof ijudicialization iare iengaging iin ia ibit
iof iconstitutional isleight iof ihand, iattempting ito iusurp ithe iNPCSC’s iconstitutional
iinterpretive iauthority: i

“Judicialization iof ithe iconstitution imeans iadvocating ithat ithe iNPC iand ithe iStanding
iCommittee’s iauthority ito iengage iin isupervision iof iconstitutional iimplementation iand ithe
iNPC iand ithe iStanding iCommittee’s iauthority ito iengage iin iconstitutional iinterpretation
iboth ibe iturned iover ito ithe iSPC. iIt imeans ithat ithe iSPC ican iengage iin iconstitutional
ireview iof iNPC iand iStanding iCommittee ilegislation. iIt imeans ithat ithe istate’s ihighest

43
ijudicial iorgan iand ithe isupreme iorgan iof istate ipower iare iin ifact ithe isame ior ioccupy
iequal iconstitutional istatus. iIn ia iword, iit imeans ia ifundamental ichange ito iour ination’s
isystem iof iorganization iof ipolitical iauthority.”

Still iother ischolars ihave ifocused ion iwhat iconstitutional ireview imight imean iin ipractice.
iSenior iconstitutional ilaw ischolar iJi iWeidong, ithough isupportive iof ithe iSPC’s imove iin
ithe iQi iYuling icase, iexpressed iconcern ithat iChina’s ijudiciary, irife iwith icorruption,
ioverworked, iand ioften ilacking itechnical ilegal iproficiency, imight inot ibe iable ito ihandle
iconstitutional ienforcement iresponsibilities. iOther ischolars, iechoing iJi’s iconcerns, ihave
isuggested ithat iwhat iChina ineeds imost, iat ipresent, iis inot ia iconstitutional ireview
imechanism ibut, irather, imeasures ito iincrease ijudicial iindependence. iOnly iafter ithe
ijudiciary ihas ibeen ibetter iinsulated ifrom ioutside ipressures, ithese ischolars iargue, iwould iit
ibe iable ito imake iproper iuse iof iconstitutional ireview iauthority. i

A inumber iof ischolars ilimited itheir icomments ito ithe icase iitself, ipointing iout iwhat ithey
isaw ias iflaws iin ithe icourt’s ireasoning iand ihighlighting ithe iways iin iwhich ithe iQi
iYuling idecision iwas idifferent ifrom i“real” iconstitutional ilitigation. iEven ias ithey ipointed
iout ithe icase’s ivarious iflaws, ihowever, imost icommentators iurged isupport ifor ithe iSPC’s
imove. iIn ia iwidely icited iinterview ipublished iin ithe ileading iintellectual iweekly iSouthern
iWeekend, isenior ilegal ischolar iJiang iMing’an iappealed ito ihis icolleagues iinside ithe
iacademy ito isupport ithe iSPC’s igradualist iapproach iIt iis ibelieve ithat ithe ischolarly
icommunity ineeds ito iunderstand ithe imotivations iof ithe iSupreme iPeople’s iCourt. iFor
idecades, iour iConstitution ihas ibeen ipacked iaway iand iput ion ia ihigh ishelf. iFor ijudges
iadjudicating icases, ithe iConstitution iwas iconsidered ia i“restricted iarea.” iPerhaps ithis ihas
ito ido iwith ithe ifact ithat isome iof ithe irights ifound iin ithe iConstitution iare isensitive.
iGiven ithat ithe irights itouched ion iin ithis icase iare inot isensitive, iit iwas irelatively ieasy ito
ihandle. iWe ihave ibeen iwaiting ifor idecades, iand ifinally iwe ihave iarrived iat ithis
iopportunity iwhich iwas idifficult ito icome iby. iWe ischolars ishould istrongly ipush iforward
iwith iit. iIn ithe isame iinterview, iChina iUniversity iof iPolitics iand iLaw ischolar iJiang iPing
iexpressed ithe ihope ithat ithe iQi iYuling iruling iwould ispark ifurther iconstitutional
ilitigation. i

44
THE iHEPATITIS iB iLITIGATION25
Perhaps ithe imost isuccessful iexample iof ijudicialization ilitigation iin iChina iis ithe iseries
iof ihepatitis iB idiscrimination icases ibrought iover ithe ipast ifive iyears. iRelying ion iarticle
i33 iof ithe iConstitution iChina’s iequal iprotection iclause ilitigants ihave ichallenged
idecisions iby iboth ipublic iand iprivate iactors ito iexclude ihepatitis iB ipositive iindividuals
ifrom ithe iworkplace. iBeginning iin i2002, imore ithan iforty ihepatitis iB icases ihave ibeen
ibrought iby ilitigants iacross iChina, isome iof iwhich ihave iresulted iin ireinstatement iof ithe
iplaintiffs ito itheir ijobs ior ischools. iOverall, ithese icases ihave iresulted iin iconcrete
ilegislative ichanges ithat ibetter iprotect ithe irights iof ipersons iwith ihepatitis iB. i

The idecision ito ifocus ion ihepatitis iB idiscrimination iis, ifirst iand iforemost, ia istrategic
ione; idiscrimination iimplicates iconstitutional irights, ibut iat ileast iin ithe iChinese icontext
idoes inot idirectly ichallenge igovernment ipower iin ithe iway ithat iother iconstitutional irights
iclaims imight. iDiscrimination iis iless ipolitically isensitive, iand iequality iclaims iare ilikelier
ito ibe iunderstood iand isupported iby ithe igeneral ipublic ithan ithe imore iabstract ipolitical
irights iclaims. iFinally, iin ithe icase iof ihepatitis iB idiscrimination, ithe idefendant’s irationale
ifor iengaging iin idiscriminatory ibehavior ithe iprotection iof ipublic ihealth ioften ilacks ia
isufficient iscientific ibasis, imaking iit iespecially ivulnerable ito ilegal ichallenge. iAlso icrucial
ito ithe iconstitutional icomponent iof idiscrimination ilitigation iis ithe ifact ithat iChinese
iantidiscrimination ilaw iis iunderdeveloped, ioverly ivague, iand igenerally iweak ion
ienforcement iprovisions. iChina’s iLabor iLaw, ifor iexample, ispecifically iprohibits
idiscrimination ion ithe ibasis iof iethnicity, irace, igender, ior ireligious ibelief, ibut iit idoes inot
iinclude iany ispecific iprovisions iregarding ihealth istatus. iThe inumerous igaps iin ithe ilaw,
ithough idetrimental ito iindividual iplaintiff’s ichances ifor ia ipositive ioutcome, inonetheless
iallow iplaintiffs ilawyers ito iconstruct itheir ilegal iarguments, iin ipart, ion iarticle i33 iequal
iprotection igrounds. i

The irise iof ihepatitis iB ilitigation iwas ispurred iby ia ihandful iof itrailblazing ilawsuits

25
iShevanthi iNayagam, iPolin iChan, iKun iZhao, iElisa iSicuri, iXiaochun iWang, iJidong iJia, iLai iWei, iNick
iWalsh, iLance iE iRodewald, iGuomin iZhang, iWang iAiling, iLan iZhang, iJoo iH iChang, iWeiWei iHou,
iYingpeng iQiu, iBinyan iSui, iYue iXiao, iHui iZhuang, iM iR iThursz, iFabio iScano, iDaniel iLow-Beer,
iBernhard iSchwartländer, iYu iWang, iTimothy iB iHallett, iInvestment iCase ifor ia iComprehensive iPackage iof
iInterventions iAgainst iHepatitis iB iin iChina: iApplied iModeling ito iHelp iNational iStrategy iPlanning,
iClinical iInfectious iDiseases, iVolume i72, iIssue i5, i1 iMarch i2021, iPages i743–752.
45
ibrought iagainst iemployers iand iothers ialleging iimproper idiscrimination ion ithe ibasis iof
iheight, iplace iof iorigin, iand igovernment iemployment istatus. iIn iperhaps ithe imost
iprominent icase, ia iSichuan iUniversity ilaw istudent ibrought isuit iagainst ia iChengdu
ibranch iof ithe iChina iConstruction iBank ifor iimposing iheight irequirements ion iall inew
iemployees. iIn iMay i2001, ithe iWuhou iDistrict iPeople’s iCourt iaccepted ithe icase; ithe
ibank, ihowever, iwithdrew ithe irequirement ibefore ithe icase icould ibe iadjudicated. iThe
icourt ithen idismissed ithe icase, idespite iprotestations ifrom ithe iplaintiff iand iplaintiff’s
icounsel, iboth iof iwhom iwere ihoping ito iuse ithe icase ito iadvance ithe idevelopment iof
iconstitutional iantidiscrimination inorms. i

Though, iat ifirst iblush, idiscrimination iagainst ihepatitis iB icarriers iwould iseem ito ilack ithe
idrama iof ithe igreat istruggles iagainst iracial iand igender idiscrimination iin ithe iUnited
iStates iand ielsewhere, ithe iproblem iis inonetheless ia iserious ione. iMore ithan i10 ipercent
iof ithe iChinese ipopulation iapproximately i120 imillion ipeople, iwhich iis iroughly iequal ito
ithe ientire ipopulation iof iFrance iand ithe iUnited iKingdom icombined, iare ibelieved ito ibe
ihepatitis iB icarriers, iand ithe ipractice iof itesting ipotential iemployees ifor ithe idisease, iand
iexcluding ithose iwho itest ipositive, iis ibelieved ito ibe iwidespread. iBefore ithe igovernment
iissued inew iregulations, iwhich iprohibited idiscrimination iagainst ihepatitis iB icarriers iin
ipublic iemployment, imany igovernment iagencies ihad iadopted ipolicies ithat iprohibited ithe
ihiring iof iindividuals iwith ihepatitis iB. iCarriers iof ithe idisease ihave ialso ibeen ibarred
ifrom iprimary ischools, isecondary ischools, iand iuniversities. i

From ia ipublic ihealth istandpoint, iworkplace ibans iagainst ipeople iwith ihepatitis iB iwould
iseem ito imake ilittle isense. iHepatitis iB icannot ibe itransmitted ithrough icasual iworkplace
icontact; iit iis ionly itransmitted iby imeans iof ibodily ifluids. iYet idiscrimination ipersists,
idue, iin ipart, ito isocial iattitudes iand iwidespread imisunderstanding iabout ithe iactual ihealth
irisks ithe idisease iposes. iAccording ito ione isurvey iof ihepatitis iB icarriers iconducted iby
iexperts ifrom iBeijing iUniversity iLaw iSchool, i56 ipercent iof ihepatitis iB icarriers ihave
iexperienced idifficulties iduring ithe irecruitment iprocess; iof ithose, i72.3 ipercent iwere
irejected ion ithe ibasis iof ibeing iclassified ias i“ isubstandard i” i( ibu ihege i) ion itheir
iphysical iexam. iProblems icontinue ieven iafter ithe irecruitment iprocess iis iover iand ithe
iemployment irelationship ihas ibegun. iOf isurvey irespondents iwho iwere ihepatitis iB

46
icarriers, i32 ipercent ihad ibeen idismissed ifrom ia ijob iat ileast ionce; iof ithose, i70.8 ipercent
iwere ispecifically itold ithat ithe ireason ifor idismissal iwas itheir ihepatitis iB istatus. iAn
iadditional i18.8 ipercent ibelieved ithat ithe iactual ireasons igiven ifor itheir idismissal iwere ia
ipretext ifor iremoving ithem ifrom ithe iworkplace ion ithe ibasis iof itheir ihepatitis iB istatus. i

A ikey ifactor iin ithe irise iof ihepatitis iB idiscrimination ilitigation iin iChina ihas ibeen ithe
iactive iengagement iof icivil isociety igroups. iWithout ithe ienergetic iassistance iof
inongovernmental iorganizations, iit iis iunlikely ithat ithe ismall iwave iof ilawsuits ithat ihas
ibeen ilaunched iwould ihave igotten iunderway. iOne igroup iin iparticular, iSincerity i( igandan
ixiangzao i), ihas iplayed ia icrucial irole iin ifocusing ipublic iattention ion ithe iproblem iof
ihepatitis iB idiscrimination iand iin iattempting ito igenerate ian ieffective ilegal iresponse ithat
iincludes iboth ilitigation iand ilegislative iadvocacy. iFounded iin iSeptember i2001, iSincerity,
iand iits isuccessor iorganization, iYirenping, istarted iout ias ia iforum ifor ipersons iwith
ihepatitis iB ito icommunicate iwith ieach iother, ishare iexperiences, iand iexchange
iinformation iabout itreatment. iIn iApril i2003, ithe igroup ibegan ito ifocus ion istrategies ito
iprotect ithe ilegal irights iand iinterests iof ihepatitis iB ipositive ipersons iand ihas ibeen ia ikey
iplayer iin imany iof ithe icases ithat ihave igone ito icourt iover ithe ipast ifive iyears. iIts irole
ihas iincluded iencouraging iits imembers ito itake ilegal iaction; ihelping ito iput iindividuals
iwho ihave ibeen idiscriminated iagainst iin itouch iwith ilawyers iwilling ito itake itheir icases;
iand iproviding imedical iinformation iand iexperts ito ilawyers iinvolved iin iantidiscrimination
ilitigation. i

Sincerity ihas ialso iactively ilobbied ithe igovernment. iIn iNovember i2003, ifor iexample, iit
isent ia ipetition isigned iby imore ithan i1,600 iindividuals ito ithe iStanding iCommittee iof ithe
iNPC, ithe iMinistry iof iHealth, iand ithe iState iCouncil iOffice iof iLegislative iAffairs
irequesting ithat ithe iNPCSC ireview ithe iconstitutionality iof ivarious iprovincial iand ilocal
ilaws irelating ito icivil iservice irecruitment ithat ilimited ior iprohibited irecruitment iof
ipersons iwith ior icarrying ihepatitis iB. i iSincerity ihas ialso idirected iits ipublic iaction
iefforts itoward ithe iprivate isector. iIn iAugust i2007, ithe igroup, iwhich iby ithen ihad
ibecome iYirenping, isubmitted ia ipetition ito ithe iBeijing ioffice iof iHewlett-Packard, isigned
iby imore ithan i5,000 ipersons, iprotesting ithe ialleged ifiring iof itwenty-two iemployees iwith
ithe ihepatitis iB ivirus ifrom ia ikey isupplier ibased iin iSuzhou. iMany iexperts iview ithese

47
iacts iof ipublic imobilization ias icentral ito isustaining igovernment iattention ito ithe iissue.
iAnother ikey ifactor iin ithe irise iof ihepatitis iB idiscrimination ilitigation iwas ian
iunfortunate iincident, iwhich itook iplace iin iApril i2003. iAfter ibeing irejected ifrom
igovernment iemployment ion ithe ibasis iof ihis ihepatitis iB istatus, itwenty itwo iyear iold
icollege isenior iZhou iYichao iattacked itwo ilocal igovernment iofficials iin iZhejiang
iprovince ihe iviewed ias iresponsible ifor ihis irejection, ikilling ione iand iseriously iwounding
ithe iother. iZhou iwas iexecuted iin iMarch i2004. iThe iimpact iof ithis icase iwas isignificant.
iIt ihelped ito ifocus ipublic iand igovernment iattention ion ithe iseverity iof ithe iproblem iof
ihepatitis iB idiscrimination ijust imonths ibefore ithe ifirst ihigh iprofile ihepatitis iB icase.

THE iZHANG iXIANZHU iCASE26

On iJune i30, i2003, iZhang iXianzhu, ia itwenty-two-year-old iuniversity igraduate ilooking ifor
ia ijob, itook ithe icivil iservice iexam ioffered iby ithe iWuhu iCity iPersonnel iOffice iin
iAnhui iprovince. iZhang ipassed iboth ithe iwritten iand ithe ioral iexamination iwith iflying
icolors, igetting ithe ihighest itest igrade iamong ithe ithirty iapplicants iin iWuhu iCity ifor ithat
irecruitment icycle. iZhang ibelieved ithat ihe ihad ilanded ia ijob iin ieconomic iadministration
ifor ithe iDistrict iCommittee iOffice iin iWuhu. i

It iwas ithen ithat iZhang’s itroubles ibegan. iZhang isubmitted ito ia iphysical iin ithe isecond
ihalf iof iSeptember i2003, iat iwhich itime iit iwas idiscovered ithat ihe iwas ia icarrier iof
ihepatitis iB. iOn ithe ibasis iof ihis ihepatitis iB istatus, ihe iwas idenied ia iposition iin ithe
ilocal ibureaucracy. iHe iwas iverbally iinformed iof ithe idecision ion iSeptember i25, i2003. iIn
iNovember, iafter ian iattempt iat iadministrative ireconsideration ifailed, iZhang ifiled isuit iin
iXinwu iDistrict iPeople’s iCourt iin iWuhu iCity. iZhang’s ilawyer iin ithe icase iwas ithe
iprominent ilegal ischolar iand iconstitutional ilawyer iZhou iWei. iZhou’s iinvolvement iin ithe
icase iwould iprove ito ibe icritically iimportant, iand ithe iattention ithat ihis iparticipation
igarnered iwould iplay ia ikey irole iin igenerating ia ilegal iresponse ifrom ithe icentral
igovernment. i

Zhou iWei’s iinvolvement iin ithe icase icame iin ia isomewhat inontraditional imanner iand
26
iThomas iE. iKellogg, iConstitutionalism iwith iChinese icharacteristics? iConstitutional idevelopment iand icivil
ilitigation iin iChina, iInternational iJournal iof iConstitutional iLaw, iVolume i7, iIssue i2, iApril i2009, iPages
i215–246. i

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iillustrates ithe imore isophisticated iways iin iwhich iactivist ilawyers iand ilitigants iwhose
icases iraise iimportant iconstitutional iconcerns iare ibeginning ito ifind ieach iother. iBut ifor
ithe ionline isupport igroups iset iup iby icivil isociety iorganizations, iZhang iand iZhou imight
inever ihave iconnected. iZhang ihad ijoined ian ionline ichat isupport igroup, ihosted iby
iSincerity, idevoted ito ithe ineeds iand iconcerns iof ihepatitis iB ipositive ipersons, iand iZhang
iand iZhou iinitially imade icontact ithrough iSincerity. i

Zhou, ia iprofessor iat iSichuan iUniversity iLaw iSchool, iwas ifresh ifrom ihis isuccess iin ithe
iJiang iTao icase iand iwas ilooking ifor ia iway ito icontinue ihis iconstitutional ilitigation
iwork, iwhich, ias ihe iput iit, iwas ione imethod iof i“marrying itheory iand ipractice.” iAround
ithe itime iof iZhang iXianzhu’s iexpulsion ifrom ithe igovernment ihiring iprocess, iZhou ihad
ibegun ilooking iat ihepatitis iB idiscrimination ias ia ipotentially ifruitful iarea ito iexplore.
iAlthough ithe iZhou iYichao itragedy imade iheadlines inationwide, ias iof imid-2003, ino
isuccessful ilegal iclaim ihad iyet ibeen ibrought ichallenging ithe ilegality iof ia igovernment
iagency’s irefusal ito iemploy ian iotherwise iqualified iapplicant ion ithe ibasis iof ihis ior iher
ihepatitis iB istatus. i

Zhou, iseeing ia ipotential iopportunity ito icontinue ito ipush ilegal idevelopment ithrough
ilitigation, iagreed ito itake iZhang’s icase: i

“After ibeing iin iregular icontact i[with iZhang iXianzhu], iI idecided ito itake ithe icase ion ia
ipro ibono ibasis. iI ihad ilong iago iconcluded ithat imedical istandards ilike ithis ione iviolated
ithe iconstitution, iand ihoped ithrough ithis icase ito ichallenge ivarious iprovincial iregulations
iof ithis itype, iand iin iso idoing ito iensure ifairness ifor ihepatitis iB icarriers iand ito iavoid ia
irepeat ioccurrence iof ithe iZhou iYichao itragedy. iThis iis ia ipart iof ithe ipopulation ithat ia
icivilized isociety ishould irespect, itolerate, iand iunderstand. iSociety ishould iallow ithem
iregular iparticipation iin ilabor iand iemployment, iand isafeguard itheir iown ibasic ineeds.
iAlso i… ithis iwas ia ichance ito ifuse itheory iand ipractice, ito iuse ifacts ito idemonstrate ithe
itheoretical ivalue iand isocial ibenefits iof imy iresearch.”

Media iattention ito ithe icase iwas iintense. iFrom ithe imoment iZhou ifiled isuit ion ibehalf iof
iZhang ito ithe ifinal iverdict iand ibeyond, iZhang’s ilawsuit ireceived iextensive ipress
icoverage, iincluding ifrom iChina’s itop ielectronic iand iprint ioutlets, isuch ias iSouthern

49
iWeekend, iSouthern iMetropolitan iDaily, iand iCaijing. iBoth iCCTV iand iChina iCentral
iBroadcasting ialso iran inumerous ireports ion ithe icase, iand ithe iWuhu icity icourtroom iwas
ipacked iwith iboth ihepatitis iB icarriers iand ijournalists ion ithe iday ithe iverdict iwas
iannounced. iThe ipress iwas ivery imuch iin iZhang’s icorner, inot ileast ias ia iresult iof iZhou
iWei’s iengagement iwith ijournalists ion ihis iclient’s ibehalf. iEven ithe ilongtime iParty
imouthpiece iPeople’s iDaily ireported ifavorably ion iZhang’s isuit, ieventually ideclaring ithe
iverdict ia i“victory” ifor iboth iZhang iand ifor iChina’s i120 imillion ihepatitis iB icarriers.
iPresumably isuspecting ithat ino icourt iwould irule iin ihis iclient’s ifavor isolely ion ithe ibasis
iof iconstitutional iclaims, iZhou iWei iin ihis istatement ito ithe icourt iargued, ifirst iand
iforemost, ithat ithe idenial iof iZhang’s iqualification ifor iemployment iwas iillegal. iOnly
iafter ivigorously iarguing ihis icase ion ilegal igrounds idid iZhou iturn ito ithe iconstitutional
iarguments. i

Central ito ithe icase iwas ithe ilocal igovernment’s iuse iof ithe iAnhui iProvince iNational
iCivil iService iRecruitment iPhysical iExamination iStandards. iThe iprovincial iregulations
ilisted ivarious itest iresults ithat icould ilead ito ithe iconclusion ithat ian iindividual iwas
iineligible ifor igovernment iservice. iBut ithe iprovincial istandards idid inot ispecifically
istipulate ithat ipersons iwho ireceived ithe iresults ithat iZhang ihad ireceived iwere iunfit ifor
igovernment iservice. iTherefore, iZhou iargued, ithe ihospital’s iconclusion ithat iZhang iwas
iunfit ito iserve iwas i“subjective” iand i“arbitrary” iand ilacking ia ibasis iin ilaw. iIt iwas
itherefore, iin iZhou’s iview, iinvalid. i i

Zhou’s iargument ithat ithe ihospital’s iexclusion iof iZhang iviolated ivarious inational ilaws
iand iregulations iwas ialso icompelling. iArticle i14 iof ithe iLaw ion ithe iPrevention iand
iControl iof iInfectious iDiseases, ifor iexample, ilisted ivarious ioccupations ifrom iwhich
ipeople, inot icertifiably ifree iof ihepatitis iB, imay ibe iprohibited, iincluding ivarious ijobs
irelated ito ithe ihanding iof ifoodstuffs iand ithe itreatment iof ipublic iwater isupplies. iAnd
iarticle i26(2) iof ithe iFood iSafety iLaw iexcluded ipersons iwith isome itypes iof ihepatitis
ifrom icertain ijobs irelated ito ithe iimportation iof ifood. iZhang, iof icourse, iwas iapplying
ifor ian ioffice iposition, iand, ias ihe iand iZhou iargued, iin ithe iabsence iof ia ispecific
iprohibition, ithe icentral igovernment iclearly iintended ithat ihe ibe iallowed ito ihold ithe ijob
ifor iwhich ihe iwas iapplying. iZhou’s iprimary iconstitutional iargument iwas ithat ithe

50
iprovince’s iphysical iexam iregulations iviolated iZhang’s iright ito iequality iunder iarticle i33
iof ithe iConstitution. iSpecifically, ihe iargued ithat, isince ithe iexclusion iof isome iindividuals
ion ithe ibasis iof ihepatitis iB istatus iunder ithe iprovincial iregulations ilacked i“rationality,
iappropriateness, ior inecessity” iand isince iit iwas inot iconnected ito iany i“government,
ipublic, ior isocietal iinterest,” ithose iprovisions iviolated ithe iconstitutional iprinciple iof
iequality. iThis iargument iis ikey iin ithat iit iattempts ito irender iarticle i33 ioperational iby
icreating ia i“rational ibasis” itest iby iwhich igovernment iregulations icould ibe iscrutinized.
iZhou ialso iargued ithat, ibecause ithe iphysical iexam iregulations ilacked ia isufficient
ilegislative ibasis, ithey iundercut ithe iNPC’s iconstitutional iduty ito iadminister ithe icountry
iaccording ito ilaw iunder iarticle i2(3) iof ithe iConstitution. iAdditionally, ithey iinfringed ithe
iexclusive iauthority ito ilegislate ion imatters iaffecting icitizens i’ irights iand iinterests
iallocated ito ithe iNPC iunder iarticle i8(5) iof ithe iLegislative iLaw. iFinally, iZhou iasserted
ithat ithe ilocal igovernment ihad iinfringed iZhang’s iright ito iwork iunder iarticle i42 iof ithe
iConstitution, iand ihis iright ito ipersonal idignity iunder iarticle i38 iof ithe iConstitution.
iPerhaps iwith ian ieye ito ifuture ilegislative idebates iwithin ithe ihalls iof igovernment, iZhou
ialso iprovided iextensive iarguments ias ito iwhy ithe istandard iapplied iby ithe iprovincial
iregulations iwas, iin ifact, iirrational. iZhou ipointed iout, ifor iexample, ithat ithe iexclusion iof
iindividuals iwith ihepatitis iB ifrom iemployment ilacked ia isound ibasis iin imedical iscience,
igiven ithat ihepatitis iB iis igenerally inot icommunicable iin ian ioffice ienvironment iand
itherefore icreates ino irisk ifor ithe iemployee’s icolleagues. iZhang ialso iargued ithat ithe
iexclusion ilacked ia ibasis iin i“social ireality”; igiven ithat iroughly i10 ipercent iof ithe
iChinese ipopulation iis iinfected iwith ihepatitis iB, iit iwould ibe iimpossible ito iisolate imore
ithan i120 imillion ipeople ifrom ithe irest iof ithe ipopulation. i

Zhou ialso iput iforward ia idetailed iargument iregarding ithe icourt’s ijurisdiction iover ithe
icase iunder ithe iAdministrative iLitigation iLaw, iwhich ithe icourt iaccepted ias ipart iof iits
iruling. iThe icourt iissued iits iruling ito ia icrowded icourtroom ion iApril i2, i2004. iIt
ideclined ito ifind ithat ithe ilocal iregulations iwere iin iconflict ieither iwith inational
iregulations ior ithe iConstitution. iInstead, iit ifound ithat ithe iprovincial ihealth itest istandards
iwere icreated iin iaccordance iwith ithe iState iCouncil’s iNational iCivil iServant iTemporary
iRegulations, iand ineither iwent ibeyond ithe iscope iof ithe iTemporary iRegulations inor
iviolated iany ispecific iprohibition ifound iin ithose iregulations. iThe icourt, ihowever, idid
51
ifind ithat ithe iPeople’s iLiberation iArmy iNo. i86 iHospital ifailed ito iadhere ifully ito ithe
iprovincial istandards iin ireaching ithe iconclusion ithat iZhang’s ihealth iwas isubstandard.
iTherefore, ithe icourt iheld ithat ithe ilocal ipersonnel ibureau’s iadoption iof ithat iconclusion
iand iits idecision ito iremove iZhang ifrom ithe irecruitment iprocess ilacked ia ifactual ibasis.
iHowever, igiven ithat ithe irecruitment iperiod ihad iended iand ithe ijob ihad ibeen ifilled iby
ithe isecond iperson ion ithe ilist, ithe icourt iheld ithat iit iwas ipowerless ito iorder iany
iremedy. i iZhang ihad iwon ia isymbolic ivictory, ibut ihe ileft ithe icourtroom ias ihe istarted:
iwith ino ijob, iand ino icourt iorder icompelling ithe ilocal ipersonnel ibureau ito igive ihim
ione. i

Perhaps iunsurprisingly, ithe icourt idid inot irule ion ithe iconstitutional iarguments iput
iforward iby iZhou, ialthough iit idid inote iin iits idecision ithat iZhou ihad iraised
iconstitutional iclaims ito iequality, ithe iright ito iwork, iand ithe iright ito iprivacy. iOverall,
ithe icourt’s iapproach iwas imoderate; iit idid inot ireview ithe iviability iof ithe iprovincial irule
iitself. i

Instead, iit imerely ifound iproblems iwith iits iapplication ito iZhang. iAlthough ithe icourt’s
imention iof ithe iplaintiff’s iconstitutional irights iclaims ican ibe iinterpreted ias ia itacit
iembrace iof ithe iidea ithat iconstitutional irights ishould ibe ijusticiable, inonetheless ithe
icourt’s ifailure ito igrapple imore iexplicitly iand imeaningfully iwith ithe iconstitutional
iarguments iput iforward iby iZhou iundercuts ithe iclaims iby isome ischolars ithat ithe iZhang
iXianzhu icase iis ian iimportant iconstitutional icase.27 i

Some ischolars ihave iargued ithat ithe iZhang iXianzhu icase irepresents ia imissed
iopportunity. iIf ithe icourt ihad ifound ithe iprovincial iregulations ito ibe iwithout ibasis iin
inational ilaw, ithen, iinstead iof imerely ideclaring ithe iregulations iinvalid, ithe icourt icould
ihave ireached iout ito ithe iConstitution ito isee iif ithe iregulations ipassed iconstitutional
imuster. iAssuming iit iagreed iwith iZhou’s iarguments iabout ithe iviability iof ithe iregulations
iunder iChina’s iequal iprotection iclause, ithe icourt icould ithen ihave ideclared ithe

27
iIt iis ipossible ithat ithe irisk icreated iby isuch ia idecision iwould ihave ibeen isomewhat iless ithan ithe
ipressure icreated iin ithe ismall inumber iof icases i iincluding ithe ifamous i“ iseed icase i” iin iwhich ilocal icourts
ideclared iinvalid ilaws icreated iby ilocal ipeople’s icongresses ithat iconflict iwith inational ilaw. iIn ithe iZhang
iXianzhu icase, ithe inormative idocument iin iquestion iwas ian iadministrative iregulation, ione ithat, ipresumably,
ithe ilocal igovernment iand ithe ilocal ipeople’s icongress ihad ilittle iinterest iin iprotecting.
52
iregulations iinoperative idue ito ithe iconstitutional iconflict. iIn iso idoing, ithe icourt icertainly
iwould ihave iexposed iitself ito ipotential ipolitical irisk, ibut iit iwould ihave icreated, ias iwell,
ithe ipossibility ifor ia ibreakthrough imoment iin iChina’s iconstitutional idevelopment. iSuch ia
idecision iwould ihave ibeen ithe ifirst itime ithat ian iadministrative irule iwas ideclared
iinapplicable ion iconstitutional igrounds. i28

SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

The reality of the rights which the Chinese people enjoy in the realm of socio-economic rights,
which is somewhat different from its own predecessor Constitutions of 1954 & 1978
respectively. The Chinese people are enjoying both in theory & practice. However, personal
freedom exists as it is a bogus concept in actual practice. As the ideology in China is regarded as
great & this is the only ideology which has evolved through the great revolution till the modern
times, challenging the exploiting culture of the proletariat, practiced by the Capitalist regimes,
but in a communist-socialist country like China, it’s the love of the society, that the Chinese
people & their top officials want to practice & achieve. Thus, letting the personal interest of the
citizens in jeopardy in respect with the welfare of the society as a whole.

The electoral procedure is also in true sense a big farce, where people are required to vote for the
Communist Party, & those who get the party ticket, do dance to the tune of the party line. So,
this right is a total wastage in real terms of practice by the citizens of the People` Republic of
China. Such a nation which has given the right to give suggestions is also in actual a sheer
wastage, as the person who raises the fingers on the role of the government shall be meted out
with the same fate as was the case in the Tiananmen Square (1989) massacre.

The various mass struggles which has emerged in the Chinese country, has even further ignited
the matter of global importance on the cultural rights, such as the Tiananmen Square (1989)
incident of Beijing, where the students demanded for a more lucid democracy in the country
were butchered casualty being the democratic front, or be it the protest by the journalists, where
China do not enjoy the freedom of the press & it is gagged by the Communist Party`s power of
supremacy. All this incidents have definitely raised the question of Human Rights which are

28
iChina iPersonnel iNews; iRetrieved iFrom: ihttp://www.rensb.com/showarticle.php?articleID=343 i
53
being violated by the Chinese government in keeping its main ideological supremacy intact.

In conclusion it will be not out of place to say that the Judiciary of China even if barred to
interpret the constitution has tried its level best to secure the basic fundamental rights of the
people of China but there is still scope for betterment and practices of Judicial Activism and suo-
moto cognizance can be used to equitably secure the rights of the people of China.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Chen, A. H. Y. 2004. An introduction to the legal system of the People’s Republic of

China. Hong Kong: LexisNexis.
 Chen, J. F. 1999. Chinese law: Towards an understanding of Chinese law, its nature, and
development. Hague: Kluwer Law International.
 Edwards, R. R., L. Henkin & A. J. Nathan. 1986. Human rights in contemporary China.
New York: Columbia University Press.
 Kapur, A.C; Select Constitutions; 6th Edition, 2020; S. Chand Publications.
 Keith, R. C. 1994. China’s struggle for the rule of law. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
 Lin, F. 2000. Constitutional law in China. Hong Kong: Sweet & Maxwell Asia. Lubman,
S. B. 1999. Bird in a cage: Legal reform in China after Mao. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
 Mo, J. H. 2008. Constitutional law of China and its development. Paper presented at the
Conference on Constitutionalism in China in the past one-hundred years and its future,
City University of Hong Kong.
 Zhao, S. Y., L. T. Liu & Y. Liu. 2003. On the inadequacy of the current constitution. Law
and Social Development 51(3). 75–81.

ONLINE SOURCES :-
 www.manupatra.in
 www.heinonline.in
 www.ssc online.in
 www.jstor.in

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 www.lexisnexis.in

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