SIN323 Klasnotas Tot Theme 7

SIN 323
STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The goal of structural design:
• optimal form
• safe
• serviceable
• durable
• economical (maintenance and construction)
• aesthetically pleasing
• meets client and regulatory requirements
A SAFE DESIGN =
STRENGTH + STABILITY + STIFFNESS
STUDY THEMES
Structural Engineering = Analysis + Design
Analysis: load effects caused by the applied load
Design: structural elements remain stable under the applied

load and do not exceed ultimate stress of the material.
Any structure must have sufficient strength and stiffness,

and remain stable under the design load
We are going to look at the behaviour of steel structural

elements and their integration into structural systems
STUDY THEMES
1. Revision of basic concepts
– Limit states design
– Structural loading
– Stability
– Material properties of structural steel
2. Tension members
– Material bound failure
– Work to the full yield stress of the material
– Cables
Tied arch pedestrian bridge over the Vistula river, 148m span Krakow,
Poland Steel arch - 2m diameter
3. Compression members
– Short stocky members: material bound failure
– Slender members: stability bound failure (buckling)
– Effective lengths depend on the boundary conditions
Pedestrian Suspension Bridge over the

Rhine-Hern Canal, 141m span, Germany
Steel pylon and deck
4. Trusses
– Combination of tension and compression elements.
– Top and bottom chords; diagonals, verticals, bracing.
Triangulated truss
pedestrian bridge,
Johannesburg, South
Africa
5. Connections
– Joining elements together to form a structure
– Bolting
Double helix bridge

connection, Singapore
6. Beams
– Flexure is resisted by tension and compression flanges.
– Shear is resisted by the web
– Lateral torsional buckling
Steel pedestrian bridge,

Saltzburg, Austria
7. Beam-columns
– Eccentricities
– Second order effects
– Combined tension and bending
– Combined compression and bending
Erasmus bridge in Rotterdam, Holland – Steel pylon (139m high)

8. Industrial buildings
– Structural forms: trusses, lattice girders, portal frames
– Bracing
9. Plastic design
– At ULS areas of the structure exceed the elastic limit
– Elastic analysis of forces is no longer accurate
– More realistic prediction of forces and moments
– Ductility
– Redistribution of moments
SIN 323
THEME 1-1
REVISION OF BASIC CONCEPTS:
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, LOAD PATHS AND

LOADING
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
TRUSSES
TIED RAFTER QUEEN POST TRUSS
KING POST TRUSS HOWE TRUSS

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
GIRDERS
PRATT GRIDER
VIERENDEEL GIRDER
DOUBLE LATTICE GIRDER
WARREN GIRDER
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
PORTAL FRAMES
PORTAL FRAME – ALL FIXED
PORTAL FRAME – 2 PIN

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
ARCHES
THRUST ARCH
TIED ARCH
3 PIN ARCH
LOADING AND LOAD PATHS
Diaphragm action
Shear Walls
Alternate load paths for accidental impact

LOADING
Dead loads
• GRAVITY! Everything has a mass and therefore weight
• Self weight – either a small (steel structures) or large
(bridges) component of total load
Environmental loads: wind

• Basic wind speed
• Terrain
• Type of structure
• Height of the structure
• Altitude
• Internal and external pressure coefficients depend on the
size and shape of the structure
• Wind pressure acting on walls and on the roof
LOADING
Thermal loading
∆L = α(∆T)L
∆L = change in length
α = coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 x 10-6 for steel
∆T = change in temperature
L = length
EXPANSION JOINTS!
LOADING
Imposed loads
Floor usage Load (kN/m2)
Residential 1.5
Normal office 2.5
Entertainment areas 3.0
Corridors and lobbies 3.0
Retail sales areas 4.0
Assembly halls 4.0
Sports complexes 4.0
Hotels 5.0
Exhibition halls 5.0
Libraries 5.0
Warehouses 2.0 – 8.0

LOADING
Load combinations:
Load case Design load Dominating load
combination
Ultimate limit state
U1 1.5D Self weight
U2 1.2D + 1.6L Imposed
U3 1.2D + 0.5L + 1.3W Wind
U4 0.9D + 1.3W Wind uplift
Serviceability limit state
S1 1.1D + 1.0L Imposed
S2 1.1D + 0.3L + 0.6W Wind
D = self weight (dead load)

L = live load
W = wind load
Example 1-1 Floor beam loading
The drawing below shows the flood plan of an office building. Steel beams (B1 to B4) support a one
way spanning concrete floor slab. Consider the beams and girders as simply supported.
Loading is a follows:
Beam BI – 4: 406x140x39 UB
Girder G1 and G2: 533x210x82 UB
Equivalent thickness of concrete slab: 150mm
Finishes: 30mm screed
Brick walls and partitions: 4kPa
Occupancy: offices (normal use)
1) Calculate and sketch the factored bending moment diagrams of load cases U1 (1.5D) and U2
(1.2D + 1.6L) for the following beams:
a) B-2
b) B-3
c) G-1
2) What would the deflection of beam B-2 be under full dead and live load?
Homework:
1) What is the design load for columns A and B

SIN 323
THEME 1-2
STABLITY AND BRACING

STABILITY
Instability is caused by:
• Too few reactions / elements – total structural stability
• Column buckling – effective lengths
• Lateral torsional buckling of beams
• Overloading
• Local buckling – flange of beam makes small waves

STABILITY
Stability Requirements:
Overall stability
Lateral stability should be provided to resist lateral forces
(wind), but also side-sway caused by unsymmetrical
vertical loads or structural layout
Element stability
Stability of each structural element (e.g. column buckling or
lateral torsional buckling)
Local stability
Stability of each part of the structural element
STABILITY
Steel members fail (break) in one of three ways:
• Material bound failure – the steel starts to yield or

fractures
• Stability bound failure – buckling
• A combination between a material and stability
bound failure
STABILITY
Concrete shear walls

No lateral bracing
Lateral torsional buckling
Lateral restraints
Local flange buckling
BRACING
Lateral forces: wind, earthquakes / seismic, cranes
Bracing enable hinged structures to resist external lateral

forces without swaying
BRACING
Bracing provides paths for horizontal forces from their point

of application down to the foundations.
The bracing members that transfer theses forces to the

ground may do so by their resistance to either bending
moments or axial forces
Bracing designed to resist flexural action is more

expensive – but sometimes required if there are space
restrictions ( eg. a door in the braced bay)
TYPES OF BRACING
Cross bracing
• Assume one member in tension while the other member
has no load
• Choose the same section for both members
TYPES OF BRACING
K bracing
• Less obstruction in the bracing area
• Horizontal force is equally shared between supports
TYPES OF BRACING
Bracing Frame / Knee bracing

• Where space is required in the bracing area
• Axial forces in diagonals
• Bending moments in columns and beams
BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Horizontal loads transferred to columns by means of a

proper frame – such as a rigid frame or a braced frame
Rigid / unbraced or sway frame: consists of rigid

connections with sufficient stiffness to keep the angles
between the members virtually unchanged under load
BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Braced Frame: Add truss members (i.e. diagonals between

the columns) to carry the lateral forces in axial force
SIN 323
THEME 1-3
FLOOR LOADING
Types of slabs – edge supports
One way spanning

• Load carried by the floor to beams on opposite sides of the
floor
Two way spanning

• Load is transferred to the beams in two perpendicular
directions
Flat plates
• Supported directly on columns
• Slab-column connection thickened out (drop panel)
• Ribbed slab, coffers omitted around column to strengthen
this area
Types of slabs – edge supports
One-way spanning slab
Flat slab
Two-way spanning slab

One way spanning slabs – load path
Slab supported by beams in opposite edges Load path

Load path in a one-way spanning slab
• The load is transferred to the beams through bending

moments that develop in the slab.
• Consider a strip of slab as a beam – reactions (load on
supporting beam) and shear forces can be calculated.
• Similarly the beams transfer the loads to the columns.
• The slab transmits the load in one direction.
• Reaction on the internal beam is larger than the reaction on
the outer beam.
One way spanning slabs
Shear force diagram Shear force diagram
Single span Continuous span
Load distribution in a one-way spanning slab

One way spanning slabs - load on supporting beam
• Shear force diagram
• Position of zero shear force
• Resultant of the load acting on the area between the beam
and point of zero shear is the load carried by the beam
Two way spanning slabs - load on supporting beams

• Lines drawn to divide each corner equally into 45 degrees
• Varying distributed load supported by short beam
• One plan dimension > other, most of the load is transferred
to the longer beams and the slab tends to span in the short
direction
Consider the deformed / deflected shape:
• Cylindrical deformed shape – strip perpendicular to
supports have the same curvature, therefore the same
bending moments
• Strips parallel to the supports have no curvature (i.e. no
bending
Two way spanning slabs
• “Dish shaped” deflected shape
• Curvature in two perpendicular directions
• Bending moment is proportional to curvature – bending
moments develop in two directions
• Two way spanning slab – reinforcement required in two
directions
FLOOR LOADING
Permanent ribbed steel formwork system
FLOOR LOADING
FLOOR LOADING
One way spanning concrete flooring spanning in the N-S
direction
B3
B5
BEAM LOADING
Load on beam B3
Load on beam B5
Load on beam B5
FLOOR LOADING
A flat concrete slab reinforced in two directions
B3
B5
BEAM LOADING
Load on beam B3
Load on beam B5
Load on beam B5
SIN 323
THEME 1-4
DESIGN CODES
CODES AND STANDARDS
• Design rules based on research and experience of good
practise resulting in acceptable levels of structural
safety.
• Local, elemental and global behaviour
• Formulae, coefficients, limits and requirements are

specified which an acceptable structure must satisfy
• Uncertainties identified, behaviour of the structure and

model approximations are taken into account.
CODES AND STANDARDS
Permissible / Allowable stress method:
• Ultimate strength of the material is divided by a FOS (1.7)
to give a safe design stress (in the elastic range).
• Allowable stress = yield stress / factor of safety
• Stresses caused be working loads < allowable stress
• Consequences of failure not considered
• Nonelastic reserve capacity of structural steel can’t be
used
Load factor method:
• Working loads factored.
• Stresses caused by design loads < ultimate strength of
material
• Variability of material is not taken into account
• Can’t be used to calculate deflections under working loads
LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Limit state method:
• Load and resistance factor design
• Nominal loads x partial factor of safety = design loads
• Characteristic strength of materials / partial factor of
safety = design strengths
• Structural reliability analysis
• Failure expresses as exceedance of certain performance
limits – safety and functionality
• Differentiation in allocation of partial safety factors to
structural resistance and load effects
• Partial FOS are derived probabilistically, to proved a
deterministic design basis with an implicit level of
structural reliability
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Application of reliability theory:
• Target reliabilities are derived from previously accepted
practise and standards of safety.
• Separate codes are used for loading (SANS 10160) and
steel structures (SANS 10162)
• Partial safety factors are applied to nominal values of
load actions
• More conservative resistance factors are applied to
cases where failure has more than a local effect or could
occur in a brittle fashion (eg: connections φw = 0.67)
Structural performance is classified in two categories:
• ULS – safety performance of the structure (low failure
probabilities 1 in 1 000 000)
• SLS – functional performance of the structure (failure
probabilities 5 – 10%)
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Ultimate limit state:
• Safety
• Corresponds to the maximum load carrying capacity
Failure mechanisms considered:

• Loss of equilibrium
• Rupture
• Forms a mechanism
• Instability
• Progressive collapse
• Strength
• Overturning and uplift
• Fatigue
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Serviceability limit state:
• Restrictions to normal use and occupancy
• Durability
Failure mechanisms considered:

• Deflections
• Durability
• Dynamic effects (vibrations and natural frequency)
SIN 415
THEME 1-5
STEEL MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Structural Steel
Steel = 95% Iron + Carbon + Manganese + Silicon
Composite material: matrix iron (soft and ductile) + iron

carbide (hard and strong)
Mechanical properties influenced by:

• chemical compositions
• melting process
• rolling process (finishing temperature and cooling rate)
• heat treatment
Structural Steel
Chemical composition:
Strength, ductility and toughness depend on:
• Relative amounts of constituents
• Change in the nature of the soft matrix
• Size, shape and distribution of hard particles dispersed
within the matrix
Structural Steel
Hot-rolled structural steels:
• Carbon steels
• Exhibit definite yield point;
• Increased carbon percent raises yield stress but
reduces ductility (making welding more difficult).
• High-strength low-alloy steels

• Addition of small amounts of alloy elements create
increased strength
• Alloy steels
• Heat treatment (quenching & tempering) to obtain
yield strengths of 550 to 760MPa
Structural Steel
Heat treatment: “tailoring” microstructure to optimise
mechanical properties – i.e. improve ductility and toughness
Quenching:
• rapid cooling with water or oil from at least 900°C to
about 150 to 200°C
Tempering:
• reheating to a least 620°C and allowing to cool
Structural Steel Material
Important structural steel properties:
• Strength – E and fy
• Ductility vs Brittleness
• Toughness
• High temperature behaviour
• Fatigue strength
• Corrosion resistance
• Weld-ability
Stress-strain graph
A ductile material (eg mild steel) has four distinct behaviors as it

is loaded: elastic, yielding, strain hardening and necking
Steel stress-strain graph
Elastic region: stress is proportional to strain
Modulus of elasticity (E): Relationship between normal
stress and strain - s proportional e σ = Eε
Yielding: stressing above the elastic limit results in
material breakdown and permanent deformation.
Yield stress (fy): stress that causes yielding.
Plastic deformation: deformation that occurs after the
yield stress has been reached - elongates without an
increase in load.
Strength
Grade Yield Ultimate Modulus of Uses

stress stress Elasticity
MPa MPa GPa
Commercial 210 240 206 Cold
formed
Gr 300W 300 450 206 Hot rolled
Gr 350WA 350 480 206 Hot rolled
Gr S355JR 355 480 206 Hot rolled
Cold formed: During fabrication steel is cold worked by forming at

room temperature
Strength
Strain hardening
Brittle vs Ductile
Brittle material: fails at relatively low strain values; they
do not deform plastically.
Ductile material: can undergo large strains before it
fractures.
Ductility: measure of strain deformation a material can
undergo before fracturing.
Elastic: returns to its original dimensions during
unloading
Brittle vs Ductile
Brittle material Ductile material

Brittle fracture
• Service temperature - The lower the temperature the
higher the risk
• Tension stresses
• Thickness - Thicker the steel the greater the susceptibility.
• 3D continuity - 3D continuity restrains steel from yielding
and increases susceptibility
• Notches - Sharp notches increase susceptibility
• Multi-axial stress concentrations - Multi-axial stresses
restrain yielding
• Loading applied at a high rate - The higher the rate the
greater the susceptibility
• Changing rate of stress
• Welding - Weld cracks form notches = increased
susceptibility
Material Toughness
Toughness is a measure of the ability of steel to resist
fracture (i.e. to absorb energy).
Material toughness: the resistance to unstable crack

propagation in the presence of a notch.
Unstable crack propagation produces brittle fracture;
Stable crack growth of a subcritical crack causes fatigue.
Notch toughness
Material Toughness
High temperature behaviour - Fire
2.7 High temperature behaviour:
Yield strength
High temperature behaviour:
Tensile strength
High temperature behaviour:
Elasticity modulus
Lamellar tearing
Brittle facture occurring in planes parallel to the rolled
surface of a plate under high through thickness tensile
loading
Factors contributing to lamellar tearing:

• Restrained welded joints
• Thick plates and through thickness tensile strains
(resulting from weld metal shrinkage)
Lamellar tearing:
2.8 Lamellar tearing:
Lamellar tearing
Fatigue strength
• Repeated loading and unloading (No. of cycles)
• Stress range in tension
• Stress concentrations (stress raises = notches, welds)
• Mutliaxial stress
Corrosion resistance
Residual stresses
Certain parts of the profile cool quicker that others (eg:
flange if I beams) – cools and contracts = RESIDUAL
STRESSES
SIN 415
THEME 2-1
TENSION MEMBERS:
INTRODUCTION TO TENSION MEMBER

DESIGN
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Member type
3. Slenderness ratio
4. Tension member design
5. Stress concentration
6. Shear lag
7. Tension shear block failure
8. Summary
9. References
INTRODUCTION
• Tension members transmit a direct axial pull
• Work to the full tensile yield stress of the material
• Light, efficient, cost effective structures
• Compression or bending members – load capacity can

be reduced by buckling
2.2 MEMBER TYPE
• Cables, rods, eyebars, pin-connected plates for no
reversal of load (caused by wind suction)
• Structural shapes (L T H O ][ ) for small lateral loads &

load reversal
SLENDERNESS RATIO
In tension members the slenderness ratio is restricted to
limit the flexibility of the member
𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼
≤ 300 where 𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴
In compression members the slenderness ratio is limited

to avoid buckling
𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼
≤ 200 where 𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴
The radius of gyration (r) is a measure of the distribution

of the cross sectional area about the centroidal axis
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
Failure mechanisms:
• Tension yielding of gross area

• Rupture of net area
• Tension and shear block failure: combination of shear on
one plane and tension on a plane normal to it
Shear lag: load is not transferred to all the cross sectional

elements. The portion of the area that is participating
effectively in the transfer of the force is < full net area
Reference: SANS 10162:1 § 13.2
The factored tensile resistance Tr developed by a member

subject to an axial tensile force should be taken as the least of
the following:
a) (i) Tr =φ Ag fy ; prevents yielding of the member over its length.
(ii) Tr = 0,85φ Ane fu ; yielding around holes (over a short

distance) and thus strain hardening
(iii) Tr = 0,85φ A‘ne fu . Shear lag some of the legs of a section

are not connected
b) for pin connections, Tr = 0,75φ Ane fy

φ = 0.9 = Partial material factor
fu = ultimate tensile strength (480 MPa for Gr 350W steel)
fy = specified minimum yield stress (350 MPa for Gr 350W

steel)
0.85 – partial material factor for lack of fit
0.75 – partial material factor for one load path

YEILDING
FRACTURE
GROSS CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
Ag = gross cross-sectional area = ∑ thickness x width of each
element (flange, web, leg or plate), measured normal to the
direction of force
Ag = wgt
wg = total width
wne = wg – hole diameter
t = thickness
Resistance to yielding on the gross area: Tr = φAgfy

EFFECTIVE NET AREA
Ane = effective net cross-sectional area = ∑ critical net areas
An of each segment of an element along a potential failure
path
Ane = wnet
wg = net width
wne = wg – hole diameter
t = thickness
Drilled holes: bolt size + 2mm;
Punched holes: bolt size + 4mm (micro cracking around

hole)
Resistance to fracture on the net area: Tr = 0.85φAnefu

EFFECTIVE NET AREA
b) Segment inclined to the force; i.e subject to both shear and
tension
Holes are not lined up transverse to the loading direction –

potential rupture / failure line is subject to tension and shear.
The influence of the staggered hole is taken into account by
introducing a (s2/4g) term for every stagger in the line.
s = pitch / spacing parallel to load

g = gauge distance ( transverse)
m = no. holes
m-1 = no. staggers in failure line
𝑚𝑚−1
𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖2
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 = 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑ℎ +�
4𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
FAILURE / RUPTURE LINES
Tear out of
shaded block
From Redbook
ANGLE GAUGE LENGTH
Gauge length for an angle: length between centres of the
holes measured on the centre line of the angle.
g = (g1-t/2) + (g2-t/2) = g1 + g2 - t
STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
Axial stresses due to holes - Inelastic axial deformation

with an increase of the tensile force
Yielding around holes (over a short distance) and thus
strain hardening
SIN 415
THEME 2-1
TENSION MEMBERS:
EXAMPLE 2-1
EXAMPLE
Calculate the factored resistance of a 200mm wide, 25mm
thick plate with 24mm diameter bolts and drilled bolt holes
to a tensile force.
fy = 350 MPa and fu = 480 MPa
EXAMPLE
Ag = 200 x 25 = 5000mm2
Ane = Ag – 2dt = 5000 – 2 (24+2) x 25 = 3700mm2
Yielding: Tr = Agfy = 1575kN

Fracture: Tr = 0.85Anefu = 1358.6kN
EXAMPLE
Calculate the factored resistance of a 200mm wide, 25mm
thick plate with 24mm diameter bolts and drilled bolt holes
to a tensile force.
EXAMPLE
Ag = 200 x 25 = 5000mm2
Ane1 = Ag – dt = 5000 – (24+2) x 25 = 4350mm2
Ane2 = Ag – 2dt +s2t/4g = 5000 – 2 (24+2)x25 + (802 x 25)/(4 x 100)
Ane2 = 4100mm2
Yielding: Tr = Agfy = 1575kN
Fracture: Tr = 0.85Ane2fu = 1505.5kN
SIN 415
THEME 2-2
TENSION MEMBERS:
TENSION SHEAR BLOCK FAILURE

TENSION-SHEAR BLOCK FAILURE
For the block failure mode shown below it can be seen that
portion of the failure plane will be in tension (the vertical
segment) and other potions will be subjected to shear (the
horizontal segments)
The factored resistance of a connected part whose failure
mode involves both tensile fracture and either shear yielding
or shear fracture should be taken as the lesser of:
Tension fracture Shear yielding
i) Tr + Vr = φAntfu + 0.60φAgvfy
ii) Tr + Vr = φAntfu + 0.60φAnvfu

Tension fracture Shear fracture
Where:
φ = 0.9
Ant = net area in tension for block failure
Agv = gross area in shear for block failure
Anv = net area in shear for block failure
Tension fracture + Shear fracture

φAntfu + 0.60φAnvfu
Tension fracture + Shear yielding

φAntfu + 0.60φAgvfy
SIN 415
THEME 2-1
TENSION MEMBERS:
EXAMPLE 2-2
EXAMPLE
Calculate the factored resistance of the 75x50x6 Angle
shown below, with M12 bolts, holes punched.
EXAMPLE
40 40 40 40
3
5
4 27
6
45 = 48 - 6/2
2
28 = 31 - 6/2
19
1
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
19 73 -
402
73
120 720
120
576
EXAMPLE
440 576 0.6
720
440
SIN 415
THEME 2-3
TENSION MEMBERS:
SHEAR LAG
SHEAR LAG – BOLTED CONNECTIONS
A′ne = effective net cross-sectional area reduced for shear lag
Sketch from Structural Steel Design for SANS 10162:1-2005, Greg Parrott
• Reduces the efficiency of the net section by up to 40%
• Some of the legs of a section are not connected.
• The number of connectors in the connected legs will
determine the effectiveness of the unconnected legs in
resisting tension.
• Shear transfers the load from connected legs to the
unconnected legs.
• There is “shear lag” from connected legs to the unconnected
legs.f minimum resistance.
A reduced effective area is calculated which depends on the cross section
shape and the number of lines of transverse fasteners
a) I or H sections with flange widths not less than two-thirds the depth, and
structural T’s cut from these sections, when only the flanges are connected with:
i) three or more transverse lines of fasteners, A'ne = 0,90 Ane
b) for angles (L) connected by:
i) only one leg with four or more transverse lines of fasteners, A'ne = 0,80 Ane
ii) fewer than four transverse lines of fasteners, A'ne = 0,60 Ane
c) for all other structural sections connected with:
i) three or more transverse lines of fasteners, A'ne = 0,85 Ane

ii) with two transverse lines of fasteners, A'ne = 0,75 Ane
Note: The number of “transverse lines of fasteners” is the
number of lines of fasteners perpendicular to the direction
of the tensile force.
SHEAR LAG – WELDED CONNECTIONS
Sketch from Structural Steel Design for SANS 10162:1-2005, Greg Parrott
SANS 10162:1 § 12.3.3.3
Shear lag welded connections
A’ne = lesser of Ane1 + Ane3 or Ane2 +Ane3 (must be ≤ Ag)
a) Elements connected by transverse welds, Ane1 = w1t
b) Elements connected by longitudinal welds along two parallel edges, Ane2
i) when L ≥ 2w1, Ane2 = w1t

ii) when 2w1 > L ≥ w1, Ane2 = 0,50 w1t + 0,25Lt
iii) when w1 > L, Ane2 = 0,75 Lt
L = average length of welds on the two edges

w1 = plate width (distance between longitudinal welds)
SANS 10162:1 § 12.3.3.3
Shear lag welded connections
c) Elements connected by a single longitudinal weld, Ane3
The outstanding leg of an angle is considered connected by the single line

of weld along the heel.
when L ≥ w2, Ane3 = (1-x/L)(w2-t)t

when w2 > L, Ane3 = 0,50 Lt
x = eccentricity of the weld with respect to centroid of the unconnected

element
L = length of weld in the direction of the loading
Note:
Ane2 is not added to where the same element is connected by both a
transverse and longitudinal element
SANS 10162:1 § 12.3.3.3
SIN 415
THEME 2
TENSION MEMBERS:
EXAMPLE 2-3
EXAMPLE
A 125 x 75 x 8 angle section with holes (as shown in the
figure) is in axial tension. The holes have a final diameter
(including tolerances) of 18 mm. Determine the tensile
resistance of the member.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
8
EXAMPLE
SIN 415
THEME 3 - 1
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
INTRODUCTION AND
LOCAL BUCKLING
INTRODUCTION
• Columns
• Stuts – compression members in trusses / lattice girders
Two forms of slenderness can affect the strength of a

member subject to compressive stress:
Column buckling Local buckling

BUCKLING MODES OF COLUMNS
Column buckling Local buckling

About largest KL / r Flange or web buckling
BUCKLING MODES OF COLUMNS
Torsional
flexural buckling
Most doubly symmetrical hot rolled sections (I-sections or

H-sections) rather buckle in a flexural buckling mode.
Some sections (angles and channels) may buckle in a

torsional-flexural buckling mode.
LOCAL BUCKLING
• Slenderness of elements which make up the cross

section of a member (i.e. flange, web, leg etc.)
• Thin elements
• Local instability
• Width-thickness ratio: W = b1/t
• Elements divided into four classes
• Class 4 compression elements requires special
consideration
• Avoid local instability by restricting the slenderness of
elements
LOCAL BUCKLING
Limits on width-to-thickness ratios to prevent buckling of
flanges and webs.
• Class 1 – plastic design sections

• Class 2 – compact sections
• Class 3 – semi compact sections
• Class 4 – slender sections
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Class 4 is applicable for compression
due to axial compression (i.e. columns).
Classes 1 , 2 and 3 are relevant for

compression due to flexure (i.e. beams
or beam-columns).
If ratio less than class 4 limits: Strength

based on real dimensions
If ratio more than class 4 limits: Strength

to be based on effective dimensions
which are less than real dimensions
The maximum width-to-thickness ratios of elements subject to axial
compression are given in table 11.2(a)
Sections with width-to-thickness ratios exceeding the maximum
values in table 11.2 (a) shall be designated as Class 4 sections.
Redbook
fy = 350 MPa
Redbook
fy = 350 MPa
SIN 415
THEME 3 - 2
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
INTRODUCTION TO COLUMN BUCKING

BUCKLING
X Y
EFFECTIVE LENGTH - KL
• L = unrestrained length
• L = length between centres of the
LY
restraining members
• L = length from top of base plate LX
to the centre of the retaining
member
• Restraining member must be able
to resist 2% of the compression
force to retrain the member
• L is not necessarily the same for
all axes
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR - KL
• K = effective length factor

• Dependent on the rotational restraint of the
connection
• Factor which L is multiplied by to produce the
length of an equivalent pin-ended member
• KL = buckling length
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR - KL
Buckling lengths of various columns
EFFECTIVE LENGTH - KL
The effective length, KL, is the actual unbraced length, L, multiplied by a
factor, K, such that the product, KL, is equal to the length of a pin-ended
column of equal capacity to the actual member.
SLENDERNESS RATIO
In compression members the slenderness ratio is limited
to avoid buckling
Slenderness ratio = 200 where 𝑟

The radius of gyration (r) is a measure of the distribution
of the cross sectional area about the centroidal axis
• KL = effective length = buckling length

• Each axis of a section has a different SR
• The maximum slenderness ratio governs the strength of
a member
• A decrease in r leads to an increase in the slenderness
ratio
COLUMN BUCKLING
When a compression member is subject to axial loads it

must be capable of withstanding load, but must also
remain stable under the load.
Stability characteristics of a member are determined by:
• Length
• End connections
• Radius of gyration – is a measure of the distribution
of cross section area in a column around its
centroidal axis.
COLUMN BUCKLING
Consider a pin-ended column, length L, loaded by a force

P. The column will remain straight (stable) and only
undergo axial deformation, but as the load increases a
condition is reached when the column is no longer stable –
it buckles normal to the direction of the load.
COLUMN BUCKLING
Classic column theory – Leonhard Euler
The relationship between moment and displacement:
𝑑 𝑣
𝐸𝐼 𝑀
𝑑𝑥
and 𝑀 𝑃𝑣
𝑑 𝑣
thus 𝐸𝐼 𝑃𝑣
 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑣 𝑃
𝑣 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
or 𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑃𝑣 0
𝑣 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
COLUMN BUCKLING
𝜋 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑃 critical buckling load
𝐿 𝐾𝐿
𝜋 𝐸 𝐴𝑟
𝑃 where 𝐼 𝐴𝑟
𝐿

𝑃 𝜋 𝐸 𝜋 𝐸
𝜎
𝐴 𝐿 𝐿
𝑟 𝑟
𝜋 𝐸
𝜎 critical buckling stress
𝐾𝐿
𝑟
DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Reference: SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.1
The resistance of compression members is influenced by:
a) Geometrical imperfection
Column with initial out of straightness: (Perry-Robertson

formula).
a) Geometrical imperfection
Column with an eccentric load: Secant formula:

Hibbeler § 13.4 & Eq. (13-19).
b) Material non-linearity: Residual stresses:

SIN 323
THEME 3
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
EXAMPLE 3-2
From Redbook
KL/rx = 2000/87.2 = 22.9
Check class: From Table 4.2: Not class 4

Redbook
KL/ry = 62.9 fy = 350 MPa

Redbook
fy = 350 MPa
Table may only

be used if KL/ry
is the largest
value
SIN 323
THEME 3 - 3
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
COLUMN BUCKING
The factored axial resistance, Cr of a doubly symmetric, Class

1, 2 or 3 section is calculated as:
𝐶 𝜑𝐴𝑓 1 𝜆
 = 0.9; A = gross cross sectional area; and fy = yield stress

n reflects the residual stress patterns and geometric out-of-
straightness
n = 1.34 (hot rolled steel, fabricated according to SANS 657-1)
n = 2.24 (hot rolled steel, fabricated according to ISO 657-14)
 is the ratio of the actual slenderness ratio at which the Euler
buckling stress is equal to the yield stress
𝐾𝐿 𝑓 𝑓 𝜋 𝐸
𝜆 where 𝑓 fe = elastic crucial
𝑟 𝜋 𝐸 𝑓 𝐾𝐿
𝑟 buckling stress
Redbook
fy = 350 MPa
Redbook
fy = 350 MPa
SUMMARY
The strength of a member subject to compressive stress:
• Local buckling (b1/t)

• Flexural / column buckling (stability)
• Residual stresses
• Geometrical imperfection
𝐶 𝜑𝐴𝑓 1 𝜆
n - reflects the residual stress patterns and geometric out-of-

straightness
 - slenderness parameter
SIN 323
THEME 3
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
EXAMPLE 3-3
A nine meter long steel column is fixed at the top and the bottom for buckling about
the x-axis (in the yz plane) and hinged for buckling about the y-axis in the (xz plane).
Two additional lateral supports are placed at thirds of the length to decrease the
slenderness about the y-axis. Determine a suitable column size if the permanent
load is 100 kN and the imposed load is 200 kN. Try 152 x 152 x 30 H
KL = 1.0x3m
KL = 1.0x3m
KL = 0.65x9m
KL = 1.0x3m
Possible modes of failure:

Possible modes of failure:
1) Local buckling – Not a class 4 member

2) Flexural buckling - Cr = 616kN
3) Torsional flexural buckling – doubly symmetric,
therefore not susceptible
4) Squashing / material bound failure – N/A
SIN 323
THEME 3 - 4
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
SHEAR CENTRE
LOCATION OF SHEAR CENTRE
A vertical load acting on a beam will produce bending
without twisting only if the load acts through the shear
centre. If a load is applied through some other point than the
shear centre it can be replaced by a statically equivalent
system consisting of a force acting at the shear centre and a
torque T.
Ff d
e
P
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS –
SYMMETRY ABOUT X AND Y AXIS
(a) Doubly symmetric sections SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 a)
In the case of double symmetric sections (e.g. I sections) and

axisymmetric sections (e.g. Z sections) the shear centre is
given by:
x0 = y0 = 0
– SYMMETRY ABOUT X AND Y AXIS
(a) Doubly symmetric sections SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 a)
The buckling modes are therefore independent and the column

buckles at the lowest stress and in a corresponding mode.
𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓 , 𝑓 , 𝑓
𝑓 ;𝑓 ;𝑓 𝐺𝐽
SYMMETRY ABOUT Y AXIS
(b) Singly symmetric sections: symmetry about y-axis

SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 b)
For singly symmetric sections with symmetry about the y-

axis (eg: T-sections)
Shear centre
x0 = 0
y0 = …
(b) Singly symmetric sections: symmetry about y-axis

SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 b)
SYMMETRY ABOUT X AXIS
(b) Singly symmetric sections: symmetry about x-axis

SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 b)
For singly symmetric sections with symmetry about the x-

axis (e.g. Channel)
x0 = ….. Shear centre

y0 = 0
SYMMETRY ABOUT X AXIS
(b) Singly symmetric sections: symmetry about x-axis

SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2 b)
(b) (i) Singly symmetric sections: symmetry about “y”-

axis: equal leg angle SANS 10162:1 § 13.3.2
For singly symmetric sections with symmetry about the x-

axis (e.g. Angle)
x0 = 0 (along the v axis) Shear centre

y0 = … (u along the u axis)
SIN 415
THEME 4-1
TRUSSES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
• Structural form is decided by the Structural Engineer

• Governed by purpose, material and aesthetic
considerations
• Beams are common structural elements – carry loads by
developing shear forces and bending moments along
their length
• As spans increase beams become uneconomical
• Trusses used for spans > 20m
• Trusses carry loads be developing axial forces in their
members
• Increased depth = greater loads are able to supported
ROOF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Select either rafters (beams) or trusses for the roof
Bracing system for stability of structure in longitudinal
direction:
• Horizontal support to the gable post against wind loading

• Lateral support provided top and bottom chords of truss, or
flanges of a rafter beam where they are connected to purlins
that are tied into the braced bay
Connections between trusses and columns and
the connections between columns and
foundations will effect the bracing system for the
structure
Fixed
Pinned
Connections between trusses Connections between trusses

and columns may be “hinged” and columns must be able to
or “pinned”. transmit moments.
Pinned Fixed
Fixed Pinned
Connections between trusses Connections between trusses

and columns may be “hinged” and columns must be able to
or “pinned”. transmit moments.
Required bracing system Required bracing system

TYPICAL ROOF TERMINOLOGY
PITCHED ROOF TRUSSES
For a roof pitch truss: Apex height / span = 1/5 to 1/6

LATTICE GIRDERS
For a lattice girder: Height / span = 1/10 to 1/20

ARRANGEMENT OF TRUSS MEMBERS
• Longest members tensile
• Consider load reversal (wind suction)
• Purlins cold-rolled sections, angles, channels.

Purlins where possible at truss nodes.
Spacing 1.6 m to 2.6 m.
• Connections: reduce eccentricity (centre-line of members

should meet at a single point which should be in the
connection)
Connections should be arranged to reduce eccentricity
Connections should be arranged to reduce eccentricity
TYPICAL LOADS ON TRUSSES
Dead loads:
Self-weight of trusses:
• Bolted: 0.10 to 0.15 kN/m2

• Welded: 0.08 to 0.1 kN/m2
Other dead loads: sheeting, insulation, ceiling, purlins
Total dead load usually varies from 0.3 to 1.0kN/m2

TYPICAL LOADS ON TRUSSES
Imposed loads:
Inaccessible roofs (SANS 10160):

Uniform load: 0.3 to 0.5 kN/m2
Point load: 0.9 kN
Accessible roofs (SANS 10160):

Uniform load: 2.0 kN/m2
Point load: 2.0 kN
Wind loads:
Wind loads (suction can cause load reversal)

Lattice Girder Example
An unsymmetrical lattice girder spans 16m, with a depth between the centrelines of chords
equal to 1.5m. It supports five factored ultimate loads of 40kN, as shown in the sketch.
The lattice girder is supported laterally by purlins at the position of the point loads.
D Draw the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram for the lattice girder
E What is the maximum force in the top chord?
F What is the maximum force in any diagonal member?
G What is a suitable RHS section for the top chord?
Use Grade 30W steel with fy = 30MPa and fu = 40MPa

SIN 323
THEME 4-2
TRUSSES
IN PLANE AND OUT OF PLANE BUCKLING

Section A-A
Y
A symmetrical lattice girder roof truss spans 20m,
and has a depth between the centrelines of
chords equal to 1.8m. It supports roof loads at
X X
the purlins positions, every 2m and the girders
are placed at 5m centres.
Y Every second purlins is tied into the braced bay

Section X-X in centre of the structure.
2m
PLAN
PLAN VIEW
KL =2m
SECTION A-A – IN PLANE BUCKLING
X X
Section X-X
Y
KL =4m
PLAN
OUT OF PLANE BUCKLING
In-plane buckling
Out-of-plane buckling
D+L TOP COMPRESSION CHORD BUCKLING – TOP CHORD BRACED

In-plane buckling
D+W BOTTOM COMPRESSION CHORD BUCKLING – TOP CHORD BRACED

In-plane buckling
D+W BOTTOM COMPRESSION CHORD BUCKLING – BOTTOM CHORD BRACED

SIN 415
THEME 4
TRUSSES
EXAMPLE 4-2
A truss with loads is shown in the figure. L = 21,6 m h = 5.4 m The vertical
members are placed at equal distances. The points of load application (↓)
represent purlins that are braced. The loads are ultimate factored loads. One
continuous section is used for the top chord and one continuous section is used for
the bottom chord. The top chord is connected with a bolted connection at the apex.
P = 65 kN
i) Determine the forces in the truss for the given loading.
ii) Use the SASCH Tables to find a suitable Gr 350W equal leg angle sections for
the bottom chord
Top chord:
Cu = 363.4kN
KLin plane = Klout of plane = 3.6m / cos  = 4m
SIN 323
THEME 4-3
TRUSSES
EQUIVALENT BEAM ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS OF A PIN JOINTED TRUSS
Real trusses:
• not pin jointed

• welded joints (rigid)
• bolted joints (semi-rigid)
• connections are able to transmit bending moments.
If loads and supports coincide with member nodes shear

and bending moments will be relatively small compared
to the axial forces and a pin-jointed analysis gives a good
estimate of the axial forces in truss
ANALYSIS OF A PIN JOINTED TRUSS
Analysis of trusses: consider bending moments and shear

forces in equivalent beam.
• Chord forces can be determined by dividing the

bending moment by the distance between the chords
• Forces in the diagonal members can be determined by

resolving the overall shear load at the point
• Method of joints or method of sections
Note: if loading is NOT applied at the joint nodes then

axial forces as well as bending moments will develop in
the truss
Equivalent beam behavior example for
lattice girder type trusses (i.e. parallel top
and bottom chords)
Determine the maximum axial forces in the chords and
lacings of the truss
Truss elevation
Equivalent beam
Equivalent beam
Shear Force Diagram
Bending Moment Diagram


Maximum bending moment (Mmax) at the centre of the beam:
Mmax = 2W x 4.5 - W x 1.5 = 7.5W
Using equivalent beam behavior, the maximum compressive

force in the centre of top chord can be approximated as:
FBC = FCD = Mmax/h = 7.5W/1.2 = 6.25W (Compression)
Similarly FHI = FIJ = 6.25W (Tension)


Maximum shear force (Vmax) at the end of the beam:
Vmax = 2W
Using equivalent beam behavior, the maximum tensile force

in the diagonal AH can be approximated as:
FAH = Vmax/cos = 3.2W

SIN 415
THEME 4
TRUSSES
EXAMPLE 4-3
A truss with loads is shown in the figure. L = 21,6 m h = 5.4 m The vertical
members are placed at equal distances. The points of load application (↓)
represent purlins that are braced. The loads are ultimate factored loads. One
continuous section is used for the top chord and one continuous section is used for
the bottom chord. The top chord is connected with a bolted connection at the apex.
P = 65/2 = 32.5 kN
1) Determine the forces in the truss for the given loading.
2) Estimate moments in the top chord
3) What is the critical design combination of axial force and bending moment for
the top chord
2) Max moments in top chord
29.06kN
MA = 0.175 x (32.5 x cos) x 4m = 20.48kNm
MB = -0.15 x (32.5 x cos) x 4m = 17.55kNm
3) Critical design combination
Cu = 363.4kN
Mu = 20.48kNm
SIN 323
THEME 4-4
TRUSSES
EQUIVALENT BEAM ANALYSIS –

LOADS NOT APPLIED AT THE NODES
ANALYSIS OF A PIN JOINTED TRUSS –
Determine the maximum axial forces in the chords and
lacings of the truss
Truss elevation
ANALYSIS OF A PIN JOINTED TRUSS –
Hand calculation for strength:
1. Distribute loads between nodes to the nodes. Do pin-jointed
analysis or “beam” analysis for the truss as a whole.
2. Analyze top (or bottom) cord as continuous beam – flexure.
3. Top cord designed for axial forces from (1) and bending moments
from (2)
Hand calculation for strength:
1. Distribute loads between nodes to the nodes. Do pin-jointed analysis.
span

Maximum bending moment (Mmax) at the centre of the beam:
Mmax = 4.5W x 4.5 – 1.5W x 3 - 2W x 1.5 = 12.75W
Using equivalent beam behavior, the maximum compressive

force in the centre of top chord can be approximated as:
FBC = FCD = Mmax/h = 12.75W/1.2 = 10.625W

2. Analyse top cord as continuous beam.
Bending moments: Use Redbook Table 5.20 (p.5.74)
span
Bending moments: Use Redbook Table 5.20 (p.5.75 and p5.76)
Redbook P 5.76
M = factor x WL
All spans loaded
Only spans 1 and 3

loaded
Bending moments: Use Redbook Table 5.20 (p.5.74)
L
L
L
L
Note: L = 1.5m
SIN 323
THEME 5 - 1
INTRODUCTION TO
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
INTRODUCTION
• Transmit loads between members at a joint

• Welding preferably in fabrication shops.
• Bolting assemblies on site.
TYPICAL BEAM TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
TYICAL BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
SPACING OF BOLTS
• Pitch: spacing between centres of adjacent bolts of adjacent

bolts > 2.7 x nominal bolt diameter
• Edge distance depends on the finish of the edge
• Gauges and backmarks (Tb 6.18 (pg 6.25) in SASCH) –
ensures correct edge distance and practical positioning for
easy installation and tightening
• Hole diameter: drilled + 2mm; punched + 4mm
• Must be drilled if t > 12mm
Minimum edge distance

Sheared Rolled, sawn or
gas-cut
1.75d 1.35d
SPACING OF BOLTS
SPACING OF BOLTS
BEARING BOLTS
• Transmit the load in bearing and shear
• Two classes are available – Gr 4.8 and Gr 8.8
Class Tensile strength (fu)
MPa
4.8 420
8.8 830
• First number = tensile strength (fu) / 100

• Second number = yield strength as a portion of tensile
strength
• Eg: Gr 8.8 fu = 8x100 = 800MPa
fy = 0.8 x 800 = 640MPa
• Actual tensile strength is slightly higher
BEARING BOLTS
Forces are transferred through shear on the bolts and through
bearing plate once slippage of 2mm to 5mm has occurred
Bearing type connections suitable when not subjected to

impact, vibrations or stress-reversals.
TYPES OF BEARING BOLT CONNECTIONS
F/2
F/2
SIN 415
THEME 5 - 2
BEARING BOLT RESISTANCE

BEARING / TEAR OUT RESISTANCE
BEARING / TEAR OUT RESISTANCE
BEARING RESISTANCE
• End distance (a) of the bolt under consideration

• a > 3d: Br = 3brtdfu
• a < 3d: Br = brtafu – possibility of tear out
br = 0.67 (partial material factor)

t = thickness of thinnest member in connection
d = nominal bolt diameter
fu = ultimate strength of member (NOT BOLT)
SHEAR RESISTANCE
SHEAR RESISTANCE
• Single and double shear
• Vr= bmnAb0.6fu
• Shear plane through thread: Vr = 0.7(bmnAb0.6fu)
b = 0.8 (partial material factor)

Ab = nominal bolt area
fu = minimum tensile strength of bolt
m = no. of shear planes
n = no. of bolts
TENSION RESISTANCE
• Tr= 0.75bAbfu
• Lock nut needs to be provided to prevent loosening
due to vibration
b = 0.8 (partial material factor)

Ab = nominal bolt area
fu = minimum tensile strength of bolt
COMBINED TENSION AND SHEAR
• Tr > Tu
• Vr > Vu
௏ೠ ்ೠ
•
௏ೝ ்ೝ
SIN 415
THEME 5
EXAMPLE 5-2
OUT OF PLANE CONNECTION

EXAMPLE
A T bracket is shown in the figure below. The factored ultimate load (P) is
380kN at an eccentricity of 200mm. The bolts are M20 Gr 8.8 and are
spaced at a pitch of s = 70mm. Assume the centre of rotation is about the
lower row of bolts and check whether the bolts have sufficient resistance.
EXAMPLE – SHEAR AND TENSION
Mu = 380 x 0.2m = 76kNm
Maximum bolt tension due to moment:

𝑇 ∑
72.4kN
Maximum shear due to force:

𝑉 38kN
Shear resistance:
Vr = 0.7bmnAb0.6fub = 0.7 x 0.8 x 1 x 1 x 314 x 0.6 x 830 = 87kN > Vu
Tensile resistance:
Tr = 0.75bAbfub = 0.75 x 0.8 x 314 x 830 = 156kN > Tu
Combined tension and shear:

.
1.4 0.83 1.4
SIN 415
THEME 5 - 3
ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS
ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS - SHEAR AND
TENSION
• Moment applied
perpendicular to the plane of
the connection
• Rotation is assumed about

the bottom line of the group
• Linear variation of the

tension loading due to the
moment is assumed – top
line of bolts takes the most
load
• Direct shear force on each

bolt: Vu = P/n
TENSION
M = Pe = Tuy1 + y2 (Tuy2/y1) + y3 (Tuy3/y1) + y4 (Tuy4/y1)

a = number of vertical lines of bolts
𝑇 ∑
and ∑ 𝑦 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3 …..+𝑦𝑛
PRYING ACTION
• Insufficient stiffness in member

• Leverage effect – prying action
• Increase in tension in bolts by Q (tension is amplified)
• Increase T by 10% (even if plate has adequate thickness to
prevent flexure)
TORSION
• Moment applied in the

plane of the connection
• Rotation is assumed
about the centre of gravity
of the bolt group
• Linear variation of the

loading due to moment
Pe may be assumed with
the bolt farthest from the
centre of gravity of the
group taking the most
load
TORSION
There are some notational differences between the blue text
book and the Redbook. But final answer is the same.
TORSION
Pu
Vm r2/r1 2
Vm r2/r1
• Let force due to moment in bolt 1 furthest from centroid = Vm

• Force in bolt 2 (r2 from centroid) = Vm(r2/r1)
• Mr = sum for forces x distance from the centroid
TORSION
P = applied factored load
e e = eccentricity
ri = distance of bolts from
centroid
Pu
xi; yi = coordinates of each
Vm r2/r1
bolt
Vm r2/r1 Vm = shear force in bolt due
to moment
Vu = shear force due to direct
load
n = number of bolts
𝑀 𝑉 𝑟 𝑉 𝑟 ⋯ 𝑉 𝑟 𝑀
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑀 𝑟1 𝑟2 ⋯ 𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑀𝑟
𝑉
∑𝑥 ∑𝑦
TORSION
Pu
Vm r2/r1
Vm r2/r1
𝑉 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑉 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑉𝑢 𝑉𝑚 2𝑉 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Vub = shear force that the bolts must be able to resist

TORSION
e
Vmh
Vmv
Pu
Vm r2/r1
Vm r2/r1
𝑀𝑟
𝑉
∑𝑥 ∑𝑦
𝑉 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑉 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

SIN 415
THEME 5 - 1
EXAMPLE 5-3
IN-PLANE CONNECTION
EXAMPLE
A bracket is shown in the figure below. The factored ultimate vertical load is
90kN at an eccentricity of 275mm, and a horizontal load H = 20kN.
The bolts are M20 Gr 4.8 and the holes are drilled. Check whether the
bolts have sufficient resistance.
r1

EXAMPLE – SHEAR
Mu = 90 x 0.275m + 20 x = 28.3kNm
𝑟 45 140 =147mm and = 72.18°

∑𝑥 10 45 20250 ∑𝑦 4 70 4 140 98000
Maximum bolt shear due to moment:

.
𝑉 ∑ ∑
35.1kN
Vmh = Vm sin = 33.4kN and Vmv = Vm cos = 10.8kN
Maximum shear due to vertical force:

𝑉 38kN
Maximum shear due to horizontal force:

𝑉 2kN
EXAMPLE – SHEAR
Vmh Vh
Vmv
Vu
Vv
𝑉 9 10.8 33.4 2 40.6kN
Shear resistance:
Vr = 0.7bmnAb0.6fub = 0.7 x 0.8 x 1 x 1 x 314 x 0.6 x 420 = 44.3kN > Vu
SIN 323
THEME 5 - 4
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION BOLTS
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
• No slip under SLS conditions

• Load transfer by friction
developed between the contact
surfaces
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
• Bolts are made of high strength material

• Pre-tensioned during installation to a force of at least 70%
of their tensile resistance
• Resistance to ultimate loads is as for bearing bolts
• Under SLS (working loads) conditions no slip of the
assembly occurs
SLIP RESISTANCE
Clamping force = Ti = 0.7T = 0.7 (0.75Abfub) = 0.53Abfub

Frictional force between the plates V = Ti
Slip resistance = 0.53Abfub
 is dependant on c1 and k1
c1 = coefficient allowing for variability in connection (Tb 7.4)
ks = slip coefficient (Tb 7.4)
With m = no. of shear planes and n = no. of bolts

Vs= 0.53c1ksmnAbfub
For slotted holes Vs = 0.75 x (0.53 x c1ksmnAbfub)

COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION
௏ ்
• For serviceability loads: ൅ ൑ 1.0
௏ೞ ଴.ହଷ௡஺್ ௙ೠ
SIN 323
THEME 6-1
INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS
1. INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS
A beam is a:
• structural element which
generally supports a floor slab
or other beams
• transfers loads by generating

internal actions in the form of
shear forces and bending
moment
• I beams are efficient sections

for flexure – most of the
material in the section lies
where the maximum couple
moment is experienced
2. TYPES OF BEAMS
Hot rolled sections Compound sections Plate girders
• I beams are the most • moment of resistance of • Manufactured

commonly used hot rolled member from plates
• Parallel flanges are increase by adding welded together
preferable for bolting another section to from an I beam
• Properties in SASCH • Crane girders – channel • Long spans
connected to top flange supporting heavy
of UB loads
• Flat plat connected to • Slender webs
top and bottom flanges
(not for this course)

3. NORMAL STRESS DUE TO FLEXURE
My
 
I
M R Z   M Z ;
y 
M   ydF   y dA   y  max dA
A A
c 
 max
c A
M y 2 dA
Mc
 max 
I
My
 
I
4. ELASTIC BENDING
Distribution of normal bending stress over the depth of a

rectangular section when it has reached its maximum elastic
capacity (ie. stress in the outermost fibre has reached fy)
My = fyZe = fyI/y= yield moment

5. PLASTIC BENDING
Applied bending moment exceeds the yield moment - beam

may be capable to taking additional load if the section is a
Class 1 or Class 2 section (permits the attainment of the plastic
moment)
With an increase in load, without an increase in yield stress, a

greater depth of the section yields as the strain carries on
increasing – bringing the fibres which are closer to the neutral
axis to yield.
5. PLASTIC BENDING
As the load increases so the whole section becomes fully

stressed except for the fibres very close to the neutral axis.
5. PLASTIC BENDING
A slight further increase in moment causes all the fibres to

become fully stresses and the beam can not sustain any further
load – a plastic hinge has formed.
Mp = fyZp = fybd2/4 = plastic moment

6. SHAPE FACTOR
Ratio of plastic moment to elastic moment k = Mp/Me = Zp / Ze
For I sections K ≈ 1.15
For rectangular sections K = 1.5
This gives an indication of reserve capacity of the section

SIN 323
THEME 6-2
BEAM CLASSIFICATION
7. BEAM CLASSIFICATION
Sections are classified in the four classes based in the width to

thickness ratios W = b1/t similar to compression members.
Enables the designer to determine the resistance of the section

on the basis of the differing behaviour under stress of the
section.
Limits on width-to-thickness ratios are
used to prevent buckling of flanges and
webs.
A class 4 (slender) section cannot reach the yield stress

without local buckling of elements in compression
A class 3 (semi-compact) section can reach the yield stress but

not the full plastic moment of resistance without local buckling.
A class 2 (compact) section can reach the full plastic moment

of resistance but cannot maintain Mp with further bending
without local buckling. (limited rotational capacity – will allow Mp
but not moment redistribution)
A class 1 (plastic) section can reach the full plastic moment of

resistance and maintain or exceed Mp with further bending.
(Rotational capacity and allow the attainment of Mp and
subsequent moment redistribution)
References: CSIR § 5.2 SASCH § 5.1.3
See CSIR Fig. 5.3: Moment - rotation (or curvature)

relations for different classes of sections.
MY
7. CLASSIFICATION OF SECTIONS
SIN 323
THEME 6-3
LATERALLY SUPPORTED (RESTRAINED)
BEAMS
8. WHAT IS LATERAL RESTRAINT?
A beam can be restrained laterally (in the horizontal direction)

by purlins or a floor slab.
These restraints would prevent the beam from deflecting out of

the vertical plane. (i.e. the beam can only deflect in the vertical
plane.)
Plastic distribution can only be reached if:

• Lateral buckling does not occur (lateral restraint required); and
• Local buckling does not occur (section sufficiently compact).
9. MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF BEAMS WITH
FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT
This refers to beams where the compression flange is fully

prevented from moving horizontally:
Mr =  Ze fy for class 3 (non-compact) sections

 = 0.9
Ze = elastic section modulus
Mr =  Zpl fy for class 1 (plastic) or class 2 (compact) sections

 = 0.9
Zpl = plastic section modulus
SIN 323
THEME 6-4
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
10. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Restraint to the compression flange of a flexural member may

be required to prevent excessive lateral deflection (buckling).
This lateral movement of the compression flange will cause
torsion in the beam due to the eccentricity of the applied load.
This is called lateral torsional buckling and may cause failure
of the beam.
Compression flange
Effect of buckling
reduced
10. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Beams where Iy < Ix, can become unstable during bending

by buckling in a combined horizontal displacement and
twisting (rotating) action (i.e. failure due to torsional
instability – lateral torsional buckling):
• Unstable compression zone
• Stable tension zone
• Buckling – stable tension zone resists the lateral

movement of the unstable compression zone
• Compatibility of the two zones is achieved by twisting

11. LATERAL RESTRAINTS
Reference: SANS 10162:1 SAISC Handbook: p. 5.19
Lateral restraint is offered by members connected to the compression

flange capable of resisting 0.02 times (2%) the force in the compression
flange at the point of lateral restraint.
SANS 10162:1 9.2.6 Simplified analysis
Bracing systems shall be proportioned to have a strength perpendicular

to the longitudinal axis of the braced member in the plane of buckling, at
least equal to 0,02 times the factored compressive force, at each brace
point, in the member or element being braced, unless a detailed analysis
is carried out in accordance with 9.2.7 to determine the appropriate
strength and stiffness of the bracing system.
Transverse ties
No triangulation – the beams

buckle sympathetically.
The buckling length is the full
span - L
Buckling mode
Beams
L
Transverse ties
Triangulation provides
Diagonal
effective lateral support to
bracing
midspan.
The buckling length is
Buckling mode
reduced to half the span L/2
Beams
L/2 L/2
As the compression flange initiates the lateral instability, the best

attachment point of lateral bracing is directly to the compression
flange.
Bracing attached to compression flange. Fully effective.

Bracing attached to shear centre. Partially effective but difficult to

quantify.
Bracing attached to Tension flange. Virtually ineffective

No lateral bracing
Lateral torsional buckling
Lateral restraints
12. EFFECTIVE LENGTH
Unrestrained simply supported beam (free to rotate in plan)
Fixed beam (not free to rotated in plan)

Effective length = k x unrestrained length

Restraint against lateral bending Effective length factor (k)
at support Loading condition
Normal Destabilizing
Unrestrained (free to rotate in plan) 1.0 1.2
Partially restrained 0.85 1.0
Fixed (not free to rotated in plan) 0.7 0.85
Destabilizing load: The load is applied to

the compression flange and would be free
to move laterally with the compression
flange if it was to buckle
Normal load: The load is applied to the
shear centre of the section
Beam ends are not restrained against torsion – effective length

factors to be increased by 20%
The compression flange will extend to a theoretical position

beyond the support.
SIN 323
THEME 6-5
TORSION IN BEAMS
13. TORSION IN BEAMS
SANS 10162-1 contains a few clauses on torsion:

14.10.1 Torsion:
Beams and girders subjected to torsion shall have sufficient
strength and rigidity to resist the torsional moment and forces
in addition to other moments or forces. The connections and
bracing of such members shall be adequate to transfer the
reactions to the supports.
13.6 Bending of Laterally unsupported members

Where continuous lateral support is not provided to the
compression flange of a member subject to
bending, the factored moment resistance Mr may be calculated
as follows…… where the critical elastic moment of the
unbraced member is given by
Where:
Cw = warping torsional constant
G = shear modulus of steel
(assumed to be 77 x 103 MPa)
J = St. Venant torsion constant
of a cross-section
Therefore in order to apply the beam design formulae an

understanding of torsion is necessary:
Two forms of torsion occur:
• Pure torsion (St.Venant’s torsion)
• Warping (out-of-plane) torsion

14. TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS
Torque: a moment that tends to twist a member about its
longitudinal axis
14. TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS
Assume there is no out-of-plane warping and no distortion of

the cross section.
 = Distance from the centre of twist

J = St Venant torsional constant 𝐽 𝑐 (for a solid shaft)
c = distance from the centre of twist to outer fibres
 = shear stress 𝜏 𝛾𝐺 ;
 𝜏 ;𝜏
14. TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS
T = Torsional moment
x = axis of shaft
 = angle of twist about x axis 𝜑
G = shear modulus
 = shear strain 𝛾
15. TORSION IN NON-CIRCULAR SHAFTS
Reference: Hibbeler § 5.6
Shear stress are affected by warping.
See also SASCH Table 13.13

16. CLOSED SECTION VS OPEN SECTION
Closed section
Open section
17. TORSION IN A THIN WALLED CLOSED CROSS
SECTION
The average shear stress acting over the thickness of the tube:
𝜏
L = length of the shaft
G = shear modulus
Am = mean area enclosed within the boundary of the centreline

Lm = Length of the boundary line enclosing Am
 = angle of twist about x axis 𝜑
t = the thickness of the tube where ave is to be determined
J = St Venant torsional constant 𝐽
EXAMPLE 3 – THIN SQUARE TUBE IN TORSION
Calculate the shear stress and maximum angle of twist on a

2m long 50x50x4.5 SHS subject to a twisting moment of
2kNm
G = 77GPa
18. TORSION IN A THIN WALLED OPEN CROSS
SECTION
For a section composed of thin rectangular elements of width bi

and thickness ti
J = St Venant torsional constant 𝐽 ∑𝑏 𝑡
ti = the thickness of the element (i.e. tf and tw)
EXAMPLE 4 – THIN ANGLE IN TORSION
Calculate the shear stress and maximum angle of twist on a

2m long 200x200x16 L subject to a twisting moment of 2kNm
G = 77GPa
19. WARPING TORSION OF I-SHAPED STEEL
SECTIONS
Torsion may be categorized into two types:
• pure torsion or Saint-Venant’s torsion – cross section

plane prior to twisting remains plane and only element
rotation occurs
• warping torsion – flanges laterally are displaced during

twisting
SECTIONS
Pure torsion or Saint-Venant’s torsion

𝑇𝐿 𝜑𝐺𝐽
𝜑 𝑇
𝐽𝐺 𝐿
With a change of notation and axes:
The axis of the member becoming the z-axis and T is

indicated as Mz
The equation for Saint-Venant’s torsion becomes:
𝑑𝜑
𝑀 𝐺𝐽
𝑑𝑧
SECTIONS
Torsional loadings will generally also cause warping of
certain cross-sections:
SECTIONS
Warping is the out-of-plane effect that arises when the flanges

are laterally displaced during twisting
SECTIONS
A beam subjected to torsion Mz will have its compression

flange bent in one direction laterally while its tension flange is
bent in the other direction.
Vf (the horizontal shear force developed in the flange due to

this lateral bending) multiplied by hf (the distance between
flange centre-lines) forms a couple that resists torsion.
SECTIONS
The differential equation that can be derived for warping
torsion is:
𝑑 𝜑
𝑀 𝐸𝐶
𝑑𝑧
where the warping constant for a doubly symmetric I-section:
𝐼 ℎ
𝐶
2
hf is the distance between the centerlines of the flanges and
Iyf is the moment of inertia of one flange about the y-axis.
Cw = 0 for angles (L), T, RHS and CHS sections

SECTIONS
Combining Saint-Venant’s torsion and warping torsion:
𝑑𝜑 𝑑 𝜑
𝑀 𝐺𝐽 𝐸𝐶
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
To solve this differential equation is a challenge. A solution for a

problem involving torsion of an I-section is given in Salmon &
Johnson.
20. STRESSES IN AN I-SHAPED SECTION BEAM
SUBJECTED TO A VERTICAL FORCE NOT
THROUGH THE SHEAR CENTRE
Consider the beam with a point load not through the shear
centre:
Shear stresses are generated due to three actions: these

stresses have to added:
The normal stresses have two contributions:
Vertical bending and torsional bending.

• The usual normal bending stresses in beams
• The normal stresses due to warping bending of flanges
EXAMPLE 5 - WARPING TORSIONAL CONSTANT
Calculate the torsional properties of a 457 x 191 x 98 I

section.
SIN 323
THEME 6-6 Part 1

ELASTIC CRITICAL BUCKLING MOMENT
(Mcr)
CONSIDER AND I-BEAM …..
Perfectly elastic, initially M M

straight, loaded by equal and
opposite end moments about L
its major axis. Elevation Section
Unrestrained along its length. Plan

y
End Supports … z
u
– Twisting and lateral deflection
prevented.
x
– Free to rotate both in the plane
of the web and on plan.

23. BENDING OF I BEAM UNDER A CONSTANT
MOMENT
If the beam is loaded by a constant moment, initially the

beam will deflect in the vertical plane due to bending, but
as the moment increases it reaches a critical value Mcr,
(less than material bound failure resistance of Zfy), where it
buckles sideways, twists and collapses - lateral torsional
buckling
MOMENT
The behaviour of I beams in pure bending may be derived

by considering simple struts and ties.
The curvature induced by pure flexure is consistent with

compressive stresses on the one side of the beam and
tensile stresses in the other side.
MOMENT
Compression flange The strength of the compression
buckles out of plane flange is governed by stability out
of plane. The typical relationship
between strength and slenderness
in a steel compression member is
given in the graph below:
h f
Stable tension flange
The failure mode on the tension side is a pure

material strength bounded strength (Asfy)
MOMENT
In pure flexure the stress resultant in compression must
equal the stress resultant in tension.
The compression stress resultant forms the upper bound

resistance and the flexural resistance of the beam may be
conservatively expressed as:
Compression
𝜋 𝐸𝐼
h
𝐿
Mcr = [2EI/L2] x h (Elastic buckling)
Tension
This equation is conservative because the compression

zone is not free to buckle but is restrained by the stable
tension zone.
MOMENT
In order to maintain compatibility it is clear that the
section twists.
The torsional stiffness of the section therefore

increases the elastic critical buckling moment by a
factor
½(GJL2/2h2+1/L2)1/2
If the torsional “enhancement” is included the
expression for the critical elastic moment becomes:
𝑀cr = (4E2CwIy/L4 + 2EIyGJ/L2)1/2
MOMENT
𝑀cr = (4E2CwIy/L4 + 2EIyGJ/L2)1/2 can be simplified as:
𝜋 𝜋𝐸
𝑀 𝐸𝐼 𝐺𝐽 𝐼 𝐶
𝐿 𝐿
This equation applies to a beam of length L between lateral
supports, subject to a constant moment M. Note the
similarity to the elastic buckling force for columns:
Pcr = 2EI/L2 where the column is subjected to a constant
force over the length L.
MOMENT
To determine the elastic critical bending moment, Mcr , that will cause
the beam to buckle:
Normal flexural equation, bending about new x-axis: 𝑀 𝐸𝐼

Lateral (sideways) bending about new y-axis : 𝑀 𝐸𝐼
Twisting (torsion) about z-axis: 𝑀 𝐺𝐽 𝐸𝐶
MOMENT
Solving of the these differential equations [CSIR equations (5.3) and

(5.4)] leads to Mcr . The Elastic critical moment Mcr provides upper
limit to resistance to lateral torsional buckling.
𝜋 𝜋𝐸
𝑀 𝐸𝐼 𝐺𝐽 𝐼 𝐶
𝐿 𝐿
where:
Cw = Warping constant
J = St. Venant torsion constant
G = Shear modulus of steel (77 GPa)
The actual critical buckling moment will be decreased by geometric

imperfections, Inelastic behaviour and eccentric loading.
SIN 323
THEME 6-6 Part 2

MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Mr)
INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
Reference: CSIR § 5.4.2
Actual buckling moment will be influenced by

• Initial geometric imperfections (the beam section not straight)
• Eccentricity of loading (the loading on the beam causes
twisting)
• Initial internal stresses (residual stresses) leading to inelastic
behaviour
Residual
stresses
INELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS
See CSIR Fig. 5.7 and Fig. 5.9: Note analogy with columns
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE
A beam is defined as short, intermediate or slender depending

on the ratio of the critical elastic moment Mcr) to the full capacity
moment (Mp and My)
• Mcr < two thirds of the full moment
capacity – slender. Mode of failure is
lateral torsional buckling
• Mcr > two thirds of the full moment

capacity – intermediate. Mode of
failure is a combination of flexure
and lateral torsional buckling
• Short – mode of failure is pure

flexure
• Full moment capacity of a section where the compression

flange is fully restrained is given by Mr = Zfy
• Sections that have no single “strong” axis (SHS and CHS)

are not susceptible to lateral torsional buckling and Mr is the
full moment capacity of the section.
• I and H sections have an x-axis stronger than the y-axis and

they are susceptible to lateral torsional buckling.
SHAPE OF BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
A constant bending moment over the distance between lateral

restraints is relatively rare so a correction factor can be applied,
effectively converting a varying bending moment diagram to an
equivalent uniform moment diagram.
M max
𝜔 1.75 1.05𝑘 0.3𝑘

2 M max
𝜔 2.5
M min  = Mmin/Mmax < 1.0

If the maximum moment of a segment occurs only at one end –
the bending resistance of that segment is increased. To take
this resistance into account we use a modification factor 2 –
based on the distribution of bending moment along the length
of a beam segment.
 is the ratio of the smaller to the larger ultimate moment at

opposite ends of the un-braced length and is positive for
double curvature and negative for single curvature.
Double curvature: the point of contra-flexure occurs over the

length of the segment
With constant bending moment (the reference case):  = -1,

Substitute and find that ω2 = 1.
w2 cannot be used if the maximum moment falls between the

two points of lateral restraint (i.e. w2 = 1.0 for this case).
M1
M min
M max
Condition Moment of resistance Mr
0.28𝑀
Mcr > 0.67Mp 1.15𝜑𝑀 1
𝑀
Class but not more than Mp
1 and 2
Mcr ≤ 0.67Mp Mcr
0.28𝑀
Mcr > 0.67My 1.15𝜑𝑀 1
𝑀
Class but not more than My
3 and 4
Mcr ≤ 0.67My Mcr
BEAM SEGMENTS
Designing a beam with its compression flange supported at

intervals along its length – consider a series of segments
Lateral restraints define the segment length and an effective

length of the compression flange is determined for each
segment
kL = centre to centre distance
between retraining members
• Destabilising load (applied to
compression flange) – increase
by 20%
• No torsional restrain provided at
support – increase KL of
segment adjacent to support by
20% if load is “normal”
DETERMINING EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The buckling length L, provides the
application link between the benchmark
Bending Moment
or calibrated model and the application to
the design problem. Important points
about the buckling length L: Buckling Mode
 The length is consistent with a half

sine wave in the benchmark model.
Compression top(Li)
 Effective length factors in Design
Tension top
Codes convert the length between Bending Moment
lateral restraints in applications to an Compression top(Li+2h)
equivalent half sine wave.

 The shape of the bending moment Buckling Mode
diagram can also be linked the

buckling length.
DETERMINING EFFECTIVE LENGTH
Prior to the introduction of moment-gradient correction factors, steel

designers used modified buckling lengths to eliminate some of the
inherent conservatism attached to assuming that the maximum moment
in a non-uniform case, appears over the full length between lateral
restraints.
As the point of inflection is not necessarily laterally braced, the buckling
length is obtained from adding 2xbeam depth(h) to the distance to the
point of inflection.
The correct design of a steel beam revolves around a correct
assessment of:
 The buckling length L
 The moment gradient correction factor, 2
FACTORS INFLUENCING BEAM STABILITY
• Shape of bending moment diagram
• Unrestrained length of compression flange
• Position of load relative to the neutral axis
• Torsional restraint at beam ends

EXAMPLE 1 - Ze and Zpl
A singly symmetric T-section has cross-sectional dimensions
h = 250 mm, b = 150 mm, tw = 25 mm and tf = 30 mm.
Calculate Ze and Zpl about a horizontal (x-x) axis and a

vertical (y-y) axis.
200
EXAMPLE 2 - MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF
BEAMS WITH FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT
A steel I-beam section for a flat roof is required. The beam with two cantilevers is supported
and loaded as shown. Precast units are placed directly on the beams; i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is applied to the beams and lateral support is provided to the beams (buckling
is not possible).
Design for the following factored ultimate limit state load: qu = 32 kN/m
And for the following factored serviceability limit state load: qs = 24 kN/m
The deflection limit is span/300. fy = 350 Mpa
By considering only the bending resistance and the limit on deflection, determine a suitable I-
section
Example 6
The beam shown in the figure below has lateral and

torsional restraint at A, B, C and D and is required to
carry the nominal loadings as shown in the figure below.
Check the adequacy of 406x178x75 UB, Grade 300W.
Assume that the stiff bearing lengths under the point
loads and the supports are adequate.
x x x x
x x x x
From Redbook
Segment A – B:
M’cr for ω2 = 1
KL = 3.5 m KL
ω2 = 1.75
Let Mcr = ω2 M’cr

Where M’cr is the tabu-
lated value for ω2 = 1
Mcr = 1.75 (607)

= 1062 kN.m
Compare calculated
Mcr = 1064 kN.m
SIN 323
THEME 6-7
CANTILEVERS
29. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF
CANTILEVER BEAMS
Clamp at
root
Unloaded
Buckled position
position
Dead weight
load applied
vertically
4.1.6 The effect of the adjacent span on the lateral torsional buckling
29. of cantilever beams
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF
CANTILEVER BEAMS
CANTILEVER BEAMS
CANTILEVER BEAMS
29. CANTILEVERS EFFECTIVE LENGTHS
Effective length KL
Restraint conditions
Loading condition
At support At tip Destailizing Normal
Free 1.4 L 0.8 L
Built in Lateral restraint only at top
laterally and flange 1.4 L 0.7 L
torsionally Torsional restraint only 0.6 L 0.6 L
Lateral and torsional restraint 0.5 L 0.5 L
Free 2.5 L 1.0 L
Continuous, Lateral restraint only at top
with lateral flange 2.5 L 0.9 L
and torsional
restraint Torsional restraint only 1.5 L 0.8 L
Free 7.5 L 3.0 L
Continuous, Lateral restraint only at top
with lateral flange 7.5 L 2.7 L
restraint only Torsional restraint only 4.5 L 2.4 L
The destabilizing load condition applies when the load is applied to the tension
flange of the beam and both the load and the flange are free to move laterally
29. CANTILEVERS
Notice the differences between Code (& CSIR book) and
the Redbook about whether supporting the top (tension)
flange or the bottom (compression) flange is more effective.
The consensus opinion, specifically for cantilevers, is that

supporting the top (tension) flange (contrary to our feeling)
is more effective than supporting the bottom (compression)
flange.
29. CANTILEVER RESTRAINT CONDITIONS
Restraint conditions: At support
Built in laterally and torsionally:
Continuous, with lateral and

torsional restraint
Continuous, with lateral

restraint only:
Restraint conditions: At tip
Free:
Lateral restraint only

(at top flange):
Restraint conditions: At tip
Torsional restraint only:
Lateral and torsional restraint

29. CANTILEVERS – EFFECT OF BENDING
MOMENT SHAPE ON STABILITY
SANS 10162:1 Clause 13.6
2 = 1,0 when … or when there is no effective lateral

support for the compression flange at one of the ends
of the unsupported length
EXAMPLE 7
Redbook Example 5.4 Cantilever p. 5.20

A cantilever beam 2.5 m long is built in at the fixed end and free at
the tip. It carries an ultimate point load of 50 kN at the tip, applied at
the top flange level. Select a suitable I-beam section in Grade 350W.
Trial section 305 x 165 x 40 I
Mu = 50 (2.5) = 125 kN.m
The tip of the cantilever is unrestrained and as the load is applied at

the top flange level it is a destabilizing load.
EXAMPLE 7
Effective length KL
Restraint conditions
Loading condition
At support At tip Destabilizing Normal
Free 1.4 L 0.8 L
Built in
Lateral restraint only at top flange 1.4 L 0.7 L
laterally and
torsionally Torsional restraint only 0.6 L 0.6 L
Continuous, Free 2.5 L 1.0 L
with lateral Lateral restraint only at top flange 2.5 L 0.9 L
and torsional Torsional restraint only 1.5 L 0.8 L
restraint Lateral and torsional restraint 1.2 L 0.7 L
Free 7.5 L 3.0 L
Continuous,
Lateral restraint only at top flange 7.5 L 2.7 L
with lateral
restraint only Torsional restraint only 4.5 L 2.4 L
KL = 1.4 (2.5) = 3.5

EXAMPLE 7
2 = 1,0 when there is no effective

lateral support for the compression
flange at one of the ends of the
unsupported length.
Beam resistance Table 5.5 may be

used:
By interpolation :
Mr = 160 kN.m > Mu = 125 kN.m
ADDITIONAL BEAMS NOTES –
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF I BEAMS
The behaviour of, and subsequent formulation of prediction

models for I beams in pure bending may be derived by
considering simple struts and ties.
The curvature induced by pure flexure is consistent with
compressive stresses on the one side of the beam and tensile
stresses in the other side.
The failure mode on the tension side is a pure material strength
bounded strength (Asfy) – tie, while the strength of the
compression flange is governed by stability out of plane.
Compression flange buckles out of plane 𝜋 𝐸𝐼

𝐿
Stable tension flange(material bound failure)
1

Consider the typical relationship between strength and
slenderness in a steel compression member.
f
In pure flexure the stress resultant in compression must equal

the stress resultant in tension. It is clear that the compression
stress resultant forms the upper bound resistance and therefore
the flexural resistance of the beam may be conservatively
expressed as:
Mcr = [2EI/L2] x h (Elastic buckling)

The above equation is conservative because the compression
zone is not free to buckle but is restrained by the stable tension
zone.
2

In order to maintain compatibility it is clear that the section twists.
The torsional stiffness of the section therefore increases the
elastic critical buckling moment by a factor
½(GJL2/2h2+1/L2)1/2
If the torsional “enhancement” is included the expression for the
critical elastic moment becomes:
𝑀cr = (4E2CwIy/L4 + 2EIyGJ/L2)1/2

The above equation applies to a beam of length L between
lateral supports, subject to a constant moment M. Note the
similarity to the elastic buckling force for columns:
Pcr = 2EI/L2 where the column is subjected to a constant force

over the length L.
Correction factor for moment gradient (2).

The case of a constant bending moment over the distance
between lateral restraints is relatively rare so a correction factor
can be applied, effectively converting a varying bending moment
diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram.
2 = 1.72+1.05+.32 Where  = Mmin/Mmax < 1.0

M max
2 M max
M min
Note that method of SANS 10162-1 considers a linearization

between end moments. The moment gradient correction factor
3

ω2 cannot be used if the maximum moment falls between the
two points of lateral restraint (i.e. use general formula given in
notes and Mahachi page 5-135).
M1
M min
M max
Establishing the buckling length L (KL)

The buckling length L, provides the application link between the
benchmark or calibrated model and the application to the design
problem. Important points about the buckling length L:
 The length is consistent with a half sine wave in the

benchmark model.
 Effective length factors in Design Codes convert the length
between lateral restraints in applications to an equivalent
half sine wave.
 The shape of the bending moment diagram can also be
linked the buckling length.
Consider the case of uniform moment versus different variations
of non-uniform cases:
4
Bending Moment
Buckling Mode
Compression top(Li) Tension top
Bending Moment
Compression top(Li+2h)
Buckling Mode
Prior to the introduction of moment-gradient correction factors,

steel designers used modified buckling lengths to eliminate
some of the inherent conservatism attached to assuming that the
maximum moment in a non-uniform case, appears over the full
length between lateral restraints. As the point of inflexion is not
necessarily laterally braced, the buckling length is obtained from
adding 2xbeam depth(h) to the distance to the point of inflexion.
It should be clear that the use of a moment gradient correction
factor such as 2 , precludes adjustments to the buckling length,
based upon a non-uniform shape of the bending moment
diagram.
The correct design of a steel beam revolves around a correct
assessment of:
 The buckling length L

 The moment gradient correction factor, 2
5

Choice of section:
Generally speaking, deep beams with narrow flanges (I-beams)
are more efficient than shallow beams with wide flanges. (H-
sections).
Lateral bracing:
At the time of designing a steel beam, the designer has to
visualise the intended bracing system with a view towards
correctly assessing the positions of lateral restraint.
Lateral bracing has to satisfy the requirement of preventing
movement by connecting the node to a very stiff medium.
Triangulation as a framing system will generally satisfy the
requirements of bracing.
Note the difference between the two diagrams below.
In the first case there is no triangulation preventing the lateral
displacement of the mid-point of the beams. The buckling length
is the full span.
In the second case the triangulation introduced by the diagonal
members prevents lateral movement of the mid-point of the
beams and the buckling length is reduced to half the span.
6

Transverse ties
Buckling mode
Beams
No triangulation – the beams buckle sympathetically. The

buckling length is the full span - L
7

Transverse ties
Diagonal
bracing
Buckling mode
Beams
L/2 L/2
Triangulation provides effective lateral support to midspan. The

buckling length is reduced to half the span L/2
8

Attachment of bracing to beam.
As the compression flange initiates the lateral instability, the best
attachment point of lateral bracing is directly to the compression
flange.
Bracing attached to compression flange. Fully effective.
Bracing attached to shear centre. Partially effective but difficult

to quantify.
Bracing attached to Tension flange. Virtually ineffective.
9

Examples:
Case 1
L/6 L/6 L/6 L/6 L/6 L/6
Bending moment - dead +live load
Bending moment - dead +wind load
X indicates lateral restraints.

Note that bending moment diagram indicates which flange is in
compression. For the case Dead + Live load the top flange is in
compression and therefore the buckling length may be taken as
L/6.
In this case it is acceptable to apply the moment gradient
correction factor 2 over the distance L/6 although the variation
is very small.
For the case Dead + Wind load the bottom flange is in
compression and therefore the buckling length is taken as L
together with the maximum moment. No correction for moment
gradient may be applied.
10

Case 2
Consider a similar case but the beam now has an overhang.
The maximum moments have to be considered with the
appropriate compression flange and the prevailing boundary
conditions.
M-
M+
Ls Lc
Top flange in compression Bottom flange in compression
Buckling mode top flange Lb =Ls /6
Buckling mode bottom flange Lb =+- 2Lc
For the span Moment, Ms the top flange is in compression and

the buckling length L is equal to the distance between lateral
supports.
11

Moment gradient correction 2 may be applied between lateral
restraints.
For the cantilever moment Mc the bottom flange is in
compression over the full cantilever length and part of the
internal span. Over this length the maximum moment does not
appear at the ends and as a result the moment gradient
correction factor 2 may not be applied.
It should now be clear that the correct design of a steel beam
comes down to the following:
 Calculate the bending moments and plot the diagram.

 Identify the compression and lateral restraints with a view
towards a correct assessment of the buckling length L.
 Calculate the moment gradient correction factor 2.
Notes by Prof NW Dekker 2018
12

SIN 323
THEME 6-8
SHEAR IN BEAMS
30. SHEAR IN A BEAM
Shear causes deformation - Warping of cross section

30. SHEAR IN A BEAM
• Transverse shear stress always has its associated
longitudinal shear stress acting along longitudinal
planes of the beam.
• Complementary property of shear
30. SHEAR IN A BEAM
Derivation of shear formula

30. SHEAR IN A BEAM
Derivation of shear formula

VQ

Ib
where Q   ydA  y ' A'
A'
= shear stress a distance y’ from the NA

V = internal resultant shear force
I = moment of inertia of the entire cross sectional area
b = width, measured at the point where t is to be determined
y’ = distance from the NA to the centroid of A’
A’ = area above the point where you are calculating the
shear stress ( the portion of the members cross section held
to the member by longitudinal shear)
31. SHEAR STRENGTH
CSIR § 5.5 SASCH § 5.1.8 SANS 10162-1: Clause 13.4
The code simplifies the shear resistance of I- and H-sections

and only considers the resistance of the web.
Design requirement: Vr  Vu
For rolled I- and H-sections shear resistance based on web:
Vr =  Av fs where fs = 0.66 fy Av = h tw  = 0.90
however fs = 0.55 fy in any plastic hinge region

SIN 323
THEME 6-9
RESISTANCE OF THE BEAM WEB TO
CONCETRATED FORCES
32. RESISTANCE OF WEBS TO
CONCENTRATED TRANSVERSE FORCES
CSIR § 5.6 SASCH § 5.1.9 SANS 10162-1: Clause 14.3.2
Compression loads on web at support and point loads
Failure of web by:

• Yielding (strength of material);
• Crippling; or
• Overall buckling
32. WEB CRIPPLING AND YIELDING –
INTERIOR LOADS
SANS specifies that the factored bearing resistance of the web
should be taken as follows:
For interior loads (concentrated load applied at a distance from the
member end greater than the member depth), the smaller of:
𝐵 𝜑 𝑡 𝑁 10𝑡 𝑓 (Yielding) Load can spread

in two directions
𝐵 1.45𝜑 𝑡 𝑓𝐸 (Crippling)
N is the stiff bearing length / length over which load is applied

bi = 0,80
32. WEB CRIPPLING AND YIELDING –
END REACTIONS
SANS specifies that the factored bearing resistance of the
web should be taken as follows:
Load can only
b) for end reactions, the smaller of spread in one
direction
𝐵 𝜑 𝑡 𝑁 4𝑡 𝑓 (Yielding)
𝐵 0.6𝜑 𝑡 𝑓𝐸 (Crippling) N
N is the stiff bearing length / length over which load is applied

be = 0,75
32. STIFF BEARING LENGTH - N
N is the stiff bearing length or length over which load is applied

The length of N depends on the stiffness of the member
imposing the load on the beam you are checking
Beam through which
load W is applied
Web stiffeners No web

added so that stiffeners -
flanges can’t flanges can
bend bend
N = flange width of N < flange width of

top loading beam top loading beam
Beam checked for bearing

EXAMPLE 8
Redbook Example 5.3, p. 5.19
Braced points
BEAMS – MODES OF FAILURE
• Local buckling of compression elements – slenderness of
elements making up the profile
• Flexural failure – material (only if LTB is prevented)
• Failure due to torsional instability – lateral torsional

buckling
• Shear failure – material
• Web crippling, yielding or buckling
• Deflection – SLS
• Check lateral support capacity

Check if a 533x210x82 UB is adequate
SIN 323
THEME 7-1
BEAM-COLUMNS
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Beam Columns are members with a combination of load
effects, most commonly compression and bending.
Bending can either occur about one or both axes (x and y).
Second order effects amplify (increase) moments and

deflections and must be taken into account
When checking the resistance of a beam column the

following modes of failure must be checked:
- Cross sectional strength (material bound failure)
- Overall member strength (flexural buckling and
second order effects)
- Lateral torsional buckling strength (unrestrained
compression flange)
EXAMPLES OF BEAM-COLUMNS
Bending and Significant bending moments and

compression less significant axial forces
EXAMPLES OF BEAM-COLUMNS
Braced frame (no sway): Unbraced frame (sway):

Significant compression and Significant bending moments
less significant bending and significant compression
moments
ECCENTRICITY OF REACTIONS
There is always a small amount of eccentricity with regards to
reaction which will cause a moment in the column (M = P.e)
ECCENTRICITY OF REACTIONS
There is always a small amount of eccentricity with regards to
reaction which will cause a moment in the column (M = P.e)
BENDING ABOUT TWO AXES
y
𝑀
max x
𝜎
𝑍
𝑀𝑟 𝜑𝑍 𝑓
x z
Mx 𝑀
max x 𝑍𝑒
𝜑𝑓
y
𝑀
𝜎
max y 𝑆
My
𝑀𝑟 𝜑𝑍 𝑓
𝑀
x z
max y
𝑍𝑒
𝜑𝑓
Hibbeler Fig. 6-32 Z = the section modulus = I/y

BENDING ABOUT TWO AXES
𝑀 𝑀
𝜎
𝑍 𝑍
max x
If the maximum allowable stress is fy then:
y
𝑀 𝑀
x 𝜑𝑓
max x + max y 𝑍 𝑍
max x max x - max y
= 𝑀 𝑀
𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒
𝜑𝑓 𝜑𝑓
y x max x - max y
max x + max y
max y
𝜑𝑓
𝑴𝒖𝒙 𝑴𝒖𝒚
max y
𝟏. 𝟎
𝑴𝒓𝒙 𝑴𝒓𝒚
Hibbeler Fig. 6-32

COMPRESSION AND BENDING ABOUT ONE
AXIS
Hibbeler Ex 8.2 Fig. 8-3
𝐶 𝑀
𝜎 If the maximum allowable stress is fy then:
𝐴 𝑍
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀 𝐶
𝜑𝑓 𝑍𝑒 𝐴
𝐴 𝑍 𝜑𝑓 𝜑𝑓
𝑪𝒖 𝑴𝒖𝒙
𝟏. 𝟎
𝑪𝒓 𝑴𝒓𝒙
COMPRESSION AND BENDING ABOUT TWO
AXES
Hibbeler Ex 8.6 Fig. 8-6
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
𝜎 If the maximum allowable stress is fy then:
𝐴 𝑍 𝑍
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝐶
𝜑𝑓 𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑒 𝐴
𝐴 𝑍 𝜑𝑓 𝜑𝑓 𝜑𝑓
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
1.0
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
SIN 323
THEME 7-2
BEAM-COLUMNS
Sections are classified in the four classes based in the width to

thickness ratios W = b1/t similar to compression members.
Enables the designer to determine the resistance of the section

on the basis of the differing behaviour under a moment.
Limits on width-to-thickness ratios are

used to prevent buckling of flanges and
webs.
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
Amount of bending the section is able to take before it starts

to loose strength
SECTION CLASSIFICATION - BEAMS
[…] […] […]

SECTION CLASSIFICATION –
BEAM COLUMNS
Web elements experience an interaction of axial force and
bending moments:
For a Class 1 section: 1 0.39
Where 𝐶 𝐴𝑓
SECTION CLASSIFICATION - I WEB (Class3)
C or T
Beam-column: 1 0.65
C
T
ℎ 2𝑡 1900
Pure Beam:
𝑡 𝑓
C
C
Pure column: ℎ 2𝑡 670
𝑡 𝑓
C
SECTION CLASSIFICATION – I FLANGE
(Class3) Lower C
Beam-column: 𝑏 200
2𝑡 𝑓
T
𝑏 200
Pure Beam:
2𝑡 𝑓
C
𝑏 200
Pure column: 2𝑡 𝑓
C
SIN 323
THEME 7-3
BEAM-COLUMNS
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
Linear-elastic analysis methods, such as slope-deflection, virtual

work, etc., assume that deflections are small. These are first-
order analysis methods.
• equilibrium equations are based on the un-deformed shape of

the structure and
• bending moments due to axial forces x lateral deflection are
ignored.
With second-order analysis methods:
• equilibrium equations are based on the deformed shape of

the structure and
• bending moments due to axial forces x lateral deflection are
taken into account and amplify (increase) the first order
moments
First order analysis
Second order analysis

BENDING AND COMPRESSION –
INCLUDING SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
If the deformed (deflected) shape of the column under load is considered then:
𝑀 𝑃 𝑒 𝑣 , the differential equation for the deflection curve is therefore:
𝑑 𝑣
𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑒 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Hibbeler §13.4 Ex. 13.5

Secant formula
5. BENDING AND COMPRESSION -
The equation defining the deflection curve can be written as:
𝐿 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑣 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1
2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
If the load is symmetrical both the maximum deflection and

maximum stress will occur at the column midpoint.
Therefore at x = L/2, = max :
𝐿 𝑃 𝜋 𝑃
𝑣 𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1 𝑒 sec 1
2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝑃
5. BENDING AND COMPRESSION –
𝑀 𝑃 𝑒 𝑣
𝐿 𝑃
𝑀 𝑃𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑀𝑦
𝜎
𝐴 𝐼
𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑦 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
Given that the radius of gyration:
𝐼
𝑟 or 𝑟
𝐴
𝑃 𝑒𝑦 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 𝑟 2𝑟 𝐸𝐴
SIN 323
THEME 7
BEAM-COLUMNS
EXAMPLE 1
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS IN BRACED

FRAMES


8 8
(use radians)
200
SIN 323
THEME 7
BEAM-COLUMNS
EXAMPLE 2
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS IN SWAY

FRAMES
SASCH TABLE 5.19 PAGE 5.61 AND PAGE 5.62
SIN 323
THEME 7- 4
BEAM-COLUMNS
SECTION RESISTANCE – BRACED FRAMES
SECTION RESISTANCE
– COMPRESSION AND BENDING
The design of members subjected to combined axial force
and bending moment is based on the following interaction:
Axial Force
C/Cr
Moment
1 M/M r
The interaction is expressed as a ratio of the applied axial

load-moment to the resistance axial load-moment. The
equation is modified depending on the type of failure mode.
SECTION RESISTANCE – BRACED FRAMES
A distinction is also made between:
• Class 1 and class 2 sections of I-

shaped members (I and H)
• All classes of sections except

class I and class 2 sections of I-
shaped members
Braced frame (no sway)

ALL SECTIONS EXCEPT CLASS 1 AND 2 I-
SHAPED MEMBERS:
Members required to resist both biaxial bending plus and axial
compressive force shall be so proportioned that:
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
Without second order effects: 𝐶 1.0
𝑀 𝑀
𝐶 𝑈 𝑀 𝑈 𝑀
With second order effects: 1.0
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
Where:
Cu = ultimate compression force
Mux = ultimate moment about the major x axis
Muy = ultimate moment about the minor y axis
Cr based on column buckling Mr based on beam buckling

CLASS 1 AND CLASS 2 SECTIONS OF I-
SHAPED MEMBERS (I AND H)
Members required to resist both biaxial bending plus and axial compressive force
shall be so proportioned that:
𝐶 0.85𝑈 𝑀 𝛽𝑈 𝑀
1.0 𝛽 0.6 0.4𝜆 0.85
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
The factors of 0.85 and  take into account the benefit that residual stresses and
strain hardening provide to class 1 and 2 sections in combined bending and
compression. The factor of 0.85 is obtained by increasing Mr by about 1.15 to
account for strain-hardening. This additional factor is used for Class 1 and 2
members only (i.e. yielding can occur in these members).
Because this benefit does not apply to sections subjected to bending only, the
following interaction equation also ned to be considered to class 1 and 2 sections.
𝑀 𝑀 𝐾𝐿 𝑓 Slenderness parameter
1.0 𝜆 about the minor (y) axis
𝑀 𝑀 𝑟 𝜋 𝐸
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS – BRACED
FRAMES
The calculation of the P moments may be done using computer
software performing a non-linear analysis or a classic approximation
of the P moments may be applied where the initial moment is
increased by a factor U1: 𝑈
Mi 
Mi
P P
Mi
P
Note that in this case the bending moment is constant and therefore the
P moment can directly be added to the constant initial moment Mi.
FRAMES
Consider the case where the It is clear that the position of the
beam-column is in double maximum P moment does not coincide
curvature: with the position of the maximum initial
moment.
M1
The factor 1 is used to effectively
adjust the non-uniform bending moment
diagram into an equivalent uniform-
moment diagram
M1
M2 1 M 1
Bending moment
Bending moment M2
Deflected shape 1 = 0,6 - 0,4   0,4

FRAMES
Calculation of P – δ effect (code approximation): Value of U1
(Magnify moments between member ends)
“In lieu of a more detailed analysis, the value of U1 for the axis
under consideration, accounting for the second-order effects due
to the deformation of a member between its ends:”
𝑈 where 𝐶
U1 : Factor allowing for second order effects

and the shape of the bending moment
diagram.
Ce : Euler buckling strength for the axis
under consideration
Cu : Ultimate axial load
1 : factor depending on the loading pattern
FRAMES
No transverse loads Distributed load or Concentrated load or
between supports: series of point loads: moment between supports:
1 = 0,6 - 0,4   0,4 1 = 1.0 1 = 0.85
 = Ms/ML
(Negative for single curvature)
`
MODES OF FAILURE
Cross sectional strength: only checked for braced structures;

ensures that no where in the structure the ultimate strength of
the member is exceeded.
Overall member strength: checks in plane strength and takes

second order effects of the axial compressive force acting on
the deformed shape of the member into account
Mi
Mi 
Mi
P
P
Lateral torsional buckling: checks lateral torsional buckling

when there is no lateral restraint to the compression flange and
includes second order effects (i.e failure out of plane).
CROSS SECTIONAL STRENGTH
𝐶 𝑈 𝑀 𝑈 𝑀 All classes of sections except class 1 and
1.0
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀 class 2 sections of I-shaped members
If the member is adequately restrained against local and overall buckling,

the benefits of the strain-hardening may be included by the writing the
equation as:
𝐶 0.85𝑈 𝑀 𝛽𝑈 𝑀 Class 1 and class 2 sections of I-

1.0 shaped members (I and H)
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
Where:
Cr = Afy (Class 1, 2 and 3) and Aefffy (Class 4)
Mrx = Zplxfy (Class 1 and 2) and Zexfy (Class 3 and 4)
Mry = Zplyfy (Class 1 and 2) and Zeyfy (Class 3 and 4)
𝛽 0.6
𝜆 0 Slenderness ratio about the minor (y) axis
U1x and U1y > 1.0
OVERALL MEMBER STRENGTH
1.0 class 2 sections of I-shaped members
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
If the applied moment only about the x-axis

Cr = compressive resistance based on buckling about the x-axis
If the moment only about both the x-axis and y-axis (biaxial bending)
Cr = compressive resistance based on the max slenderness ratio
Mrx = Zplxfy (Class 1 and 2) and Zexfy (Class 3 and 4)

𝛽 0.6 0.4𝜆 0.85
𝐾𝐿 𝑓 Slenderness parameter about the minor (y) axis

𝜆
𝑟 𝜋 𝐸
U1x and U1y = value for braced frames
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
1.0 class 2 sections of I-shaped members
𝐶 𝑀 𝑀

𝐶 𝑀 𝑀
Moment only about the x-axis or biaxial bending

Cr = compressive resistance based on buckling about the weak y-axis
Mrx = moment resistance taking lateral torsional buckling into account
𝛽 0.6 0.4𝜆 0.85
𝐾𝐿 𝑓 Slenderness parameter about the minor (y) axis

𝜆
𝑟 𝜋 𝐸
U1x > 1.0 U1y = value accounting for second order effects
SIN 323
THEME 7
BEAM-COLUMNS
EXAMPLE 3
CLASS 3 I SHAPED SECTION –

BRACED FRAMES
A lower storey corner column in a building has a length of 5m. The beams framing into the
column induce moments at the top of the column. There are no moments at the bottom of the
column. Assume that the top and bottom of the column are restrained in position but are free
to rotate.
Check the adequacy of a 203x203x46 H section to carry the factored loads by checking the
member for cross sectional strength, overall member strength and lateral torsional buckling.
No shear, bearing and deflection calculations are required.
Ultimate factored axial force: Cu = 480kN

Muy = 12kNm
Mux = 12kNm

kN kN
( ) ( )
kN
Mrx = Zefy = 141.4kNm Mry = Zefy = 47.6kNm
Cr = Cry = 811kN (buckling about the weak axis)
x x
Mcr x > 0.67 Myx therefore Mr is based on the transition curve eq.
x
Mry = Zefy = 47.6kNm (material bound failure)
SIN 323
THEME 7
BEAM-COLUMNS
EXAMPLE 4
CLASS 2 I SHAPED SECTION –

BRACED FRAMES
A 203x203x52 H-section is used for a simply supported 6 m beam-column in a
braced frame. The beam-column is supported laterally and torsionally only at the
ends and at the center of the beam. Factored loads are shown (bending the beam-
column about the strong axis) and are applied at the centroid of the section. A
factored ultimate compression force is applied along the centroid of the section, Cu
= 1000 kN.
Check the adequacy of the section to carry the factored loads by checking the
member for cross sectional strength, overall member strength and lateral torsional
buckling. No shear, bearing and deflection calculations are required.
(KL = 3m)
2 = 1 (uniform bending moment)

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SIN 323

STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

Analysis: load effects caused by the applied load

Design: structural elements remain stable under the applied

Any structure must have sufficient strength and stiffness,

We are going to look at the behaviour of steel structural

Pedestrian Suspension Bridge over the

Double helix bridge

Steel pedestrian bridge,

Erasmus bridge in Rotterdam, Holland – Steel pylon (139m high)

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, LOAD PATHS AND

TIED RAFTER QUEEN POST TRUSS

KING POST TRUSS HOWE TRUSS

DOUBLE LATTICE GIRDER

PORTAL FRAME – ALL FIXED

PORTAL FRAME – 2 PIN

Alternate load paths for accidental impact

Environmental loads: wind

Floor usage Load (kN/m2)

Normal office 2.5

Entertainment areas 3.0

Corridors and lobbies 3.0

Retail sales areas 4.0

Assembly halls 4.0

Sports complexes 4.0

Exhibition halls 5.0

Warehouses 2.0 – 8.0

D = self weight (dead load)

Girder G1 and G2: 533x210x82 UB

Equivalent thickness of concrete slab: 150mm

Finishes: 30mm screed

Brick walls and partitions: 4kPa

Occupancy: offices (normal use)

1) What is the design load for columns A and B

STABLITY AND BRACING

• Too few reactions / elements – total structural stability

• Column buckling – effective lengths

• Lateral torsional buckling of beams

• Local buckling – flange of beam makes small waves

• Material bound failure – the steel starts to yield or

Concrete shear walls

Lateral forces: wind, earthquakes / seismic, cranes

Bracing enable hinged structures to resist external lateral

Bracing provides paths for horizontal forces from their point

The bracing members that transfer theses forces to the

Bracing designed to resist flexural action is more

Bracing Frame / Knee bracing

Horizontal loads transferred to columns by means of a

Rigid / unbraced or sway frame: consists of rigid

Braced Frame: Add truss members (i.e. diagonals between

One way spanning

Two way spanning

One-way spanning slab

Two-way spanning slab

Slab supported by beams in opposite edges Load path

• The load is transferred to the beams through bending

Shear force diagram Shear force diagram

Single span Continuous span

Load distribution in a one-way spanning slab

Two way spanning slabs - load on supporting beams

• Local, elemental and global behaviour

• Formulae, coefficients, limits and requirements are

• Uncertainties identified, behaviour of the structure and