UNI

T-II
NTRODUCTI
ON
TOCOMPUTERS

COMPUTERSYSTEMS
―ACo
mpu
teri
sane
lec
tro
nicd
evi
cet
hats
tor
es,ma
nip
ula
tesa
ndr
etr
iev
est
hed
ata.‖Wec
an
a
lsor
efe
rco
mpu
terc
omp
ute
sthei
nfo
rma
tio
nsu
ppl
ie
dtoi
tan
dge
ner
ate
sda
ta.
ASy
ste
misagr
oupo
fse
ver
alo
bje
ctswi
thap
roc
ess
.Fo
rEx
amp
le:Ed
uca
tio
nalSy
ste
min
vol
ves
t
eac
her
,st
ude
nts(
obj
ect
s).Te
ache
rte
ache
ssu
bje
ctt
ost
ude
ntsi
.e.
,te
achi
ng(
pro
ces
s).Si
mil
arl
ya
c
omp
ute
rsy
ste
mca
nha
veo
bje
ctsa
ndp
roc
ess
.
Thefo
ll
owi
nga
ret
heo
bje
ctso
fco
mpu
terSy
ste
m
a
) Us
er(Ap
ers
onwhou
sest
hec
omp
ute
r)
b
)Ha
rdwa
re
c
) So
ftwa
re
Ha
rdwa
re: Ha
rdwa
reo
fac
omp
ute
rsy
ste
mca
nber
efe
rre
dasa
nyt
hin
gwhi
chwec
ant
ouc
han
dfe
el.
Ex
amp
le:Ke
ybo
arda
ndMo
use
.
Theha
rdwa
reo
fac
omp
ute
rsy
ste
mca
nbec
las
si
fi
eda
s
I
npu
tDe
vic
es(
I/P)
Pr
oce
ssi
ngDe
vic
es(
CPU)
Ou
tpu
tDe
vic
es(
O/P)

KEYBOARD ALU, MONI

CPU
I
NPUT OUTPUT

ALU:I
tpe
rfo
rmst
heAr
ithme
ti
can
dLo
gic
alOp
era
tio
nss
ucha
s
+,
-,*
,/(
Ari
thme
ti
cOp
era
tor
s)
&&,|
|(Lo
gic
alOp
era
tor
s)
CU:Ev
eryOp
era
tio
nsu
cha
sst
ori
ng,c
omp
uti
nga
ndr
etr
iev
ingt
hed
atas
hou
ldb
ego
ver
nedb
ythe
c
ont
rolu
nit
.

1
MU:TheMe
mor
yun
iti
sus
edfo
rst
ori
ngt
hed
ata
.
TheMe
mor
yun
iti
scl
ass
ifi
edi
ntot
wot
ype
s.
The
yar
e 1
)Pr
ima
ryMe
mor
y
2)Se
con
dar
yMe
mor
y
Pr
ima
ryme
mor
y:Thefo
ll
owi
nga
ret
het
ype
sofme
mor
ieswhi
cha
ret
rea
teda
spr
ima
ryROM:I
t
r
epr
ese
ntsRe
adOn
lyMe
mor
ytha
tst
ore
sda
taa
ndi
nst
ruc
ti
onse
venwhe
nthec
omp
ute
rist
urn
edo
ff.
TheCo
nte
ntsi
ntheROMc
an‘
tbemo
dif
iedo
ncei
fthe
yar
ewr
itt
en.I
tisu
sedt
ost
oret
he
BI
OSi
nfo
rma
tio
n.
RAM:I
tre
pre
sen
tsRa
ndo
mAc
ces
sMe
mor
ytha
tst
ore
sda
taa
ndi
nst
ruc
ti
onswhe
nthec
omp
ute
ris
t
urn
edo
n.Thec
ont
ent
sint
heRAMc
anb
emo
difi
eda
nyn
o.o
fti
mesb
yin
str
uct
io
ns.I
tisu
sedt
o
s
tor
ethep
rogr
amsu
nde
rex
ecu
tio
n.
Ca
cheme
mor
y:I
tisu
sedt
ost
oret
hed
ataa
ndi
nst
ruc
ti
onsr
efe
rre
dbyp
roc
ess
or.
Se
con
dar
yMe
mor
y:Thefo
ll
owi
nga
ret
hed
iffe
ren
tki
ndso
fme
mor
ies
Ma
gne
ti
cSt
ora
ge:TheMa
gne
ti
cSt
ora
ged
evi
cess
tor
ein
for
mat
io
ntha
tca
nber
ead
,er
ase
dan
dre
wri
tt
ena
n
umb
ero
fti
mes
.
Ex
amp
le:Fl
opp
yDi
sks
,Ha
rdDi
sks
,Ma
gne
ti
cTa
pes
Op
tic
alSt
ora
ge:Theo
pti
cals
tor
aged
evi
cest
hatu
sel
ase
rbe
amst
ore
ada
ndwr
ites
tor
edd
ata
.
Ex
amp
le: CD(
Comp
actDi
sk)
,DVD(
Digi
talVe
rsa
til
eDi
sk)

COMPUTERSOFTWARE
So
ftwa
reo
fac
omp
ute
rsy
ste
mca
nber
efe
rre
dasa
nyt
hin
gwhi
chwec
anfe
ela
nds
ee.
Ex
amp
le:Wi
ndo
ws,
ico
ns
Co
mpu
ters
oft
war
eisd
ivi
dedi
ntot
wob
roa
dca
tego
rie
s:s
yst
ems
oft
war
ean
dap
pli
cat
io
nso
ftwa
re
.
Sys
tems
oft
war
ema
nage
sthec
omp
ute
rre
sou
rce
s.I
tpr
ovi
dest
hei
nte
rfa
ceb
etwe
ent
heha
rdwa
re
a
ndt
heu
ser
s.Ap
pli
cat
io
nso
ftwa
re,o
ntheo
the
rha
ndi
sdi
rec
tlyr
esp
ons
ibl
efo
rhe
lpi
ngu
ser
sso
lve
t
hei
rpr
obl
ems
.

Sy
ste
mSo
ftwa
re
Sy
ste
mso
ftwa
rec
ons
is
tso
fpr
ogr
amst
hatma
naget
heha
rdwa
rer
eso
urc
eso
fac
omp
ute
ran
d
p
erfo
rmr
equ
ire
din
for
mat
io
npr
oce
ssi
ngt
asks
.The
sep
rogr
amsa
red
ivi
dedi
ntot
hre
ecl
ass
es:t
he
o
per
ati
ngs
yst
em,s
yst
ems
upp
ort
,an
dsy
ste
mde
vel
opme
nt.

2
Theo
per
ati
ngs
yst
emp
rov
ide
sse
rvi
cess
ucha
sau
seri
nte
rfa
ce,fi
lea
ndd
ata
bas
eac
ces
s,a
nd
i
nte
rfa
cest
oco
mmu
nic
ati
ons
yst
emss
ucha
sIn
ter
netp
rot
oco
ls.Thep
rima
ryp
urp
oseo
fthi
sso
ftwa
re
i
stoke
ept
hes
yst
emo
per
ati
ngi
nane
ffi
ci
entma
nne
rwhi
lea
llo
win
gtheu
ser
sac
ces
stot
hes
yst
em.
Sy
ste
msu
ppo
rts
oft
war
epr
ovi
dess
yst
emu
til
it
ie
san
dot
hero
per
ati
ngs
erv
ice
s.Ex
amp
leso
fsy
ste
m
u
til
it
ie
sar
eso
rtp
rogr
amsa
ndd
iskfo
rma
tpr
ogr
ams
.Op
era
tin
gse
rvi
cesc
ons
is
tso
fpr
ogr
amst
hat
p
rov
idep
erfo
rma
nces
tat
is
ti
csfo
rtheo
per
ati
ona
lst
affa
nds
ecu
rit
ymo
nit
orst
opr
ote
ctt
hes
yst
em
a
ndd
ata
.
Thel
asts
yst
ems
oft
war
eca
tego
ry,s
yst
emd
eve
lop
men
tso
ftwa
re,i
ncl
ude
sthel
angu
aget
ran
sla
tor
s
t
hatc
onv
ertp
rogr
amsi
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
agefo
rex
ecu
tio
n,d
ebu
ggi
ngt
ool
stoe
nsu
ret
hatt
he
p
rogr
amsa
ree
rro
rfr
eea
ndc
omp
ute
r–a
ssi
st
eds
oft
war
een
gin
eer
ing(
CASE)s
yst
ems
.

Ap
pli
cat
ions
oft
war
e
Ap
pli
cat
ions
oft
war
eisb
roke
nint
otwoc
las
ses
:ge
ner
al-
pur
pos
eso
ftwa
rea
nda
ppl
ic
ati
on–s
pec
ifi
c
s
oft
war
e.Ge
ner
alp
urp
oses
oft
war
eisp
urc
has
edfr
omas
oft
war
ede
vel
ope
ran
dca
nbeu
sedfo
r
mo
ret
hano
nea
ppl
ic
ati
on.Ex
amp
leso
fge
ner
alp
urp
oses
oft
war
ein
clu
dewo
rdp
roc
ess
ors
,da
tab
ase
ma
nage
men
tsy
ste
ms,
andc
omp
ute
rai
dedd
esi
gns
yst
ems
.The
yar
ela
bel
edge
ner
alp
urp
oseb
eca
use
t
heyc
ans
olv
eav
ari
et
yofu
serc
omp
uti
ngp
rob
lems
.
Ap
pli
cat
ion–
spe
cifi
cso
ftwa
rec
anb
eus
edo
nlyfo
rit
sin
ten
dedp
urp
ose
.
Age
ner
all
edge
rsy
ste
mus
edb
yac
cou
nta
ntsa
ndama
ter
ialr
equ
ire
men
tsp
lan
nin
gsy
ste
mus
edb
ya
ma
nufa
ctu
rin
gor
gan
iza
tio
nar
eex
amp
leso
fap
pli
cat
io
n-s
pec
ifi
cso
ftwa
re.The
yca
nbeu
sedo
nlyfo
r
t
het
askfo
rwhi
cht
heywe
red
esi
gne
dthe
yca
nno
tbeu
sedfo
rot
herge
ner
ali
zedt
asks
.
Ther
ela
tio
nshi
pbe
twe
ens
yst
ema
nda
ppl
ic
ati
ons
oft
war
eiss
hownb
elo
w.I
nthi
sfi
gur
e,e
achc
irc
le
r
epr
ese
ntsa
nin
ter
fac
epo
int.
Thei
nne
rco
rei
sha
rdwa
re.Theu
seri
sre
pre
sen
tedb
ytheo
utl
aye
r.
Towo
rkwi
tht
hes
yst
em,t
het
ypi
calu
seru
sess
omefo
rmo
fap
pli
cat
io
nso
ftwa
re.Thea
ppl
ic
ati
on
s
oft
war
eint
urni
nte
rac
tswi
tht
heo
per
ati
ngs
yst
em,whi
chi
sap
arto
fthes
yst
ems
oft
war
ela
yer
.
Thes
yst
ems
oft
war
epr
ovi
dest
hed
ire
cti
nte
rac
ti
onwi
tht
heha
rdwa
re.Theo
pen
inga
ttheb
ott
omo
f
t
hefi
gur
eist
hep
athfo
ll
owe
dbyt
heu
serwhoi
nte
rac
tsd
ire
ctl
ywi
tht
heo
per
ati
ngs
yst
em
whe
nne
ces
sar
y.

3
COMPUTI
NGENVI
RONMENTS
Thewo
rd‗
comp
ute
‘isu
sedt
ore
fert
othep
roc
esso
fco
nve
rti
ngi
nfo
rma
tio
ntod
ata
.The
a
dve
nto
fse
ver
aln
ewki
ndso
fco
mpu
ter
scr
eat
edan
eedt
oha
ved
iffe
ren
tco
mpu
tin
gen
vir
onme
nts
.
Thefo
ll
owi
nga
ret
hed
iffe
ren
tki
ndso
fco
mpu
tin
gen
vir
onme
ntsa
vai
la
ble
1
. Pe
rso
nalCo
mpu
tin
gEn
vir
onme
nt
2.Ti
meSha
rin
gEn
vir
onme
nt
3.Cl
ie
nt/Se
rve
rEn
vir
onme
nt
4
.Di
st
rib
ute
dCo
mpu
tin
gEn
vir
onme
nt
Pe
rso
nalCo
mpu
tin
gEn
vir
onme
nt
I
n19
71,Ma
rci
anE.Ho
ff,wo
rki
ngfo
rINTELc
omb
ine
dtheb
asi
cel
eme
ntso
fthec
ent
ral
p
roc
ess
ingu
niti
ntot
hemi
cro
pro
ces
sor
.Ifwea
reu
sin
gap
ers
ona
lco
mpu
tert
hena
llt
hec
omp
ute
r
ha
rdwa
rec
omp
one
ntsa
ret
ie
dto
get
her
.Thi
ski
ndo
fco
mpu
tin
gisu
sedt
osa
tis
fyt
hen
eed
sofa
s
ingl
eus
er,whou
sest
hec
omp
ute
rfo
rthep
ers
ona
lta
sks
.
Ex
:Pe
rso
nalCo
mpu
ter

Ti
me-
Sha
rin
gEn
vir
onme
nt
Thec
onc
epto
fti
mes
har
ingc
omp
uti
ngi
stos
har
ethep
roc
ess
ingo
fthec
omp
ute
rba
sin
gon
t
hec
rit
eri
ati
me.I
nthi
sen
vir
onme
nta
llt
hec
omp
uti
ngmu
stb
edo
neb
ythec
ent
ralc
omp
ute
r.

4
Thec
omp
let
epr
oce
ssi
ngi
sdo
neb
ythec
ent
ralc
omp
ute
r.Thec
omp
ute
rwhi
cha
skfo
rpr
oce
ssi
nga
re
o
nlyd
umb
ter
min
als
.

Cl
ie
nt/Se
rve
rEn
vir
onme
nt
ACl
ie
nt/Se
rve
rCo
mpu
tin
gin
vol
vest
hep
roc
ess
ingb
etwe
ent
woma
chi
nes
.Ac
li
entMa
chi
nei
s
t
heo
newhi
chr
equ
est
spr
oce
ssi
ng.Se
rve
rMa
chi
nei
stheo
newhi
cho
ffe
rst
hep
roc
ess
ing.He
ncet
he
c
li
enti
sCa
pab
lee
nou
ght
odop
roc
ess
ing.A p
ort
io
nofp
roc
ess
ingi
s d
oneb
ycl
ie
nta
ndt
he
c
ore
(i
mpo
rta
nt)p
roc
ess
ingi
sdo
neb
ySe
rve
r.

Di
st
rib
ute
dCo
mpu
tin
g
Ad
ist
rib
ute
dco
mpu
tin
gen
vir
onme
ntp
rov
ide
sas
eaml
essi
nte
gra
tio
nofc
omp
uti
ngfu
nct
io
ns
b
etwe
end
iffe
ren
tse
rve
rsa
ndc
li
ent
s.Ac
li
entn
otj
ustar
equ
est
orfo
rpr
oce
ssi
ngt
hei
nfo
rma
tio
n
fr
omt
hes
erv
er.Thec
li
enta
lsoha
sthec
apa
bil
it
ytop
roc
essi
nfo
rma
tio
n.Al
lthema
chi
nes
Cl
ie
nts
/Se
rve
rss
har
ethep
roc
ess
ingt
ask.

5
Ex
amp
le:Eb
ayo
nIn
ter
net

COMPUTERLANGUAGES
Towr
iteap
rogr
am(
tel
lswha
ttod
o)fo
rac
omp
ute
r,wemu
stu
seac
omp
ute
rla
ngu
age
.
Ov
ert
hey
ear
sco
mpu
terl
angu
age
sha
vee
vol
vedfr
omma
chi
nel
angu
age
ston
atu
rall
angu
age
s.The
fo
ll
owi
ngi
sthes
umma
ryo
fco
mpu
terl
angu
age
s
1
940‘
s -
- Ma
chi
neLa
ngu
age
s
1
950‘
s -
- Sy
mbo
li
cLa
ngu
age
s
1
960‘
s -
- Hi
ghLe
velLa
ngu
age
s
Ma
chi
neLa
ngu
age
I
nthee
arl
ie
std
ayso
fco
mpu
ter
s,t
heo
nlyp
rogr
ammi
ngl
angu
age
sav
ail
abl
ewe
rema
chi
ne
l
angu
age
s.Ea
chc
omp
ute
rha
sit
sownma
chi
nel
angu
agewhi
chi
sma
deo
fst
rea
mso
f0‘
san
d1‘
s.
Thei
nst
ruc
ti
onsi
nma
chi
nel
angu
agemu
stb
eins
tre
amso
f0‘
san
d1‘
s.Thi
sisa
lsor
efe
rre
das
b
ina
ryd
igi
ts
.The
sea
res
ona
meda
sthema
chi
nec
and
ire
ctl
yun
der
sto
odt
hep
rogr
ams
Ad
van
tage
s:
1
) Hi
ghs
pee
dex
ecu
tio
n
2
)Thec
omp
ute
rca
nun
der
sto
odi
nst
ruc
ti
ons
imme
dia
tel
y
3
)Not
ran
sla
tio
nisn
eed
ed.
Di
sad
van
tage
s:
1
) Ma
chi
ned
epe
nde
nt
2
)Pr
ogr
ammi
ngi
sve
ryd
iffi
cul
t
3
)Di
ffi
cul
tto
und
ers
tan
d
4
) Di
ffi
cul
ttowr
iteb
ugfr
eep
rogr
ams
5
)Di
ffi
cul
ttoi
sol
atea
ner
ror

6
Ex
amp
leAd
dit
ono
ftwon
umb
ers
2  0010
+ 3  0011

5  0101

Sy
mbo
li
cLa
ngu
age
s(o
r)As
semb
lyLa
ngu
age
I
nthee
arl
y1950‘
sAd
mir
alGr
aceHo
ppe
r,ama
the
mat
ic
iana
ndn
ava
loffi
cer
,de
vel
ope
dthe
c
onc
epto
fas
pec
ialc
omp
ute
rpr
ogr
amt
hatwo
uldc
onv
ertp
rogr
amsi
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
age
.The
se
e
arl
ypr
ogr
ammi
ngl
angu
age
ssi
mpl
ymi
rro
redt
hema
chi
nel
angu
age
sus
ings
ymb
olso
rmn
emo
nic
sto
r
epr
ese
ntt
hev
ari
ousl
angu
agei
nst
ruc
ti
ons
.The
sel
angu
age
swe
rekn
owna
ssy
mbo
li
cla
ngu
age
s.
Be
cau
seac
omp
ute
rdo
esn
otu
nde
rst
ands
ymb
oli
cla
ngu
agei
tmu
stb
etr
ans
lat
edi
ntot
hema
chi
ne
l
angu
age
.As
pec
ialp
rogr
amc
all
eda
nAs
semb
lert
ran
sla
tess
ymb
oli
cco
dei
ntot
hema
chi
nel
angu
age
.
He
ncet
heya
rec
all
eda
sAs
semb
lyl
angu
age
.
Ad
van
tage
s:
1
) Ea
syt
oun
der
sta
nda
ndu
se
2
)Ea
syt
omo
difya
ndi
sol
ate
err
or
3
)Hi
ghe
ffi
ci
enc
y
4
) Mo
rec
ont
rolo
nha
rdwa
re
Di
sad
van
tage
s:
1
) Ma
chi
neDe
pen
den
tLa
ngu
age
2
)Re
qui
res
tra
nsl
ato
r
3
)Di
ffi
cul
ttol
ear
nan
dwr
ite
pro
gra
ms
4
) Sl
owd
eve
lop
men
tti
me
5
)Le
sse
ffi
ci
ent
Ex
amp
le:
2 PUSH2,
A
3 PUSH3,
B
+ ADDA,
B
5 PRI
NTC

7
Hi
gh-
Lev
elLa
ngu
age
s
Thes
ymb
oli
cla
ngu
age
sgr
eat
lyi
mpr
ove
dpr
ogr
ammi
nge
ffi
ci
enc
ythe
yst
il
lre
qui
red
p
rogr
amme
rst
oco
nce
ntr
ateo
ntheha
rdwa
ret
hatt
heywe
reu
sin
gwo
rki
ngwi
ths
ymb
oli
cla
ngu
age
s
wa
sal
sov
eryt
edi
ousb
eca
usee
achma
chi
nei
nst
ruc
ti
onha
dtob
ein
div
idu
all
yco
ded
.Thed
esi
ret
o
i
mpr
ovep
rogr
amme
reffi
ci
enc
yan
dtoc
han
get
hefo
cusfr
omt
hec
omp
ute
rtot
hep
rob
lemsb
ein
g
s
olv
edl
edt
othed
eve
lop
men
tofhi
gh-
lev
ell
angu
age
s.
Hi
gh-
lev
ell
angu
age
sar
epo
rta
blet
oma
nyd
iffe
ren
tco
mpu
tera
llo
win
gthep
rogr
amme
rto
c
onc
ent
rat
eont
hea
ppl
ic
ati
onp
rob
lema
tha
ndr
athe
rtha
nthei
ntr
ica
cie
soft
hec
omp
ute
r.
C As
yst
emsi
mpl
eme
nta
tio
nLa
ngu
age
C++ Cwi
tho
bje
cto
rie
nte
den
han
ceme
nts
JAVA Ob
jec
tor
ien
tedl
angu
agefo
rin
ter
neta
ndge
ner
ala
ppl
ic
ati
onsu
sin
gba
sicCs
ynt
ax

Ad
van
tage
s:
1
) Ea
syt
owr
itea
ndu
nde
rst
and
2
)Ea
syt
ois
ola
tea
ner
ror
3
)Ma
chi
nei
nde
pen
den
tla
ngu
age
4
) Ea
syt
oma
int
ain
5
)Be
tte
rre
ada
bil
it
y
6
) Lo
wDe
vel
opme
ntc
ost
7
) Ea
sie
rto
doc
ume
nt
8
) Po
rta
ble
Di
sad
van
tage
s:
1
) Ne
eds
tra
nsl
ato
r
2
)Re
qui
reshi
ghe
xec
uti
ont
ime
3
)Po
orc
ont
rolo
nha
rdwa
re
4
) Le
sse
ffi
ci
entEx
amp
le:
Cl
angu
age
#i
ncl
ude
<st
dio
.h>
v
oidma
in(
)
{
i
nta,b
, c
;
sc
anf(
"%d%d
%",
&a,
&b)
;

8
 c
=a+b;
p
rin
tf(
"%d
",c
);
}

Di
ffe
ren
ceb
etwe
enMa
chi
ne,As
semb
ly,Hi
ghLe
velLa
ngu
age
s
Fe
atu
re Ma
chi
ne As
semb
ly Hi
ghLe
vel
Fo
rm 0‘
san
d1‘
s Mn
emo
nicc
ode
s No
rma
lEn
gli
sh
Ma
chi
neDe
pen
den
t De
pen
den
t De
pen
den
t I
nde
pen
den
t
Tr
ans
lat
or No
tNe
ede
d Ne
ede
d(As
semb
ler
) Ne
ede
d(Co
mpi
le
r)
Ex
ecu
tio
nTi
me Le
ss Le
ss Hi
gh
La
ngu
age
s On
lyo
ne Di
ffe
ren
tMa
nufa
ctgu
rer
s Di
ffe
ren
tLa
ngu
age
s
Na
tur
e Di
ffi
cul
t Di
ffi
cul
t Ea
sy
Me
mor
ySp
ace Le
ss Le
ss Mo
re

La
ngu
ageTr
ans
lat
ors
The
sea
ret
hep
rogr
amswhi
cha
reu
sedfo
rco
nve
rti
ngt
hep
rogr
amsi
non
ela
ngu
agei
nto
ma
chi
nel
angu
agei
nst
ruc
ti
ons
,sot
hatt
heyc
anb
eex
cut
edb
ythec
omp
ute
r.

1
) Co
mpi
le
r: I
tisap
rogr
amwhi
chi
sus
edt
oco
nve
rtt
hehi
ghl
eve
lla
ngu
age
p
rogr
amsi
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
age
2) As
semb
ler
: I
tisap
rogr
amwhi
chi
sus
edt
oco
nve
rtt
hea
sse
mbl
yle
vel
l
angu
agep
rogr
amsi
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
age
3) I
nte
rpr
ete
r:I
tisap
rogr
am,i
tta
keso
nes
tat
eme
nto
fahi
ghl
eve
lla
ngu
age
p
rogr
am,t
ran
sla
tesi
tin
toma
chi
nel
angu
agei
nst
ruc
ti
ona
ndt
heni
mme
dia
tel
y
e
xec
ute
sther
esu
lti
ngma
chi
nel
angu
agei
nst
ruc
ti
ona
nds
oon
.
Co
mpa
ris
onb
etwe
enaCo
mpi
le
ran
dIn
ter
pre
ter
COMPI
LER I
NTERPRETER
ACo
mpi
le
risu
sedt
oco
mpi
lea
nen
tir
e Ani
nte
rpr
ete
risu
sedt
otr
ans
lat
eea
chl
in
eof
p
rogr
ama
nda
nex
ecu
tab
lep
rogr
ami
s t
hep
rogr
amc
odei
mme
dia
tel
yasi
tise
nte
red
ge
ner
ate
dthr
ought
heo
bje
ctp
rogr
am

9
Thee
xec
uta
blep
rogr
ami
sst
ore
dinad
iskfo
r Thee
xec
uta
blep
rogr
ami
sge
ner
ate
dinRAM
fu
tur
eus
eort
oru
niti
nan
othe
rco
mpu
ter a
ndt
hei
nte
rpr
ete
risr
equ
ire
dfo
rea
chr
uno
f
t
hep
rogr
am
Thec
omp
il
edp
rogr
amsr
unfa
ste
r TheI
nte
rpr
ete
dpr
ogr
amsr
uns
lowe
r
Mo
sto
ftheLa
ngu
age
sus
eco
mpi
le
r Av
eryfe
wla
ngu
age
sus
ein
ter
pre
ter
s.

CREATI
NGANDRUNNI
NGPROGRAMS
Thep
roc
edu
refo
rtu
rni
ngap
rogr
amwr
itt
eni
nCi
ntoma
chi
neLa
ngu
age
.Thep
roc
essi
spr
ese
nte
din
as
tra
ight
for
war
d,l
in
earfa
shi
onb
uty
ous
hul
dre
cogn
izet
hatt
hes
est
epsa
rer
epe
ate
dma
nyt
ime
s
d
uri
ngd
eve
lop
men
ttoc
orr
ecte
rro
rsa
ndma
kei
mpr
ove
men
tst
othe
cod
e.
Thefo
ll
owi
nga
ret
hefo
urs
tep
sint
hisp
roc
ess
1
) Wr
iti
nga
ndEd
iti
ngt
hep
rogr
am
2
) Co
mpi
li
ngt
hep
rogr
am
3
) Li
nki
ngt
hep
rogr
amwi
tht
her
equ
ire
dmo
dul
es
4
) Ex
ecu
tin
gthe
pro
gra
m

1
0
 TEXTEDI
TOR

COMPI
LER

Li
bra
ry LI
NKE
R

RUNNER

OUTPUT

Sl
.No
. Pha
se Na
meo
fCo
de To
ols Fi
leEx
ten
sio
n
1 Te
xtEd
ito
r So
urc
eCo
de CCo
mpi
le
rs .
C
Ed
it,
No
tep
adEt
c..
,
2 Co
mpi
le
r Ob
jec
tCo
de CCo
mpi
le
r .
OBJ
3 Li
nke
r Ex
ecu
tab
le CCo
mpi
le
r .
EXE
Co
de
4 Ru
nne
r Ex
ecu
tab
le CCo
mpi
le
r .
EXE
Co
de

Wr
iti
nga
ndEd
iti
ngPr
ogr
ams
Thes
oft
war
eus
edt
owr
itep
rogr
amsi
skn
owna
sat
exte
dit
or.At
exte
dit
orhe
lpsu
s
e
nte
r,c
han
gea
nds
tor
echa
rac
terd
ata
.On
cewewr
itet
hep
rogr
ami
nthet
exte
dit
orwes
avei
tus
ing
afi
le
names
tor
edwi
tha
nex
ten
sio
nof.
C.Thi
sfi
lei
sre
fer
reda
sso
urc
eco
defi
le
.

1
1
Co
mpi
li
ngPr
ogr
ams
Thec
odei
nas
our
cefi
les
tor
edo
nthed
iskmu
stb
etr
ans
lat
edi
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
age
.Thi
sis
t
hej
obo
fthec
omp
il
er.TheCo
mpi
le
risac
omp
ute
rpr
ogr
amt
hatt
ran
sla
test
hes
our
cec
odewr
itt
en
i
nahi
gh-
lev
ell
angu
agei
ntot
hec
orr
esp
ond
ingo
bje
ctc
odeo
fthel
ow-
lev
ell
angu
age
.Thi
s
t
ran
sla
tio
npr
oce
ssi
sca
lldc
e o
mpi
la
tio
n.Thee
nti
rehi
ghl
eve
lpr
ogr
ami
sco
nve
rte
din
tot
he
e
xec
uta
blema
chi
nec
odefi
le
.TheCo
mpi
le
rwhi
che
xec
ute
sCp
rogr
amsi
sca
lle
dasCCo
mpi
le
r.
Ex
amp
leTu
rboC,Bo
rla
ndC,GCe
tc.
,
TheCCo
mpi
le
risa
ctu
all
ytwos
epa
rat
epr
ogr
ams
:
ThePr
epr
oce
sso
r
TheTr
ans
lat
or
ThePr
epr
oce
sso
rre
adst
hes
our
cec
odea
ndp
rep
are
sitfo
rthet
ran
sla
tor
.Whi
lep
rep
ari
ngt
hec
ode
,
i
tsc
ansfo
rsp
eci
ali
nst
ruc
ti
onskn
owna
spr
epr
oce
sso
rco
mma
nds
.The
sec
omma
ndst
ellt
he
p
rep
roc
ess
ort
olo
ok fo
rsp
eci
alc
odel
ibr
ari
es
. Ther
esu
lto
fpr
epr
oce
ssi
ngi
sca
lle
dthe
t
ran
sla
tio
nun
it.
Aft
ert
hep
rep
roc
ess
orha
spr
epa
redt
hec
odefo
rco
mpi
la
tio
n,t
het
ran
sla
tord
oest
hea
ctu
al
wo
rko
fco
nve
rti
ngt
hep
rogr
ami
ntoma
chi
nel
angu
age
.Thet
ran
sla
torr
ead
sthet
ran
sla
tio
nun
ita
nd
wr
ite
sther
esu
lti
ngo
bje
ctmo
dul
etoaf
ilet
hatc
ant
henb
eco
mbi
nedwi
tho
the
rpr
eco
mpi
le
dun
itst
o
fo
rmt
hef
ina
lpr
ogr
am.Ano
bje
ctmo
dul
eist
hec
odei
nthema
chi
nel
angu
age
.

Li
nki
ngPr
ogr
ams
TheLi
nke
ras
semb
lesa
llfu
nct
io
ns,t
hep
rogr
am‘
sfu
nct
io
nsa
nds
yst
em‘
sfu
nct
io
nsi
ntoo
ne
e
xec
uta
blep
rogr
am.

Ex
ecu
tin
gPr
ogr
ams
Toe
xec
uteap
rogr
amweu
sea
nop
era
tin
gsy
ste
mco
mma
nd,s
ucha
sru
n,t
olo
adt
hep
rogr
am
i
ntop
rima
ry me
mor
yan
dex
ecu
tei
t. Ge
tti
ngt
he p
rogr
am i
nto me
mor
yist
he fu
nct
io
n
o
fan
ope
rat
ings
yst
emp
rogr
amkn
own
ast
hel
oad
er.
Itl
oca
tes
the
exe
cut
abl
epr
ogr
ama
nd

1
2
r
ead
siti
ntome
mor
y.Whe
nev
ery
thi
ngi
slo
ade
dthep
rogr
amt
ake
sco
ntr
ola
ndi
tbe
gine
xec
uti
on.

ALGORI
THM
Al
gor
ithm i
safi
ni
tes
equ
enc
eofi
nst
ruc
ti
ons
,ea
cho
fwhi
chha
sac
lea
rme
ani
nga
ndc
anb
e
p
erfo
rme
dwi
thafi
ni
tea
mou
nto
feffo
rti
nafi
ni
tel
engt
hoft
ime
.Noma
tte
rwha
tthei
npu
tva
lue
s
ma
ybe
,ana
lgo
rit
hmt
ermi
nat
esa
fte
rex
ecu
tin
gafi
ni
ten
umb
ero
fin
str
uct
io
ns.
Wer
epr
ese
nta
nal
gor
ithmu
sin
gap
seu
dol
angu
aget
hati
sac
omb
ina
tio
noft
hec
ons
tru
ctso
fa
p
rogr
ammi
ngl
angu
aget
oge
the
rwi
thi
nfo
rma
lEn
gli
shs
tat
eme
nts
.
Theo
rde
reds
eto
fin
str
uct
io
nsr
equ
ire
dtos
olv
eap
rob
lemi
skn
owna
sana
lgo
rit
hm.The
c
har
act
eri
st
ic
sofago
oda
lgo
rit
hma
re:
Pr
eci
si
on–t
hes
tep
sar
epr
eci
se
lys
tat
ed(
defi
ned
).
Un
iqu
ene
ss–r
esu
ltso
fea
chs
tepa
reu
niq
uel
yde
fin
eda
ndo
nlyd
epe
ndo
nthe
inp
uta
nd
t
her
esu
lto
fthep
rec
edi
ngs
tep
s.
Fi
ni
te
nes
s–t
hea
lgo
rit
hms
top
saft
erafi
ni
ten
umb
ero
fin
str
uct
io
nsa
ree
xec
ute
d.
I
npu
t–t
hea
lgo
rit
hmr
ece
ive
sin
put
.
Ou
tpu
t–t
hea
lgo
rit
hmp
rod
uce
sou
tpu
t.
Ge
ner
ali
ty–t
hea
lgo
rit
hma
ppl
ie
stoas
eto
fin
put
s.
Ex
amp
le
Q.Wr
iteaa
lgo
rit
hemt
ofi
ndo
utn
umb
eri
sod
dore
ven
?An
s.
s
tep1:sta
rt
s
tep2:input
numbe
r
s
tep3:rem=numbe
rmo d2
s
tep4:ifrem=0t
hen
p
rin
t"nu
mb e
re v
en"
e
lse
p
rin
t"nu
mb e
ro d
d"
e
ndi
f
s
tep5:sto
p

FLOWCHART
Fl
owc
har
tisad
iagr
amma
ticr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nofa
nal
gor
ithm.Fl
owc
har
tisv
eryhe
lpfu
linwr
iti
ng
p
rogr
ama
nde
xpl
ai
ni
ngp
rogr
amt
oot
her
s.

1
3
Sy
mbo
lsUs
edI
nFl
owc
har
t
Di
ffe
ren
tsy
mbo
lsa
reu
sedfo
rdi
ffe
ren
tst
ate
sinfl
owc
har
t,Fo
rex
amp
le:I
npu
t/Ou
tpu
tan
dde
cis
ion
ma
kin
gha
sdi
ffe
ren
tsy
mbo
ls.Thet
abl
ebe
lowd
esc
rib
esa
llt
hes
ymb
olst
hata
reu
sedi
nma
kin
g
fl
owc
har
t

Sy
mbo
l Pu
rpo
se De
scr
ipt
io
n

Us
edt
oin
dic
atet
hefl
owo
flo
gicb
yco
nne
cti
ng
Fl
owl
in
e
s
ymb
ols
.

Te
rmi
nal
(St
op/St
art
) Us
edt
ore
pre
sen
tst
arta
nde
ndo
ffl
owc
har
t.

I
npu
t/Ou
tpu
t Us
edfo
rin
puta
ndo
utp
uto
per
ati
on.

Us
edfo
rai
rthme
ti
cop
era
tio
nsa
ndd
ata
-
Pr
oce
ssi
ng
ma
nip
ula
tio
ns.

Us
edt
ore
pre
sen
ttheo
per
ati
oni
nwhi
cht
her
ear
etwo
De
si
ci
on
a
lte
rna
tiv
es,t
ruea
ndfa
lse
.

On
-pa
geCo
nne
cto
r Us
edt
ojo
ind
iffe
ren
tfl
owl
in
e

Off-
pageCo
nne
cto
r Us
edt
oco
nne
ctfl
owc
har
tpo
rti
ono
ndi
ffe
ren
tpa
ge.

Pr
ede
fin
ed Us
edt
ore
pre
sen
tagr
oupo
fst
ate
men
tsp
erfo
rmi
ng
Pr
oce
ss/Fu
nct
io
n o
nep
roc
ess
ingt
ask.

Ex
amp
leso
ffl
owc
har
tsi
npr
ogr
ammi
ng
Dr
awafl
owc
har
ttoa
ddt
won
umb
erse
nte
redb
yus
er.

1
4
Dr
awfl
owc
har
ttofi
ndt
hel
arge
sta
mon
gthr
eed
iffe
ren
tnu
mbe
rse
nte
redb
yus
er.

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCLANGUAGE
Ci
sage
ner
al-
pur
pos
ehi
ghl
eve
lla
ngu
aget
hatwa
sor
igi
nal
lyd
eve
lop
edb
yDe
nni
sRi
tc
hiefo
rthe
Un
ixo
per
ati
ngs
yst
em.I
twa
sfi
rsti
mpl
eme
nte
dont
heDi
git
alEq
qui
pme
ntCo
rpo
rat
io
nPDP-
11
c
omp
ute
rin1
972.

1
5
TheUn
ixo
per
ati
ngs
yst
ema
ndv
irt
ual
lya
llUn
ixa
ppl
ic
ati
onsa
rewr
itt
eni
ntheCl
angu
age
.Cha
s
n
owb
eco
meawi
del
yus
edp
rofe
ssi
ona
lla
ngu
agefo
rva
rio
usr
eas
ons
.
 Ea
syt
ole
arn
 St
ruc
tur
edl
angu
age
 I
tpr
odu
cese
ffi
ci
ent
pro
gra
ms.
 I
tca
nha
ndl
elo
w-l
eve
lac
ti
vi
ti
es
.
 I
tca
nbec
omp
il
edo
nav
ari
et
yof
comp
ute
rs.
Fa
ctsa
bou
tC
 Cwa
sin
ven
tedt
owr
itea
nop
era
tin
gsy
ste
mca
lle
dUNI
X.
 Ci
sas
ucc
ess
oro
fBl
angu
agewhi
chwa
sin
tro
duc
eda
rou
nd1
970
 Thel
angu
agewa
sfo
rma
li
zedi
n1988b
ytheAme
ric
anNa
tio
nalSt
and
ardI
nst
it
ue(
ANSI
).
 By1
973UNI
XOSa
lmo
stt
ota
llywr
itt
eni
nC.
 To
dayCi
sthemo
stwi
del
yus
edSy
ste
mPr
ogr
ammi
ngLa
ngu
age
.
 Mo
sto
fthes
tat
eoft
hea
rts
oft
war
eha
veb
eeni
mpl
eme
nte
dus
ingC
Whyt
ous
eC?
Cwa
sin
iti
al
lyu
sedfo
rsy
ste
mde
vel
opme
ntwo
rk,i
npa
rti
cul
art
hep
rogr
amst
hatma
ke-
upt
he
o
per
ati
ngs
yst
em.Cwa
sad
ope
dasas
yst
emd
eve
lop
men
tla
ngu
ageb
eca
usei
tpr
odu
cesc
odet
hatr
uns
n
ear
lya
sfa
sta
sco
dewr
itt
eni
nas
semb
lyl
angu
age
.So
mee
xamp
leso
ftheu
seo
fCmi
ghtb
e:
 Op
era
tin
gSy
ste
ms
 La
ngu
age
Comp
il
ers
 As
semb
ler
s
 Te
xtEd
ito
rs
 Pr
int
Spo
ole
rs
 Ne
two
rkDr
ive
rs
 Mo
der
nPr
ogr
ams
 Da
taBa
ses
 La
ngu
age
Int
erp
ret
ers
 Ut
il
it
ie
s
CPr
ogr
amFi
le

1
6
Al
ltheCp
rogr
amsa
rewr
ite
nin
tot
extfi
le
swi
the
xte
nsi
on"
.c"fo
rex
amp
lehe
llo
.c.Yo
uca
nus
e
"
vi
"ed
ito
rtowr
itey
ourCp
rogr
ami
ntoafi
le
.

HI
STORYTOCLANGUAGE
Ci
sage
ner
al-
pur
pos
ela
ngu
agewhi
chha
sbe
enc
los
elya
sso
cia
tedwi
tht
heUNI
Xop
era
tin
gsy
ste
mfo
r
whi
chi
twa
sde
vel
ope
d-s
inc
ethes
yst
ema
ndmo
sto
fthep
rogr
amst
hatr
uni
tar
ewr
itt
eni
nC.
Ma
nyo
fthei
mpo
rta
nti
dea
sofCs
temfr
omt
hel
angu
ageBCPL,d
eve
lop
edb
yMa
rti
nRi
cha
rds
.The
i
nfl
uen
ceo
fBCPLo
nCp
roc
eed
edi
ndi
rec
tlyt
hro
ught
hel
angu
ageB,whi
chwa
swr
itt
enb
yKe
n
Tho
mps
oni
n197
0atBe
llLa
bs,fo
rthefi
rstUNI
Xsy
ste
monaDECPDP-
7
.BCPLa
ndBa
re"
typ
ele
ss"l
angu
age
swhe
rea
sCp
rov
ide
sav
ari
et
yofd
ata
typ
es.
I
n197
2 De
nni
s Ri
tc
hiea
t Be
llLa
bs wr
ite
sC a
ndi
n197
8the p
ubl
ic
ati
ono
f The C
Pr
ogr
ammi
ngLa
ngu
ageb
yKe
rni
gha
n&Ri
tc
hiec
aus
edar
evo
lut
io
nint
hec
omp
uti
ngwo
rld
.
I
n1983,t
heAme
ric
anNa
tio
nalSt
and
ard
sIn
sti
tut
e(ANSI
)es
tab
lis
hedac
ommi
tt
eet
opr
ovi
deamo
der
n,
c
omp
rehe
nsi
ved
efi
ni
ti
ono
fC.Ther
esu
lti
ngd
efi
ni
ti
on,t
heANSIs
tan
dar
d,o
r"ANSIC"
,wa
s
c
omp
let
edl
ate1
988.

BASI
CSTRUCTUREOFCPROGRAMMI
NG

1
7
 1
. Do
cume
nta
tio
nse
cti
on:Thed
ocu
men
tat
io
nse
cti
onc
ons
is
tso
fas
eto
fco
mme
ntl
in
esgi
vi
ng
t
hen
ameo
fthep
rogr
am,t
hea
utho
ran
dot
herd
eta
il
s,whi
cht
hep
rogr
amme
rwo
uldl
iket
o
u
sel
ate
r.
2
. Li
nks
ect
ion
:Thel
in
kse
cti
onp
rov
ide
sin
str
uct
io
nst
othec
omp
il
ert
oli
nkfu
nct
io
nsfr
omt
he
s
yst
eml
ibr
arys
ucha
sus
in he#i
gt ncl
ude
dir
ect
ive
.
3
. De
fin
iti
ons
ect
ion
:Thed
efi
ni
ti
ons
ect
io
nde
fin
esa
lls
ymb
oli
cco
nst
ant
ssu
chu
sin
gthe
#d
efi
ned
ire
cti
ve.
4
. Gl
oba
lde
cla
rat
ions
ect
ion
:The
rea
res
omev
ari
abl
est
hata
reu
sedi
nmo
ret
hano
nefu
nct
io
n.
Su
chv
ari
abl
esa
rec
all
edgl
oba
lva
ria
ble
san
dar
ede
cla
redi
nthegl
oba
lde
cla
rat
io
nse
cti
on
t
hati
sou
tsi
deo
fal
lthef
unc
ti
ons
.Thi
sse
cti
ona
lsod
ecl
are
sal
l heu
t ser
-
d
efi
ned
fun
cti
ons
.
5
. ma
in(
)fu
nct
ions
ect
ion
:Ev
eryCp
rogr
ammu
stha
veo
nema
infu
nct
io
nse
cti
on.Thi
sse
cti
on
c
ont
ain
stwop
art
s;d
ecl
ara
tio
npa
rta
nde
xec
uta
ble
par
t
1
. De
cla
rat
ionp
art
: Thed
ecl
ara
tio
npa
rtd
ecl
are
sal
lthe v
ari
abl
esu
sedi
nthe
e
xec
uta
ble
par
t.
2.Ex
ecu
tab
lep
art
:The
rei
satl
eas
ton
est
ate
men
tint
hee
xec
uta
blep
art
.The
set
wo
p
art
s mu
sta
ppe
arb
etwe
ent
he o
pen
inga
ndc
los
ingb
rac
es. The p
rogr
am
e
xec
uti
onb
egi
nsa
ttheo
pen
ingb
rac
ean
den
dsa
tthec
los
ingb
rac
e.Thec
los
ingb
rac
e
o
fthema
infu
nct
io
nist
hel
ogi
cale
ndo
fthep
rogr
am.Al
lst
ate
men
tsi
nthe
d
ecl
ara
tio
nan
dex
ecu
tab
lep
arte
ndwi
tha
semi
col
on.
6
. Su
bpr
ogr
ams
ect
ion
:Ift
hep
rogr
a samu
mi lti
-fu
nct
io
npr
ogr
amt
hent
hes
ubp
rogr
ams
ect
io
n
c
ont
ain
sal
lt u
hese
r-d
efi
nedfu
nct
io
nst
hata
rec
all
edi
nthema
in(
)fu
nct
io
n.Us
er-
defi
ned
fu
nct
io
nsa
rege
ner
all
ypl
ace
dimme
dia
tel
yaft
ert
hema
in(
)fu
nct
io
n,a
ltho
ught
heyma
y
a
ppe
ari
nan
yor
der
.

PROCESSOFCOMPI
LINGANDRUNNI
NGCPROGRAM
Wewi
llb
rie
flyhi
ghl
ightke
yfe
atu
reso
ftheCCo
mpi
la
tio
nmo
delhe
re.

1
8
TheCCo
mpi
la
tio
nMo
del
ThePr
epr
oce
sso
r
ThePr
epr
oce
sso
rac
cep
tss
our
cec
odea
sin
puta
ndi
sre
spo
nsi
blefo
r
 r
emo
vin
gco
mme
nts
 I
nte
rpr
eti
ngs
pec
ialp
rep
roc
ess
ord
ire
cti
vesd
eno
tedb
y#.
Fo
rex
amp
le
 #i
ncl
ude-
-in
clu
desc
ont
ent
sofan
ame
dfi
le
.Fi
le
sus
ual
lyc
all
edhe
ade
rfi
le
s.e
.g
o #i
ncl
ude<
mat
h.h>-
-st
and
ardl
ibr
aryma
ths
fil
e.
o #i
ncl
ude<
std
io.
h>-
-st
and
ardl
ibr
aryI
/Ofi
le
 #d
efi
ne-
-de
fin
esas
ymb
oli
cna
meo
rco
nst
ant
.Ma
cro
sub
sti
tut
io
n.
o #d
efi
neMAX_ARRAY_SI
ZE1
00
CCo
mpi
le
r
TheCc
omp
il
ert
ran
sla
tess
our
cet
oas
semb
lyc
ode
.Thes
our
cec
odei
sre
cei
vedfr
omt
hep
rep
roc
ess
or.
As
semb
ler
Thea
sse
mbl
erc
rea
teso
bje
ctc
ode
.OnaUNI
Xsy
ste
myo
uma
yse
efi
le
swi
tha.
osu
ffi
x
(
.OBJo
nMSDOS)t
oin
dic
ateo
bje
ctc
odefi
le
s.
Li
nkEd
ito
r
I
fas
our
cefi
ler
efe
ren
cesl
ibr
aryfu
nct
io
nso
rfu
nct
io
nsd
efi
nedi
not
hers
our
cefi
le
sthel
ink
e
dit
orc
omb
ine
sthe
sefu
nct
io
ns(
wit
hma
in(
))t
ocr
eat
eane
xec
uta
blefi
le
.

1
9
CTOKENS
Ct
oke
nsa
ret
heb
asi
cbu
il
di
ngsb
loc
ksi
nCl
angu
agewhi
cha
rec
ons
tru
cte
dto
get
hert
owr
iteaC
p
rogr
am.
Ea
cha
nde
ver
ysma
lle
sti
ndi
vi
dua
lun
iti
naCp
rogr
ami
skn
owna
sCt
oke
ns.C
t
oke
nsa
reo
fsi
xty
pes
.The
yar
e
Ke
ywo
rds (
eg:i
nt,
whi
le
),
I
den
tifi
ers (
eg:ma
in,
tot
al)
,
Co
nst
ant
s (
eg:1
0,20)
,
St
rin
gs (
eg:―t
ota
l‖,―h
ell
o‖
),
Sp
eci
als
ymb
ols(
eg:(
),{
}),
Op
era
tor
s (
eg:+,/,
-,*
)

CKEYWORDS
Cke
ywo
rdsa
ret
hewo
rdst
hatc
onv
eyas
pec
ialme
ani
ngt
othecc
omp
il
er.Theke
ywo
rds
c
ann
otb
eus
eda
sva
ria
blen
ame
s.
Thel
is
tofCke
ywo
rdsi
sgi
venb
elo
w:

a
uto b
rea
k c
ase c
har c
ons
t

c
ont
inu
e d
efa
ult d
o d
oub
le e
lse

e
num e
xte
rn fl
oat fo
r go
to

i
f i
nt l
ong r
egi
st
er r
etu
rn

s
hor
t s
ign
ed s
ize
of s
tat
ic s
tru
ct

s
wit
ch t
ype
def u
nio
n u
nsi
gne
d v
oid

v
ola
til
e whi
le

20
CI
DENTI
FIERS
I
den
tifi
ersa
reu
seda
sthege
ner
alt
ermi
nol
ogyfo
rthen
ame
sofv
ari
abl
es,fu
nct
io
nsa
nda
rra
ys.
The
sea
reu
serd
efi
nedn
ame
sco
nsi
st
ingo
far
bit
rar
il
ylo
ngs
equ
enc
eofl
ett
ersa
ndd
igi
tswi
the
it
her
al
ett
ero
rtheu
nde
rsc
ore
(_)a
safi
rstc
har
act
er.
The
rea
rec
ert
ainr
ule
stha
tsho
uldb
efo
ll
owe
dwhi
len
ami
ngci
den
tifi
ers
:
The
ymu
stb
egi
nwi
thal
ett
ero
run
der
sco
re(
_).
The
ymu
stc
ons
is
tofo
nlyl
ett
ers
,di
git
s,o
run
der
sco
re.Noo
the
rsp
eci
alc
har
act
eri
sal
lo
wed
.It
s
hou
ldn
otb
eake
ywo
rd.
I
tmu
stn
otc
ont
ainwhi
te
spa
ce.
I
tsho
uldb
eupt
o31c
har
act
ersl
onga
son
lyfi
rst31c
har
act
ersa
res
ign
ifi
can
t.
So
mee
xamp
leso
fci
den
tifi
ers
:
Na
me Re
mar
k
_A9 Va
li
d
Te
mp.
var I
nva
li
dasi
tco
nta
inss
pec
ialc
har
act
ero
the
rtha
ntheu
nde
rsc
ore
v
oid I
nva
li
dasi
tisake
ywo
rd

CCONSTANTS
ACc
ons
tan
tre
fer
stot
hed
atai
te
mst
hatd
ono
tcha
nget
hei
rva
lued
uri
ngt
hep
rogr
ame
xec
uti
on.
Se
ver
alt
ype
sofCc
ons
tan
tst
hata
rea
llo
wedi
nCa
re:
I
nte
gerCo
nst
ant
s
I
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsa
rewho
len
umb
erswi
tho
uta
nyfr
act
io
nalp
art
.Itmu
stha
vea
tle
asto
ned
igi
tan
d
ma
yco
nta
ine
it
her+o
r–s
ign
.An
umb
erwi
thn
osi
gni
sas
sume
dtob
epo
sit
ive
.
The
rea
ret
hre
ety
peso
fin
tege
rco
nst
ant
s:
De
cima
lIn
tege
rCo
nst
ant
s
I
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsc
ons
is
ti
ngo
fas
eto
fdi
git
s,0t
hro
ugh9,p
rec
ede
dbya
nop
tio
nal–o
r+s
ign
.
Ex
amp
leo
fva
li
dde
cima
lin
tege
rco
nst
ant
s
34
1,-
341
,0,
897
2
Oc
talI
nte
gerCo
nst
ant
s
I
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsc
ons
is
ti
ngo
fse
que
nceo
fdi
git
sfr
omt
hes
et0t
hro
ugh7s
tar
tin
gwi
th0i
ssa
idt
o
b
eoc
tali
nte
gerc
ons
tan
ts.

21
Ex
amp
leo
fva
li
doc
tali
nte
gerc
ons
tan
ts01
0,
04
24,0,
054
0
He
xad
eci
malI
nte
gerCo
nst
ant
s
He
xad
eci
mali
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsa
rei
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsha
vin
gse
que
nceo
fdi
git
spr
ece
dedb
y0xo
r0X.
The
yma
yal
soi
ncl
udea
lpha
bet
sfr
omAt
oFr
epr
ese
nti
ngn
umb
ers1
0to1
5.
Ex
amp
leo
fva
li
dhe
xad
eci
mali
nte
gerc
ons
tan
ts0x
D,
0X8d
,0X,0x
bD
I
tsho
uldb
eno
tedt
hat
,oc
tala
ndhe
xad
eci
mali
nte
gerc
ons
tan
tsa
rer
are
lyu
sedi
npr
ogr
ammi
ng.
Re
alCo
nst
ant
s
Then
umb
ersha
vin
gfr
act
io
nalp
art
sar
eca
lle
dre
alo
rfl
oat
ingp
oin
tco
nst
ant
s.The
sema
ybe
r
epr
ese
nte
dino
neo
fthet
wofo
rmsc
all
edfr
act
io
nalfo
rmo
rthee
xpo
nen
tfo
rma
ndma
yal
so
ha
vee
it
her+o
r–s
ignp
rec
edi
ngi
t.
Ex
amp
leo
fva
li
dre
alc
ons
tan
tsi
nfr
act
io
nalfo
rmo
rde
cima
lno
tat
io
n0.
05,
-
0.905,562.
05,0.
015
Re
pre
sen
tin
gar
ealc
ons
tan
tine
xpo
nen
tfo
rm
Thege
ner
alfo
rma
tinwhi
char
ealn
umb
erma
yber
epr
ese
nte
dine
xpo
nen
tia
lors
cie
nti
fi
cfo
rmi
s
ma
nti
ssaee
xpo
nen
t
Thema
nti
ss
amu
stb
eei
the
rani
nte
gero
rar
ealn
umb
ere
xpr
ess
edi
nde
cima
lno
tat
io
n.
Thel
ett
eres
epa
rat
ingt
hema
nti
ss
aan
dthee
xpo
nen
tca
nal
sob
ewr
itt
eni
nup
per
cas
ei.
e.EAn
d,
t
hee
xpo
nen
tmu
stb
eani
nte
ger
.
Ex
amp
leso
fva
li
dre
alc
ons
tan
tsi
nex
pon
entfo
rma
re:
252E85,0.
15E-
10,
-3e
+8
Cha
rac
terCo
nst
ant
s
Ac
har
act
erc
ons
tan
tco
nta
inso
nes
ingl
echa
rac
tere
ncl
ose
dwi
thi
nsi
ngl
equ
ote
s.
Ex
amp
leso
fva
li
dcha
rac
terc
ons
tan
ts
‗
a‘,‗
Z‘,
‗5‘
I
tsho
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eno
tedt
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har
act
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ons
tan
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ven
ume
ric
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alu
eskn
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sASCI
Iva
lue
s,fo
rex
amp
le,
t
hev
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eof‗
A‘i
s65whi
chi
sit
sASCI
Iva
lue
.
Es
cap
eCha
rac
ter
s/Es
cap
eSe
que
nce
s

22
Ca
llo
wsu
stoha
vec
ert
ainn
ongr
aphi
ccha
rac
ter
sinc
har
act
erc
ons
tan
ts.No
ngr
aphi
ccha
rac
ter
s
a
ret
hos
echa
rac
ter
stha
tca
nno
tbet
ype
ddi
rec
tlyfr
omke
ybo
ard
,fo
rex
amp
le,t
abs
,ca
rri
age
r
etu
rn,e
tc.
The
sen
ongr
aphi
ccha
rac
ter
sca
nber
epr
ese
nte
dbyu
sin
ges
cap
ese
que
nce
sre
pre
sen
tedb
yab
acks
las
h()
fo
ll
owe
dbyo
neo
rmo
rec
har
act
ers
.
NOTE:Ane
sca
pes
equ
enc
eco
nsu
meso
nlyo
neb
yteo
fsp
acea
sitr
epr
ese
ntsas
ingl
echa
rac
ter
.
Es
cap
eSe
que
nce De
scr
ipt
ion
a Au
dib
lea
ler
t(b
ell
)
b Ba
cks
pac
e
f Fo
rmfe
ed
n Ne
wli
ne
r Ca
rri
ager
etu
rn
t Ho
riz
ont
alt
ab
v Ve
rti
calt
ab
\ Ba
cks
las
h
― Do
ubl
equ
ota
tio
nma
rk
‗ Si
ngl
equ
ota
tio
nma
rk
? Qu
est
io
nma
rk
Nu
ll

STRI
NGCONSTANTS
St
rin
gco
nst
ant
sar
ese
que
nceo
fcha
rac
ter
sen
clo
sedwi
thi
ndo
ubl
equ
ote
s.Fo
rex
amp
le,
―he
ll
o‖
―a
bc‖
―he
ll
o91
1‖
Ev
ery
sti
ngc
ons
tan
tis
aut
oma
tic
all
yte
rmi
nat
edwi
tha
spe
cia
lcha
rac
ter
„‟c
all
edt
hen
ullc
har
act
er
whi
chr
epr
ese
ntst
hee
ndo
fthe
str
ing.
Fo
rex
amp
le,―he
ll
o‖wi
llr
epr
ese
nt―hel
lo‖i
nthe
memo
ry.
Thu
s,t
hes
izeo
fthes
tri
ngi
sthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rofc
har
act
ersp
luso
nefo
rthen
ullc
har
act
er.

23
Sp
eci
alSy
mbo
ls
Thefo
ll
owi
ngs
pec
ials
ymb
olsa
reu
sedi
nCha
vin
gso
mes
pec
ialme
ani
nga
ndt
hus
,ca
nno
tbeu
sedfo
r
s
omeo
the
rpu
rpo
se.
[
](){
},;:*…=#
Br
ace
s{}
:The
seo
pen
inga
nde
ndi
ngc
url
ybr
ace
sma
rkst
hes
tar
tan
den
dofab
loc
kofc
ode
c
ont
ain
ingmo
ret
hano
nee
xec
uta
bles
tat
eme
nt.
Pa
ren
the
ses
()
:The
ses
pec
ials
ymb
olsa
reu
sedt
oin
dic
atefu
nct
io
nca
llsa
ndfu
nct
io
npa
rame
ter
s.
Br
acke
ts[
]:Op
eni
nga
ndc
los
ingb
rac
ket
sar
eus
eda
sar
raye
leme
ntr
efe
ren
ce.The
sei
ndi
cat
esi
ngl
e
a
ndmu
lti
di
men
sio
nals
ubs
cri
pts
.

VARI
ABLES

Avari
abl
eisnothi
ngbu tanamegiv
entoas t
orageare
athato
urp ro
gramsca nmani
pul
ate
.Each
v
ari
abl
einCha saspe
cifict
ype,whi
chdet
ermin
esthesi
zeandl
ayou
toft hevari
abl
e'
smemory;t
he
r
angeofval
uestha
tcanb est
oredwi
thi
nthatmemory
;a n
dthese
tofo p
erati
onstha
tcanbeappl
ie
d
t
othevar
iab
le.

Then a
meo favari
ableca
nb eco
mp o
sedoflet
ter
s,di
gits
,a n
dtheu n
ders
cor
echara
cter.I
tmust
begi
nwitheit
herale
ttero
ra nu
nders
core
.Upperandl
owerc
asele
tte
rsaredi
st
inc
tbec
auseCisca
se
-sen
sit
ive
.Basedonthebasi
ctype
sexpla
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dintheprev
iou
schapte
r,therewi
llbethefol
lowi
ng
basi
cvari
abl
etype
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