Sangam Age

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Sangam Age
• The neolithic phase of South India was
succeeded by the Megalithic cultures (1200
BCE-300 BCE) which was followed by the
Sangam age.
• The Sangam Age refers to the period in the
early history of south India when a large
number of poems in Tamil were composed by
a number of authors.
• The Age extended from around 300 BCE to 300
CE and constitutes an important development
in the history of South India.
• However, there is no unanimity among the
scholars about the chronology of the Sangam
age.
• The term 'Sangam' refers to an assembly or
"meeting together" of Tamil poets.
• According to Tamil legends, three Sangams
(Academy of Tamil poets) popularly called
Muchchangam were convened in ancient Tamil
Nadu.
• These Sangams flourished under the royal
patronage of the Pandyas
• Three Sangams
• The first Sangam was held at the then
Madurai.
• It is believed that it was attended by Gods and
legendary sages.
• However, no literary work of this Sangam is
available.
• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram.
• It was attended by several poets and a large
mass of literature was produced in this
meeting.
• But all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
• The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by
Mudathirumaran.
• It was attended by a large number of poets
who produced a voluminous literature, but
only a fraction of it survived.
• Sources of Sangam Age
• Sangam literature
• The Asokan inscriptions
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of
Kalinga
• The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar,
Kodumanal and other places
• The writings of Greek authors like
Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy
• Political History
• The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties
namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas during
the Sangam Age.
• Ashoka mentions the three kingdoms in the
Major Rock Edict II.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea
also provides reference to the kingdoms of the
Tamil country.
• However, the Sangam literature is the major
source of information about the southern
kingdoms.
• There were frequent conflicts among the three
polities which gave larger scope to the Sangam
poets to compose poems on war.
• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal
emblem- carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the
Cholas and bow for the Cheras.
• Cheras
• The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala
and Tamil Nadu with their capital at Vanji.
• The history of the Cheras was marked by a
continuous fight with the Cholas and the
Panidyas.
• The Pugalur inscription of the first South India
century CE refers to three generations of Chera
rulers.
• Padirruppattu also provides information on
Chera kings.
• Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan,
mayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and
Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of
this dynasty.
• Cheran Senguttuvan who belonged to 2nd
century CE was the greatest Chera king.
• His younger brother was Ilango Adigal, the
author of Silappatikaram.
• Senguttuvan is known for his expedition to the
Himalayas.
• He is believed to have crossed the Ganges and
defeated many north Indian monarchs, which
might be an exaggeration.
• Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the
worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil
Nadu.
• The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
brought by him after his Himalayan expedition.
• The consecration ceremony was attended by
many princes, including the Gajabhagu II from
Sri Lanka.
• Senguttuvan was succeeded by Perunjeral
Adan who was contemporary of the great
Chola king Karikala.
• The Chera power declined after second
century BCE.
• The Cheras are known for their liberal
patronage to Tamil poets and the promotion of
trade with the Romans.
• The Chera had many ports along the western
coast of India such as Tondi and Muziris.
• Muziris in particular, was the centre of Indo-
Roman trade.
• Cholas
• The Chola kingdom of Sangam period
extended from modern Tiruchi district to
Southern Andhra Pradesh.
• Their capital was first located at Uraiyur
(famous for cotton trade} and then shifted to
Puhar.
• It is believed that in the middle of the second
century BC, a Chola king named Elara
conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it.
• However, a clear history of the Cholas begins
in the second century CE, with the famous king
and a great warrior Karikala.
• Karikala means, the man with the charred leg.
• Pattinappalai portrays his early life and his
military conquests.
• He was a contemporary : of Perunjeral Adan,
the Chera king whom he defeated.
• In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty
confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas
and eleven minor chieftains.
• This event is mentioned in many Sangam
poems
• Vahaipparandalai was another important
battle fought by him in which nine enemy
chieftains submitted before him.
• Karikala's military achievements made him the
overlord of the whole Tamil country.
• He founded Puhar which was a great centre of
Trade and commerce.
• The Cholas maintained an efficient navy.
• Trade and commerce flourished during his
reign and period.
• He was responsible for the reclamation of
forest lands and brought them under
cultivation thus adding prosperity to the
people.
• He also built Kallanai dam across the river
Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation
tanks.
• The Chola power declined rapidly under
Karikala successors.
• The elder son of Karikala ruled from Uraiyur
while the younger one from Puhar.
• The last great Chola ruler after Karikala was
Nedunjelian who was ultimately killed in
battle.
• The Cheras and the Pandyas extended at the
cost of the Cholas.
• Pandyas
• The Pandyas ruled over the present day
southern Tamil Nadu with their capital at
Madurai.
• The Pandyas are famous for patronising the
poets and scholars of the Tamil Sangams.
• The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were
Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran.
• There were two Neduncheliyans.
• The first one was known as Aryappadai
Kadantha Neduncheliyan (the one who won
victories over the Aryan forces).
• He was responsible for the execution of
Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
• The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra
Neduncheliyan.
• He was praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi
Maruthanar.
• He wore this title after defeating his enemies
at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is
located in the Tanjore district.
• By this victory, Neduncheliyan gained control
over the entire Tamil Nadu.
• The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age
began to decline due to the invasion of the
Kalabhras.
• The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira
Peruvaludhi.
• The Pandyan kings profited from the trade
with the Roman Empire.
• They are known to have sent embassies to the
Roman emperor Augustus.

• The Pandyan ports such as Saliyur and Korkai

in particular were great centres of trade and
commerce.
• Minor Chieftains
• Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman
were the minor chieftains who played a
significant role in the Sangam period,
particularly by giving patronage to Tamil poets.
• Thus, they were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal.
• Although they were subordinate to the Chera,
Chola and Pandya rulers, they were powerful
and popular in their respective regions.
• Sangam Literature
• Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the
earliest of the Tamil literature.
• Although it is a work on Tamil grammar, yet it
provides information on the political and socio
economic conditions of the Sangam period.
• It is divided into three major parts.
• Each part consists of nine iyals (sub-parts).
• The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of
eight works - Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai,
Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu or Ten idylls consist of ten
works - Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai,
Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu.
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided
into two main groups - Aham (love) and Puram
(valour).
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works
mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
• The most important among them is Tirukkural
authored by Thiruvalluvar
• Epics:
• Silappatikaram: It was written by Ilango Adigal
(grandson of Karikala, the great Chola King).
• It is a story of a merchant, Kovalan who falls in
love with a courtesan called Madhavi of
Kaveripattanam, neglecting his noble wedded
wife, Kannagi.
• Kannagi in the end takes the revenge of the
death of her husband at the hands of the
Pandyan King and becomes a goddess.
• It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or
Pattini cult.
• Manimekalai: It was written by Sittalai
Sattanar also provides valuable information on
the Sangam polity and society.
• It deals with the adventures of Manimekalai,
the daughter of Kovalan, and Madhavi
mentioned in the earlier epic.
• However, this epic is more of religious interest
rather than literary interest.
• Sangam Polity and Administration
• Hereditary monarchy was the form of
government during the Sangam period.
• The king was the centre of administration.
• The kingdom was called Mandalam and the
Chola, the Pandya and the Chera were the
original major mandalam.
• The mandalam was divided into Nadus
(provinces).
• The king also used to take the advice of his
minister, court-poet and the imperial court or
avai.
• The king was assisted by a large body of
officials who were divided into five councils.
• They were ministers (amaichar), priests
(anthanar), military commanders (senapathi),
envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).
• The administration of nadus or provinces was
generally carried on by hereditary chiefs.
• The Ur denoted a town.
• It was variously described as a big village
(perar), a small village (sirur) or an old village
mudur).
• The village being the fundamental unit of
administration, was administered by local
assemblies called manrams.
• The ruler had efficiently organized regular
army during the Sangam Age.
• The state maintained a rudimentary army,
which consisted of chariots drawn by oxen,
elephants, cavalry and infantry.
• Land revenue was the chief source of the
state's income while custom duty was also
imposed on foreign trade.
• Tolls and custom duties were ulgu or sungum
while the duties paid to the king were
generally known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.
• Booty captured in wars was also a major
income to the royal treasury.
• A unit of territory yielding tax was called
Variyam and the officer in-charge for collecting
the tax was called a Variyar.
• Roads and highways were well maintained and
guarded night and day to prevent robbery and
smuggling.
• Sangam Society
• There were fivefold division of lands-Kurinji
(hilly tracks), Mullai (Pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai
(desert).
• However, these divisions were not clearly
demarcated, and were scattered all around the
region.
• The people living in these five divisions
followed different chief occupations as well as
gods to worship.
• Though the concept of varna was known,
social classes in the Sangam period were not
marked by higher or lower rankings as in north
India.
• For example, Brahmans performed Vedic
ceremonies and sacrifices and also acted as
advisers to the chief but they enjoyed no
special privileges.
• People were known on the basis of their
occupations such as artisans, salt merchants,
textile merchants, etc.
• The rich lived in well decorated brick houses
and wore costly clothing, but the poor lived in
mud huts and had scanty clothes to wear.
• It indicates the inequality in the social system.
• Tolkappiyam also refers to the four castes
namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.
• The ruling class was called Arasar.
• Anthanars played a significant role in the
Sangam polity and religion.
• Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
• The Vellalas were agriculturists.
• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar,
Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were
also found in the Sangam society.
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas,
Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• Status of Women
• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar,
and Kakkaipadiniyar also contributed to Tamil
literature in the Sangam period which shows
that women were educated at that time.
• They were also engaged in various economic
activities such as paddy plantation, cattle
rearing, basket-making, spinning, etc.
• Karpu or chaste life was considered as the
highest virtue of women.
• Love marriage was a common practice and
women were allowed to choose their life
partners.
• The courage of women was also appreciated in
many poems.
• The practice of 'Sati' called tippayadal' was
prevalent in the society.
• But it was not obligatory as there are
references to widows present in society
However, position of widows was miserable as
they were prohibited to decorate themselves
or participate in any form of amusement.
• The class of women dancers was patronized by
the kings and nobles.
• Fine Arts
• The arts of music and dancing were highly
developed in the Sangam period.
• The kings, chieftains and nobles made liberal
donations to the poets and scholars.
• The royal courts were present with singing
bards called Panar and Viraliyar who were
experts in folk songs and folk dances.
• Sangam literature mentions a variety of Yazhs
and Drums.
• Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar and
Koothu was the most popular entertainment
of the people.
• Religion
• The Brahmanas who performed Vedic
ceremonies and rituals popularized the
worship of Indra, Visnu, Siva etc., in south
India.
• There are also references to the presence of
Buddhists and Jainas in Tamil region.
• Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God
was the primary God of the Sangam period.
• The local people, particularly those of the hills
used to worship it, which in northern India
came to be identified with Kartikeya, a war
god.
• The worship of Murugan had an ancient origin
and the festivals relating to God Murugan was
mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• He was honoured with six abodes known as
Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam
period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran),
Varunan and Korravai.
• War heroes occupied a special position in
society and worshipped as gods.
• Memorial stones called nadukal or virukkal
were raised in honour of those who died in
fighting.
• Sangam Economy
• It is evident that Agriculture was the chief
occupation.
• Rice was the common crop and also a medium
of exchange in the barter system.
• Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger,
turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were
the other crops.
• Since the Tamil region did not have perennial
rivers, the chiefs of the region encouraged
agricultural activities by making tanks and
dams.
• The Chola king Karikala of the Sangam age is
credited with constructing a dam on the river
Kaveri.
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were
popular.
• They include weaving, metal works and
carpentry, ship building and making of
ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• There was a great demand for these products,
as the internal (based mostly on barter system)
and external trade was at its peak during the
Sangam period.
• The Sangam poems refer to the busy markets
guarded by soldiers.
• Spinning and weaving of ‘textile cotton as well
as silk was the most important craft.
• There was a great demand in the western
world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
• Salt manufacture was another important
activity.
• External trade was carried between South
India and the Greek kingdoms.
• After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire,
the Roman trade assumed importance.
• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of
foreign trade, as big ships entered this port
with precious goods.
• Other ports of commercial activity include
Tondi, Muziris, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
• The author of ‘Periplus’ provides the most
valuable information on foreign trade.
• Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the
Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and
Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu.
• The main exports of the Sangam age were
cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger,
cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory
products, pearls and precious stones.
• Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief
imports.
• End of the Sangam Age
• The Sangam period slowly witnessed its
decline toward the end of the third century CE,
Thereafter, the Kalabhras ocoupied the Tamil
region for about two and a half centuries.
• There is little information about the Kalabhra
rule.
• Jainism and Buddhism became prominent
during this period.
• The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and
Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the
Kalabhras out the Tamil region and established
their rule.
 Chauhan_Sir_History

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