DAILY CLASS NOTES

NCERT: Ancient History

Lecture -21
Southern Kingdoms
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Southern Kingdoms

❖ Introduction to Sangam period

➢ Why do were call the period as Sangam period?
➢ Evidence About Sangam Period
❖ Rise of Cholas

❖ Rise of Cheras
❖ Rise of Pandyas
❖ Sangam Society

❖ Sangam Ideology and Religion

❖ Sangam Literature
❖ Sangam Polity

❖ Sangam Economy

Introduction to Sangam period:

❖ Unlike the Northern part of India which
went under urbanization and witnessed
developments in every domain,
southern India lagged behind. The
development here started 300 years
later when the north was already
developed. Before this period, south
India was dominated by the Megalithic
culture which continued till 200 BCE.
❖ The entire period stretching between
300 BCE to 300 AD, is known as the
Sangam period. During this period,
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political development started taking its course similar to what had already been
structured in the northern states. Along with political growth, the period also witnessed
economic and literary developments.

➢ The literary works that were composed during this age give us an idea about how
the period flourished with time.

❖ In the Sangam Age in ancient India, there were three kingdoms in South India namely
Chola, Chera, and Pandyas.

Why do were call the period as Sangam period?

❖ Historians have termed this period
as the Sangam period because of the
three most important assemblies of
poets and scholars organized during
this period.
➢ These poets and scholars
composed multiple books based
on the themes of love and valor.
They mention the royal life, the condition of society, etc. The Pandyas called these
assembles in Madurai.
➢ According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams held in ancient South
India popularly called Muchchangam organized over a period of 600-700 years.
However, a conclusive historical account of the first two Sangams is not available.

✓ First Sangam: The first

Sangam, held at Madurai,
was attended by gods and
legendary sages but no
literary work of this
Sangam was available.
✓ Second Sangam: The
second Sangam was held at
Kapadapuram, but all the
literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam.
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✓ Third Sangam: The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran.

It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature,
but only a few survived.

Evidence About Sangam Period:

❖ Numismatic Evidence: Pre-Satavahana chieftains, Satavahanas, Cheras, Cholas,
Pandyas- Coins
❖ Foreign Evidence: Roman copper, silver, and gold coins also provide insights into trade
connections.
❖ Literary Sources: Tamil texts include the Sangam and post-Sangam literature,
providing cultural and historical information.
Rise of Cholas:
❖ Period in Power: Cholas rose to power in two time periods, the first being from 200
BCE to 200 AD. In between they vanished and again they revived themselves in mid
9th century. During this phase, they were called the Imperial Cholas. Not much
information is available about the early Cholas who ruled between 200 BCE to 200
AD.
❖ Territory and Core Region of Cholas:
➢ The Cholas established their
dominance in central and northern
Tamil Nadu.
➢ Their primary area of rule was the
fertile Kaveri delta, known as
Cholamandalam.

➢ Uraiyur, located near Tiruchirapalli

town, served as their capital.

➢ Puhar or Kaviripattinam functioned

as an alternate royal residence and a
significant port town.
❖ Royal emblem: Tiger

❖ Most Prominent Early Chola King– Karikalan:

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➢ Karikalan is celebrated as the greatest Chola ruler of the Sangam age.

➢ His military prowess was highlighted by his victory over the Cheras, Pandyas, and
other local chiefs who came together to fight against Karaikalan but unfortunately
lost in their goal.
➢ He played a significant role in transforming forests into habitable areas, promoted
trade and agriculture through irrigation projects along the Kaveri, and constructed
reservoirs.

➢ Kaviripattinam prospered as a bustling port under his rule.

❖ Cholamandalam: The early Cholas who flourished across the Kaveri river, the entire
region came to be known as Cholamandalam.
Rise of Cheras:
❖ Extent of Empire: The Cheras exercised their control over central and northern regions
of Kerala and the Kongu region in
Tamil Nadu. Their capital was
Vanji, which is often identified with
Karur, while some scholars suggest
it might be Thiruvanchikulam in
Kerala.
❖ Notable Chera rulers:

➢ Chenguttuvan were notable

Chera rulers who were known
for defeating several chieftains,
playing a crucial role in
suppressing piracy, and
ensuring the security and
maintenance of an important port Musiri.
➢ Chenguttuvan is believed to have ruled for fifty-six years. Some Cheras issued
copper and lead coins bearing Tamil-Brahmi legends, emulating Roman coinage.
➢ While Silapathikaram (a Tamil epic) mentions Chenguttuvan’s north Indian
expedition, this event is absent in Sangam's poems.
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Story of Silapathikaram:
❖ It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with
a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi.

❖ Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly
accused of theft by the court jeweler of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan
to death. However, it was later proved that Kovalan was innocent.
❖ He was unjustly executed after attempting to sell his wife's anklet to a wicked
goldsmith who had stolen the queen's anklet and charged Kovalan with theft.
❖ Kannagi, the widow, arrives in Madurai, confirms Kovalan's innocence, then cuts off
one breast and tosses it at the burning kingdom of Madurai. The king admits his
error. Kannagi curses both the king and the people of Madurai.

❖ The king passes away. The society that caused her pain suffers in retaliation, as the
city of Madurai is burned to the ground as a result of her curse.

❖ When King Cheran Chenkuttuvan and the royal family of the Chera kingdom
(modern-day Kerala) discover her, they decide to construct a temple with Kannagi
as the prominent deity.

Rise of the Pandyas:

❖ Extent of empire: The Pandyas were the rulers of Madurai, a prominent city in Tamil

Nadu- Korkai was their main port. Korkai was famous for its pearl fishing. Further,

Pandyas expanded their influence into southern Kerala. Fish was the emblem.

❖ Involved in Vedic sacrifices: The images inscribed on the coins minted by the Pandya

kings show that they were involved in Vedic sacrifices. Nedunchezhiyan from the 2nd

century BCE issued coins to commemorate his performance of Vedic sacrifices.

❖ Important Pandya king: Nedunchezhiyan attained victory over a combined army of the

Chera, Chola, and five Velir chieftains.

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❖ Pandya Coinage: Their coins typically

featured an elephant on one side and a
stylized fish image on the other. Pandyas
patronized the Tamil Sangams- a
compilation of Sangam poems.

Sangam Society:
❖ Role of Vendars: Vendars were kings who
were involved in wars in the Sangam Age
and aimed to expand their territories,
potentially leading to social disparities.
❖ Existence of slavery: War captives were mentioned, and references to slaves also
existed.
❖ Condition of Women: Women actively participated in economic production, and the era
saw a significant number of female poets. This eco-regional division reflects a close
relationship between the environment and cultural practices of the time.
Sangam Ideology and Religion:
❖ Dominance of Brahmanism: The Satavahanas, Sangam kings, and Ikshvahus supported
Vedic sacrifices and followed Brahmanical religion, for which evidence is provided in
Sangam texts.
❖ Buddhist and Jain contribution: On the other hand, Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda,
Kaviripattinam, and Kanchipuram feature Buddhist centers and stupas. However,
compared to Jainism, Buddhism’s presence in Tamil Nadu is limited to a few sites.
Jains contributed substantially to Tamil literature during the post-Sangam centuries.
Sangam Literature:
❖ Sangam Epics: Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were
composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were
supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as Sangam) of
poets that were held in the city of Madurai.
➢ Silappadikaram, a famous Tamil epic, was composed by a poet named Ilango,
around 1800 years ago. It is a story of Kovalan, his wife Kannagi, and the courtesan
named Madhavi.
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➢ Manimekalai, another Tamil epic, which is somewhat a sequel of Silappadikaram

was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. It describes the story of the
daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi and the chase of Chola prince Udayakumara. She
was also a courtesan and later became a Jain nun. Udaykumara fell in love with
Manimekalai and proposed to marry her.

Sangam Polity:

❖ Monarchial form of Government: During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was
the form of government. The king had to take the advice of his minister, court-poet,
and the imperial court or avai.

❖ Thinai classification: In the annals of Tamil Nadu, the Sangam Age is termed the golden
period, and it is widely known for its five types of thinais (landscapes) namely- Kurinji,
Mullai, Marutham, Neithal, and Paalai, each with its own flora and fauna, and other
distinct traits that find a due place in the literary works. The ‘thinai’ classification
system- three levels of rulers-

➢ Vendar: Kings governing larger, fertile territories.

➢ Velir: Numerous small chiefs controlling geographically diverse regions, primarily

hilly and forested areas.

➢ Kizhar: Leaders of villages or small territories. They were chiefs of tribal

communities in specific areas.

❖ Debate on Political Organization:

➢ Pre-State Chiefdoms (janapad): It is believed that there was no social stratification,

no Proper territorial association, destructive warfare, and no evidence of taxation
giving us an understanding that the Sangam kingdom did not evolve into a full-
fledged state (mahajanapada).

➢ Well-Organized State-Society: According to another group of historians, the

Marutham region gives us clear evidence of social differentiation. The territorial
associations are explained in the Greco-Roman texts from the 1st century CE.
Warfare for territorial expansion is a prominent theme in Puratthinai literature.
Taxes at highways and the port of Kaveripattinam, Musiri port. Trade played a
significant role between the late 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
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Sangam Economy:
❖ Chief Occupation: Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most
common crop.
❖ Division in land: Kurinji which was the hilly region, Marutham which included the
riverine tract, Mull consisted of the forested region, Neythal which was the coastal land
and Palai was the arid land.
❖ Craft Production: Bronze vessels, beads, goldwork, textiles, shell bangles, ornaments,
glass, iron smithy, and pottery were produced.
❖ Means of Exchange: Barter was common in trade, although coins were also used, with
Roman coins circulating as bullion.
❖ Trade Relations: Long-distance trade linked the Tamil region with the Roman Empire
and Southeast Asia.
Conclusion:
The Kalabhra tribe attacked and occupied the area which was a part of the Sangam Age.
Even though, the developments commenced comparatively later than that of North India,
the literature that was developed is auspicious and completely absent in North India, thus
making it special.

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