Period IV

300 BCE to 500 CE

Sangam Age
and
Kalabhras
Sources
 Literary Sources
• The Sangam literature chiefly consists of
Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai and Pathuppattu.
• These works provide valuable information to know
the history of the Sangam Age.
• Among these Tholkappiyam was the earliest.
• During the post-Sangam period, the
Pathinen Kilkanakku or the Eighteen Works was
composed.
• The twin epics - Silappathigaram and Manimegalai
- also belonged to the post- Sangam period.
• All these literature help us to know the society,
economy and culture of the ancient Tamils.
 Archaeological Sources
• The archaeological sources for the
sangam period are limited.
• They may be classified into:
– (a) Material Remains
– (b) Inscriptions and
– (c) Coins
 Material Remains
• Several monuments of this period have
been brought to light by the excavations
conducted at various places in Tamil
Nadu.
• Robert Bruce Foote conducted
excavations at Adhichanallur where he
had found a large number of articles
made of iron, bronze and gold.
• They depict the life of the ancient
Tamils.
• Dubreuil and Mortimer Wheeler also made
excavations at Arikkamedu near
Pondicherry.
• Roman pottery, glass howls, gems and coins
have been found there.
• These findings confirm the commercial
contacts between the Roman Empire and
Tamil country during the Sangam Age.
• A Buddhist Vihara was found at Kilaivur near
kaveripoompattinam. It belonged to the post-
Sangam period.
• Other Important sites of excavations are Uraiyur,
Kanchipuram, Kodumanal and Porunthal.
• The under-water archaeology has also developed
recently and excavations have been made under
the sea near Poompuhar. A shipwreck has been
found there.
• These findings focus much light on the history of
the Sangam period.
 Inscriptions
• Epigraphical information for the Sangam
period is scanty.
• The Asokan Edicts refer to the Chera, Chola
and Pandya kingdoms.
• The Hathikumba Inscriptions of the Kalinga
king , Kharavela also mentions the three
Tamil Kingdoms.
• The Kalugumalai inscriptions help us to know
about ancient Tamil scripts called Tamil
Brahmi. (Tamili)
• The Tirukkovalur inscriptions refer to the local
chieftains and the tragic end of the Tamil Poet,
Kapilar.
• The inscriptions at Thirupparankundrum
mention the gift of cave beds to the Jain
monks.
• The inscriptions found at Arnattar hills, near
Pugalur belonged to the First Century A.D. and
these inscriptions furnish information regarding
the Chera kings.
 Coins
• The study of coins is called numismatics, We get useful
historical information from the study of ancient coins.
• The Tamil Kings of the Sangam period issued gold and
silver coins but they are not found in large numbers.
• However, Roman coins made of gold and silver are
found all over Tamil country.
• These coins further confirm the trade relations
between Tamil country and Rome during the Sangam
Age.
 Foreign Accounts
• In addition to the Sangam literature, foreign literary
accounts remain useful sources for the study of the
Sangam Age.
• Greek and Roman writers had mentioned about the
society and economy of the Sangam Tamils in their
accounts.
• Megasthanes in his book Indica also referred to the
three Tamil Kingdoms.
• Other authors such as Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy
provide valuable information regarding the Sangam
Age.
• The Ceylonese books - Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa -
help us to fix the date of the Sangam.
 Chronology of the Sangam Age
• Chronology means the arranging of the historical
events on the basis of the date of happenings.
• It remains very difficult to find out the exact date of
the Sangam period.
• There are different opinions in fixing the date of the
Sangam.
• It is believed that there existed three Sangams.
• The First Sangam had flourished at Then Madurai and
the Second Sangam at Kapadapuram.
• Since these two places were eroded into the Indian
Ocean, the Pandyan kings had established the Third
Sangam at Madurai.
• Many scholars did not believe the existence of
Three Sangams.
• However, the Sangam literature, which we
possess now, might have been composed during
the period of the Third Sangam.
• Hence, the Sangam Age that we come to know
denotes only the Third Sangam.
• Based on the literary, epigraphic and
archaeological sources, it is established by
scholars that the Sangam Age flourished from
Third Century B.C. to Third Century A.D.
 The Sangam Age
• The Sangam Age in Tamil country is
significant and unique for its social,
economic, religious and cultural life of the
Tamils.
• There was an all round development
during this period.
• The Sangam literatures as well as the
archaeological findings reveal these
developments.
• 'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word
"Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an
association.
• The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets
and bards, who flourished in three different
periods and in different places under the
patronage of the Tamil kings.
• According to tradition, the first Sangam was
founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at
Thenmadurai (South Madurai).
• The seat of the second Sangam was Kapadapuram,
another capital of the Pandyas. It was attended by
several poets and produced a large mass of
literature, but only Tholkappiyam (the early Tamil
grammar) has survived.
• The seat of the third Sangam was the present
Madurai. It has also produced vast literature, but
only a fraction of it has survived. It is this fraction
which constitutes the extant body of Sangam
literature.
• The Age of the Sangam is the age to which the
Sangam literature belonged. The Sangam literature
constitutes a mine of information on conditions of
life around the beginning of the Christian era.
 Sangam Polity
• From the earliest times Tamilaham had known only three major
kingdoms
– the Cheras,
– the Cholas and
– the Pandyas.
The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that
their kingdom was celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of its
being ruled by a woman, which may suggest some matriarchal
influence in the Pandya society.
In the Major Rock Edict II Asoka mentions of the three kingdoms –
Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras as neighbours.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea contains the early
epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil country, where
he is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states –
Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However, the chief source for the Sangam
period is the Sangam literature.
• The Sangam literature speaks highly of three
South Indian kingdoms-
– Chera
– Chola and
– Pandya

• The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the

Pandas and the Chera combined with were known
as Tamilakam, or Tamil realm or Tamil Country.
• In addition to these three kingdoms, there were also local
chieftains.
• The most famous among the local chieftains were the Seven
Patrons, popularly known as Kadaiyezhu Vallalgal.
• They are
1. Pehan
2. Paari
3. Kaari
4. Ay (Andiran)
5. Athiyaman
6. Nalli
7. Ori
 The Three Kingdoms of Sangam Age

Kingdom Capital Emblem Famous port

Vanji Bow Musiri,
Chera or and and
Karur Arrow Tondi
Puhar /
Chola Uraiyur Tiger Kaveripoompatanam/
Poompuhar

Pandya Madurai Fish Korkai,

Saliyur
Flag
Kingdoms with flags
 The Cheras
• The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputhra)
kingdom is in the Ashokan inscriptions.
• It comprised the modern districts of Malabar, Cochin
and Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji.
• The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or
good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the
north and crossed the river Ganga.
• But all this seems to be exaggerated. Pattini cult,
that is the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, was
started by him.
 Cont…
• The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to
the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.
• It included the narrow strip of land between the
sea and the mountains and covered portions of
both Kerala and Tamilnadu.
• In the early centuries of the Christian era, the
Chera country was as important as the country of
the Cholas and the Pandyas. It owed its
importance to trade with the Romans.
• The Romans set up two regiments at Musiris
identical with Cranganore in the Chera country to
protect their interests. It is said that they also built
there a temple of Augustus.
Bow and Arrow
Kingdom of the Cheras
 The Cholas
• The homeland of the Cholas was the
Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of
modern Tanjore and Tiruchirappalli.

• They were the first to acquire ascendancy

in the far east with kaveripattanam, or
Puhar as their capital. Its inland capital
was Uraiyur.
Cont…
• It seems that in the middle of the second
century CE. a Chola king named Elara
conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for
nearly 50 years.
• The famous king of Cholas was Karikala
which means, ‘The man with the charred
leg.’
• He was a contemporary of the Chera king
Perunjeral Adan. Karikala was a very
competent ruler and a great warrior.
Cont…

• He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km

of embankment along the Kaveri River.
• This was built with the labour of 12,000
slaves who were brought as captives from
Sri Lanka.
• Puhar was a great centre of trade and
commerce, and excavations show that it
had a large dock.
• The Cholas maintained an efficient navy.
 The Pandyas
• The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital
at Madurai, compromised the modern districts of
Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of
Travancore.
• The Pandyas were first mentioned by
Megasthanese. According to the Magasthanse, the
kingdom was once ruled by a woman.
• According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were
independent people living beyond the Southern
border of the Mauryan Empire.
• The greatest Pandya king was Nedunchezhian who
defeated the Chera and Cholas.
Cont…
• According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjhelian, in a
fit of passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the
execution of Kovalan who was accused of theft of
the queen’s anklet.
• When Kovalan’s wife proved her husband’s
innocence, the king was struck with remorse and
died of shock on the throne.
• The Pandya kings profited from trade with the
Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman
emperor Augustus.
• The Pandya port Korkai was a great centre of
trade and commerce, another port was Saliyur.
Coin of the Pandyas
Kingdoms of the Pandyas
 Period of Sangam literature
• The earliest script that the Tamils used was the Tamili
script. It was only from the late ancient and early
medieval period, they started evolving a new angular
script, called the Grantha script, from which the
modern Tamil is derived.
• Some of the contents of the Sangam literature are
corroborated by the writings of some Greek and
Roman classical writers of the first and second century
A. D, leading us to fix the period of Sangam age
roughly between third century B.C. to third century
A.D.
• So most of the Sangam literature also must have been
produced during this period.
• The Sangam literature was finally compiled in its
present form from 300 CE -600 CE.
 Sangam Literature
• The Sangam literature which combines idealism with realism
and deals with secular matter relating to public and social
activity like government, war charity, trade, worship,
agriculture, etc.
• Among the poets and thinkers of the Sangam age Tolkappiyar,
Tiruvalluvar, lllango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar,
Paranar, Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar and a few others are
outstanding.
• Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works such as
1. the Tholkappiyam,
2. the ten poems (Patthupattu),
3. the eight anthologies (Ettuthogai) and
4. the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and
5. the three epics.
• The chief merits of the Sangam works is their absolute
devotion to standards and adherence to literary conventions.
 Earliest Tamil Works
• Tholkappiyam is the oldest extant Tamil
grammar written by Tholkkappiyar (one of the
12 disciples of Saint Agastya.)
• It is divided into three major parts, each
consisting of nine iyals (sub-parts) and has a
total of 1612 sutras.
• Other earliest Tamil works were the
Agasttiyam (a work on grammar of letters and
life) by Saint Agasttiyar, Pannirupadalam and
the Kakkipadiniyam.
 Eight Anthologies (Ettuthogai)
1. Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudalur Kilar, consists
of 500 erotic poems.
2. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists
of love poems.
3. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love.
4. Kuruntthogai has 400 love poems.
5. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of
kings. The Nandas and Mauryas are referred in
one of the poems.
6. Kalitthogai comprises love poems.
7. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods.
8. Padirrupatthu is a short collection of 8 poems in
praise of the Chera Kings.
 Ten Poems (Patthupattu)
• The Patthuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works –
1. Thirumurugarruppadai,
2. Porunararruppadai,
3. Sirupanarruppadai,
4. Perumpanarruppadai,
5. Mullaippattu,
6. Nedunalvadai,
7. Maduraikkanji,
8. Kurinjippatttu,
9. Pattinappalai and
10. Malaipadukadam
• The poetry in the Patthupattu (Ten Idylls) and
the Ettuthogai (eight anthologies) were
divided into two main groups:
• Aham (deals with matters strictly limited to
one aspect of subjective experience viz.,
love) and
• Puram (deals with matters ca­pable of
externalization or objectification).
 Eighteen Minor Works (Padinenkilkanakku)
• These works are called ‘minor works’ because the
poems in these are shorter in form than those in
the Ettuthogai and Patthuppattu.
• The most important among these are the
1.Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar (known as the Bible of
Tamil Land’, it is a compound of the Dharmasastra,
the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra),
2.the Naladiyar,
3.the Pazhamozhi by Munnrurai Araiyar,
4.the Acharakkovai, etc.
 The Epics
• The twin epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet)
and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the
Christian era.
• 1. Silappadikaram was written by Ilango Adigal
(grandson of Karikala, the great Chola King) in the
second century A.D.
• It is a tragic story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar
who falls in love with a dancer Madhavi, neglecting his
own wife, Kannagi, who in the end revenges the death
of her husband at the hands of the Pandya King and
becomes a goddess.
• It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or Pattini cult that
is worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. There is also a
reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present
on the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi temple,
the Goddess of Chastity, by Chera king Senguttuvan.
 Manimekalai
1. Manimekalai was written by poet Satthanar.
2. It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of
Kovalan, and Madhavi of the earlier epic.
3. The main aim of this epic seems to be to expound
the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the
medium of the travails of Manimekalai consequent
on the loss of the city of Puhar when the sea eroded
into the coast.
4. This epic is the only important ancient work which
gives glimpse of the development of the fine arts in
the Sangam age.
• In both these epics, a good deal of social and historical
information is found

Sivaga Sindamani, written by Thirutthakkadevar a Jaina

ascetic, is the story of Sivaga or Jivaka
 Administration
• The king was the very centre and embodiment of
administration.
• He was called Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan.
• Though hereditary monarch was the prevailing form of
government, disputed successions and civil wars were not
unknown.
• The court of the crowned monarch was called avai.
• The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu) was accepted
and acted on.
• The King’s birthday (Perunal) was celebrated every year.
• Kings assumed several titles. For example, the Pandyas
were known as Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar,
Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.etc the Cholas called them­selves
Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras had
titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar
and so on.
 Cont…
• The sabha or manram of the king in the capital
was the highest court of justice.
• The king was assisted by a large body of
officials, who were divided into five assemblies:
1.Amaichchar or ministers,
2.Purohithas or priests,
3.Senapathi or military commanders,
4.Dhuthar or envoys and
5.Orrar or spies.
 Provincial and Local Administration
• The entire kingdom was called mandalam.
• The Chola mandalam,
• The Pandya mandalam and
• The Chera mandalam were the major mandalams.
• Below the mandalam was a major division, nadu (province).
• The ur was a town which was variously described as a big
village (perur), a small village (sirur) or an old village
(mudur).
• Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was
the harbour area.
• The administration of nadus was generally carried on by
hereditary chiefs.
• The village was the fundamental unit of administration
which was administered by local assemblies called
manrams.
 Revenue administration
• The commonest and possibly the largest source of
revenue was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the
agricultural proudce, claimed and collected by the king,is
not specified.
• The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as
measure of grain.
• A well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a variyam
(Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of collecting the
tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar.
• Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (irai)
constituted a considerable part of royal resources.
• Trade local and long-distance, constituted a very
important source of royal revenue.
• Tolls and custom duties were ulgu or sungum.
• The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as
Kadamai or Paduvadu.
 Military Administration
• Apparently out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary
army and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of
elephants, cavalry and infantry.
• Elephants played an important part in war.
• Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan
kingdom.
• The institution of virakkal or nadukul (hero-stone),
which was a practice of erecting monuments for the
dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent
at that time.
• The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram was
also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great tree
in his palace as a symbol of power.
 Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division
of lands –
•Kurinji (hilly tracks),
•Mullai (pastoral),
•Marudam (agricultural),
•Neydal (coastal) and
•Palai (desert).
The people living in these five divisions had their
respective chief occupations as well as gods for
worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation,
hunting and honey collection.
• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation,
cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Vendhan (Indiran) – chief
occupation, agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Kadalon (Varunan) – chief
occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
• Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
 Social Divisions
• The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly divided into several groups.
• However, the earliest of the Sangam literature, Tholkappiyam refers to the four
divisions prevalent in the Sangam society namely,
• Anthanar,
• Arasar,
• Vaislyar and
• Vellalar,
it may be said that this classification roughly corresponds to the Vedic Social
division.
• Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of ancient Tamil tribes such
as
• Thudiyan,
• Paanan,
• Paraiyan and
• Kadamban.

These divisions indicate the complex social structure prevalent in the Sangam Age.
 Food and Hospitality
• Rice was the staple food during the Sangam
period.
• The food habits varied among the people
according to their economic status.
• The rich had their feasts every day, while the
poor took simple food.
• Chewing betel leaves was most common among
the people.
• Offering betel leaves to guests had become a
social formality.
• Hospitality was a special virtue of the Sangam
Tamils.
• The Sangam literature describes how hosts had
always been waiting to welcome guests.
 Dress and Ornaments
• The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress. It
varied according to their status.
• The rich wore silk and fine cotton garments.
• The middle class people generally wore two pieces of
clothes made of Cotton.
• Women paid much attention to their hairstyle.
• They used flowers like Jasmine to decorate their plaits
and tufts.
• Both men and women used perfumes made of sandal and
flowers.
• The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments
worn by both men and women.
• They were made of gold, silver, pearls and precious
stones.
• Poor people used ornaments made of shells and beads.
 Religion
• The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or
Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of
Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals
relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam
literature. He was honoured with six abodes known as
Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were
Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Kadalon (Varunan) and
Korravai.
• The temple known as nagar, koil, kottam, purai or
devalayam.
• The worship of Vedic deities were not common. The
worship of kannagi was common.
• We have already referred to the five Gods
worshipped in the five different regions.
• In addition to these Gods, the Sangam Tamils
worshipped their ancestors.
• The Sangam people had also worshipped the
natural objects. For example, the Sun, Moon,
Earth, rivers and mountains became their objects
of worship.
• Neem tree was considered sacred.
• They erected memorial stones called as Nadukal,
They were also known as Hero Stones or
Veerakkal. Such stones were erected in memory
of those who died in battles.
• The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the
bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
• Many hero stones with legends inscribed on
them were found in different parts of Tamil
Nadu.
• This kind of worshipping the deceased has a
great antiquity.
• The influence of Buddhism, Jainism and
Ajivikas (Aaseevagam) was paramount
 Position of Women
• There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature
to trace the position of women during the Sangam age.
• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and
Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and
contributed to Tamil literature.
• The courage of women was also appreciated in many
poems.
• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of
women. Love marriage was a common practice.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
However, the life of widows was miserable.
• The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and
nobles.
 Fine Arts
• The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in fine arts.
• They developed the concept of Muthamizh
• iyal,
• Isai and
• Naatakam.
The Paanars or bards were experts in music. They moved from place
to place, singing bards in praise of kings and local chieftains.
Later, the Tamils developed musical notes or swarams.
The musical tune was known as Pann.
• Several musical instruments were also used.
• Shells, drums, flute and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan
had been hailed as Ezhisai Vallavan.
• The art of dancing was encouraged during the Sangam period.
• Attam and Koothu were performed during festivals.
• Tholkaappiyam refers to Naatakam or Drama.
• The art of painting was also known to the Sangam
Tamils.
• They celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam
and Indra festival were some of them.
• The Indra festival had been celebrated annually at
Puhar.
• The dance and music had its religious connotation
from the earliest times.
• Poetry, music and dancing were popular among
the people of the Sangam age.
• Liberal donations were given to poets by the
kings, chieftains and nobles.
• The royal courts were crowded with singing bards
called Panar and Viraliyar.
• They were experts in folk songs and folk dances.
• The arts of music and dancing were highly
developed.
• A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in
the Sangam literature.
• Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.
• Koothu was the most popular entertainment of
the people.
 Economy of the Sangam Age
• Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an
affluent economy during the Sangam Age.
• Agriculture, industry, trade and commerce
made the Sangam Tamils almost self-
sufficient.
• Exports were also made to the other parts of
the world.
• Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the
common crop.
• Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric,
cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other
crops.
• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera
country.
• Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya
country.
• The chief occupation of the people was agriculture.
Paddy was the main crop.
• Millet, grams and sugarcane were also cultivated.
• Irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells was used
for cultivation.
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular.
They include weaving, metal works and carpentry,
ship building and making of ornaments using beads,
stones and ivory.
• There was a great demand for these products, as the
internal and external trade was at its peak during the
Sangam period.
• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes
attained a high quality.
• The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a
cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.
• There was a great demand in the western world for
the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
 Occupation
• Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of
the Sangam period.
• Uraiyur and Madurai were the main centers for the
manufacture of cotton fabrics.
• The weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes.
• The Sangam literature refers to clothes, which were
thinner than steam.
• Silk clothes were also produced in the Tamil country.
Other craftsmen like the carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith
and potter had practiced their respective occupations.
• Fishing and hunting had also remained as important
occupation during this period.
 Trade and Commerce
• In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter
system of trade was followed.
• Generally, the people exchanged their
commodities with their neighbors. For
example, the people of Kurinji region
exchanged honey with the people of Neydal
region for getting fish and salt.
• Likewise, the Mullai people gave their milk
products to Marudham people to get rice from
them.
• Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked
up rapidly. Local markets came up and they were
known as Angadis.
• Both Day Market (Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar
(Allangadi) existed in port towns.
• The Pattinappalai refers to their existence at Puhar.
Goods from distant places were brought to these
markets.
• The expansion of trade led to the growth of towns.
• Moreover, export of goods to other countries had
increased.
• Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on
animal back from place to place.
• External trade was carried between South India
and the Greek kingdoms.
• After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the
Roman trade assumed importance.
• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of
foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with
precious goods.
• Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi,
Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable
information on foreign trade.
• Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman
Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were
found in all parts of Tamil Nadu.
• They reveal the extent of the trade and the presence
of Roman traders in the Tamil country.
• The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton
fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and
precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were
the chief imports.
 Cultural Life
• The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life.
• Their interests in education, literature, music, dance, drama
and festivals have been described in the Sangam literature.

Education and Literature

• Education was common for all, men and women, rich and poor
and for different communities.
• Parents attached importance to the education of their children.
• The Purananooru describes that it is the duty of the father to
make his children learned.
• The bulk of the Sangamn literature written by about 500 poets
indicates the importance given to education.
• The poets of the Sangam period played vital role in the social
and culture life of the people.
 Recreation
• The people of the Sangarn Age had spent their time
in excellent ways of recreations.
• Poetry, music, dance and drama were significant.
• The Sangam poets made the kings as well as the
people through rendering beautiful verses. The
bards made merry in the king’s courts.
• The rulers and nobles patronized them with liberal
donations.
• Hunting was another important recreation. The
young and energetic took part in duals, while the
old played indoor games like dice.
• Women and girl children had their own games to
play and evinced much interest in swimming.
 End of the Sangam Age
• Towards the end of the third century A.D.,
the Sangam period slowly witnessed its
decline.
• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country
for about two and a half centuries.
• We have little information about the
Kalabhra rule.
• Jainism, Buddhism and Aaseevagam
became prominent during this period.