PROJECT TOPIC : CHOLA DYNASTY

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

25th October 2021

This final draft is submitted in fulfilment of project in

Indian History foe the completion of B.A., LL.B. course.

Submitted to:
Dr. Priya Darshini
Assistant Professor of History

1
 INTRODUCTION

The Chola Kingdom is also mentioned in the account of

Megasthenes and the inscriptions of Ashoka. Katyayana also
refers to the Cholas. The Mahavamsa refers to the relations
between the Cholas and the rulers of Ceylon. Ptolemy also
refers to the Cholas.The Sangam literature refers to many
Chola princes who were models of justice. The Periplusgives
us information about the ports and inland towns of the Chola
territory. The kingdom of Cholas included Madras, several
other districts and the greater part of the Mysore State.

The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya. He took over

the Tanjore kingdom in the 8th century. Tanjore was hence
made the first capital of the eminent Chola empire.
Art, religion and literature benefited greatly during this period.
Several Shiva temples were built across the banks of the Kaveri
river. The Tanjore Brihadeeswara temple is adorned with
natural colour paintings that are a feast for the eyes even
today. Jain and Buddhist writings also got appreciation and
recognition during this phase.
The Cholas and their reign mark a remarkable period pf
medieval history that saw a massive cultural spurt along with
a growth in civilization and its meaning. It symbolizes not only
a period of rapid advancement but also a magnificent time to
look back at and learn from.
2
The Chola empire continued to flourish during the twelfth
century, but it declined during the early part of the 13th
century. The place of the Cholas were taken by the Pandayas
and the Hoysalas. Ultimately, they were destroyed by the
Sultans of Delhi at the beginning of 14th century. The last
known ruler of this dynasty was Rajendra 3 who was defeated
in 1279 by the Pandayan king.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

1. Aim of the the project is to present a detailed study on
Chola administration, art and socio- economic conditions.
2. With the help of available books and articles the
researcher is also trying to show the relation between the
Cholas and the rulers of Ceylon.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The researcher has adopted a doctrinal method of research.
researcher has made use of the internet and published
sources.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The researcher has limited time for the project. The researcher
has a restricted access to the various books and other forms
of relevant literature. The required materials are not available
through the e- resource access of our library.

3
SOURCES OF THE CHOLA HISTORY
Inscriptions
The main source of information for the history of the Chola
period is the large number of inscriptions of that period.
Rajaraja I conceived the idea of pre-fixing to his inscriptions,
a set historical introduction recounting the main
achievements of his reign and same kept up-to-date by
additions made to it from time to time. The example of
Rajaraja was followed by his successors and the result is that
we have a formal record of exceptional value of the
transactions of each reign. Most of these historical
introductions have been the subject of scholarly discussion
and elucidation by Hultzsch and Venkayya in the earlier
volumes of the South Indian Inscriptions.
Inscriptions record gifts and endowments of public or private
nature, usually to temples, Mathas and Brahmans.
Sometimes, the construction of a temple or its renovation or
the setting up of a new image forms the subject of an
inscription. Sometimes, an inscription refers to the
maintenance of a lamp in a temple. This was done by gifts of
money or cattle calculated at so much or so many per lamp.
Among the donors, not only kings and their officials but also
occupational and commercial guilds, caste organisations,
military groups, village assemblies and many private
individuals, both men and women.1

1
V D Mahajan, Ancient India 543 (S Chand 13th ed.)

4
A large number of temples were built during the Chola
period. The walls of those temples, theirs pillars and their
plinths were usually covered with inscriptions in course of
time. This is amply illustrated by the great temple of
Rajarajeswari in Tanjore. In certain cases, inscriptions were
engraved on the walls of brick temples also.
MONUMENTS
They are also a source of the history of the Cholas. They take
the form of temples and sculptured halls and towers in them.
The Brahadeeswarar temple of Tanjore, the Gangaikonda
Cholapuram temple, Airavateesvarar temple of Dharasuram
are some of the important monuments of the Chola period.
NUMISMATICS SOURCES
The Cholas issued coins of gold, silver and copper. Specimens
of gold coins are extremely rare. Silver coins are not so rare
but copper coins are found in plenty. These coins are of two
types: one carrying on both sides the Chola symbol of the
tiger in the centre, flanked by the symbols of the subject
powers, with legend giving the name of the King and the
other called the Ceylon type. The Ceylon type made its
appearance in the reign of Rajaraja I and the type with the
symbols is known to persist for a long time after, even up to
the reign of Kulottunga I.

5
LITERATURE
The poems of the Sangam period are very realistic and trust-
worthy. The books of the Chola period whose authors and
dates are known, possess all the defects of court poetry. In
spite of that, the evidence from literature is considerable. In
the 10th or 11th century A.D., the canonical works of South
Indian Shaivism were arranged more or less in their modern
form by Nambi Andar Nambi, who was also its first
hagiographer and whose works formed the basis of the far
more elaborate Tiruttondar Puranam, known generally as
Periya Puranam, of Sekkilar, a contemporary of Kulottunga II
in the 12th century. The Divya Suri-charita and the
Guruparamparai form the Vaishanava counter-part of the
Periya Puranam. In addition to being a record of tradition and
beliefs prevalent at the time of their composition, these
books give the necessary background for a proper estimate
of Ramanuja and his place in the history of Vaishanavism. The
great commentaries on the hymns of the Alvars have great

6
values as they refer in casual manner to several incidents of
the Chola period. The Virasoliyam of Buddhamitra; the
Kalingattupparani of Jayangondar and the three Ulas and the
Kulottungan Pillaittamil of Ottakkuttan and the
Kalingattupparani gives us a lot of useful information about
the Chola genealogy and the details of the Kalinga campaign
of Kulottunga, including the route taken by his army.
FOREIGN SOURCES
A lot of information is available from Chinese writings. Arab
travellers, Muslim historians and early European travellers
like Marco Polo gives us information about South India of
their times. They also provide the idea of the nature and
extent of the foreign commerce of the period.

RULERS OF THE CHOLA DYNASTY

There are descriptions of various rulers belonging to the
Chola dynasty, there is a long lineage but many of them did
not get much recognition. The Sangam literature also testifies
the rule of several Chola rulers.
Karikala
The Cholas gained in territory and influence in the reign of
Karikala who ruled combination of the Pandyas and Keralas.
He succeeded his grandfather who was killed in a battle with
a Chera king. He defeated a Kerala prince. The old capital of
the Cholas was Orthura or Uraiyur and Karikala founded his

7
new capital named Kaveri-paddinam. He greatly extended his
kingdom.

Nedumudikilli
Kirikala was succeeded by his grandson named
Nedumudikilli. During his reign, the capital of the Cholas was
destroyed by the sea-pirates. The attacks of the Pallavas,
Keralas and Pandyas also must have weakened the Cholas.
Hieun Tsang refers to the Cholas but does not mention the
name of its rulers. That was probably due to the fact that the
Chola rulers did not hold any important position and were
probably feudatories of the Pallava king. When the Pallava
monarchy declined about the middle of the 9th century A.D.,
the sun of Chola glory began to shine once again. The decline
of the Pandyas in the 8th century A.D. also must have helped
the rise of the Cholas.2
Vijayalaya
The greatness of the Cholas was revived by the dynasty
founded by Vijayalaya. He began his rule shortly before 850
A.D. probably as a vassal of the Pallava king. When the
Pallavas and the Pandyas were at war, he occupied Tanjore
and made it his capital. He was succeeded by his son Aditya-l.
Aditya- l
Vijayalaya was succeeded by his son Aditya I in 880 A.D. He
enhanced the power and prestige of his family. He defeated

2
V.D. Mahajan, Ancient India

8
the Pallava king Aparajita, conquered his kingdom and
further strengthened his position. He defeated Parantaka
Viranarayana and annexed the Kongu country. He married a
daughter of Krishna II and got a son from her named
Kanaradeva. Aditya was a worshipper of Siva and built many
temples in honour of Lord Siva.
Parantaka- l
He ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached
supremacy under his reign. He annexed territory of Pandya
king and soon conquered Vaidumbas. He swept away all the
traces of Pallavas power, but received a set back at the hands
of Rashtrakutas.
Rajaraja, the Great
The most powerful ruler of the Chola kingdom was Rajaraja,
the Great, who ruled from A.D. 985 to 1014. The first great
triumph of Rajaraja was achieved early in his reign when he
destroyed the Chera Navy at Trivandrum. He next conquered
Madura and captured Amarabhujanga Pandya. He turned his
attention to Kudamalainadu or Coorg and got into possession
of the stronghold of Udagai in order to check the power of
the Pandyas and Cheras. He annexed the Northern part of
Ceylon to his kingdom. Rajaraja sacked Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruva was made the capital of the Chola province of
Ceylon. Rajaraja conquered Kalinga. He also conquered the
Maldive Islands, “the 12,000 Ancient Islands” of the
inscription. His empire included the whole of South India up
to the Tungabhadra, the Maldives and a part of Ceylon. The

9
Andhradesa was in feudatory alliance with him. He was an
able administrator and also agreat builder. Rajaraja Chola
built a magnificent temple at Tanjore, which is a named as
Rajarajeshwar after his name.

Rajendra l
Rajaraja, the Great, was succeeded by his son Rajendra I who
is also known as Gangaikonda Chola and Uttama Chola.
Rajendra I had taken an active part in the affairs of the state
as a Crown-prince and when he ascended the throne, he
proved himself to be a great administrator and warrior. He
set up Vaishnava centre and the Vedic colleges for teaching
Vedas. He had a friendly relationship with the China
emperor, and had a peaceful reign of 32 years. He extended
the territory inherited from his father, and subdued the
power of Pandayas and Keralas. During Rajendra Chola reign
the kingdom was called the “ Golden Age of Cholas”. After his
death the Chola kingdom began to decline. His successors
were weak and also the kingdom started disintegrating.
Rajadhiraja- l
He subdued the Pandaya and Kerala rulers who were in
league with the king of Ceylon. He also fought against the
Western Chalukyas. He was successful, but later on he lost
his life in the famous battle of Koppam on the Tungbhadra.

10
Rajendra- ll
He continued to struggle against the Chalukyas. However, he
was able to maintain the Chola empire intact. There was
famine in the Chola country in 1055 A.D. Rajendra ll invaded
Ceylon and drove its king who took shelter in a hilly fort.
Vira Rajendra (1064 – 1070 A.D.)
Rajendra ll was succeeded by his brother Vira Rajendra. He
met the invasion of the invasion of Chalukya king across the
Tungbhadra and defeated him at Kudal- Samgamam. Vira
Rajendra directed his attention towards Vengi. He also
curbed the Pandaya and Kerala rulers who continued to
reassert themselves. He foiled all the efforts of Vijayabahu,
the ruler of Ceylon, to extend his authority and turn out the
Cholas from the island. Soon after the death of Vira Rajendra
in 1070 AD, there was a contest for the throne and
Adhirajendra , the heir-apparent took the the throne.

Kulottunga- l (1070 – 1120 A.D.)

Adhirajendra was succeeded by Rajendra ll , the Western
Chalukya Viceroy of Vengi. He came to the Chola throne as
Kulottunga Chola. Pandayas and Chera’s attack were put
down by Kulottunga .3 The southern Kalinga revolt were put
down too. In about 1118 AD, the Viceroy of Vengi, the

3
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, (Oxford 1997)

11
Vikramaditya Ⅵ took control of Vengi from Chola and thus
succeeded in separating Cholas from the eastern Chalukyas.

Vikrama Chola (1120 – 1135 A.D.)

The next successor, the son of Kulottunga- l restored the
chola power by reconquering Vengi and by taking control of
part of Gangavadi. His reign was peaceful to his subjects
though there were floods and famines. The Hoysala
expansion took control of Chola power slowly and
subsequently.
The last rulers namely Kulottunga- ll, Rajaraja- ll, Rajadhiraja-
lll could not stop the Hoysalas annexation of Chola Kingdom.
Cholas hold on Pandayan kingdom had already weakened. In
about 1243, the Pallava chief declared independence. The
Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among themselves the
territory of the Chola empire ceased to exist.

12
CHOLAS AND SRI LANKA
When the Cholas gained prominence by displacing the
Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu by about the end of the

13
ninth century, a new balance of power emerged. The Cholas
had to deal with the hostility of the Deccan power of
Rashtrakutas, up to the third quarter of the tenth century,
and then of the Chalukyas of Kalyana, who in turn replaced
Rashtrakutas. To meet this situation, the Chola King
Paranataka I (AD 907-AD 955) first took steps to remove the
threat from Pandyas and the Sri Lankan rulers in his rear. He
conquered the Pandya country and also invaded Sri Lanka. As
for Kerala country to the west of Pandya territory, his father,
Aditya I, had already secured the alliance of the Cheras
through matrimony.
In the sixth century, the Pandyas found themselves confined
due to Pallavas in the north. Their alliance, which was sought
and gained by the Chalukyas in their battles with Pallavas,
promoted the interests of the Chalukyas without securing
similar gains to the Pandyas. The Pallava monarch ultimately
succeeding in throwing the Chalukyas back and, eventually,
the Pandyas had to be satisfied with dominance in the area
south of the river Kaveri. They (Pandayas) kept fighting with
the Chera and other rulers west of the kingdom. 3 The
Pandya ruler, Srimara Srivallabha (AD 815-AD 862), invaded
Sri Lanka and made his power felt there. However, the
sheltered existence of the Pandyas ended by the close of the
ninth century when Cholas reappeared from their obscurity
and began their imperial career by challenging the Pandyas.
In this period of distress, the Pandyas sought the help of the
rulers of Sri Lanka. Rajasimha II (AD 905-AD 910), a Pandya
king, finding the Sri Lankan help of no use, fled to Sri Lanka.

14
Thus, Sri Lanka became a vigorous participant in the
developing political scene in south India, especially a
protagonist of the Pandyas. As a consequence, Sri Lanka had
to suffer the invasion of Cholas during two centuries, from
AD 900 to AD 1100.
These selective episodes in history clearly bring out the intra
region power politics, diplomacy and military realignments,
including 'international relations with Sri Lanka, both during
ancient and medieval Chola periods. The encounters were
not only with the Cholas but also with the Pandyas and
Pallavas, with changing alliances.

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
The Chola set up a highly efficient system of administration.
The empire was divided into provinces called Mandalams.
The number of provinces varied. Sometimes their number
was 6 and sometimes their number was 8. Each Mandala was
divided into a number of Kottams. Each Kottam was
subdivided into a number of districts called Nadus. Within
the jurisdiction of a Nadu, there were many village unions
called Kurrams and Tar-Kurrams which were the units of
administration.

The king was the head of the administration. The extent and
resources of the Chola empire added to his power and
prestige. There was a lot of pomp and show. The Chola kings
took up high-sounding titles glorifying their achievements.
15
They maintained large imperial households. They gave big
state banquets. They gave a lot of money as donations to
temples. The Chola kings started the practice of giving royal
names to idols. The images of Chola kings and queens were
set up in the temples and were worshipped. The normal rule
was hereditary succession to the throne but sometimes the
on was changed on account of the seriousness of the
situation. The Chola kings had all the powers to their
absolutism was tempered both by a ministerial council and
organized administrative staff. The heads of the departments
were in close contact with the king and were often consulted
by him. The officers were paid by land assignments. They
were honoured and encouraged by titles. The higher officials
enjoyed the status of Perundaram and the lower ones
Sirutaram.4
The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called
Central Government, Provincial Government and Local
Government.
The Central Administration
The Central Government remained under the headship of the
King Administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical. The
king was a benevolent dictator and the supreme commander.
He issued oral commands to responsible officers when
representations were made to him. In the tasks of
administration and in executing his orders a powerful
bureaucracy assisted the king. Council of ministers and
officials took active part in running the administration of
4

16
Central Government. The justice of the orders of the King
depends on the goodness of the man and in his belief in a
sense of righteousness. Udan- Kuttam were the high officials
of the state and they served as the intermediaries between
the king and the regular Bureaucrats. Kankanis were the
supervisors who are the agents of central department of
control and audit.5

Law and Order under Cholas

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. The
Chola king was the chief justice. The Chola kings gave enough
care for the judicial administration. Justice was administered
through village courts, royal courts and caste panchayats.
Minor disputes were settled at the village level. Village
assemblies exercised large powers in deciding local disputes.
Punishment was in the form of fines or donation for some
charitable purpose. Crimes such as manslaughter or murder
were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as
treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the
typical punishment in these cases was either execution or
confiscation of property. Disputes were settled with proper
evidences.
Military Administration of Cholas
The Cholas maintained a big standing army and a navy. The
army consisted of elephants, cavalry and infantry. As many as
seventy regiments are mentioned in the Chola inscriptions.
5
K.A. Nilkanta Sastri , A History of South India, 448

17
The regiments possessed a corporate organisation,
participated in civil life and made grant to temples. A lot of
care was taken to give them training and discipline. The
soldiers were kept in cantonments. It was composed chiefly
of Kaikkolas or Scengunder. The Velaikkaras were the
bodyguard of the king. They had to take a vow to defend the
king with their lives. They were ready even to burn
themselves on the funeral pyre of the king. Very costly
Arabian horses were imported to strengthen the cavalry.
However, most of them did not live long on account of the
climate of South India. Kings and princes led the armies.
The Cholas seem to have possessed a strong navy with whose
help they controlled the Coromandel and Malabar coasts.
The Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake. Merchant vessels
were employed in transporting the army. The Chola navy
fights have been described as land battles fought in the decks
of ships. It is with the help of this navy that the Chola kings
were able to make their conquests in Greater India.6
Revenue System under the Cholas
The land revenue was the main source of income of the
Chola Government. Proper land survey was made.
Agriculture was the principle occupation of the people. The
taxes were collected in cash or kind which was the chief
source of revenue. Lands were classified as taxable land and
non- taxable land. There were many grades in the taxable
lands. Land revenue differed according to these grades.
Generally, 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in
6

18
cash or kind or both according to the convenience of the
farmers. Besides land revenue, there were some other
sources of income like customs and tolls. Taxes on mines,
ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax
and house tax were also collected. Many other taxes were
levied. Tax burden was more on the society. State revenue
was utilized in public works, in construction, maintenance of
institutions and temples. In the village and town, the
residential part of the village, temples, tanks, burning
grounds and others were exempted from all taxes.

Foreign Trade
The Chola fleet crossed the Bay of Bengal to carry on trade
with Burma, Ceylon, the Islands of the Indian Ocean and the
Malaya Archipelago. A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in
Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa
Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from
the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous
merchant guild in the Chola country. The inscription dated
1088, indicating an active overseas trade during the Chola
period. Local organisation of merchants were called as
Nagaram. The rate of interest on loans was usually twelve
and a half percent per annum, though, fifteen percent in
many cases was also known.

19
The Provincial Administration
Chola kingdom was divided into provinces (mandalam), their
being generally eight or nine of these. Each Mandalam was
divided into Valanadus (or districts). These in turn were
subdivided into groups of villages, variously called Kurram,
Nadu, or Kottam. Occasionally a very large village would be
administered as a single unit and this was called Taniyur. The
administrative unit was the village and to the extent there
was a little significant difference between Chola
administration and that of the Gupta. However, the nature of
the village administration was certainly of a very different
order. The degree of autonomy at village level was
something quite remarkable for the times. Chola officials
20
participated in village affairs more as advisors and observers
than as administrators.
The basic assumption in the type of village autonomy
emerging at this period was that each village should be
administered by the villagers themselves. For this purpose a
village assembly was formed, and authority was vested in this
assembly.
General Assemblies
The general assemblies included most of the local residents
and were of three categories: the Ur consisted of the tax
paying residents of an ordinary village, the Sabha or
Mahasabha was restricted to the Brahmans of the village or
else was found exclusively in villages gifted to Brahmans; and
finally, the Nagaram was found more commonly in trade
centres. In some villages the Ur and the Sabha were found
together. Very large villages had two Urs if this was more
convenient for their functioning. The working of these
assemblies differed according to local conditions. The Ur was
open to all male adults of the village but in affect the older
members took a more prominent part, some of them forming
a small executive body for routine matters. The Sabha had
the same system and in addition had the power to constitute
smaller committees of any size from among its members.
Generally, mandalams or provinces were named after the
original names or the titles of the Chola kings. The head of
the province was called viceroy. Close relatives of kings were
appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant touch

21
with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from
the king. They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had
a large number of officials to assist them in the work of
administration. There were officials of various grades
organized in higher and lower ranks. Every village was a self-
governing unit. The general assembly was classified into tax
paying villagers, Brahmins and traders. The central
government officers examined accounts and supervised the
work of the tax paying villagers. The village assemblies
received gifts from rich men or from king for developmental
activities. The feudatories were unable to impede in the
village management. Their job was very clerical in the sense it
was a mere collection of taxes and passing the share to the
King. The land revenue was core of public finance, thereby
assessment of revenue being done carefully. Rajaraja I had
introduced periodical land surveys. Tax exemptions were
carefully noted.
Local Administration
The most important feature of the Chola administration was
the local administration at districts, towns and villages level.
Uttaramerur inscriptions speak much about the Chola
administration. Village autonomy was the most unique
feature of Chola administrative system.
Nadu
Nadu was one of the important administrative units of the
Cholas. Nadus had representative assemblies. The heads of
the Nadus were called Nattars. The council of Nadu was

22
called Nattavai. Representatives of the Nattavais and Nattars
promoted agriculture. They also took care of the protection
of the people and tax collection.
Variyams
Village Assemblies carried on village administration
effectively with the help of Variyams. Male members of the
society were the members of these Variyams. Composition of
these variyams, qualification and durations of membership
differed from village to village. There were many variyams in
every village. Niyaya Variyam administered justice,
Thottavariyam looked after flower gardens. The Dharma
Variyam looked after charities and temples. Erivariyam was in
charge of tanks and water supply. The pon Variyam was in
charge of the finance. The Gramakariya Variyam looked after
the works of all committees. The members of these Variyams
were known as “Varvaperumakkal. They rendered honorary
service. The village officials were paid salary either in cash or
in kind. Good functioning of these Variams increased the
efficiency of the local administration of the Cholas.
Village Administration
The lowest unit of the Chola administration was the village of
the entire responsibility of the village administration was in
the hands of the village assembly called Grama Sabha The
village assemblies looked after the maintenance of peace,
tanks, roads. public ponds revenue collection judiciary
education and temples. The village assemblies were in charge
of the payment of taxes due from the villages to the treasury.

23
They regulated public markets and helped people at times of
famine and flood. Assemblies provided provisions for
education. The village assemblies possessed absolute
authority over the affairs of villages. They maintained law
and order in every village. Brahmin settlement was called
Chathurvedi Mangalam.

Kudavolai System
Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about Kudavolai system. This
system was a very notable and unique feature of the village
administration of the Cholas There were 30 wards in each
village. A representative for each ward was elected through
Kudavolai system. Names of the contestants from whom one
could be chosen were written on palm leaf tickets. These
palm leaves were put into a pot and shuffled. A small boy
picked up palm leaves one by one from the pot. Persons
whose name tickets were picked up by the boy were
declared elected.
Like that 30 members for thirty wards were elected. This kind
of peculiar election system was called Kudavolai system. Out
of the thirty elected members, twelve members were
appointed to the Annual committee, twelve members were
appointed as the members of the Garden committee and six
members to the Tank committee.
Members of the standing committee and a Gold committee
were also elected. Qualification of the members was given. A
person who could be chosen through Kudavolai system must

24
have age from 35 to 70. He should possess one veli land and
of a house built in a taxable land on his own site. He should
have knowledge about Vedas and mantras. Persons who
killed Brahmins or women on cow or children were
disqualified. Thieves, drunkards and people who had
undergone punishments were also disqualified from
contesting election.

Agriculture and Irrigation

Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible
through new developments in agriculture. The river Kaveri
branches off into several small channels before emptying into
the Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently
depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the
channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture
particularly the cultivation of rice.
Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of
Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that
this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Forests
had to be cleared in some regions; land had to be levelled in
other areas. In the delta region embankments had to be built
to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry
water to the fields. In many region two crops were grown in a
year.
In many cases it was necessary to water crops artificially. A
variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas
wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed

25
to collect rainwater. Since, irrigation works require planning -
organising labour and resources, maintaining these works
and deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the new
rulers as well as people living in villages, took an active
interest in these activities.

Social and Economic Conditions

The Chola rule witnessed a large scale development in all
spheres of life. Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples,
literature and monuments speak much about the social,
economic and religious life of the people during the Chola
period. Economic prosperity, the benevolent attitude and
religious faiths of the Chola kings were the main factors
which contributed more for these developments.
26
Social Condition
The Chola society was peaceful one. There were different
sections in society. At the same time, the society was based
on Varnasrama. According to the Varnasrama, society was
divided into four major divisions namely Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The poor and unprivileged
people lived in slums. Bonded labourers were also there.
Professionals like carpenter weavers, blacksmiths, masons,
goldsmiths also lived there. Slavery also existed, there were
several grades among the slaves. The details about the sale
of slaves are recorded in the inscriptions. Greater social
freedom prevailed among the upper classes.
Valangai and Idankai groups
Valankai and Idankai caste groups were also there. 98 castes
formed part of Valanga (right hand) group and there were 98
castes in the Idangai left hand) group. There were disputes
among these groups. Valangai group enjoyed more
concessions from the Government and privileges in the
society. They had the privilege of using palanquins. Women
of Valangai group rounded the upper cloth across the right
shoulder. The Idankai group was considered socially inferior.
They did not enjoy any rights. They paid heavy taxes. In spite
of these social divisions there was social harmony.
Education

27
Chola Kings gave importance for the development of
education. There were Veda padasalas. Buddha viharas and
Jain pallis. During the reign of Rajendra I, two colleges were
at Rajarajachaturvedi Mangalam and Tribhuvanam. The mutt
of Thiruvavaduturai had run a school of medicine. Apart from
the medical and religious education, general education was
also imparted. Scholarships were given to students.
Position of Women
Women were given high status and freedom in the Chola
society. Chastity and modesty were considered important.
The women of upper classes enjoyed the right to property.
Some queens were associated with the administration of the
kingdom. Queens gave liberal donations to temples. Queen
Sembian Mahadevi and Kundavai were patrons of temples.
Monogamy was prevalent in society and less skilled jobs
were given to female labourers.
During the Chola period Sati was commonly practiced among
the women of royal family. Women were also appointed as
officers in the Chola Government. There were child marriages
among the higher castes. Women who were talented in
music and dance were attached to the temples. They
performed programs during festival times. There were also
women slaves. Writings of Marco Polo and some inscriptions
speak about the position of women during the Chola period.
Economic Conditions
The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and
commerce. Income through agriculture yield, land tax, trade

28
tax and other taxes were main revenue of the Government.
King was the owner of all public land. Special officers were
appointed to look into the income and expenditure of the
state. Government money was spent on public works,
defence, justice, education, temples, irrigation, police, king
and his households, secretariat etc., The Chola kings issued
gold, silver and copper coins. Merchant guilds were
functioning to take care for the welfare of the merchants and
commerce. The Chola economy mainly depended on
agriculture and trade. Agriculture was the main occupation of
the people. The ownership of the land had a high social
value. The landlords were members of the village
administrative units. Generally, the economic condition of
the people during the Chola period was good.
Foreign Trade
According to information given by writers like Ibn Battuta
and Marco Polo, the Cholas had trade relationship with China
and other South East Asian countries. Elephants, cardamom,
cotton, textile were exported. Arabian horses were imported.
Mahabalipuram, Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai were Chola
ports which were useful for foreign trade. The liberal taxation
policies of King Kulottunga I encouraged both internal and
foreign trade. Internal and foreign trade led to the economic,
cultural and religious developments in Chola territory.
Religious Conditions
Chola kings were Shaivite. They worshiped Lord Siva. They
built many Shiva temples. King Gandaraditya and his queen

29
Sembiyan Mahadevi contributed more for the development
of Shaivism and Bhakti literature. Parantaka I covered the
Shiva temple with gold at Chidambaram. King Rajaraja I Built
Brahadeeswarar temple (big temple) at Tanjore. Rajendra-1
Constructed Shiva temple at Polonaaruva in Ceylon and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Lands, jewels and vessels were
donated to these temples.
Chola Kings were tolerant towards other religions. Vishnu
worship was also there. Chola rulers supported the spread of
Vaishnavisim. Saint Ramanujar was the contemporary of
Chola Kings. Karanthai plates and Anbil plates talk about the
religious conditions of the Chola period. Masimaham
Mahamaham, Karthigai, Thaipusam Shivaratri, Chithiraivizha,
Aipasivizha were important festivals celebrated during the
Chola period. Tanjore, Kumbakonam, Avudaiyarkoil, Kalahasti
Tirukadaiyur and Kanchipuram were important temple cities.
Bhakti songs were sung in all temples. Some people followed
Buddhism and Jainism.
Temples acted as centres of learning also. Temples helped the
development of painting, dance and music. Nambi Andar
Nambi compiled the hymns of Vaishnava saints. Scenes of
Periyapuranam portraits of Lord Shiva were themes of the
paintings on the walls of temples. Bharatanatyam and
Kathakali dances were performed temples at the time of
festival. The economic prosperity and religious contributions
increased the standard of life of the Chola society. By building
many temples and mutts, the Chola kings contributed for the
development of culture, art and architecture. The royal

30
patronage increased the influence of Hinduism. The temples
and festivals of the Chola period will ever speak about the
glory of the Cholas.

Crafts and Craftsmen of the Chola Empire

There were many social groups living in the Chola Empire.

The Craftsmen and artisans were one such group engaged
in the creative artistic activity serving the needs of an
expanding territorial sovereignty of the imperial Chola
monarchs. They were basically non agrarian production
groups catering to the needs of both the rural and urban
environments The state imposed taxes and cesses on the
artisans and the revenue proceedings were deposited in the
treasury (Karvulam). The epigraphic records inform us that
these existed a group of five Craftsmen collectively called
as the Kammalar. the goldsmiths (tattan), brass, smiths
(kannan), blacksmiths (Karuman/Kolan), carpenters
(tachchan) and sculptors (silpis). They were also called the
Vishwakarma craftsmen, as they worshipped Him and
claimed descent from Lord Vishwakarma, the divine
architect of the Gods and Goddesses as enumerated in the
Hindu mythology and Puranas. Further these craftsmen
were labelled as the Visuakarma Kula and Viswakarma
Kulaja indicating their caste, which is an important social
institution in India.

31
Special Features of Chola Architecture
The Cholas followed the Pallava style of
architecture. Sanctum of the Chola temples are
both circular and square in size. Inner side of the
external walls and the sanctum were beautified. On
the upper side of the sanctum special vimanas are
built. Dome shaped sikhara and kalasa were also
there on the top of Gopurams. Chola temples are
noted for the sculptures and ornamental works.
Gopurams of these temples were meaningful. Many
temples are having pillared mandapams namely
arthamandapa, mahamandapa and nandi mandpa.
Sculptures and inscriptions are also fixed on the
walls of these temples.

Sculpture
Stone and metal sculptures are found in plenty in Chola
temples. They depict the socio religious ideas of the Chola
period The Nataraja sculpture is world famous not only for its
beauty but also for its spiritual meaning. Vishnu idol is placed
in Vaishnava temples. A spiritual calmness is depicted
sculptural representations of Alwars. The Cholas made use of
sculptures to decorate the walls, pillars and roofs. The value
of sculpture is very much felt on Chola works. The decorative
sculptures are still there. Realism dominated sculpture of the

32
Chola period. Scenes from Ramayanam Mahabharatam,
Puranas and lives of the 63 Nayanmars are sculptured in
narrative panels on the walls of temples.

Portraits
The Cholas excelled the Pallavas in the art of
portrait making. The best specimens of portraits
are found on the walls of Koranganatha temple
and Nageswarasamy temple. The portraits of
Cholamadevi and Kulothunga-III are there
Kalahasti temple. They are good examples of
Chola art of portrait making.

Paintings
The art of paintings flourished, the proficiency of
the Chola painters seen on their paintings.
Paintings in big temple are good examples. Scenes
of Periyapuranam are beautifully depicted
Kailasanathar temple at Kanchipuram, Vishnu
temple at Malaiyadipatti contain fine specimen of
the Chola paintings. Rajaraja-1 and Rajendra

33
contributed more for the development of the art
of painting during the Chola period.

Music
During the Chola period the art of music was
developed. Twenty-three panns were used in
music. The seven music alphabets sa, re, ga, ma,
pa, da, ni were used. The hymns of Aiwars and
Nayanmars were sung in every temple.
Nambiandar nambi and Nathamuni contributed
much for the development of music. Books were
written on music. Several musicians were
appointed in Brahadeeswarar temple. Drums,
Udukkai, Veena, flute were famous music
instruments Sagadakkottigal formed a group of
musicians. Endowments were made to promote
music. Musicians were honoured by the kings.
Temples and mutts imparted training in vocal and
instrumental music.

34
Dance
The Chola kings patronized the art of dance.
Bharatha natyam and kathakali were two types of
dances performed during the Chola period. Lord
Siva Siva was represented as the exponent of
Karana dance. Natarajar temple at Chidamparam
and Sarangapani temple at Kumbakonam have
dancing poses of Lord Nataraja. Rajaraja I
appointed 400 dancing girls in the big temple at
Tanjore. There were two dance directors to
coordinate these dancing girls. Dance dramas were
also performed on stages at festival times. Chola
kings made endowments to promote the art of
dancing.

Drama
The Cholas promoted the art of drama. Music and
dance were affiliated to drama. Many types of
theatres and stages were there to perform dramas.
Rajarajeswara natakam and Rajarajavijayam were
the dramas enacted during festival times. Drama
actors received honours from the Chola kings.

35
Koothu is one type of drama. Koothus were also
there. Inscriptions refer about Ariyakuthu, Chakki
koothu and Santhi koothu.
Chola literature speaks about the cultural glory of
the Cholas. Hundreds of temples built by the Chola
kings. Particularly Brahadeeswarar (Big temple)
temple at Tanjore and temple at Gangaikonda
Cholapuram are cultural monuments of the Cholas.
The glorious Chola culture created very big impact
on Tamil society and imbibed lot of cultural values
like bhakti upon the Tamil society.

CONCLUSION
The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of
Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have
resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and
architecture. The Chola kings avidly built temples, envisioned
them in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also
as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralized
form of government and established a disciplined
bureaucracy. They were known for their trade practices and
land surveys done by Rajaraja-I and Kulottunga-I.

36
With the passage of time because of weak successive rulers,
the chola power rapidly declined. The power of the Cholas
declined around the twelfth century with the rise of the
Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end
towards the end of the thirteenth century. From the 4" to the
9th century, the cholas played a very marginal but effective
part in the South India's history.
Due to a variety of reasons, traditional historical knowledge of
south India is not well developed and even known to Indians
outside the south. This does not mean that it had no wisdom,
tradition and knowledge of worth. Rather, as the rich
literature, architecture, performing art and musical traditions
of this part of India show, south India, and Sri Lanka, is unique.

37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1. V.D. Mahajan, Ancient India, (S. Chand 13th ed.)
2.Vincent Smith, The Oxford History of India (4th ed.)
3.K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, (Oxford
4th ed.)
Websites
1. http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty
3. https://timesofindia.indiaties.com/blogs/desires-of-a-
modern-indian/brief-history-of-chola-dynasty
4. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chola-dynasty
5.
https://www.tailnadu.ind.in./tamilnadu_history/chola/art_a
nd_architecture_under_chola.php

38