HISTORY PROJECT

V TRIMESTER

Analysis of the Vijayanagara Empire

Submitted to:

Submitted by:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to National Law Institute University,
Bhopal for providing me with this excellent opportunity to make this project. I sincerely thank
everybody who helped with the completion of this project. I am greatly obliged to our teacher for
History for his guidance, monitoring and encouragement throughout the course of this project. I
am also thankful to the Library Administration for providing me with the necessary books and
sources needed for the completion of this project.

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 CONTENTS

1. Research methodology
2. Objectives
3. Origin
4. Administration
5. Economy
6. Religion
7. Culture and tradition
8. Language and literature
9. Architecture
10. Decline of the empire
11. Dynasties of Vijaynagara empire
12. Bibliography

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The data for this project has been collected from various sources such as websites, journals,
articles, books, etc. After the collection of the data it was assembled in one place and analyzed
thoroughly. The important and relevant information was retained and arranged in a meaningful
order under headings and sub-headings. Thus, the objectives were accomplished and the project
was completed.

OBJECTIVES

1. To study the origin and dyansties of the Vijayanagara empire.

2. To analyze and understand:

 the administartion and economy of the state;

 the religion, culture and tradition under the rule of vijayanagara empire;

 the growth of language, literature and architecture under the empire.

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 ORIGIN

The origin of Vijayanagara empire is a controversial topic in South Indian history, with regard to
the linguistic affiliation of the founding dynasty, the Sangama family. The Vijayanagara empire
rose to power in southern India in the 14th century CE. Over the past decades, historians have
expressed differing opinions on whether the empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka I (two of
the four sons of Sangama), were of Kannada or Telugu origin. There are various opinions about
the role of the Vidyaranya, the Hindu saint and guru of Harihara I and Bukka I in the founding of
the Vijayanagara empire.

Kannadiga origin theory

Scholars such as Rothermund, B.L. Rice, P.B. Desai, Saletore, Karmakar and more claim that the
founders of the Vijayanagara Empire were Kannadigas and related to the Hoysala dynasty. E. W.
West opines that the founders were officers in the army of Veera Ballala III, the last Hoysala
king. These historians support the theory that the founders of the empire were local princes under
the service of the last of the Hoysala king. According to them, inscriptions prove that Harihara I
and Bukka Raya I were in the Hoysala service a decade before their arrival at Kampili (in
modern Bellary district). Not only did the widow of Hoysala Veera Ballala III participate in the
coronation of Harihara I in 1346, her name appears before that of the founding King Harihara I
in a 1349 inscription, indicating that he gained legitimacy for being a devoted heir of the Hoysala
legacy. Further, according to William Coelho and Heras, it is known that the original founding of
the capital Vijayanagara was in 1320 by Veera Ballala III, the city then being known as
Vijayavirupaksha Hosapattana. According to Eaton, By 1344, the transfer of power from the
Hoysala Empire to the emerging Vijayanagara Empire seems to have been gradual and without
bloodshed, as ex-Hoysala officers melted away from a crumbling Hoysala power to support the
Sangama cause. Harihara I was a commander in the Hoysala Kingdom and had been appointed
by Veera Ballala III with autonomous powers after the fall of the Seuna (Yadava dynasty) and
Kampili kingdoms, to administer the northern territories. Also, the very first fortification that
Harihara I built was at Barakuru in coastal Karnataka in 1336. He was a Hoysala commander in
charge of its northern territories from his seat in Gutti (modern Ananthapur district of Andhra

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Pradesh), at that time a Hoysala territory. He assumed the Kannada titles Purvapaschima
Samudradhishvara (lit, "Master of eastern and western and oceans"), Arirayavibhada (lit, "fire to
the enemy kings") and Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda (lit, "punisher of the ruler who failed to
keep a promise"). According to Kamath, when Veera Ballala III died fighting the Sultan of
Madurai, Harihara I seems to have gained sovereign powers over the entire Hoysala territory.

The historian Saletore pointed out that that even famous Telugu scholars such as Vallabharaya
and Srinatha called the Sangama brothers Karnata Kshitinatha in their writings, indicating they
were a Kannada family. According to the epigraphist and historian P.B. Desai, the Persian author
Ferishta of the Vijayanagara days wrote of the emperors "Roies of Karnataka". Regarding the
earliest modern work written on the history of the Vijayanagara Empire by Robert Sewell (A
Forgotten Empire, 1901) Kamath claims that Sewell had not used all sources but had copiously
used travellogues and other works written by only European travellers to forward his theories.

Kamath points out that almost half of the Vijayanagar Empire inscriptions, out of a total of 7000
available to us, are in Kannada. The titles used by the Kings used titles were pure Kannada
language titles. According to Appadurai, The "Karnataka Empire" or Vijayanagar Empire was
originally of the Karnataka region and it drew its inspirations from the Hoysala Empire and the
Western Ganga Dynasty of the Karnataka and the Chola and Pandya of the Tamil country.

Telugu origin theory

Historians such as Robert Sewell, Dallapiccola, M.H. Ramasarma, N. Venkataramanayya and

more have attested the Telugu origin of Vijayanagar empire. According to British traveler
Francis Buchanan (1801), while on a visit to Beidur in Mysore (Karnataka), he was shown a
Sanskrit book called Vidyaranya Sikka. The book mentioned that the founders of Vijayanagar
were Harihara and Bukka, and that they were guards of the treasury of the Kakatiya King
Prataparudra of Warangal. The brothers met a spiritual teacher called Vidyaranya, the sage of
Sringeri monastery, who guided them to establish the Kingdom of Vijayanagar to safeguard the
Hindu religion. This was in 1336 and Harihara was made first king of the fledgling empire.
Robert Sewell considered various such theories and concluded that Harihara and Bukka were
treasury officers of Kuruba Gowda caste, in the court of Warangal, the capital of the (Kakatiya

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dynasty). The Delhi Sultan who captured and converted the brothers to Islam, sent them back to
put down the rebellion of Hoysala king. They succeeded in suppressing the rebellion but laid
foundation of an independent kingdom at the behest of Vidyaranya.

Historians Venkataramanayya and Ramasarma supported the conclusions of Sewell based on his
research and the information provided by the Sanskrit and Kannada treatises such as Vidyaranya
Kalajnana, Vidyaranya Vrittanta, Rajakalanirnaya, Piramahasamhiti and Sivatatva Ratnakara.
According to the scholar Suryanarain Rao, who described seven traditional accounts of the origin
of Harihara and Bukka, five were inclined towards a Telugu origin of the founding kings.
According to Sreenivasa Rao, the Telugu Golla identity of Harihara and Bukka and their
devotion to the goddess Bhuvaneswari is also established. According to Subbarayalu, indirect
evidences such as the employment of predominantly Telugu Nayaks (Kamma, Balija, Velama
and Reddy people) for revenue collection throughout the empire also supported their Telugu
affinity.

ADMINISTRATION

In the office. The rulers of the Vijayanagara empire maintained the well-functioning
administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya
kingdoms, to govern their territories and made changes only where necessary. The King was the
ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (Pradhana), headed by the prime minister
(Mahapradhana). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary (Karyakartha or
Rayaswami) and the imperial officers (Adhikari). All high ranking ministers and officers were
required to have military training. A secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and
officers to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king.
At the lower administrative levels they had wealthy feudal landlords (Goudas), supervised
accountants (Karanikas or Karnam) and guards (Kavalu). The palace administration was divided
into 72 departments (Niyogas), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and
beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor
administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.

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The empire was divided into five main provinces (Rajya), each under a commander
(Dandanayaka or Dandanatha) and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used
the native language for administrative purposes. A Rajya was divided into regions (Vishaya
Vente or Kottam), and further divided into counties (Sime or Nadu), themselves subdivided into
municipalities (Kampana or Sthala). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid
tribute to the empire while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai, came under the direct
supervision of a commander.

On the battlefields. The king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely
involved massive invasions; more often it employed small scale methods such as attacking and
destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long range artillery
commonly manned by foreign gunners. (Gunners from present day Turkmenistan were
considered the best). Army troops were of two types: The king's personal army directly recruited
by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army
consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants. This number was only
a part of the army numbering over 1.1 million soldiers, along with the existence of a navy as
evidenced by the use of the term Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy). The army recruited
from all classes of society and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics,
shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that
no armour was necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had
knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.

The water supply. The capital city was completely dependent on the water supply systems
constructed to channel and store water, and ensure a consistent supply throughout the year. The
remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water
distribution methods in use at that time in South India's semiarid regions. Contemporary records
and notes of foreign travelers describe how huge tanks were constructed by labourers.
Excavations have uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing
solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the
exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity
and siphons to transport water through pipelines. The only structures resembling public
waterworks are the remains of large water tanks that collected the seasonal monsoon water and

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then dried up in summer except for the few fed by springs. In the fertile agricultural areas near
the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks. These
canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas the
administration encouraged the digging of wells monitored by administrative authorities. Large
tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded
by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.

ECONOMY

The empire's economy was largely dependent on agriculture. Sorghum (jowar), cotton and pulse
legumes grew in semi arid regions, while sugarcane, rice and wheat thrived in rainy areas. Betel
leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large scale cotton
production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as
turmeric, pepper, cardamom and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were
transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that
included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-
building provided employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled artisans.

Land ownership was important. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the
right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging produce made
distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability
of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax
assessment. Salt production and the manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means.
The making of ghee, which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting
lamps, was profitable. Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-
precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes.
Large vessels from China made frequent visits, some captained by the Chinese Admiral Zheng
He, and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. The ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore,
Machilipatnam and Dharmadam were the most important.

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When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied
on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials.
Traders of many nationalities (Arabs, Persians, Guzerates, Khorassanians) settled in Calicut,
drawn by the thriving trade business. Ship building prospered and keeled ships of 1000–1200
bahares (burden) were built without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than
fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with
Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice. The empire's principal exports were pepper,
ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-
precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain. Cotton yarn
was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were copper,
quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, coloured
camlets, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip
to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.

East coast trade hummed, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet, pulse and
tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the
weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron
and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region. The cotton weaving industry
produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed
with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East.
Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast
were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk and luxury goods.

RELIGION

The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors
show. The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya and Hindurayasuratrana that
testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism. The Empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka
I, were devout Shaivas but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as
their patron saint. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at
the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at

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Tirupati. The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well
known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. This movement presented another strong current
of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by
eminent disciples such as Vyasatirtha, the guru of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa and
Kanakadasa, who earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya. The king considered the saint
his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great
composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at
Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh.

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the
rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was
mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the
Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.

Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the
Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the
10th century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century.
Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and
were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between
the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of
Muslims in the south. The introduction of Christianity began as early as the 8th century as shown
by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian
travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its
attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their
connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545)
and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.

CULTURE AND TRADITION

Most information on the social life in Vijayanagara empire comes from the writings of foreign
visitors and evidence that research teams in the Vijayanagara area have uncovered. The Hindu
caste system was prevalent and rigidly followed, with each caste represented by a local body of

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elders who represented the community. These elders set the rules and regulations that were
implemented with the help of royal decrees. Untouchability was part of the caste system and
these communities were represented by leaders (Kaivadadavaru). The Muslim communities were
represented by their own group in coastal Karnataka. The caste system did not, however, prevent
distinguished persons from all castes from being promoted to high ranking cadre in the army and
administration. In civil life, by virtue of the caste system, Brahmins enjoyed a high level of
respect. With the exception of a few who took to military careers, most Brahmins concentrated
on religious and literary matters. Their separation from material wealth and power made them
ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and their presence in every town and village was a
calculated investment made by the nobility and aristocracy to maintain order. However, the
popularity of low-caste scholars (such as Molla and Kanakadasa) and their works (including
those of Vemana and Sarvajna) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.

The practice of Sati was common, though voluntary, and mostly practiced among the upper
classes. Over fifty inscriptions attesting to this have been discovered in the Vijayanagara
principality alone. These inscriptions are called Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero
stone). Satikals commemorated the death of a woman by entering into fire after the death of her
husband while Sati-virakals were made for a woman who performed Sati after her husband's
heroic death. Either way, the woman was raised to the level of a demi-goddess and proclaimed
by the sculpture of a Sun and crescent moon on the stone.

The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, such as Lingayatism, provided

momentum for flexible social norms to which women were expected to abide. By this time South
Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters hitherto
considered the monopoly of men, such as administration, business and trade, and involvement in
the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi and Gangadevi were among the notable women poets of the era.
Early Telugu women poets like Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular during
this period. The court of the Nayaks of Tanjore is known to have patronised several women
poets. The Devadasi system existed, as well as legalised prostitution relegated to a few streets in
each city. The popularity of harems amongst men of the royalty is well known from records.

Well-to-do men wore the Pethaor Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As
in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of
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anklets, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations,
men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose
water, civet musk, musk or sandalwood. In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were
modest, the lives of the empire's kings and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court.
Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with
fine jewellery, their daily duties being light.

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation
for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have
been discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical training for
commanders and their armies during peace time. Royal palaces and market places had special
arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as
cock fights, ram fights and wrestling between women. Excavations within the Vijayanagara city
limits have revealed the existence of various types of community-based activities in the form of
engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors, implying these were places of casual
social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are yet to be identified.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were used in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000
inscriptions (Shilashasana) including 300 copper plate inscriptions (Tamarashasana) have been
recovered, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit.
During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in
Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered
such subjects as religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and
mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu—
the latter was the court language and gained even more cultural prominence during the reign of
the last Vijayanagara kings. Telugu was a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the
patronage of Krishnadevaraya.

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and
Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayana and Vidyaranya that extolled

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the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were
famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and
Sripadaraya. Many kings of the dynasty were themselves litterateurs and authored classics such
as King Krishnadevaraya's Jambavati Kalyana, a poetic and dramatically skillful work.

The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the
Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and
Virashaiva (Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs
called Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat
based), Ugabhoga (melody based) and Mundige (cryptic). Their inspirations were the teachings
of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost
among many Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution. Kumara Vyasa, the most
notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This
work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.

At this peak of Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the Prabandha style was
Manucharitamu. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the
celebrated Amuktamalyada. In his court were the eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars
(Ashtadiggajas) of the literary assembly. The most famous among them was Tenali
Ramakrishna, Krishnadevaraya's court jester who authored several acclaimed works. This was
the age of Srinatha, the greatest of all Telugu poets in legend, who wrote books like
Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana-sapta-sati. He was patronised by King Devaraya II and his
stature was equal to the most important ministers in the court.

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's Sangitsara, Praudha
Raya's Ratiratnapradipika, Sayana's Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita's
Vaidyarajavallabham. The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics flourished during this
period under such well known scholars as Madhava (c. 1340–1425) who made important
contributions to Trigonometery and Calculus, and Nilakantha Somayaji (c. 1444–1545) who
postulated on the orbitals of planets.

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 ARCHITECTURE

Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture,
as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the
Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these
empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.

For approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the Hoysalas empires,
the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also
true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local
hard granite was preferred, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. While
the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material
for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures
reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness of the
stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and
then painted it with lively colours. Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong
enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium-sized
temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the
sanctum and outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples
have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added
to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara
resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and
Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the
rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200
years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at
Srisailam and Srirangam.

Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses
standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some
pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings from
Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with
mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a
central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of Gods and Goddesses.
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Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who created them. The
Mantapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five feet
high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with Yali
balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000-pillared style
with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared Jain basadi at
Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female deity. Some
examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi.

Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological excavations
at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived. Most palaces stand in their own compound
defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces are approached through a
sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring multiple changes in direction. All
palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side extensions giving the complex a
symmetrical shape.

Palaces were built on raised platforms made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of
mouldings with well-decorated friezes. The decorations can be floral, demon faces, geese,
elephants and occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the palace were made
of wood as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of brick or lime
concrete, while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted of multiple
levels with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with either yali
(imaginary beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and temple mantapas
were similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have decorative water spouts
such as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water flow into the
tank.Other structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and shrines.

The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences. Examples are the
Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly buildings and domed structures
were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble. The impact of this style of architecture was seen
well into the 17th century when the successive Nayaka kingdoms continued to encourage pillars
with hippogryphs and granite became the main building material.

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 DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE

The Battle of Talikota, a watershed battle fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the
Deccan sultanates, resulted in a defeat of Vijayanagara, and ended in greatly weakening one of
the greatest Indian Empires originating from the South before the Marathas. The throne of the
Vijayanagara Empire had passed from Achyuta Raya, upon his death, to Rama Raya. The
Sultanates were in constant fear of a much bigger Vijayanagara Empire united against it, which
was seen as the common enemy. The excessive pride of Vijayanagara in its strength and internal
conflicts also added to the cause of the battle.

DYNASTIES OF VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

1. Sangama dynasty

Harihara Raya I-1336–1356

Bukka Raya I-1356–1377

Harihara Raya II-1377–1404

Virupaksha Raya-1404–1405

Bukka Raya II-1405–1406

Deva Raya I-1406–1422

Ramachandra Raya-1422

Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya-1422–1424

Deva Raya II-1424–1446

Mallikarjuna Raya-1446–1465

Virupaksha Raya II-1465–1485

Praudha Raya-1485

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2. Saluva dynasty

Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya -1485–1491

Thimma Bhupala-1491

Narasimha Raya II-1491–1505

3. Tuluva dynasty

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka-1491–1503

Vira Narasimha Raya-1503–1509

Krishna Deva Raya-1509–1529

Achyuta Deva Raya-1529–1542

Venkata I-1542

Sadasiva Raya-1542–1570

4. Aravidu dynasty

Aliya Rama Raya-1542–1565

Tirumala Deva Raya-1565–1572

Sriranga I-1572–1586

Venkata II-1586–1614

Sriranga II-1614

Rama Deva Raya-1617–1632

Venkata III-1632–1642

Sriranga III-1642–1646
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 BIBILOGRAPHY

 The New Cambridge History of India: Vijaynagara by Burton Stein

 A forgotten empire: Vijayanagar by Robert Sewell

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