o The period between 3rd century BC and 3rd century AD (years are not certain) in South India is

known as Sangam period. Hence the age is known as ‘Sangam Age’, which extends roughly between
300 B.C. and 300 A.D.
o "Sangam" means confluence of two rivers. In Tamil history, it refers to confluence of great poets
and scholars. The period has been named after the Sangam academies during that period.
o The word ‘Sangam’ is associated with South Indian history where a college or assembly of Tamil
scholars and poets flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.
o According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient
Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of
the Pandyas.
o These Sangams produced enormous collection of literature which depicts society, polity, economy
as well as elaborate explanation of life prevalent during Sangam age. These three Sangams are as
follows:
 Sangam Held at Presided by Major literary works

1st Sangam Madurai Agastya No book survived

2nd Sangam Kapadapuram Tolkappiyar Tolkappiyam is the only literary work that survived

3rd Sangam Madurai Nakkirar The third sangam at Madurai was organised by
Pandiyan king Mudathirumaran. Voluminous
literature was created in this sangam but only a
few has survived. Most of the existing corpus
belongs to this Sangam.
  The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, was supposed to be attended by gods and legendary
sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available.
 The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
 The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large
number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.
o The Sangam literature can be roughly divided into:
 Melkannakku (18 major works) - 8 anthologies (Ettutogai) and 10 Idylls (Pattupattu).
 Kilkanakku (18 minor works).
o Tamil poetry is also divided into 2 main groups: Agam (love poetry) & Puram (war poetry).
o These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.
o The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed bySilappathigaram as
well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
o Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in
various places of Tamil Nadu.
o Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third
century B.C. to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.
 Sangam Literature: Major source giving details of Sangam Age
o Sangam literature contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain
anonymous. Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works such as the Tolkappiyam, the 10
poems (Pattuppattu), the eight anthologies (Ettutogai), the 18 minor works (Pathinenkilkanakku),
and the three epics.
Tolkappiyam
o Tolkappiyam is a book on Tamil grammar authored by Tolkappiyar. This book also provides information
on the political and socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period. It is one of the earliest book on
Tamil literature. Tolkappiyar is one of the 12 disciples of Saint Agastya. Agastya was a sage.
Ettutogai
o It means eight Anthologies (collection of poems). It is a classical Tamil poetic work comprising nearly
30,000 lines of poetry.
o It consists of eight works-(i) Aingurunooru, (ii) Narrinai, (iii) Aganaooru, (iv) Purananooru, \ v) Kuruntogai,
(vi) Kalittogai, (vii) Paripadal, and (viii) Padirruppattu.
Pattuppattu
o It means 10 idylls (a short description in verse or prose of a scene or incident) The 10 works are- (i)
Thirumurugarruppadai, (ii) Porunararruppadai, (iii) Sirupanarruppadai, (iv) Perumpanarruppadai, (v)
Mullaippattu, (vi) Nedunalvadai, (vii) Maduraikkanji, (viii) Kurinjippatttu, (ix) Pattinappalai, and (x)
Malaipadukadam.
o On basis of content, both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups: (i) Aham
(love) and (ii) Puram (valour).
Pathinenkilkanakku
o It contains 18 minor works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. These are relatively short in
length. The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
o Thiruvalluvar is regarded as the great Tamil poet and philosopher. Tirukkural consists of 1330
couplets or kurals which deals with the everyday virtues of an individual.
o It is considered as one of the masterpiece in ethics and morality. It is also known as bible of
Sangam literature.
Three main epics written in Sangam period
1. Silappadikaram
o Silappadikaram was republished as "The Tale of an Anklet." It is one of three main epics written in
Sangam period. A Jain poet-prince Elango Adigal from Kodungallur near Kochi in modern Kerala has
authored this book. Elango was younger brother of Chera dynasty King Senguttuvan.
o Silappadikaram deals with a love story in which a dignitary called Kovalan prefers a courtesan
dancer called Madhavi of Kaveripattanam over his wife Kannagi. When Kovalan is wrongfully
executed for stealing a royal jewel anklet, Kannagi burns herself. Kannagi becomes a goddess and
the "patni cult" starts with her immolation.
2. Manimekalai
o It was written by the Tamil poet Chithalai Chathanar. It is a story of Manimekalai written in the
form of poem. The story of Manimekalai is a sequel of Silappadikaram.
o Manimekalai was the beautiful daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. She adopted Hinduism but later
converted to Buddhism.
o Manimekalai studied the six system of philosophy of Hinduism and compared them to the
Buddhism. She was very impressed with the teachings of Buddha. Further, she became a
dedicated Buddhist nun.
o The aim of author behind this work was to compare Buddhism with the other religions prevailing
in South India. He criticises the Hinduism and propagates the Buddhism.
3. Civaka Cintamani
o It was written by Tirutakkatevar Thevar (a Jain monk). It is a Jain religious epic. It literally means
"Fabulous gem." It is about the romantic exploits of Jeevaka, a king who over indulged in love
with his queen.
o As a result, he lost his kingdom to his corrupt minister Kattiyankaran. The king was killed, but
he managed to send his pregnant wife far away from the kingdom. His wife gave birth to
Civakan. Civakan returns to take the revenge of his father. After meeting with Mahavira, Civakan
renounced the world
Other Sources
o The authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy mentioned the commercial contacts
between the West and South India.
o Strabo, the Greek Geographer and Historian: The Geography of Strabo describes how the
physical world was perceived 2000 years ago. In his book, he gave an adequate description of
some European countries.
o Ptolemy, the Greek Geographer: Ptolemy developed the principles of Mathematical Geography.
The writings of Ptolemy inspired the geographers to explore the unknown world. His main
contribution was in the determination of the circumference of Earth, prime meridian, and angle of
inclination of the Earth. He believed that Sun and other planets revolved around the Earth.
o Pliny, the Elder: He was a Roman author, philosopher, and a naval, and army commander. He
wrote the encyclopaedia Naturalis Historia (Natural History which is the study of plants and
animals through observation). It became a model for encyclopaedia.
o The Ashokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola, and Pandya rulers in the South.
o Tamil kingdoms are also mentioned in the Hathighumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga.
 POLITICAL HISTORY OF SANGAM PERIOD
The area lying to the South of river Tungabhadra is called Deep South. During the Sangam age, it was
ruled by three dynasties: (i) the Cheras, (ii) Cholas, and (iii) Pandyas. The main source of information about
these kingdoms is traced from the literary references of Sangam period.
1. The Cholas
o The Cholas Kingdom was situated between the Pennar and the Velar rivers were the most powerful
of all three kingdoms.
o Their chief centre of political power was at Uraiyar, a place famous for cotton trade.
o In the middle of second century B.C., a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it
for nearly 50 years. He was the first important Chola king.
o A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A.D. with their greatest and most famous
King Karikala, or the man with charred leg, who founded the port city of Puhar (identical with
Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.
o Puhar or Kaveripattanam was Chola capital. Puhar was also a great centre of trade and commerce.
o Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.
o The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.
Karukala Cholas
o The most significant Early Chola ruler is Karikala Chola, who ruled around 270 BC and is mentioned in
the Sangam Literature. The meaning of his name “Kari + Kalan” refers to “Slayer of Elephants” but
also means “the one with burnt limbs”.
o This indicates a fire accident in his early age, which left his legs charred. One of the Sangam Poems
testifies this.
o One of the greatest of all Chola kings, who founded its port city Puhar (modern Kaveripattanam
which was a great centre of trade and commerce and had a large dock) and constructed 160 km of
embankment along Kaveri river. It is mentioned that this was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves
brought as captives from Sri Lanka.
o Karikala Chola is best known for winning the famous “Battle of Venni” in which both the Pandyas and
Cheras were crushed by him. The current location of Venni is near Thanjaur.
o The “Battle of Venni” was a turning point in his career and he was established as a firm power in the
South. Some legends say that he won the whole of Ceylon Kingdom, after the Battle of Venni.
o World’s earliest water-regulator structure in stone at Kallanai (Grand Anicut)on River Cauvery was
built by Karikala Chola.
o It was constructed mainly to divert the water from Cauvery River for irrigation. This dam stands as a huge
mass of 329 meters (1,080 feet) long and 20 meters (60 feet) wide, across the main stream of the
Cauvery and is a major tourist attraction today.
Notes:
o In 2013, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Jayalalithaa announced a memorial for Karikala Chola, for a
commemoration of his construction of Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on River Cauvery.
o The 14ft Bronze statue depicts the king astride an elephant and pointing to the kallanai. The height of
the elephant is 8 ft and the king sitting on it adds another 6 ft.
Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan
o The Tondaiman family were Tamil rulers of the ancient Tondai Nadu (Tondaimandalam) division of
Tamilakkam in South India. Their capital was at Kanchipuram.
o Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan or Ilamtiraiyan was a ruler of Kanchipuram and a contemporary of the Early
Chola king, Karikala. He is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava dynasty.
o Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the Sangam period and is the hero of some of the poems in
the Pathupattu. He was a poet himself and four of his songs are extant even today. He ruled from
Tondaimandalam and was known as 'Tondaman'.
o According to historian S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar, the Pallavas were natives of Tondaimandalam and
the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar.
o Uruttiragannanar who wrote the Pattinappalai, gives a vivid description of Ilandiraiyan's kingdom and
capital city of Kanchi in his poem Perumpannaruppatai. He advises "poets seeking rewards" to go to
the court of Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan, "the great patron of bards".
o The erumpannaruppatai contains 500 lines in the akaval metre eulogising Ilandiraiyan as well as
providing a mythical origin for the Tondaiman clan.
2. The Cheras
o The Cheras or the Kerala kindom was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas
covering some portions of Tamil Nadu also.
o The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
o Uthiyan Cheralathan, the first known Chera king, earned the title of ‘Udiyanjiral’.
o He also bore the title of ‘Imayavarambam’, or he who had the ‘Himalayas for his boundary.’
o Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera, according to the Chera poets, was the great Chera king. It is said
that he had invaded the north and crossed the Ganga.
o He build a temple for Kannagi, the Goddess of Chastity. The worship of Kannagi is known as the
Pattini-cult, which was stabilized by him.
o After the second century A.D., the Chera power declined, and nothing of its history until the eighth
century A.D. is known. The capital of the Cheras was Vanji or Kaur.
o The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also build a temple of Augustus there.
Udiyanjeral
o Udiyanjeral is the earliest known Chera king and Nedunjeral Adan was the one of the prominent kings of
Chera dynasty.
o He is believed to have defeated the seven crowned kings and won the coveted title of adhiraja.
o Nedunjeral Adan
o One of the prominent kings of Chera dynasty, who probably defeated seven crowned kings and won
the coveted title of adhiraja.
o It is also claimed that he not only defeated an enemy on the Malabar coast but also captured several
yavana traders and later released them after taking ransom.
o He is also believed to have fought a war against a Chola king. However, in this war unfortunately both
the principal adversaries (that is to say the Chola king and Nedunjeral) lost their lives.
o Kuttuvan, the younger brother of Nedunjeral Adan, conquered Kongu and extended the power of the
Cheras up to the eastern and western oceans.
o One of Adan’s sons is also described as an adhiraja who claimed to wore a garland of seven crowns and
was victorious against Anji (a chieftain of Tagadur).
Senguttuvan
o Was Nedunjeral Adan’s son and according to Chera poets was their greatest king who is also known as
the Red or Good Chera. He led many successful military expeditions.
o He won a battle against the Mokur chieftain.
o He has been mentioned in the post-Sangam text, Silappadikaram, which describes his military
conquest against Viyalur in the land of Nannan and capture of the Kodukur fortress in Kongu
country.
o He also successfully backed one of the claimants in a Chola succession conflict, killing the nine others.
o He also claimed to have invaded the north, and fought against an Aryan chieftain in order to obtain
stone for an image of Kannagi (the heroine of the Silappadikaram and considered the goddess of
chastity), and crossed the Ganga and had a bath in the Ganga before bringing the stone back to his
country.
Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai
o One of the last Chera kings mentioned in the Sangam texts, who is also believed to have won wars
against the Cholas and Pandyas.
3. The Pandyas
o The Pandyan kingdom occupied the south-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian
Peninsula, with Madurai as it capital.
o The Pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule South India and are mentioned in Kautilya’s
Arthasastra and Megasthenes’ Indica.
o However, the Pandya Empire was a dynasty, which finds its place in Sangam literature, and later
sources show their rule till 15th century AD. The territory was also known as Pandya Country.
o The Sangam age started form a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty
kings in this dynasty.
o The Pandya kings adopted the fish or a pair of Fishes as their family crest.
o Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many Sangam texts on account of a ‘deluge’
which compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Madurai to Kapatapuram and then
from there to Madurai on the Vaigai.
o The most prominent Pandya King was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital.
o Another king Madaranjeral Irumporai sent embassies to Roman emperor Augusts and performed
Vedic sacrifices.
o Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes
such as Valuti and Celiyan. The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the Cheras
and Cholas, and luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries further west.
o The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai.
o They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
o The Pandyas profited from trade with the Roman Empire.
o Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
o After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more’than century, and rose once again at the
end of the 6th century.
o Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590-620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the
Pandyas back to glory.
o The last known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan a viceroy of Muhmmad-
bin- Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.
Nedunjcheliyan I (c. 270 BCE)
o Nedunjcheliyan I (c. 270 BCE) was a Pandya king. He has been given with the title Aariya Padai
kadantha Nedunjezhiya Pandiyan (A Pandyan King, who defeated the Aryan intrusion).
o Nedunjcheliyan I was also the Pandya king of the epic Silappatikaram authored by Tamil Great Poet
Ilango Adigal who later died of a broken heart along with his queen consort Kopperundevi.
o His name is present in the Mangulam inscriptions of 3rd century BCE. The inscriptions mentions that
workers of Nedunchezhiyan I, a Pandyan king of Sangam period, (c. 270 BCE) made stone beds for Jain
monks.
Nedunjeliyan II (c. 210 CE)
o Nedunjeliyan II (c. 210 CE) was the greatest of Early Pandya Kings. He defeated a confederacy of the
Cholas and Cheras at Talaiyalanganam near Tiruvarur and conquered most of the Tamil country
establishing him as the most important ruler of his time. His deeds have been described in detail in the
Maduraikkanci.
o Nedunjeliyan II was a descendant of Nedunjeliyan I. His reign has been arbitrarily fixed in the early part
of the 3rd century AD. Nedunjeliyan II ascended the throne at an early age and almost immediately
upon his accession, the kingdom was invaded by the Cheras and Cholas.
o Nedunjeliyan II, however, defeated the invaders and pursued the retreating forces as far as
Thalaiyalangaanam deep inside Chola territory and inflicted a crushing defeat upon them. The Chera
king Mandaranjeral Irumporai was taken captive by Nedunjeliyan.
o Following his victory at Talaiyalanganam, Nedunjeliyan mounted a campaign against the Velirs and
Millalai and Muttur.
o Two Tamil Brahmi inscriptions from Mangulam pertaining to early 2nd century BCE mentions that a
subordinate and relative of Nedunjeliyan presented gifts to Jaina monks.
Extent of Pandya Empire:
o The Pandya country, as per the traditions extended from the Podukottai district to Kanyakumari in south
and Achankovil River in Kerala (west) to River Vegai (Madura) in East.
o The kingdom was ordinarily divided into 5 principalities which were known as “Five Pandyas”. The early
days capital of Pandyas is Korkai.
Capitals and Main Cities:
o Korkai, which is now an insignificant village in Tamil Nadu, was the commercial capital and important
port of the Pandya Kingdom. Korkai has been a cradle of South Indian Civilization and as per traditions; it
is considered the home of three brothers who were supposed to have founded the Pandya, Chera and
Chola Kingdoms.
o Korkai was center of Pearl trade and this trade was the chief source of wealth for the Pandya Kings.
Today, Korkai is located 6 kilometers from the coast. The shift is because of the silting up of the delta,
which rendered Korkai inaccessible to ships. After Korkai, the commercial capital of the Pandyas was
shifted to a new port of at a town Old Kayal, which were about one and half kilometers from the
mouth of river Tambraparni and located in present Tinnevely district.
Visit of Marcopolo
o Marcopolo landed in Pandya Empire (at Kayal) in 13th century and impressed by the wealth and
magnificence of the King, Prince as well as people, tagged it as the richest kingdom in existence.
o However, the same silting process in 14th century caused the abandonment of the Kayal too, and the
Portuguese were compelled later to shift their business to a port of Tuticorin, which was free from
silting of Delta. The capital of Pandyas was later shifted to Madura (now Madurai).
Madura, the Later Capital of Pandyas
o Madura, the later capital of Pandyas was the central seat of Tamil Sangam literature. Today, Madurai is
one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities. Madura was located on the banks of River Vaigai in
Tamil Nadu.
o As early as 3rd Century BC, Megasthenes visited Madurai and quoted this city as “Methora” in his
document Indika.
o In Sangam literature, Madura finds special place in Mathuraikkanci, a Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology.
This work praises a Pandya King Nedunchezhiyan. Similarly Madura has been described by Pliny,
Ptolemy and Strabo too.
Developed Coastal areas and Ports
o Ptolemy lists six coastal places in Tamilnadu to which he appends the word ’emporium’.
o Three of these, Musiri, Korkai, and Kaverippattinam are known from anthologies to have been chief
ports of three early kingdoms.
o Musiri and Tondi were situated on the west coast whereas, Korkai and Puhar(Kaveripattinam) on the
east coast were among the chief ports during the Sangam age. Another city, called either Perimula or
Perimuda, is described as “the greatest emporium of trade in India”.
o It was on the Vaigai delta near Rameshwaram.
o The mouth of the Vellaru was an Arab shipbuilding port.
o The place called Agarlu in the Periplus was situated near Tondi on Palk Bay.
o Ptolemy lists it among the ports, though one fails to see today where a port could have been
located.
o Bandar and Kodumanam were others ports with a wealth of seaborne imports, Bandar being noted for
its pearls and Kodumanam for rare jewels.
o Thus, Tamilaham carried on extensive trade with foreign countries from very early times.
o Pepper, ginger, rice, sandalwood, almug, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory and pearls, gems
like beryl (an aquamarine gem), and corundum, cotton, and cotton fabrics were the main
commodities, which were in great demand in foreign countries.
o Greek records also mention Vaikkarai, Nilakanta, and Netravati as ancient port towns in Kerala.
o Pantar in the south of Kerala and Puli (around Tuluva) were ports of the Sangam period.
Kaveripumppattinam was known to Ptolemy as Khaberis (Puhar of literature).
o Kalaiyur, located near Kaverippattinam has yielded a structure which was identified as a dock by S. R.
Rao, Korkai, a port of the Sangam period, was a pearl market and the seat of the Pandyan vice-royalty.
Sangam Society
o Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral),
Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), and Palai (desert).
o The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for
worship.
Five Divisions Chief Diety Chief Occupation
Kurinji Murugan Hunting and Honey collection
Mullai Mayon (Vishnu) Cattle-rearing and dealing in Dairy products
Marudam Indiran Agriculture
Neydal Varunan Fishing and Salt manufacturing
Palai Korravai Robbery
o Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.
o The ruling class was called Arasar.
o Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
o Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
o The Vellalas were agriculturists.
o Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also
found in the Sangam society.
o Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, and Vedars lived in this period.
Sangam Polity
o Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.
o The king took the advice of his minister, court-poet, and the imperial court or Avai.
o The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,
the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan, and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar.
o Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem - carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas, and
bow for the Cheras.
o The imperial court or Avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials.
o The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were
ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar), and
spies (orrar).
o The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age and each ruler had
a regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
o Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade.
o The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
o Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
o Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.
Position of Women
o There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the
Sangam age.
o Women poets like Awaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and
contributed to Tamil literature.
o The courage of women has been also appreciated in many poems.
o Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.
o Love marriage was a common practice and women were allowed to choose their life partners.
o However, the life of widows was miserable.
o The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. © The class of dancers was
patronized by the kings and nobles.
Fine Arts
o Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age. o Liberal donations
were given to poets by the kings, chieftains, and nobles.
o The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in
folk songs and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed.
o A variety of Yazhs and drums aPe referred to in the Sangam literature.
o Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.
o Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.
Religion
o The prominent deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
o The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was
mentioned in the Sangam literature. Murugan was honored with six abodes known as Arupadai
Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran),
Varunan, and Korravai.
o The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in
memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with legends inscribed on
them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu.
Economy of the Sangam Age
o Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common crop.
o The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments
using beads, stones and ivory.
o These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was at its peak during the
Sangam period.
o A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes. These were in great
demand in the western world especially for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
o The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port
containing precious goods.
o Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
o Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero
have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade.
o Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
o Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.
End of Sangam Period
o Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The
Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. Jainism and Buddhism
became prominent during this period.
o Later, the Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the
Kalabhras out of the Tamil region and established their rule.
Post Sangam work
o Some of the post-Sangam age works had also been written in the context of Aham and Puram.
o Naladiyar was written by Nalatiyar and its theme is the transient nature of life and youth. It is
inspired by the life and works of various Jaina monks.
o Iniyavai Narpathu is a work on ethics and contains some suggestions such as seeking the advice of
learned persons, not seeking other person's spouse etc.
o Another work on ethics, Inna Narpathu talks about avoiding temptations such as the wealth of a
miser, a flower without fragrance, beautiful but disloyal spouse etc.
 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS/MODEL QUESTIONS

1. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as
(a) capital cities (b) ports
[B]
(c) centres of iron-and-steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

Ans. (b)
o Poompuhar is one of the oldest towns in ancient Tamilagam. This is the place where well known characters
of Silapathikaram, kovalan and kannagi lived. It was also a port town along the Bay of Bengal. The Port
were established for facilitating maritime trade. It served as the port of the early Chola Kingdom. It is a
coastal town near the present day Mayiladuthurai and is located where the river cauvery drains into the
sea.
o Korkai, the capital of the early Pandyan Kingdom is located about 15 km from Adichanallur. Carbon
dating of samples excavated in 2004 from this site has revealed that they belonged to the period between
100 BC and 600 BC. Recently a maiden excavation at important site was initiated after the last excavation
done in 2015. The Korkai Ports that belonged to the Pandyas were extremely Popular site for Pearl Fishing.
o Muziris or Machiri was an ancient harbor Possible seaport and urban centre-on the Malabar Coast (kerala)
that dates from at least the 1st century BC. Muziris as an importat Port of Cheras.
2. Which one of the following explains the practice of 'Vattakirutal' as mentioned in Sangam poems?
(a) Kings employing women bodyguards
[D]
(b) Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters
(c) Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals
(d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death