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History & Culture of India
Sangam Age
The Sangam and the two epics – Silappathigaram and

Age constitutes an Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by
important chapter in Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil
the history of South literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it
India. According to provides information on the political and socio
Tamil legends, economic conditions of the Sangam period.
there existed three Sangams (Academy of The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies
Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly consist of eight works –
called Muchchangam. These Sangams  Aingurunooru
flourished under the royal patronage of the  Narrinai
Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at Then  Aganaooru
Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary  Purananooru
sages but no literary work of this Sangam was  Kuruntogai
available. The second Sangam was held at  Kalittogai
Kapadapuram but the all the literary works  Paripadal and
had perished except Tolkappiyam. The third  Padirruppattu
Sangam at Madurai was founded by The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten
Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large works –
number of poets who produced voluminous  Thirumurugarruppadai
literature but only a few had survived. These  Porunararruppadai
Tamil literary works remain useful sources to  Sirupanarruppadai
reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.  Perumpanarruppadai
Sangam Literature  Mullaippattu
The corpus of Sangam  Nedunalvadai
literature includes  Maduraikkanji
Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai,  Kurinjippatttu
P a t t u p p a t t u ,  Pattinappalai and
Pathinenkilkanakku,  Malaipadukadam

Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were Political History

divided into two main groups – Aham (love) The Tamil country was
and Puram (valour). Pathinenkilkanakku ruled by three dynasties
contains eighteen works mostly dealing with namely the Chera, Chola
ethics and morals. The most important among and Pandyas during the
them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Sangam Age. The
Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and political history of these
Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides dynasties can be traced
valuable information on the Sangam polity from the literary
and society. references.
Sangam Details Cheras
In addition to the Sangam literature, the  The Cheras ruled over parts of modern
Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny Kerala.
and Ptolemy mention the commercial contacts  Their capital was Vanji and their
between the West and South India. The Asokan important seaports were Tondi and
inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya Musiri.
rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire.  They had the palmyra flowers as their
The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of garland.
Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms.  The Pugalur inscription of the
The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, first century A.D refers to three
Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas generations of Chera rulers.
commercial activities of the Tamils.  Padirruppattu also provides
Period of Sangam Literature information on Chera kings.
The chronology of the Sangam literature  Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan,
is still a disputed topic among the scholars. Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan
The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies and Cheran Senguttuvan were the
in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and famous rulers of this dynasty.
Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd
were contemporaries. This is confirmed by century A.D. His younger brother was Elango
Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Among
Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by his military achievements, his expedition to
Roman emperors of the first century A.D were the Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated
found in plenty in various places of Tamil many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan
Nadu. Therefore, the most probable date of introduced the Pattini cult or the worship
the Sangam literature has been fixed between of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.
the third century B.C. to third century A.D. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
on the basis of literary, archaeological and brought by him after his Himalayan expedition.
numismatic evidences. The consecration ceremony was attended by

many princes including Gajabhagu II from Sri won victories over the Aryan forces).
Lanka. He was responsible for the execution
Cholas of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt
 The Chola kingdom of the Sangam Madurai.
period extended from modern Tiruchi  The other was Talaiyalanganattu
district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Cheruvenra (He who won the battle
 Their capital was first located at at Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan.
Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. He was praised by Nakkirar and
 Karikala was a famous king of the Mangudi Maruthanar. He wore this
Sangam Cholas. title after defeating his enemies at
 Pattinappalai portrays his early life the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which
and his military conquests. is located in the Tanjore district. By
In the Battle of Venni he defeated the this victory Neduncheliyan gained
mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, control over the entire Tamil Nadu.
Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains. This  Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi
event is mentioned in many Sangam poems. Maruthanar describes the socio-
Vahaipparandalai was another important economic condition of the Pandya
battle fought by him in which nine enemy country including the flourishing
chieftains submitted before him. Karikala’s seaport of Korkai.
military achievements made him the overlord  The last famous Pandyan king was
of the whole Tamil country. Trade and Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan rule
commerce flourished during his reign period. during the Sangam Age began to decline
He was responsible for the reclamation of forest due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.
lands and brought them under cultivation Minor Chieftains
thus adding prosperity to the people. He also The minor chieftains played a significant
built Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also role in the Sangam period. Among them Pari
constructed many irrigation tanks. (Parambu Nadu), Kari (Malaiyaman chiefs
Pandyas ruled over the Tirukoyilur area also known as
 The Pandyas ruled over the present Kovalur), Ori (Kolli Hills), Nalli (Nalli Malai
day southern Tamil Nadu. Their Nadan), Pegan (Palani Hills), Ay (Pothigai
capital was Madurai. Hills) and Adiyaman (Tagadur present
 The earliest kings of the Pandyan day Dharmapuri) were popular for their
dynasty were Nediyon, Palyagasalai philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.
Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Therefore, they were known as Kadai Yelu
Mudathirumaran. Vallalgal. Although they were subordinate
 There were two Neduncheliyans. The to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they
first one was known as Aryappadai were powerful and popular in their respective
Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who regions.

Sangam Polity The people living in these five divisions

Hereditary monarchy was the form of had their respective chief occupations as well
government during the Sangam period. The as gods for worship.
king had also taken the advice of his minister,  Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan –
court-poet and the imperial court or avai. The chief occupation, hunting and honey
Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, collection.
Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,  Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) –
the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi chief occupation, cattle-rearing and
and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar. dealing with dairy products.
Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal  Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief
emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the occupation, agriculture.
Cholas and bow for the Cheras. The imperial  Neydal – chief deity Varunan –
court or Avai was attended by a number of chief occupation fishing and salt
chiefs and officials. The king was assisted by manufacturing.
a large body of officials who were divided into  Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief
five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), occupation robbery.
priests (anthanar), military commanders Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes
(senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar). namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and
The military administration was also efficiently vellalar. The ruling class was called arasar.
organized during the Sangam Age. Each Anthanars played a significant role in
ruler had a regular army and their respective the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars
Kodimaram (tutelary tree). carried on trade and commerce. The vellalas
Land revenue was the chief source of state’s were agriculturists. Other tribal groups
income while custom duty was also imposed like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar,
on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai refers to the Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in
custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes
Booty captured in wars was also a major income like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived
to the royal treasury. Roads and highways were in this period.
well maintained and guarded night and day to Religion
prevent robbery and smuggling. The primary deity of the Sangam period
Sangam Society was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil
Tolkappiyam refers to the five - fold division God. The worship of Murugan was having
of lands, an ancient origin and the festivals relating to
 Kurinji (hilly tracks) God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam
 Mullai (pastoral) literature. He was honoured with six abodes
 Marudam (agricultural) known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods
 Neydal (coastal) and worshipped during the Sangam period were
 Palai (desert) Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan

and Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.
worship was significant in the Sangam period. Koothu was the most popular entertainment
The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the of the people.
bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many Economy of the Sangam Age
hero stones with legends inscribed on them Agriculture was the chief occupation.
were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. Rice was the common crop. Ragi, Sugarcane,
This kind of worshipping the deceased has a Cotton, Pepper, Ginger, Turmeric, Cinnamon
great antiquity. and a variety of fruits were the other crops.
Position of Women Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera
There is a plenty of country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola
information in the and Pandya country.
Sangam literature to The handicrafts of the Sangam period were
trace the position of popular. They include weaving, metal works
women during the and carpentry, ship building and making of
Sangam age. Women ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
poets like Avvaiyar, There was a great demand for these products,
Nachchellaiyar, and as the internal and external trade was at its
Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and peak during the Sangam period. Spinning and
contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a
women was also appreciated in many poems. high quality. The poems mention the cotton
Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough
virtue of women. Love marriage was a common of a snake. There was a great demand in the
practice. Women were allowed to choose their western world for the cotton clothes woven at
life partners. However, the life of widows was Uraiyur.
miserable. The practice of Sati was also Both internal and foreign trade was well
prevalent in the higher strata of society. The organized and briskly carried on in the
class of dancers was patronized by the kings Sangam Age. The Sangam literature, Greek
and nobles. and Roman accounts and the archaeological
Fine Arts evidences provide detailed information on this
Poetry, music and dancing were popular subject. Merchants carried the goods on the
among the people of the Sangam age. Liberal carts and on animal-back from place to place.
donations were given to poets by the kings, Internal trade was mostly based on the barter
chieftains and nobles. The royal courts were system. External trade was carried between
crowded with singing bards called Panar and South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the
Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman
folk dances. The arts of music and dancing trade assumed importance. The port city of
were highly developed. A variety of Yazhs and Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade,
drums are referred to in the Sangam literature. as big ships entered this port with precious

goods. Other ports of commercial activity Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief
include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu imports.
and Marakkanam. The author of Periplus End of the Sangam Age
provides the most valuable information on Towards the end of the third century A.D.,
foreign trade. Plenty of gold and silver coins the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline.
issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for
Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of about two and a half centuries. We have little
Tamil Nadu. They reveal the extent of the information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism
trade and the presence of Roman traders in the and Buddhism became prominent during this
Tamil country. period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil
The main exports of the Sangam age were Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu
Cotton, Fabrics, Spices like Pepper, Ginger, drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country
Cardamom, Cinnamon and Turmeric, Ivory and established their rule.
products, Pearls and precious stones.
•••

Cultural Heritage of
Tamil Nadu
In the Pre-Vedic India, a Dravidian During the Sangam age the political control
Civilization flourished with its nucleus in of Tamil Nadu was divided between the
the Indus Valley. Later with the coming of crowned monarchs and petty chieftains. The
Aryans the nucleus was shifted to Peninsular Veliars were the petty chieftains ruling over
India. The Tamil Language and culture are hilly tracts e.g. Aay of Podiyil hills, Adhiyaman
the oldest surviving once in the Dravidian of Kudhirai hills, Paari of Parambu hills.
family of civilisations in the ancient Pali and the fertile plains of river valleys were ruled
Sanskrit literature the words Dramila and by three crowned monarchs i.e. the Chera,
Dravida meant both Tamil and the Southern Chola, and Pandya. The petty chieftains and
regions and distinguished these from crowned monarchs patronized scholars and
Sankritised Northern region (Aryavartha). poets. Some of the kings themselves were
The Tamil language and literature are excellent poets e.g. Ariyapadai Kadantha
noted for their antiquity. The Sangam Nedunchezhian. The rulers were engaged in
poets like Mamulanar belonged to the age wars among themselves and with others like
of Nandas and Mauryas i.e. 4th century Sinhalese, Kadambas, Yavanas and Ariyas.
B.C. Thus the present Tamil language has Cheran Senguttuvan, Karikala Cholan,
a continuous history of atleast 2500 years. Ariyapadaikadantha Neduncheziyan were
It’s antiquity, Versatility and it’s distinct a few of the prominent monarchs of the
qualities have bestowed Tamil with a Sangam age.
classical status. Unlike Sanskrit but similar The Kalabhras uprooted the Tamil
to Chinese, Tamil has become the oldest, Kingdoms in the second phase (3rd Century
surviving, popular language of the Indian A.D.-6th Century A.D). However the Tamil
subcontinent and the eldest among the literacy activities continued during their
Dravidian languages of South India. regime too. A jain monk named Vajranandhi
The political history of Tamil Nadu from established a Dravida Sangha at Madurai.
500 B.C to 1300 A.d is divided into three Achyuta Vikrantha was the most popular
phases (1) The Sangam age (2) Kalabhra age Kalabhra ruler who ruled from Uraiyur.
(3) Age of Tamil Empires.

The Kalabhras were replaced by the of Pandyas at Madurai and the emergence of
Pallavas of Kanchi in North Tamil Nadu Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra led to the decline
and the Pandiyas of Madurai in South Tamil and fall of the Chola empire.
Nadu. The Pallavas were Simha Vishnu, Administrative System
Mahendravarman I and Narashimavarman The Sangam age had monarchial
I built a powerful empire by overcoming the governments with an absolute monarch as
challenges from Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas the head, who had no checks on his authority.
and Gangas. They became patrons of However the king was amenable to the
Saivism and Vaishnavism and built advice of wise men of his court. The king’s
temples for Vaishnavite and saivite deities. court known as Avai, Naalavai, Manram etc
In the South, the Pandiyas political unity consisted of ministers, generals, high officials,
patronised the Bakthi movement. chief queen, their apparent (Komahan) and
The Kalabhras were replaced by the junior princes (Ilango). The king had no
Pallavas of Kanchi in North Tamil Nadu standing army. Compulsory military service
and the Pandiyas of Madurai in South Tamil was imposed during the time of war.
Nadu. The Pallavas were Simha Vishnu, The royal army was categorised into four
Mahendravarman I and Narashimavarman wings
i built a powerful empire by overcoming the 1. Infantry
challenges from Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas 2. Cavalry
and Gangas. They became patrons of 3. War elephant and
Saivism and Vaishnavite and saivite deities. 4. Chariots.
In the South, the Pandiyas political unity Naval expeditions were also undertaken
patronised the Bakthi movement. by Sangam kings e.g. Cheran Senguttuvan
By the end of 9th century Vijayalaya and against Kadamba pirates and Karikala Chola
Aditya Chola of Tanjore revived the Chola against Sinhalese. Mandalam, Kottam,
power. Parantaka I, Rajaraja I and Rajendra Ur were the administrative subdivisions.
Chola transformed Chola kingdom in to an The village administration was carried
empire. They subdued the Vengi Chalukyas, on by assembly of elders. There was a
Pandyas, Chera and conquered the Sinhala regular system of revenue administration.
kingdom. Rajendra sent expeditions to Besides the loot from the wars excise, tolls,
Bengal and Kadaram. The Cholas were duties on salt, periodical gifts and tributes
ardent saivites who built many magnificent contributed to the revenue of the king. The
temples for Siva. The Brahadeeswarar kings especially the Pandyas and Cholas
temple, Gangaikondacholapuram and encourages extension of agriculture by
Darasuram are noteworthy among them. deforestation, embankment of rivers and
Extensive t rade c ontacts w ere e stablished encouraging agrarian settlement in newly
with far off countries like Sri Vijaya and conquered regions.
China. By the end of 13th century the revival

During the phase of empires, the king’s  Neidal - the coastal or littoral
powers and responsibilities increased region and
manifold. The number of ministers  Paalai - the desert region.
and officials increased. A powerful The population was accordingly
standing army including naval units was classified as
developed. A complex system of provincial  Kuravar or Vedar of Kurinji
administration emerged. The empire was  Idayar of Mullai
divided into Mandalams and Mandalams  Uzhavar of Marudham
into Nadus and Nadus into Kottams. Each  Minavar or Parathavar of Neidal
Kottam consisted of a number of Perurs  Kallar of Paalai
(large towns) Urs (Villages) Nagarams In the royal towns of Marudham region
(market towns) and Pattinams (coastal the people were classified as Arasar
Towns). Autonomous local bodies like ‘ur’ (princes) Anthanar (wisemen), Vanikar
or ‘urar’ for villages and Nattar for Nadus (traders) and Vellalar (agriculturists)
looked after the local administration. Panar (bards), Viraliyar (dancers), Kuyavar
The villages endowed to the Brahmins (potters), Umanar (salt merchants),
(Brahmadeyam) were governed by the Vannar (washermen), weavers and other
assemblies of local Brahmins. These handicraft - men, poets and teachers
Mahasabhas enjoyed complete freedom were also mentioned. Names of women
from external interference and exempted poets were found revealing the access of
from regular taxes. The Chola age is known education to women. Love marriages were
as the Golded age of the Mahasabhas. Forced approved Chastity was considered the
labour was imposed for public works and meritorious quality of women. There were
even for building temples. Innumerable very few instances of sati being committed
tanks, canals and reservoirs were created by widows of royal families.
to increase food production. The Caste system received royal
Society recognition during the time of the Pallavas.
The ‘Porulathikaram’ in Tolkappiam The Brahmins were now given the highest
describes the social conditions of the Sangam status in the society. They emerged as
Tamils. The birth based caste and varna systems religious leaders, political and social
were absent among the Tamils instead, the advisors and ultimate authority in legal
land based Tinai divisions were mentioned. issues. They were given land grants and tax
The Tamil land was topographically divided concessions. All other castes were treated as
into Sudras. Untouchability became a menacing
 Kurinji - hills and hilly region factor, these landless tillers were deprived
 Mullai - the Pastoral Slopes of education, offices and access to temples.
 Marudham - the fertile cultivable In the last phase of the Chola empire there
plains

emerged two groupings of castes; Valangai of the geographical landscapes are described
and Edangai which led to Social tensions and as being landscapes that occur naturally in the
regular clashes. Tamil lands. These are: kurinci - mountainous
However it should be noted that Sangam regions, associated with union, mullai -
ethical literature like Naladiyar and forests, associated with waiting, marutam
Thirukkural did not approve of caste. Sangam - cropland, associated with quarreling, and
Tamils stressed more on ethical conduct neytal - seashore, associated with pining.
than on faith and rituals. During the age of The fifth - palai, or desert, associated with
Tamil empires, the Bhakthi movement, the separation - is described in the Tolkappiyam
Nayanmars and Alwars accommodated all as not being a naturally existing landscape.
the communities as Bhakthas. From these basic associations of landscape
Symbolism and subject, a wide range of specific themes
Classical Tamil love poetry assigns the suitable for each landscape were derived.
human experiences it describes, and in Thus, for example, the commentary on the
particular the subjective topics that those Iraiyanar Akapporul states that as a result
experiences relate to, specific habitats. Every of the association of the kurinci landscape
situation in the poems is described using with union, it was also associated with the
themes in which the time, the place and the fear of separation, reassurance, the hero’s
floral symbols of each episode are codified. or heroine’s discussions with their friends,
These codifications are used as symbols to their being teased or taunted by their friends,
imply a socio-economic order, occupations their replies to their friends, the friends’ role
and behaviour patterns, which, in turn, are as intermediary, the meeting of the lovers,
symbolized, by specific flora and fauna. grief and doubt, and other similar themes.
Details of secondary aspects are just as rigidly According to the Tamil nerivilakkam, a
codified - the seasons, the hour a god, musical 9th-century text on poetry, the love themes
instruments and, above all, the sentimental described by the five thinais constitute “the
connotations of each landscape: lovers’ Tamil way of life” or “the Tamil way of love.”
meetings, patient waiting, lovers’ quarrels, (tamilneri).
separation, and the anxiously awaited return. The two non-geographical modes -
Geographical and non-geographical kaikkilai and peruntinai - were seen as dealing
thinais with emotions that were non-conforming,
Under this codification, the inner universe and therefore were not associated with any
associated with love is divided into seven specific landscape. Kaikkilai, dealt with
modes, or thinai, five of which are geographical unreciprocated or one-sided love, while
and associated with specific landscapes, and peruntinai, dealt with ‘improper’ love or love
two of which are non-geographical and not against the rules of custom.
associated with any specific landscape. Four
0
Poetic Attributes of the Landscapes
Kurunji Mullai Marudam Neydhal Palai
Patient Lovers’ quarrels, Heroine Elopement Longest separation Dangerous journey
waiting over wife’s irritability expresses grief by the hero
separation (husband acused over separation
of visiting a
courtesan)
Flower Kurinji Mullai (Jasmine) Marudam Water lily Paalai
Landscape Mountains Forest, Pasture Agricultural areas, Seashore Parched wasteland,
Plain or valley Desert
Time Midnight Evening Shortly before Sunset Noon
sunrise
Season / Winter/Cool and Late Summer / Late spring Early summer Summer
Climate moist Cloudy
Animal Monkey, Elephant, Deer Water Buffalo, Crocodile; Shark Fatigued Elephant,
Horse, Bull, Tiger Fresh water fish Tiger or wolf
Crop / Plant Jackfruit, bamboo, Konrai Mango Punnai Cactus
Venkai
Water Waterfall Rivers Pond Well, Sea Dry wells, Stagnant
water
Soil Red and Black soils Red soil Alluvial Sandy, Salinesoil Salt affected soil
with stones and
pebbles
Occupation Hill tribes, gathering Pastoral and Farmer Selling fish, Salt, Travellers, bandits
honey a g r i c u l t u r a l Fisherfolk
occupations
God Murugan Maayon Indra Varuna Kottravai

The Geographical Thinais and sandalwood. In this region millet grows

In Tamil, each of the five geographical and wild bees are a source of honey. Mullai or
thinais are named for a flower that is Jasmine (Jasminumauriculatum) is the flower
characteristic of that landscape. In English of the forests.
translation, however, it is customary to use The theme of the forest and of shepherds
the name of the landscape rather than that of at play, the image of confident waiting
the flower, largely because the flowers lack the for the loved one, produced an original
cultural association with a specific language in offshoot; for this is the region of Maayon
English that they have in Tamil. (Ancient Tamil god), and the love theme it
Kurinji – Mountainous Region represents symbolizes the devotee waiting in
The mountain is the scene of the lovers’ the hope that Maayon will eventually come
union at midnight. It is the cold, dewy season. and fill his soul, thus experiencing the joys
The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, of expectation.
bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet Marutham – Cropland
grows and wild bees are a source of honey. The plains were the scene of triangular
Love in this setting is exemplified by Murugan, love plots in which the hero’s visits to the
and one of his wives, Valli, the daughter of a courtesan oblige the heroine to counter with
mountain dweller. He wears the sparkling red a mixed show of coquetry and moodiness,
kantal flower and rides a peacock, the bird of tactics whose limits are described in the
the mountains. Thirukkural (“Sulking is like flavouring with
The name of the region, Kurinchi, is salt; a little suffices, but it is easy to go too
also the name of the famous Kurinji flower far.”). Indra, the god of thunderstorm, is the
(Strobilantheskunthiana) from the lofty hills god of Marutham land.
of Tamil country. The Strobilanthes, a shrub The Marutam (Lagerstroemia speciosa) tree
whose brilliant white flowers blossom for only was the characteristic tree of this region.
a few days once every ten or twelve years, Neithal – Seashore
blanketing the slopes in radiant whiteness The seashore affords many examples of
under the sun. This event of jubilation and the compelling charm of Sangam poetry and
purity symbolizes the frenzy of a sudden love the extraordinary freshness of its realism.
shared, in concert with the unleashed forces From behind the conventional symbolization
of nature: the amorous dance of peacocks, of waiting there emerges a picture of the life
their echoing cries, the splash of waterfalls, of the fisherfolk; the nets and boats drawn up
the roar of savage beasts. The lovers hold each on the beach, scuttling crabs and cart wheels
other tighter still and forget the dangers of the bogged down in the sand, the odour of drying
mountain path. fish, cut into thick slices, which attracts the
Mullai – Forests birds, beautiful village girls peering through
Mullai is the land of the forest. The forest the Pandanus hedges, and the wind blowing
is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo through the cracks in the roughly constructed

straw huts at night. Varuna, the water god, is grammatical works (Pingala Nigandu and
worshiped in Neithal. Yapperumkalam) were produced during
Water lily is the characteristic flower of the the Kalabra period. During the age of
region. empires, Bhakti literature became abundant.
Palai – mixture of Mullai and Kurinci Thevaram, Thiruvasakam, Divya Prabandam,
In classical Tamil prosody, the palai or Periapuranam Kambaramayanam propagated
wasteland is not seen as being a naturally Saivism and Vaishnavism, Muvarula,
occurring ecology. Ilampuranar, in his Kalingathuprani, Nandikalambakam, Nannul
commentary on the Tolkappiyam, explains and Veeracholiyam are some of the noteworthy
that instead, the landscape of the wasteland secular works. Tamil studies were supported
with which the paalai is associated emerges by the chola grants (Pulavara Mutrool).
when other landscapes whither under the heat Though Sanskrit was the official language
of the burning sun. . Paalai could thus be seen during Pallava period and Sanskrit studies
as a mixture of Mullai and Kurinci tracts, rather received royal patronage only few notable
than as a mere sandy area. Sanskrit works were produced, for example,
The theme of wasteland and separation Mattavilasaprakasanam, Kirtarjuniyam,
occupies half of one of the most famous Avanti Sundari Katha and Kavyadarsam,
anthologies, the theme of the mountain being However Sanskrit succeeded in being accepted
only secondary. as the language of religious rituals of the
Paalai tree is identified as Wrightia temples. Sanskrit learning of the Brahmins
(Wrightiatinctoria). were supported by tax free land grants (Bhatta
Sangam Literature Vritti and Veda Vritti)
The Sangam Literature, composed by poets Religion
belonging to different social segments including The religious practices during Sangam age
women, was secular in character and did not were Tinai based. The people were liberal in
claim divinity. The Sangam literature includes their religious out look and religion did not
Tolkappiam, (a grammar work) Ettuthogai, dominate socio political activities. Hero stones
Pathupattu, Pathinen Keezh Kanakku and were worshipped, Seyon, Mayon, Vendan,
the two great epics Silapadhikaram and Varunan, Valiyon and Kotravai were popular
Manimegalai. War and love are glorified deities. Ganesa cult was absent. Singing and
Ettuthogai and Pathupattu however most of dancing (Kuravai and veriyattu) were associated
the Pathinen Keezh Kanakku works were on with worship, offering of flowers, grains and
morals. The 18 Minor works, 5 major epics animals were made to deities. The Vedic yagnas
(Silapadhikaram, Manimekalai, Kundalakesi, of Brahmins attracted a few kings but had
Valayapathi and Seevagasinthamani) and 5 not become popular with the people. Jainism,
minor epics (Neelakesi, Sulamani, Udayana Buddhism and Ajivikaism made inroads into
Kumara Kaviyam, Yasodhara Kaviyam Tamil society during Sangam age and became
and Nagakumara Kaviyam) epics and very popular during Kalabhra period.

Bhakthi movement (Muzhauu) were used in such performances.

gained momentum Festivals and worship were also associated
during the Pallava with dance and music (Kuravai, Veriyattu) The
period. Nayanmars and Pallava inscription at Kudumianmalai refers
Alvars carried on to a great musician Rudracharya.
intensive propanganda
against Jain and
Buddhist. Siva, Thirumal
and their consorts
became important deities in the later phase of
the Chola period Murugan cult became
popular. The Brahmins replaced local priests
in temples and Sanskrit became the religious
language. The jains and Buddhists temples
were either demolished or converted into The Devaram and Divya Prabandam
Saivite or Vaishnavite temples. The Chola were set to Ragas. The Puranic themes were
period witnessed Saivaite and Vaishnavite enacted in the form of koothu or gaathas. The
clashes. The Thillai Govindarajan idol was Devadasis or temple servants were excellent
removed from Chidambaram idol was removed dancers.
from Chidambaram temple, and the In the field of architecture the Sangam age
Vaishnavite Ramanuja was forced to seek did not produce enduring structures with
asyulum in Karnataka. the advent of the Pallavas a new style in art
Virasaivism and Sri Vaishanvism raised and architecture appeared in Tamilnadu. At
their voice against social segregation. The first Mandapams were excavated out of rocks
Tamil Siddhars put a rational and powerful with excellent sculptural representations
argument against caste discriminations, temple (Mahisasura Mandapam, varaha mandapam).
system, superstitions and rituals. Then single rocks were converted into
Art and Architecture ratha like temples (monolithdic rathas at
The Sangam Mahabalipuram). They built structural temples
Tamils had their by filling up stone slabs. (Shore temple,
own system of Kailasanathar Temple and Vaikuntha Perumal
music, dance and Temple). These Temples were noted for their
drama (Pann, Vimanas. The imperial Cholas developed this
Aadal and style further. Elaborate campuses, protective
Koothu). The walls, Pillared halls, huge towers and multi
Panar and Viraliyar were professional shrines marked the Chola Temple architecture.
musicians and dancers. String instruments The Tanjore Brihadeeswaram, Gangai
(Yaazh) wind instruments (Kuzhal) and drums Konda Cholapuram and Darasuram are

outstanding specimens of Chola architecture. Tamil’s versatile achievements. Kaniyans were

All these temples have excellent sculptural both astronomers and astrologers. The Tamil
representations. The Sittannavasal caves Siddhas produced excellent treaties on Siddha
Kailasanathar Temple and Brihadeeswarar system of medicine and these treaties elaborate
Temple have the best specimens of paintings. diagnosis, treatment by herbs and chemicals
The Chola bronze images of Nataraja, Siva, and also provide pharmacological details.
Vishnu and other deities have earned global To conclude with, it can be said that the
acclaim. Tamils had excelled in many fields of human
The Tamil had developed their own system activity and philosophically they emphasised
of mathematics time calculation, astronomy, on a universal outlook. Their theism did not
and medicinal systems. give too much room for superstitions. Like
The Sangam literature refers to “Enn” the Buddhists and Jains, the Tamils opined,
Kanakku Nazhigai Yamam Kaatham and Kol. that good or bad, nothing comes from others
They also refer to seasons as Elavenil, Elaiudir and held the view that man is the maker of his
etc. References to native medicines like Elathi, own destiny. The legacy of Tamils is a glorious
Tirikadukam, Siru pancha Mulam etc reveal chapter in Indian history.
•••

The Pallavas
After the decline of the Sangam Age in Pulindas mentioned in the inscriptions of
the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted Asoka. When Tondaimandalam was conquered
for about 250 years. Thereafter, the Pallavas by the Satavahanas, the Pallavas became their
established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam feudatories. After the fall of the Satavahanas in
with its capital at Kanchipuram. Their rule the third century A.D., they became
continued till Tondaimandalam was captured independent. The Pallavas issued their earlier
and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit because of
beginning of the tenth century A.D. their Satavahana connections, and also
Origin of the Pallavas patronised Brahmanism.
There are Political History
different views The early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350
on the origin of A.D. issued their charters in Prakrit. Important
the Pallavas. among them were Sivaskandavarman and
They were Vijayaskandavarman. The second line of Pallava
equated with rulers who ruled between 350 A.D. and 550
the Parthians, A.D. issued their charters in Sanskrit. The most
the foreigners who ruled western India. important ruler of this line was Vishnugopal
Another view was that the Pallavas were a who was defeated by Samudragupta during his
branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the South Indian expedition. The rulers of the third
Vakatakas of the Deccan. The third view relates line who ruled from 575 A.D. to their ultimate
the Pallavas with the descendents of the Chola fall in the ninth century issued their charters
prince and a Naga princess whose native was both in Sanskrit and Tamil. Simhavishnu was
the island of Manipallavam. But these theories the first ruler of this line. He destroyed the
on the origin of the Pallavas were not supported Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava
by adequate evidences. Therefore, the view rule in Tondaimandalam. He also defeated
that the Pallavas were the natives of the Cholas and extended the Pallava territory
Tondaimandalam itself was widely accepted up to the river Kaveri. Other great Pallava
by scholars. They are also identical with the

rulers of this line were Mahendravarman I, are found in a number of places like
Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II. Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur,
Later Pallavas (570-903 A.D.) Pallavaram, Mandagappattu and
Simhavishnu was the first ruler of the later Tiruchirappalli. He had also authored
Pallava dynasty. he destroyed the Kalabhras the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa
and firmly established the Pallava rule in Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli
Tondaimandalam with his capital at Kanchi. reveals his talents in painting. He
He seized the regions of the Cholas. His is also regarded as an expert in
kingdom extended from Andhra Kingdom, music. The music inscription at
Vishnukundin up to the river Cauvery. He Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
assumed the title ‘Avanisimha’ or the ‘Lion of Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)
the Earth’.  Narasimhavarman I was also known
Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.) as Mamalla, which means ‘great
 The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya wrestler’. He wanted to take avenge
Conflict began during his period. the defeat of his father at the hands
Pulakesin II marched against the of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
Pallavas and captured the northern His victory over Pulakesin II in the
part of their kingdom. Although Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi
a Pallava inscription refers to the is mentioned in Kuram copper
victory of Mahendravarman I at plates. The Pallava army under
Pullalur, he was not able to recover General Paranjothi pursued the
the lost territory. retreating Chalukya army, entered
 Mahendravarman I was a follower Chalukya territory, captured and
of Jainism in the early part of his destroyed the capital city of Vatapi.
career. He was converted to Saivism Narasimhavarman I assumed the
by the influence of the Saiva saint, title ‘Vatapikonda’. He regained
Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. the lost territory. Another notable
He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi. achievement of Narasimhavarman I
He assumed a number of titles like was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari He restored the throne to his friend
(builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma.
Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.  During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited
 He was a great builder of cave temples. the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. His
The Mandagappattu inscription hails description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls
him as Vichitrachitta who constructed it a big and beautiful city, six miles in
a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva circumference. It had 100 Buddhist
without the use of bricks, timber, metal monasteries in which about 10,000
and mortar. His rock-cut temples Buddhist monks lived. According

to his account the people of Kanchi with the death of Parameswaram-II as his son did
esteemed great learning and the not succeed him.
Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great Nandivarman-II Pallavamalla
centre of learning. Narasimhavarman Nandivarman-II Pallavamalla (731-796
I was the founder of Mamallapuram A.D.) was the son of Simhavishnu’s brother
and the monolithic rathas were Hiranyavarman. He was chosen by the Pallava
erected during his reign. ministers, the members of ghatika (college of
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha learning) and the common people to succeed
(695 -722 A.D.) Parameswaran-II. Nandivarman II was a
Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by worshipper of Vishnu. He built the Vaikunta
Mahendravarman II and Parameswarvarman PErumal temple at Kanchi. The great Vaishnava
I and the Pallava – Chalukya conflict Saint Thirumangai Alwar was his contemporary.
continued during their reign. Thereafter, Decline of the Pallavas
Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of The successors of Nandivarman-II were
the Pallava kingdom. He was also known not very strong and powerful. They had to
as Rajasimha. His regime was peaceful and face Pandya aggression. The last Pallava ruler
he evinced more interest in developing the Aparajitha (885-903 A.D.) was defeated by
art and architecture. The Shore temple at Aditya-I, a Chola ruler. The Pallava rule at
Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Tondaimandalam thus came to an end with
Kanchipuram were built in this period. He was his downfall.
also a great patron of art and letters. The famous Administration of the Pallavas
Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned The Pallavas had a well organized
his court. He sent embassies to China and the administrative system. The Pallava state
maritime trade flourished during his reign. was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was
Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, administered by officers appointed by the king.
Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya. He was The king was at the centre of administration in
succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and which he was assisted by able ministers. He was
Nandivarman II. The Pallava rule lasted till the fountain of justice. He maintained a well-
the end of the ninth century A.D. The Chola trained army. He provided land-grants to the
king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler temples known as Devadhana and also to the
Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With Brahmans known as Brahmadeya. It was also
this, the rule of Pallava dynasty came to an the responsibility of the central government
end. to provide irrigation facilities to the lands.
Parameswaran-II (728-731 A.D), the son A number of irrigation tanks were dug by
of Narasimhavarman-II came to power in 728 the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at
A.D. He was defeated by the Chalukya ruler Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug
Vikramaditya-II. He died in a battle with the during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
Gangas. The Simhavishnu line of rule came to an Detailed information on the tax system could

also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions. of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman
Land tax was the primary source of the studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a
government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi.
Devadhana lands were exempted from tax. Dharmapala, who later became the Head
Traders and artisans such as carpenters, of the Nalanada University, belonged to
goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar
weavers paid taxes to the government. The lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin,
Pallava inscriptions throw much light on another Sanskrit writer adorned the court
the village assemblies called sabhas and of Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman
their committees. They maintained records I composed the Sanskrit play
of all village lands, looked after local affairs Mattavilasaprahasanam. Tamil literature
and managed temples. had also developed. The Nayanmars and
Society under the Pallavas Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.
The Tamil society witnessed a great The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and
change during the Pallava period. The the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by
caste system became rigid. The Brahmins Alwars represent the religious literature
occupied a high place in the society. of the Pallava period. Perundevanar was
They were given land-grants by the kings patronized by Nandivarman II and he
and nobles. They were also given the translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba
responsibility of looking after the temples. in Tamil. Nandikkalambagam was another
The Pallava period also witnessed the rise important work but the name of the author
of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the of this work is not known. Music and dance
decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The Saiva also developed during this period.
Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars Pallava Art and Architecture
contributed to the growth of Saivism and It was a great age of temple building. The
Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Pallavas introduced the art of excavating
Movement. They composed their hymns in temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian
the Tamil language. These hymns revealed style of temple architecture began with the
the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The Pallava rule. It was a gradual evolution
construction of temples by the Pallava starting from the cave temples to monolithic
kings paved the way for the spread of these rathas and culminated in structural temples.
two religions. The development of temple architecture
Education and Literature under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.
The Pallavas were great patrons of Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-
learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient cut temples. This style of Pallava temples
centre of learning. The Ghatika at Kanchi are seen at places like Mandagappattu,
was popular and it attracted students from Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur,
all parts of India and abroad. The founder Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and

Tirukalukkunram. The second stage of Pallava the early structural temples of the Pallavas. The
architecture is represented by the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest
rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram. architectural master piece of the Pallava art.
Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these The last stage of the Pallava art is also
wonderful architectural monuments. The five represented by structural temples built by the
rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple,
rathas, signifies five different styles of temple Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara
architecture. temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of
architecture. The Pallavas had also contributed
to the development of sculpture. Apart from
the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open
Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an
important monument bearing the sculptural
beauty of this period. The Descent of the
Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a
fresco painting in stone. The minute details as
well as the theme of these sculptures such as
the figures of
The mandapas contain beautiful  Lice-picking monkey,
sculptures on its walls. The most popular of  Elephants of huge size and the figure
these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect
Mandapam, Tirumurthi Mandapam and remain the proof for the talent of the
Varaha Madapam. sculptor.
Fine Arts
Music, dance and painting had also
developed under the patronage of the
Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription contains
a note on the notation of vocal music. The
Kudumianmalai inscription referred to
musical notes and instruments. The Alwars
and Nayanmars composed their hymns in
various musical notes. Dance and drama also
developed during this period. The sculptures of
In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced this period depict many dancing postures. The
the structural temples. These temples were built Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha The commentary called Dakshinchitra was
temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman
Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.
0
Hieun Tsang: Hieun Tsang visited

the Pallava capital Kanchipuram.
According to him Kanchi was about 6
miles in circumference. There were more
than one hundred Buddhist monasteries
and many jain temples here. Kanchi was
the greatest centre of education in the
The ancient Tamizhagam was divided into south.
three political units under the Cheras, Cholas Vatsyayana was a pandit of Kanchi.
and the Pandyas. Their period of existence Dharmapala went from Kanchi to
is known as the Sangam Age. The Kalabhras Nalanda. Dandi the author of “Dandi
who rose to power during this period ruled Alangaram” a poet from North India
nearly for three centuries from 300-600 A.D. In lived in Kanchi.
this chapter we will study in detail about the
Later Pallava dynasty, imperial Cholas and the
Pandyas. Variyams were Executive
committees.
•••

The Cholas
The Cholas as Cholamandalam. He defeated Gangas and

The Cholas were an antique ruling family. Kongu country. Parantaka-I, son of Aditya-I
References to the Cholas are made in the defeated the Pandya ruler and took up the
Mahabharata, the inscriptions of Asoka and the title-Maduraikondan. He was defeated by
works of Megasthenese and Ptolemy. the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna-III in the battle
During the Sangam Age, the of Takkolam. Parantaka died in 955 A.D.
Cholas ruled Tiruchi and Tanjore
Successors of Parantaka-I
region. Their capital was Uraiyur.
1. Gandaraditya 949-957 A.D.
Tiger was their emblem. Their
2. Arinjaya 956-957 A.D.
greatest ruler Karikala built
3. Parantaka-II 956-973 A.D.
Kallanai across the river Cauvery
4. Aditya 956-966 A.D.
near Trichy.
5. Uttama Chola 965-985 A.D.
The Chola rule declined as they became
feudatories of the rulers of Uraiyur.  The later Cholas were well-versed in
Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas maintaining and auditing of accounts.
The Cholas who emerged to power in the  Free hospitals called ‘Aathular salai’
middle of the ninth century were known as were setup at Thanjavur and many
later Cholas or Imperial Cholas. They were more places.
called as Imperial Cholas. They were called Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)
as Imperial Cholas because their kingdom It was under Rajaraja
extended to a major portion of south India, I and his son Rajendra
Srilanka and Kadaram (including Sumatra I that the Chola power
and Malaya). reached its highest
Vijayalaya (850-871 A.D) laid the point of glory. His
foundation for the rise of later Cholas. military conquests
Aditya I (871-907 A.D) son of Vijayalaya were:
became the ruler of Tondaimandalam as well

 The defeat of the Chera ruler and the Telugu Choda territories in the
Bhaskararavivarman in the naval Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and
battle of Kandalursalai and the the Maldive Islands beyond India. Rajaraja
destruction of the Chera navy. assumed a number of titles like Mummidi
 The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Chola, Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara. He
Amarabhujanga and establishment was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed
of Chola authority in the Pandya the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara
country. temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in
 The conquest of Gangavadi, 1010 A.D. He also helped in the construction of
Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
in the Mysore region. The invasion of Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his Rajendra had demonstrated his military
son Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king ability by participating in his father’s
Mahinda V fled away from his country, campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of
the Cholas annexed the northern Sri aggressive conquests and expansion.
Lanka. The capital was shifted from His important wars were:
Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a  Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka
Shiva temple was built. attempted to recover from the Cholas
 The Chola victory over the growing the northern part of Ceylon. Rajendra
power of the Western Chalukyas of defeated him and seized the southern
Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka
and Rajaraja I captured the Raichur was made part of the Chola Empire.
Doab, Banavasi and other places.  He reasserted the Chola authority over
Hence the Chola power extended up the Chera and Pandya countries.
to the river Tungabadhra.  He defeated Jayasimha II, the
 The restoration of Vengi throne to its Western Chalukya king and the
rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya river Tungabadhra was recognised
by defeating the Telugu Cholas. as the boundary between the
Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai Cholas and Chalukyas. His most
in marriage to Vimaladitya. famous military enterprise was his
 Rajaraja’s last military achievement expedition to north India.
was a naval expedition against  The Chola army crossed the Ganges by
the Maldive Islands which were defeating a number of rulers on its way.
conquered. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
By these conquests, the extent of the Chola To commemorate this successful north-
empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Indian campaign Rajendra founded
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of the city of Gangaikondacholapuram
Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and constructed the famous

Rajesvaram temple in that city. He Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power
also excavated a large irrigation tank was preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I
called Cholagangam on the western and Kulottunga III. Kulottunga I was the
side of the city. grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter
 Another famous venture of Rajendra Ammangadevi. He succeeded the Chola
was his naval expedition to Kadaram throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom
or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point with the Chola Empire. During his reign Sri
the real object of the expedition. Lanka became independent. Subsequently,
Whatever its objects were, the Vengi and the Mysore region were captured
naval expedition was a complete by the western Chalukyas. Kulottunga I sent
success. A number of places were a large embassy of 72 merchants to China
occupied by Chola forces. But it was and maintained cordial relations with the
only temporary and no permanent kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Under Kulottunga III
annexation of these places was the central authority became weak. The rise of
contemplated. He assumed the title the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the
Kadaramkondan. emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge
 Rajendra I had put down all rebellions to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate
and kept his empire in tact. At the downfall of the Chola Empire. Rajendra III
death of Rajendra I the extent of the was the last Chola king who was defeated
Chola Empire was at its peak. The by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. The Chola
river Tungabadhra was the northern country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.
boundary. The Pandya, Kerala and
Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka Immediate successors of Rajendra-I
formed part of the empire. He gave his 1. Rajadhiraja I 1018-1054 A.D.
daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi 2. Rajendra II 1056-1064 A.D.
Chalukya prince and further continued 3. Rajamahendra 1060-1063 A.D.
the matrimonial alliance initiated 4. Virarajendra 1063-1070 A.D.
by his father. Rajendra I assumed a 5. Adirajendra 1067-1070 A.D.
number of titles, the most famous being
Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kulottunga-I (1071-1122 A.D.)
Kondan and Pandita Cholan. Like his Kulottunga-I who was born to
father he was also a devout Saiva and Ammangadevi, the daughter of Rajendra-I and
built a temple for that god at the new Rajaraja of Vengi started the Chalukya Chola
capital Gangaikondacholapuram. line of rulers. He united Vengi Kingdom with
He made liberal endowments to this the Chola Empire.
temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Kulottunga-I defeated the western
Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards Chalukyas. He also captured Kalinga. During
the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects. After his reign Srilanka declared its independence.

He had very close relationship with Srivijaya and Revenue

sent trade missions to their land in 1077 A.D. The land revenue department
Kulottunga-I was a great administrator. was well organized. It was called as
He measured the lands and regulated land puravuvarithinaikkalam. All lands were
revenue. As he removed excise duties he carefully surveyed and classified for assessment
was called as ‘Sungam Thavirtha Cholan’. of revenue. The residential portion of the
He patronized great literary scholars like village was called ur nattam. These and other
Jeyamkondan, Ottakkuthar, Pugazhendi and lands such as the lands belonging to temples
Kambar. were exempted from tax. Besides land revenue,
Disintegration of the Cholas there were tolls and customs on goods taken
The Chola Empire began to disintegrate due from one place to another, various kinds of
to the rise of feudatories like the Kadavarayas professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial
and the emergence of the Pandya Empire. occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
Rajendra-III (1246-1279 A.D.) was the last Cholas During the hard times, there were remission
ruler. The Chola Kingdom was annexed to the of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by
Pandya Empire with the defeat of Rajendra-III by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam
Jatavarman Sundarapandya-II. Tavirtta Cholan. The main items of government
Chola Administration expenditure were the king and his court, army
Central Government and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
The Cholas had an excellent system of Military Administration
administration. The Cholas maintained a regular standing
The emperor or army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry
king was at the top and navy. About seventy regiments were
of the mentioned in the inscriptions. The royal troops
administration. were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within
The extent and this there was a personal troop to defend the
resources of the king known as Velaikkarar. Attention was
Chola Empire given to the training of the army and military
increased the cantonments called kadagams existed. The
power and prestige of monarchy. The big Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The
capital cities like Tanjore and naval achievements of the Tamils reached its
Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal climax under the Cholas. They controlled the
courts and extensive grants to the temples Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay
reveal the authority of the king. They undertook of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.
royal tours to increase the efficiency of the Provincial Administration
administration. There was elaborate The Chola Empire was divided into
administrative machinery comprising various mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus
officials called perundanam and sirudanam. and nadus. In each nadu there were a number

of autonomous villages. The royal princes or names each for one ward. They were divided
officers were in charge of mandalams. The into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam,
valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam,
under nattar. The town was known as nagaram pon variyam and puravuvari variyam to
and it was under the administration of a council take up six different functions of the village
called nagarattar. administration. The committee members
Village Assemblies were called variyapperumakkal. They usually
The system of village autonomy with sabhas met in the temple or under a tree and passed
and their committees developed through the ages resolutions. The number of committees and
and reached its culmination during the Chola ward members varied from village to village.
rule. Two inscriptions belonging to the period Socio-economic Life
of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide Caste system was widely prevalent during
details of the formation and functions of village the Chola period. Brahmins and Kshatriyas
councils. That village was divided into thirty enjoyed special privileges. The inscriptions
wards and each was to nominate its members to of the later period of the Chola rule mention
the village council. The qualifications to become about two major divisions among the castes
a ward member were: – Valangai and Idangai castes. However, there
 Ownership of at least one fourth veli was cooperation among various castes and sub-
of land. castes in social and religious life. The position of
 Own residence. women did not improve. The practice of ‘sati’
 Above thirty years and below seventy was prevalent among the royal families. The
years of age. devadasi system or dancing girls attached to
 Knowledge of Vedas. temples emerged during this period.
However, certain norms of disqualification Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to
were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They flourish during the Chola period. A number of
were: temples were built with the patronage of Chola
 Those who had been members of the kings and queens. The temples remained centres
committees for the past three years. of economic activity during this period. The
 Those who had failed to submit mathas had great influence during this period.
accounts as committee members. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
 Those who had committed sins. Reclamation of forest lands and the construction
 Those who had stolen the property of and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to
others. agricultural prosperity. The weaving industry,
From the persons duly nominated, one particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai flourished. The metal works developed owing
system for a year. The names of eligible persons to great demand of images for temples and
were written on palm-leaves and put into a utensils. Commerce and trade were brisk with
pot. A young boy or girl would take out thirty trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.

Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in Chola temples were found at Narthamalai
plenty at various denominations. Commercial and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district
contacts between the Chola Empire and China, and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli
Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively district. The Big Temple at Tanjore built
prevalent. Arabian horses were imported in by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South
large numbers to strengthen the cavalry. Indian art and architecture. It consists of the
Education and Literature vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and
Education was also given importance. a large pavilion in the front known as the
Besides the temples and mathas as educational Nandimandapa. Another notable contribution
centres, several educational institutions also made by the Cholas to temple architecture is
flourished. The inscription at Ennayiram, the Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram
Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide built by Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara temple
details of the colleges existed in these places. at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the
Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are
like mathematics and medicine were taught examples of later Chola temples.
in these institutions. Endowment of lands The Cholas also made rich contributions
was made to run these institutions. The to the art of sculpture. The walls of the
development of Tamil literature reached its Chola temples such as the Tanjore and
peak during the Chola period. Sivakasintamani Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain
written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi numerous icons of large size with fine
belonged to 10th century. The Ramayana execution. The bronzes of the Chola period
composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam are world-famous. The bronze statues of
or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the Nataraja or dancing Siva are master pieces.
two master-pieces of this age. Jayankondar’s The Chola paintings were found on the walls
Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
war fought by Kulotunga I. The Moovarula Sculpturers
written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Portraits, icons and decorative sculptures
Chola kings. The Nalavenba was written by are the main features of Chola sculptures. The
Pugalendi. The works on Tamil grammar like portraits are full of grace and beauty. The icons
Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by of Rajaraja-I are
Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi remarkable. The
and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the sculptures of Shiva,
products of the Chola age. Vishnu, Brahma, eight
Art and Architecture armed Durga in the
The Dravidian style of art and architecture Shiva and Vishnu
reached its perfection under the Cholas. They temples are a few
built enormous temples. The chief feature examples of Chola
of the Chola temple is the vimana. The early sculptures.

The Cholas are also well known for World Heritage Day : The World
their bronze images. The Nataraja idol in Heritage Day is celebrated every year on
the Nageswara Temple at Kumbakonam is 18th April. This day is intended to make
the largest and the finest. The bronze idol people aware of their social and cultural
of Arthanareeswarar is another important Heritage. It also instills the value to care
specimen of the Chola period. and preserve all the heritage sites.
Paintings
The Cholas are known for their paintings Varipotthagam
all well as fine murals (paintings done directly
on walls). The paintings of the Chola period The Varipotthagam wa a book
are found at Tanjore, Thirumayam, Kanchi containing all revenue record.
Kailasanatha Temple and Narttamalai Vishnu During Rajaraja’s regin a revenue
Temple. survey was undertaken in 1001 A.D.
Music and Dance by Senathipati Kuravan, a revenue
Music developed into a fine art under the officer.
Cholas. This development provided the basis
for the later day Carnatic Music. Bharatanatyam World Heritage Sites: The
as a fine art also developed during this period. Brahadeeswara temple at Tanjore,
Impact of imperial cholas Siva temple at Gagaikonda
The Imperial cholas who ruled from 850 Cholapuram and Airavatesvara
A.D. to 1279 A.D. played a significant role in the temple at Darasuram have been
Tamil country for about 430 years. They have declared as World Heritage Sites by
made an impressive impact on Polity, Tamil the UNESCO.
literature, Temple architecture, music and
dance. They were the only imperial power who
founded an overseas empire and spread the
glories of the Tamil culture far and wide.
•••

The Pandyas
The Pandya Empire Maravarman, Rajasimha-I, Varaguna-I and

The Pandyas occupied the region comprising Srimara Srivallabha.
of the modern districts of Madurai and The Pandya empire extended to Tanjore,
Tirunelveli, part of Trichy and sometimes even Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore and Salem.
parts of Travancore. We come to know of the The Second Pandya Empire
“Pandyas from the writings of Magasthenese, From the 13th century onwards the Pandyas
Pliny, the ancient Tamil literary works and the progressively detached themselves from the
accounts of Hiuen-T-sang and Marco-polo. Chola rule and reasserted the independence.
The history of the Pandyas can be divided as In the civil war which broke out between
the Early Pandyas, First Pandya Empire and Vikrama Pandya and Virapandya, Vikrama
Second Pandya Empire. Pandya captured power with the support of
The early Pandyas Kulothunga-III the Chola Emperor.
The Early Pandyas belonged to the Sangam Jatavarman Kulasekara-I
Age. A remarkable feature of this period was Jatavarman Kulasekara-I (1190-1216
the maintenance of a flourishing Tamil Literary A.D.) succeeded his father Vikrama Pandya.
Academy or Sangam at Madurai. The capital He ruled over Madurai, Ramanathapuram,
of the Pandyas was Madurai and their emblem Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. He appointed
was fish. With the rise of the kalabhras, the his brother, Maravarman Sundara Pandya as
Sangam Age declined. his successor.
First Pandya Empire Maravarman Sundara Pandya-I
The Pandya king Kadungon restored Maravarman Sundara Pandya-I (1216-1238
position of the Pandyas in the last quarter A.D.) defeated Kulottunga Chola-III in 1219
of the 6th Century. A.D. by overthrowing A.D. As the Hoysalas came to the support of
the Kalabhars. The dynasty founded by him the Cholas, he restored the throne to the Chola
is generally referred to as the First Pandya rduler Rajaraja-III and assumed the title ‘Sonadu
Kingdom (550-950 A.D.) Valangiaruliya Sundara Pandya’.
The most important rulers of this period Maravarman Sundara Pandya-II (1238-
were Arikesari Maravarman, Ranadhiran, 1253 A.D.) recovered from the Chola ruler

Rajendra-III some of the territories which he Local self Government

had lost earlier. Village administration was looked after by
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I (1253- five Variyams, namely Aranilaya Variyam,
1268 A.D.) succeeded Maravarman Sundara Neernilai Variyam, Nanaya Variyam,
Pandya-II. He extended the empire from varithandal Variyam and Needhi Variyam.
Nellore and Cuddappah districts in the Occupation
North to cape Comorin in the South. He took Agriculture and Trade were the main
up the titles Emmandalamum Kondaruliya occupations of the people. the agriculturists
Maharajathiraja, Sri Paramesvaran and were called as Boomiputirar. Many slaves
Ponveintha Perumal. were employed to carry on different tasks.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I’s son The Pandyas were famous for pearl diving.
Maravarman Kulasekaran-I (1268-1308 A.D.) The pearls of the Pandya empire were famous
enlarged his kingdom. He invaded Ceylon all over the world. The famous ports of the
and captured Kollam in the Chera land. He Pandyas were Korkai and Thondi.
assumed the title Kollam Konda Pandya. The Literature
power of the Pandyas started declining after Manickavasagar’s composed
him. Thiruvasagam, Andal’s composed
Decline of the Pandyas Thiruppavai, Nammalvar’s composed
A war of succession broke out between Thiruppallandu, Villiputhurar wrote
Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya, the sons of Mahabharatha, Adhiveerarama Pandya
Maravarman Kulasekaran-I. With the help of wrote Naidadham, Srikaviraya wrote books
Alaud-din Khilji’s commander Malik Kafur, namely Seyur Murugan ula and Rathingiri
Sundara Pandya ascended the throne. ula. Thus the Pandyas contributed greatly to
The Tughluqs who succeeded the Khiljis, the progress of literature.
extended their hold over South India and Art and Architecture
declared the Pandya empire as a part of the The Pandya contribution to art and
Tughluq Empire. architecture is noteworthy. The special features
The decline of Tughluq power led to the of the Pandya temple architecture are the
establishment of the Sultans of Madurao which Gopuras, Prakaras, Vimanas, Garbagrahas and
ultimately resulted in the complete decline of Gateways.
the Pandya Empire. The Pandya period marked area wakening
Administration in the field of rock-cut temples. More than
The Pandya Empire was called as Pandya 50 rock cut temples were excavated in the
Mandalam. The Mandalam was divided into Pandya Kingdom at several places like
Valanadu and further into Urs. The King was Kunnakudi, Annaimalai, Sithannavasal,
assisted by the Ariyans (Ministers) and the Thiruparankundram, Kalugumalai,
Army Chief. Special officers were appointed to Malaiyadikuruchi, Thiruchirappalli, etc.,
collect taxes and maintain accounts.
0
Structural temples were constructed by the

Pandyas rulers at Kovilpatty, Tiruppathur, Uttaramerur inscriptions: It laid down
Madurai, Srivilliputhur and other places. the qualifications for those who wished
Kulasekara Pandya built arthamandapa, to become a member of the Sabha. He
manimandapa and sannati in every temple must be honest, a land owner from
ofhis empire. Public meetings, social gatherings, which land revenue is collected, In the
religious keerthanas, recitals and Katha-Nataka age group 35 and 70 years, having a
were held in the sabha mandapas of temples. knowledge of the Vedas and well versed
Sculptures in administrative matters. Members of
The Pandya sculptures are beautiful and the village if found guilty were punished
ornamental. The sculptures of Somaskandar, severely. They could not take part in the
Durga, Ganapathy, Narasimha and Nataraja elections.
are good specimens of this period.
Many sculptures are also found at
Kalugumalai, Thiruparankundram, The lost wax technique: The lost
Thirumalaipurm, Narattamalai and wax technique was used by the Chola
Kunnakudi. craftsmen to make bronze statues. First
Paintings the image was made in wax. Then it
Among the fine arts, painting was greatly was covered in clay and allowed to dry.
developed by the Pandyas. The mural paintings A tiny hole was made in the clay cov-
of Srimaran Srivallabha Pandya of the first er. Next, it was heated and the moiten
Pandya period are seen in the Sithannavasal wax was drained out through the hole.
cave temples. The paintings of lotus, bathing Bronze (an alloy of copper and metal)
elephants and playing fish are noteworthy. was melted and poured into the clay
The Pandya rules have thus left a unique through the hole. Once the metal was
and everlasting impact on the Tamil society coated and solidified the clay cover was
and South Indian history. carefully removed and the image was
cleaned and polished.
•••

Vijayanagara Rule
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE  The copper plate inscriptions such

Sources as the Srirangam copper plates of
 The history of Vijayanagar Empire Devaraya II provide the genealogy
constitutes an important chapter in and achievements of Vijayanagar
the history of India. Four dynasties rulers. The Hampi ruins and
– Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and other monuments of Vijayanagar
Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from provide information on the cultural
A.D. 1336 to 1672. The sources for contributions of the Vijayanagar
the study of Vijayanagar are varied rulers. The numerous coins issued
such as literary, archaeological and by the Vijayanagar rulers contain
numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s figures and legends explaining their
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s titles and achievements.
Maduravijayam and Allasani Political History
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by
of the indigenous literature of this Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty.
period. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
 Many foreign travelers visited the rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili
Vijayanagar Empire and their where they were imprisoned and converted
accounts are also valuable. The to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya.
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, They also proclaimed their independence and
Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and founded a new city on the south bank of the
the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar
were among them who left valuable meaning city of victory.
accounts on the socio-economic The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled
conditions of the Vijayanagar Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly
Empire. founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the

whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their 1523 A.D. and a large part of the Deccan. His
control. The struggle between Vijayanagar empire extended from the river Krishna in the
and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about four north to the river Cauvery in the south and the
decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in
Madurai was described in the Maduravijayam. the east.
He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a Contributions
result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the Krishnadevaraya was an able administrator.
whole of South India up to Rameswaram. He constructed large tanks and canals for
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire irrigation purposes. He improved the naval
and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many power as he understood the importance
years. The dispute over Raichur Doab, the region of overseas trade. He maintained friendly
between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra relationship with the Portuguese and Arab
and also over the fertile areas of Krishna- traders and increased the revenue of his
Godavari delta led to this long- drawn conflict. government.
The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar. A
was Deva Raya II. But he could not win any group of eight scholars called Ashtadiggajas
clear victory over the Bahmani Sultans. After adorned his court. He was a patron of art and
his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. architecture. He built beautiful temples and
The next dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded palaces. The Vijaya nagar Empire reached its
by Saluva Narasimha reigned only for a brief zenith of glory during Krishnadeva Raya’s
period (1486-1509). period.
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 The Ashtadiggajas: Allasani Peddanna,
A.D.) Nandi Thimmana, Tenali Rama, Bhattu
Krishnadeva Raya of Murthy, Puna Vira Bhadra, Dhurjathy,
the Tuluva dynasty was Mallana and Panaji Surana.
the most famous king of
the Vijayanagar Empire. Administration
According to The administration under the Vijayanagar
Domingo Paes, a Empire was well organized. The king enjoyed
Portuguese traveller, absolute authority in executive, judicial and
“Krishnadeva Raya was legislative matters. He was the highest court
the most feared and of appeal. The succession to the throne was
perfect king there could on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes
possibly be”. usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva
Conquests Narasimha came to power by ending the
Krishnadeva Raya was a great warrior. Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted
He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510 A.D., by a council of ministers in his day to day
Raichur in 1512 A.D., Orissa and Warangal in administration.

The Empire was divided into different further divided into smaller units
administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, namely Villages. The Village Assembly
sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor carried on the administration of the
of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or villages through its hereditary officers
Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to like accountants, the weightsmen,
the local authorities in the administration. watchmen and officers incharge
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from of forced labour. The Central
vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at administration maintained contact
the ports, taxes on various professions were with the villages through an officer
other sources of income to the government. called Mahanayakacharya.
Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth The Army
of the produce. The expenditure of the The army consisted of the infantry, calvary
government includes personal expenses of king and elephantry. The commander-in-chief was
and the charities given by him and military in charge of the army.
expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh Revenue Administration
punishments such as mutilation and throwing Land revenue was the main source of
to elephants were followed. income. The land was carefully surveyed and
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized taxes were collected based on the fertility of the
and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, soil. Great attention was paid to agriculture and
infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed the construction of dams and canals.
horses were procured from foreign traders. The Judicial Administration
top-grade officers of the army were known as The king was the supreme judge. The civil
Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in cases were decided on the basis of Hindu Law.
lieu of their services. These lands were called Severe punishments were inflicted on the guilty.
amaram. Soldiers were usually paid in cash. Fines were collected from those who violated
The Glories of the Vijayanagar the law.
Empire Position of Women
Administration Women occupied a high position and took
 The Vijayanagar rulers had a well an active part in political, social and literary life
organized administrative system. of the empire. They were educated and trained
The king was the fountain head of in werestling. In the use of various weapons of
all powers in the state. There was offence and defence, in music and fine arts. Some
a Council of Ministers to assist the of them received education of high order. Nuniz
King in the work of administration. writes that the kings had women astrologers,
 The Empire was divided into six clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.
Provinces. Each Province was under Social Life
a Governor called Naik. The Provinces Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam
were divided into districts which were refers the existence of four castes – Brahmins,

Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Economic Condition

Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid According to the accounts of the foreign
accounts on the splendour of buildings and travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of
luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. the wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation
for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments of the people. The Vijayanagar rulers provided
were used by the people. Paes mentions of a stimulus to its further growth by providing
the beautiful houses of the rich and the large irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and
number of their household servants. Nicolo dams were constructed across the rivers like
Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Tunghabadra. Nuniz refers to the excavation
Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock- of canals.
fighting were some of the amusements. There were numerous industries and they
The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites were organized into guilds. Metal workers
and Virupaksha was their family deity. But other and other craftsmen flourished during this
dynasties were Vaishnavites. Srivaishnavism period. Diamond mines were located in
of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings Kurnool and Anantapur district. Vijayanagar
were tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold
referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by coin was the varaha but weights and measures
everyone. Muslims were employed in the varied from place to place. Inland, coastal and
administration and they were freely allowed to overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
build mosques and worship. A large number There were a number of seaports on the
of temples were built during this period and Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
numerous festivals were celebrated. The Epics Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia,
and the Puranas were popular among the South Africa and Portugal on the west and
masses. with Burma, Malay peninsula and China on
The position of women had not improved. the east flourished. The chief items of exports
However, some of them were learned. were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron,
Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored saltpeter and sugar. The imports consisted of
the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China
and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding
period. According to Nuniz, a large number had developed.
of women were employed in royal palaces The empire of Vijayanagar was very rich
as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin and prosperous. The agricultural production
bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to was increased by their irrigational policies.
temples was in practice. Paes refers to the Numerous industries such as Textiles, mining,
flourishing devadasi system. Polygamy was metallurgy and perfumery existed. They had
prevalent among the royal families. Sati was commercial relations with the islands in the
honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it. Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago, Burma,

of Vijayanagar. They were continued by

China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia
the Nayak rulers in the later period. The
and Portugal.
metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his
The Chief articles exported were spices,
queens at Tirupati are examples for casting
cereals, cotton, silk, opium, Indigo, sea pearls,
of metal images. Music and dancing were
saffron, ginger, sugar, coconuts, etc. The
also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
articles imported were horses, elephants,
Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu,
copper, mercury, China silk and velvets. Goa,
Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
Diu, Cochin and Quilon were the important
There was a great development in Sanskrit
ports through which active trade was carried
and Telugu literature. The peak of literary
on the Western sea coast of India.
achievement was reached during the reign of
Cultural Contributions
Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a scholar
The temple building activity further gained
in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet
momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu
The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara
literature. Thus the cultural contributions of
architecture were the construction of tall
the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the
remarkable.
Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in
Battle of Talikota (1565 A.D.)
the temple premises. The sculptures on the
The successors
pillars were carved with distinctive features.
of Krishnadeva
The horse was the most common animal
Raya were weak.
found in these pillars. Large mandapams
During the rule of
contain one hundred pillars as well as
Ramaraya, the
one thousand pillars in some big temples.
combined forces
These mandapams were used for seating
of Ahmednagar,
the deity on festival occasions. Also, many
Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared war
Amman shrines were added to the already
on Vijayanagar. In the battle of Talikota in
existing temples during this period. The
1565 A.D. Ramaraya was defeated. He and
most important temples of the Vijayanagar
his people were mercilessly killed.
style were found in the Hampi ruins or
Vijayanagar was plundered and left in ruins.
the city of Vijayanagar. Vittalaswamy and
Contribution to Architecture and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best
Literature
examples of this style. The Varadharaja and
The rulers of
Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram
Vijayanagar were
stand as examples for the magnificence of the
great patrons of art
Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
and learning. The
The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai
Hazara Ramasami
and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch

temple and Vittalaswamy temple are fine

examples of this period. The bronze image of Decline of the Empire
Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece. Many The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak
scholars were patronized by the Vijayanagar and incometent. Taking advantage of their weakness
rulers. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada the provincial governors became independent.
literature were developed. Sayana wrote The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda annexed
commentaries on vedas. Krishnadevaraya some areas of Vijayanagar. The Nayaks became
wrote Amuktamalyada in telugu. His Sanskrit free in the south. Thus by 1614 A.D.Vijayanagar
works were Usha Parinayam and Jambavathi dynasty was declined.
Kalyanam.
Vittasaswami Temple: Vittalaswami

Temple was constructed during the
reign of Krishna Deve Raya. In the front
of the temple is a famous stone chariot
of ratha, carved out of a Single rock.
Another notable feature is the musical
pillars. When tapped, these pillars
produces musci. It is called as ‘musical’
or ‘Sa Re Ga Ma’ pillars.
•••

The Nayak Rule in Tamil

Country
The expansion of Vijayanagar Empire important work and the people paid a tax
finally brought the Nayak rule in Tamil called kaval pitchai as remuneration.
country. The word Nayak means Leader, Viswanatha Nayak was succeeded by
chief or General. The Nayaks were the several rulers. Among them Thirumalai Nayak
agents of the Vijayanagar rulers, who was the most important ruler.
ruled over the territories granted to them. Thirumala Nayak
They considered themselves the imperial Immediately after the
successors. They ruled from Madurai, Tanjore accession of Thirumalai
and Senji (Gingee). Nayak, the forces of Mysore
The Nayaks of Madurai marched across Madurai.
Madurai formed the part of the southern But they were defeated at
mandalam of Vijayanagar Empire. Viswanatha Dindigul by Thirumalai
Nayak was appointed as the viceroy of Madurai Nayak. Unni Keralavarman
by Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. This date was of Travancore refused to
taken as the date of Nayakship of Madurai. pay the tribute. Thirumalai
Vishwanatha Nayak Nayak sent an army, defeated and made him to
Vishwanatha Nayak was the close friend of pay the tribute regularly. Thirumalai Nayak was
Krishnadeva Raya. He was sent to Madurai to mainly responsible for the Muslim attack in Tamil
suppress the rebellion. He came out successful country. When Sri Ranga III, the ruler of
and became the master of Madurai. Vijayanagar marched against Madurai,
Viswanatha Nayak is known for his peaceful Thirumalai Nayak made an alliance with
effective administration. He introduced Nayaks of Senji and Tanjore. But he was
new administrative arrangements with the betrayed by the Nayaks of Tanjore. Thirumalai
assistance of his minister Ariyanatha, known Nayak sought the help of ruler of Golconda
as “palayakar system”. He appointed poligars and induced him to invade Vellore and
to maintain peace and security in his empire. threatened Madurai. So Thirumalai Nayak
They were incharge of military, police and sought the help of ruler of Mysore. The ruler
revenue administration. Kaval was the most victory at Sathyamangalam and reached

Dindigul. The Mysore army cut off the noses provided more facilities to pilgrim centres.
and the upper lips of their enemies. This Roads were made safe. She planted shady trees,
barbarous practice alarmed the Madurai built choultries and made journey easy and
people. Thirumalai Nayak attacked Mysore comfortable. She made rich endowments to
army and practised the same method of cutting temples. She paid more interest on irrigational
the noses of the enemies. This strange event projects. ‘Uyyakkondan Canal’ speaks about
was termed as “war of noses”. her contribution to irrigation.
Other works of Thirumal Nayak Meenakshi
Thirumalai Nayak established an efficient Vijayaranga died without a male issue. His
wife Meenakshi became the successor. She
adopted Vijaya Kumara and started her rule
as a regent. Bangaru, father of Vijayakumara
conspired against Meenakshi to occupy the
throne. So, Meenakshi sought the help of Chanda
Sahib, the Nawab of carnatic and promised to
offer a crore of rupees. Chanda Sahib defeated
Bangaru and saved Meenakshi. Later Chanda
Sahib showed his true colour and threw off the
system of administration. He maintained peace promises and imprisoned Meenakshi in her
and security. He gave a free hand to the Portuguese own palace at Trichy. The heart-broken Queen
and the Dutch. He shifted his capital from Trichy took poison and died. Chanda Sahib became
to Madurai. He repaired many temples. The the master of the Nayak State to Madurai and
temple administration came under his direct thus the Nayak State of Madurai and thus the
control. He gifted a number of villages for Nayak rule came to an end in A.D.1736.
the maintenance of the temples. The Pudhu The Nayaks of Tanjore
Mandapam, Mariamman Theppakkulam and Tanjore formed a part of the Vijayanagar
Thirumalai Nayak Mahal were constructed Empire. Thimmappa Nayak was in charge of
during his period. He patronized the renowned Tanjore. He was succeeded by his son Sevappa
Sanskrit scholar Neelakanda Dikshidar. Nayak.
The Regency of Queen Mangammal Sevappa Nayak
Mangammal was the wife of Chokkanadhar Sevappa Nayak was the
and grandmother of Vijayaranga founder of the Independent
Chokkanadhar. She became a regent of 3 Nayak kingdom at Tanjore.
years old child Vijayaranga Chokkanadhar. He paid attention to the
The regency of Queen Mangammal was maintenance of Hindu
remarkable in the history of Nayaks of Madurai. temples. He gave permission
Diplomatically she saved the kingdom. She to the Portuguese to settle at
encouraged Christian missionaries. She Nagapattinam and gave 10

veli of land to the Mulavur Temple. He repaired Maninagapuram

Shivaganga Lake. Later it was called in North India and
“Sevappaneri”. He gave grants to they migrated to
Thiruvannamalai and Virudhachalam the south and
temples. settled there.
Achutappa Nayak Krishnadevaraya
Sevappa was succeeded by his son appointed Vyappa
Achutappa Nayak. He maintained cordial Nayak in charge of Senji. He was succeeded by
relations with Vijayanagar and helped the Krishnappa Nayak II. He was the real founder
Vijayanagara king in the battle of Talikotta. He of the Nayak rule in Senji.
gave a diamond throne to Lord Ranganatha Krishnappa Nayak II
and made endowments to the Rameswaram Krishnappa Nayak-II was the most
temple. He completed the tower of important ruler of Senji. He divided his
Arunachaleswar temple at Thiruvannamalai. kingdom into various divisions. Each division
He repaired the banks of river Kaveri and was ruled by his officers. He built towns for
improved agriculture. the settlement of the people. He promoted
Ragunatha Nayak cultivation. He maintained a powerful army.
Achutappa was succeeded by his younger He erected a town called ”Krishnapattinam”
son Ragunatha Nayak. He was the most popular on the banks of the river Vellar. He was
among the Nayaks of Senji and Madurai and tolerant towards all religions. He gave grants
the Portuguese of Jaffna. He was also a great to Jesuits for building churches. He permitted
poet, and wrote the Rukmani Parinayam, jains to erect a shrine at Sithamur and saivites
Parijata, Pushpakaranam and Ramayanam in to build a temple at Tindivanam. He rebuilt
Telugu. the Govindaraja shrine at Chidambaram. His
Vijayaragava Nayak general Venkata, dug out a large tank called
Ragunatha was succeeded by his son Chennasagaram for promoting irrigation.
Vijayaragava Nayak. He was a weak and The successors of Krishnappa Nayak-II
incompetent ruler and was unable to defend were weak and inefficient. Bijapur Sultan (Ali
the country. He was the last Nayak ruler of Adil Shah) sent Mir Jumla to capture Senji in
Tanjore. Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai 1648. He captured Senji and appointed Nasir
invaded and killed Vijayaragava Nayak and khan as its governor. In 1648, Shivaji captured
captured Tanjore. Thus, the Nayak rule of Senji.
Tanjore came to an end in A.D.1673. After Shivaji, it came under the Rajput
The Nayaks of Senji (Gingee) general Swaroop Singh, who acted as a
The region between Palar and Coleroon mughal vassal and paid annual tribute. He was
formed the Nayak kingdom of Senji. The succeeded by his son Raja Desingh. Sadat ullah
Nayaks of Senji were related to the royal house khan, the ruler of Arcot invaded, defeated and
of Vijayanagar. Their original home was killed Raja Desingh and annexed Senji. Raja
0
Desingh’s wife committed sati. As a mark of Suriya Mandapam and Virappa Mandapam
her remembrance, (Rani) the town of Ranipet at Madurai. He also provided golden roof
was created. Thus the nayak’s rule of Senji of the Mandapa of the Meenakshi Temple.
came to an end. Thirumalai Nayak built the Pudhumandapam
Tamil country under the Nayak rule and Nayak’s Mahal. Nayak Mahal was built
Administration with the help of Italian architect. It is a classical
The Nayaks ruled over Madurai, Tanjore fusion of Dravidan, Islamic and European
and Senji. The Nayaks established an efficient style. It is considered as one of the wonders
administration. The king was the head of the in south India. Queen Mangammal built the
State. He was assisted by a council of ministers. Mangammal Palace at Madurai.
The empire was divided into provinces, Sevappa Nayak of Tanjore renovated many
mandalams, simai or makana and villages. temples and built the Sivaganga fort at Tanjore.
Paligar system was followed. Land tax was the The Big Mandapam at Thiruvannamalai,
main source of income to the state. Virudachalam etc, were built by him.
Social and Economic conditions Achutappa gave grants to Sri Ranganatha at
The Nayaks upheld Varnasrama system in Srirangam and Siva Temple at Rameswaram.
society. Caste system remained rigid. Brahmins He completed the tower of Arunachaleswarar
occupied the high position, valankai and at Thiruvannamalai.
idankai struffle continued. Villagers lived in Achyuta Ramabhadra Nayak of Senji built
ignorance and poverty. The Nayaks occupied the enclosing walls as well as the majestic
mostly the dry areas except Kaveri, Vaigai gopuram for Thiruvannamalai Temple. He
and Thamiraparani areas. Agrarian economy also built a Vishnu Temple at Tindivanam. He
continued. Agriculturists depended in rains. permitted the Jains toconstruct a Jain Temple
Tanks, wells, canals and rivers were the main (palis) at Sittamur.
source for irrigation. Literature
Art and Architecture Nayaks made great contribution for the
The Nayaks were the great patrons of growth of literature. Thirumalai Nayak’s
art and architecture. The Krishnapuram temple Chidambarapuranam, Paranjothiar’s
and Nellaiappar temples at Thirunelveli, Chidambarapattial, Haridasa’s Irusamaya
Kasi Viswanatha Temple at Tenkasi, Vilakkam, Umarupulavar’s Seerapuranam,
Ramanathapuram temple at Rameswaram and Kumaraguruparar’s Kandar Kali Venba and
the Big Gopura of Srivilliputhur received the Meyngnana Vilakkam by Thiruvenkatam were
paronage of the Nayaks of Madurai. Krishnappa the most important literary works during the
Nayak rebuilt and renovated Velliambalam, Nayak’s period. Thus the Nayak rule occupied
Northern Gopuram, Thousand Pillared an important place in the history of Tamil
Mandapam, Murthiamman Mandapam, country.
•••

The Rule of the Marathas

of Thanjavur
(A.D.1676-A.D.1856)
Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai invaded Serfoji I

and captured Thanjavur and appointd his Serfoji I was a younger son of Venkoji
half-brother Alagiri as Governor of Thanjavur. and he ruled from 1712 to 1728. His rule was
Bur he quarrelled with Chokkanatha and marked by regular warfare and disputes with
sought the help of Bijapur Sultan to appoint the Madurai Nayak.
Sengamaladass as the Nayak of Thanjavur. Tukkoji
So the sultan sent Venkaji (Ekoji) to capture Tukkoji, a younger brother of Serfoji I, ruled
Thanjavur. he succeeded and captured Thanjavur from 1728 to 1736. His reign witnessed
Thanjavur and established Maratha rule. They the invasion of Chanda Sahib and he is credited with
ruled over Thankavur from 1676 to 1856 A.D. having repulsed a Muslim invasion of Madurai.
Ekoji alias Venkoji Pratapsingh
Ekoji was the son of Shaji Bhonsle and Tuka A period of anarchy followed the death of
Bai. In order to plunder the wealth and to spread Tukkoji and came to an end when Pratapsingh
Hindu faith in the South, Shivaji led an expedition came to the throne in 1739. He ruled until 1763.
against the Carnatic region. He captured Golkonda He allied with Muhammad Ali, the Nawab of the
and Senji. He marched towards Thanjavur and Carnatic, and aided the British East India Company
demanded his share from Venkoji which ended against the French East India Company in the
in failure. So Shivaji as his Viceroy and returned. Carnatic Wars and the Seven Years’ War. He was
After his return, Venkoji recaptured all the the last king to be addressed to be the Directors of
territories and ruled Thanjavur. the British East India Company as “His Majesty”.
Shaji-II In 1762, a tripartite treaty was signed between
Shaji-II was son of Venkoji. He was a brilliant Thanjavur, Carnatic and the British by which he
and able ruler. He annexed Madurai. He was became a vassal of the Nawab of the Carnatic.
great patron of scholars. He opened hospitals Tuljaji
and invited physicians from Hyderabad and Tuljaji ascended the throne of Thanjavur
Arabia. He was harsh towards the Christians. in 1763. During his rule, boundary disputes
He was succeeded by his brother Serfoji-I. started between Ramnad and Thanjavur.

Ramnad sought the help of the Nawab of Arcot. plays were in Sanskrit. Venkoji, the first ruler
so the Nawab invaded Thanjavur and in 1773 of the Bhonsle dynasty composed a ‘Dvipada’
Thanjavur came under the control of the Nawab Ramayana in Telugu. His son Shahuji was
of Carnatic. When it was brought to the notice a great patron of learning and of literature.
of English East India company, the Company Most of the Thanjavur Maratha literature is
Directors, directed the governor of Madras to from his period. Most of them were versions
restore Tuljaji as the king of Thanjavur. Tuljaji of the Ramayana or plays and short stories of
was crowned as the ruler of Thanjavur and a historical nature. Sanskrit and Telugu were
became a nominee of company and kept an the languages used in most of these plays
English army to maintain peace at Thanjavur. while there were some Tamil ‘koothu’ as well.
Amar singh and Serfoji-II AdvaitaKirtana is one of the prominent works
Tulijaji’s adopted son Serfoji-II became the from this period. Later Thanjavur rulers like
ruler in 1787 A.D. Amar Singh became the Serfoji II and Shivaji immersed themselves in
regent. He claimed the throne as Serfoji-II was learning and literary pursuits when they were
an adopted son which was unlawful. English dispossessed of their empire. Serfoji built the
were in favour of Amar Singh. As a result, Amar SaraswathiMahalLibrarywithin the precincts
Singh became the ruler. He ruled in an arbitary of the palace to house his enormous book
manner. So the Governor General Cornwallis and manuscript collection. Apart from Indian
removed Amar Singh and Serfoji-II was made languages, Serfoji II was proficient in English,
as the king. But during the time of Wellesley, French, Dutch, Greek and Latin as well.
Serforji-II was reduced as a pensioner. The Administration
British controlled the affairs of Thanjavur and The king was assisted in the administration
Serfoji-II and Amar Singh received pension of his country by a council of ministers. The
from the British. supreme head of this council of ministers was
Shivaji-II a Mantri or Dalavoy. The Dalavoy was also
Shivaji II was the son of the Commander-in-chief of the Army. Next
Serfoji-II. His rule lasted till in importance at the court was a Pradhani or
1855. He had no son. According Dewan also called DabirPandit. The country
to the Doctrine of Lapse of was divided into subahs, seemais and
Dalhousie, the tributary state maganams in the decreasing order of size and
without a male successor would importance. The five subahs of the country
lapse to the British. So in 1856 Thanjavur was were Pattukkottai, Mayavaram, Kumbakonam,
annexed with the British Empire. Thus the Mannargudi and Tiruvadi.
Martha rule in Thanjavur came to an end. Economy
Literature The ruler collected his taxes from the people
The Thanjavur Maratha Rajas favoured through his mirasdars or puttackdars. They were
Sanskrit and Telugu to such an extent that collected right from the village level onwards
classical Tamil began to decline. Most of the and were based on the agricultural produce

of the village. Rice was one of the primary the Raja. The currency system used was
crops in the region and the land used for that of a chakram or pon (1 chakram = one
cultivation was owned by big landlords. and three-fourths of a British East India
It was Anatharama Sashtry who proposed Company rupee). Other systems of coinage
collecting taxes to improve conditions for used were that of pagoda (1 pagoda = three
the poor. No foreign trade was carried out. and a half Company rupees), a big panam
The only foreign trade in the country was (one-sixth of a Company rupee) and a small
carried out by European traders who paid ‘panam (one-thirteenth of a Company
a particular amount of money as rent to rupee).
•••

ADVENT OF THE EUROPEAN
I ndia had commercial contact with European countries from time immemorial.
With the arrival of Alexander the Great these relations became still more
intimate. There was a great demand for Indian goods like silk, spices, muslin and
handloom fabrics in Europe. India exported pepper, cloves, chillies, cinnamon,
ginger, coconut, canesugar, indigo etc to western countries through three main
trade routes.
The three important trade routes Coast.Through Persia and Syria

were, leading to the port of Alexandria
 Through Afghanistan, Central
on the Mediterranean coast of
Asia and the Caspian Sea and
Europe.
terminating at the Black Sea
First Governor-General of India -William Bentinck
Page 1
 The Sea route passing through the  Prince Henry of Portugal

Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the encouraged voyages for the
Red Sea.But in 1453 A.D. the discovery of sea routes to India
Ottoman Turks captured following which Bartholomeu
Constantinople and troubled the Diaz reached cape of good hope in
European merchants. They 1498 AD
blocked the land route through  Vasco da Gama discovered the
Afghanistan. The other two routes cape route from Europe to India.
were also closed as a result of the He reached port of Calicut on 17

Arab conquest in the 8th century May, 1498 and was received by
A.D. So the Europeans were the Hindu ruler of Calicut,
forced to discover a new sea route Zamorin. This led to the
to India.
PORTUGUESE
 The Portuguese were the first to
discover a new sea route to India

 Prince Henry of Portugal started a
school for training sea men on

scientific navigation.
establishment of trading station at
Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
Page 2
 Cochin (1502) was the early (Salsette and Bassein in 1739),

capital of the Portuguese in India, Dutch and English.
later on replaced by Goa.  Only Goa, Diu and Daman
 The first Governor of Portuguese remained with them until 1961.
in India was Francisco de Almeida  The Portuguese brought to India
(1505 – 09). He introduced ‘The the cultivation of tobacco
Policy of Blue Water’.  Vasco da Gama visited India three
 Alfonso d’ Albuquerque (1509-15) times and was buried at Fort
becomes governor of the Kochi
Portuguese in India in 1509. He  Discovery of Brazil diverted their
captured Goa from the ruler of attention from India.
BijapurAdilshahi Sultan in 1510
Important Portuguese to
and introduced the policy of
Visit India
imperialism.  Vasco da Gama - 1498
 Alberquerque abolished Sati in his  Alvarez Cabral - 1500
 LopoSoares – 1503
territory.
 Francisco de Almedia – Sept
 Nino-da-Cunha (1529-38) 1505
 Albuquerque -1509
transferred the capital from
 Nuno da Caunha – 1529
Cochin to Goa in 1530.  Joa de castro - 1545
 He acquired Diu and Bassein
from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat DUTCH
(1535).  Dutch United East India Company
 Portuguese acquired Daman in was formed in 1602 AD
1559. They lost Hugly in 1631,  The Dutch East India Company
during the reign of Shahjahan. established factories in India at
 In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Masulipatnam in 1605, Pulicat
Bombay to Charles II of England (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatnam
as dowry, for marrying his sister. (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura,
 tin Alfonso de Souza (1542 – 45). Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore,
 Gradually almost all of their Nagapatnam and Cochin.
territories were lost to Marathas
Page 3
 They replaced the Portuguese as

The Important French
the most dominant power in
Governors in India
European trade with East,  Francois Martin (Died in 1706)
 Chevalisar Hebert (1708 -1713 ,
including India, Pulicat was their
1715 – 1718)
main centre in India till 1690,  Lenoir (1721-1723, 1726 – 1735)
 Benoit
after which Nagapatinam replaced
 Dumas
it.  Dupleix
 Godeheu
 Their final collapse came with
 De leyrit
their defeat by the English in the  Count de Lally
 In 1609, Captain Hawkins came to
Battle of Sedera in 1759.
the court of Jahangir to seek
 1623 Amboina massacre in
permission to establish British
Indonesia.
presence in India, but met with
ENGLISH failure.
 Before the establishment of the  Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir’s
East India Company, John court (1615) as an ambassador of
Mildenhall, an English merchant King James I to seek permission
came to India over land route to to trade in India and was
trade with Indian Merchants successful in his mission.
in1599.
 The English East India Company Establishment of Factories (By
British East India Company)
was formed by a group of
merchants in 1599 known as  First factory was built at Surat
(1608). Surat was replaced by
Merchant Adventures, Trading in
Bombay, acquired from Charles-II
to East-Indies
 On December 1600, Queen on lease as the headquarters on
the West coast in 1687.
Elizabeth granted royal charter to
 In 1639, obtained Madras from
a new body of merchants , who
formed a new company under the Raja of Chandragiri with
permission to build a fortified
name of The Company of
factory, which was named Fort St
Merchants of London
George.
Page 4
 In 1690, Job Charnock,

French Settlements in India
established a factory at Sutanati  Surat – 1667
and the Zamindari of three  MasuliPatnam – 1669
 Pondicherry – 1673
villages Sutanati, Kalikata and  Chandrangar
Govindpur were acquired by the  Balasore
 Qosim bazar
British (1698). These three
villages grew as city of Calcutta. under state patronage during the
 The factory at Sutanati was reign of Louis XIV.
fortified and named Fort William  The first French factory was
in 1700. established at Surat by Francois
 In 1717, John Surman obtained Caron in 1668, later Maracara
royal firman from Mughal setup a factory at Masulipatnam
emperor Farrukhsiyar. This in 1669.
firman is also called the Magna  They occupied Mahe, Yanam and
Carta of the British rule in India Karaikal.
as it gave large concessions to the  A small village was acquired from
company. the Muslim governor of

Valikondapuram by Francois
DANES
Martin and Bellanger de
 The Danes arrived in India in
Lespinay in 1673.
1616. They established settlement
 The village developed into
at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in
Pondicherry and its first governor
1620 and Serampore (Bengal) in
was Franco’s Martin.
1676. Serampore was their
 The Governors, Lenoir and
headquarters.
Dumas revived the French power
 They were forced to sell their
in India between, 1720–42 and
settlements to British in 1845.
the Anglo-French conflict stated
FRENCH with the arrival of Governor
 The French East India Company Duplex in 1742, and resulting in
was formed in 1664 by Colbert their final defeat in India.
The First Muslim President of India- Dr. Zakir Hussain
Page 5
The Advent of the Europeans

Company Established in Head quarters
Portuguese East India 1498AD Cochin (1510), Goa (1530-1961)
Company
Dutch United East India 1602 AD East Coast loramandelPulict
Company (1690) Bengal Hoogli (1655)
English East India Company 1600 AD West Coast : Surat (1608 – 87)
Bombay (from 1687)
East Coast : Coromandel,
Masulipatnam (1611- 14)
Bengal : Under Madras (upto
1700) Calcutta (from 1700)
Danish East India Company 1616 AD Serampur (Bengal ) (1676 –
1845)
French Eat India Company 1664 AD Surat (1668 – 1673),
Pondicherry (1673 – 1754)
The first Indian to join the ICS- SatyendraNath Tagore
Page 6
THE RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES

BENGAL position by receiving a firman
MurshidQuli Khan (1717-27) from him. He prevented
 He was appointed as Bengal’s fortification by English and by
Diwan in AD 1700, as Naib French at Calcutta and
Subedar (deputy governor) in AD Chandranagar respectively.
1713 and later as Subedar  He refused to pay any tribute to
(governor) in AD 1717 by the Mughal emperor when the
Farrukhsiyar later demanded (1746).
 He was made Governor of Bengal
Siraj-ud-Daula (1756 – 57)
(1717) and Orissa (1719). He
 He prohibited the English from
transferred the capital of Bengal
fortifying their factories at
from Dacca to Murshidabad. He
Calcutta but on their refusal to
died in 1727.
comply with his orders, he seized
Shuja-ud-din (1727 – 39) the English factory at Kasimbazar
 He was granted Governorship of (June 4, 1756) and then Calcutta
Bihar by Mughal Emperor (June 15, 1756).
Muhammad Shah Rangeela, later  Black Hole Episode (June 20,
as the Nawab of Bengal ruled over 1756): According to Holwell (an
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Englishman), 146 English
prisoners were confined during
Sarfaraj Khan (1739 – 40)
the night in a small room but only
 Alivardi Khan deposed and killed
23 survived the rest died of
Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraj Khan
suffocation at night.
and made himself Nawab.
 Soon after which British
Alivardi Khan (AD 1740 – 56) conspired with some leading men
 Alivardi Khan bribed Muhammad of the Nawab’s court (Mir Jafar)
Shah Rangeela and legalized his the Mir Bakshi, Manikchand –
officer in charge of Calcutta,
Page 7
Omichand – a rich merchant of Mir Qasim (1760 – 63)

Calcutta, Jagat Seth – the famous  He granted the zamindari of
banker of Bengal, and Rai Burdwan, Midnapore and
Durlabh and Khadim Khan – Chittagong to the British. He
important nobles). transferred his capital from
 The Battle of Plassey (a place on Murshidabad to Monghyr (1762).
the banks of the Bhagirathi) took He stopped the misuse of dastaks
place on June 23, 1757. This (free passes allowed to the
battle saw the treachery of Mir company).
Jafar and Rai Durlabh; bravery of  During his reign the Battle of
a small force under Mohanlal and Buxar (October 22, 1764) was
Mir Madan; desertion of the fought between the British and the
Nawab’s forces and escape of Siraj three allies (Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-
and his capture and execution by daula of Awadh and Shah Alam
Miran (son of Mir Jafar). II). This battle ended in the defeat
of the allies by the British forces
Mir Jafar (AD 1757 – 60)
under Major Hector Munro.
 He is also known as the Jackal of
Mir Jafar (1763 – 65)
Clive.
 He was reinstated in 1763 by the
 He granted the right of free trade
British, he died in 1765
in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and
the Zamindari of the 24 Parganas Najim-ud-daula (1765 – 72)
to the British. His reign saw the  Najim, son of Mir Jafar, was made
beginning of the drain of wealth the Nawab in 1765 and remained a
from India to Britain. He made puppet in the hands of the British
futile efforts to replace the English during the period of ‘Dual System
by the Dutch, but the Dutch were of Government’. In 1772, he was
defeated by the English at Bedara pensioned off when the company
in 1759. took over the direct charge of
Bengal.
Page 8
AWADH (1722 – 1856)  Saadat Ali signed subsidiary treaty

Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk with Lord Wellesley in November
(1722-39) 1801.
 Emperor Muhammad Shah  During the regime Wazid Ali
appointed him as Governor of Shah, Awadh was annexed by
Awadh. Lord Dalhousie in February 1856
 He Committed suicide in 1739 and pensioned off and deported to
Safdar Jung (1739 – 54) Calcutta.
 He was appointed as Wazir of the HYDERABAD
Mughal Empire. From 1748 the Nizam –ul-MulkAsaf Jah
Nawab came to be known as (1724 – 48)
Nawab Wazir.  Founded by Nizam-ul-MulkAsaf
Jah in AD 1724.
Shuja-ud-daula (1754 – 75)
 His original name was Chinglick
 He was involved in the Battle of
Khan but emperor Farrukhsiyar
Buxar (1764) in which he lost
conferred on him the title of
Allahabad and Kara.
‘Khan-i-Duran’ and later ‘Nizam-
 He met Warren Hastings and
ul-Mulk’.
concluded the Treaty of Benares.
 Carnatic was one of the Subah of
 He defeated the Rohillas with the
Deccan hence it was under Nizam
help of the British, and annexed
of Hyderabad.
Rohilkhand to Awadh in 1774.
 Nizam of Hyderabad became
Asaf –ud-daula (1775 – 97)
independent of Delhi and deputy
 Treaty of Faizabad (1775) was
Governor of Carnatic made
signed by him and the British.
himself independent of
 He was followed by Wazir Ali,
Hyderabad, hence assumed the
Saadat Khan, Saadat Ali and
title ‘Nawab of Carnatic’.
Wazid Ali Shah.
The first Field Marshal of India- SHFJ Maneskshaw
Page 9
Nasir Jung (1748 – 50) merging of Hyderabad with the

 He was defeated by Muzaffar Indian Union.
Jung.
CARNATIC
Muzaffar Jung (1750 – 51) Saadatullah Khan
 He acceded the throne with help  Foundation of the autonomous
of the French. His rule came to an state of Carnatic (which was
abrupt end with his accidental earlier one of the subahs or
death. provinces of the Mughals in the
Deccan) with Arcot as its capital
Salabat Jung (1751 – 60)
in the 1720’s by Saadatullah Khan
 He came to throne with the help
(who was its governor and was
of the French.
nominally under the control of the
 Other Nizams were Nizam Ali
nizam of Hyderabad).
(1760 – 1803), Sikandar Jah
 Succession of Dost Ali (nephew of
(1803 – 29), Nasir-ud-daula (1829
Saadutullah) as the nawab; his
– 57), Afjal-ud-daula (1857 – 69),
murder by the Marathas in 1740;
Mahabat Ali Khan (1869 – 1911)
succession of Safdar Ali (son of
and Osaman Ali Khan (1911 – 49).
Dost Ali) and his murder by a
 Nizam Ali concluded subsidiary
relative – all these events invited
treaty with the English in AD
the intervention of the Nizam in
1798, becoming the first state to
the affairs of the Carnatic. The
do so.
latter appointed Anwar-ud-din as
 Nizams were great patron of art,
the Nawab of the Carnatic (1743).
culture and literature. They built
 Chanda Sahib came to the throne
Salarjung Museum in Hyderabad
by murdering Anwar-ud-din in
and Chow Mahalla Palace.
1749 with the help of the French,
 It was in September 1948, with
but he was also killed by an ally of
the efforts of SardarVallabhai
the British, who placed the son of
Patel that by Operation Polo,
Anwar, Muhammad Ali, on the
Indian military was successful in
Page 10
throne in 1752. Lord Wellesley Mysore. He established a modern

pensioned off the last Nawab of Arsenal in Dindigul.
Carnatic and annexed it in 1801.  He allied with the French and the
Nizam and gave a crushing defeat
THE MYSORE
to the English in the First Anglo-
 Mysore became independent
Mysore War (AD 1767-69) and
under the Hindu Wodeyar
forced them to conclude a
Dynasty in 1565 after the fall of
humiliating treaty, Treaty of
Vijayanagar Empire. Between AD
Madras, in April 1769.
1731 and 1734 the two brothers,
 He died on December 7, 1782
Devaraja (dalwai or commander
during the course of the Second
in chief) and Nanjaraja
Anglo-Mysore war.
(sarvadhikari or controller of
revenue and finance) usurped the
Tipu Sultan (1782 – 99)
power in the state and became the
 Succeeded Haider Ali. He planted
de facto rulers.
Tree of Liberty at
Haider Ali (1761 – 82) Srirangapatnam
 Haider Ali started his career as a and become a
soldier in Mysore state, promoted member of
as Commander-in-Chief and later Jacobian Club.
as Faujadar at Dindigul.  He fought the Third Anglo-
 He defended Srirangapatnam Mysore War (1790-92) and the
(capital of Mysore) against the fourth Anglo Mysore War (1799)
Marathas in AD 1759 and was and died while fighting the
rewarded by conferring the title of British.
FatehHaider Bahadur (brave  He died in 1799 fighting at the
victorious lion) on him by gates of Srirangapatnam during
Nanjaraja. 4th Anglo-Mysore War.
 In 1761, he overthrew Nanjaraja  He was tolerant and enlighted in
and established his authority over his approach toward other
Page 11
religion. He gave money for the Guru Ramdas (AD 1575 – 81):
construction of image of goddess  Founded the city of Amritsar. He
Sarda on the Shrinageri temple. dug a tank (sarovar) and
 The famous temple of Sri constructed HarmandirSahibin
Rangnath was situated barely a the midst of the tank.
hundred yards from his place.  He made the post of Guru
 He sent ambassadors to France, hereditary.
Turkey, Iran, Peru and Guru Arjun Dev (AD 1581 – 1606)
Afghanistan to develop foreign  He compiled the AdiGranth.
trade. Completed the construction of
Amritsar and founded the city of
PUNJAB
Taran and kartarpur. He was
THE SIKHSIM
executed by Jahangir.
Guru Nanak (AD 1469 – 1539)
Guru HarGovind Rai (AD1606 –
 Born in Talwandi, he was the first
45):
Sikh Guru and established Nanak
 Transformed Sikhs into warrior
Panth.
class and defeated Mughal army
 He was contemporary to Ibrahim
at Sangrama.
Lodi and Babur
 Fortified Amritsar and built a
Guru Angad (AD 1539 – 52) KalTakhqt at Golden Temple.
 Invented Gurumukhi Script for  Took the title of ‘Padshah’ and
Punjabi language and regularized founded the city of Kiratpur in
langar system. Kashmir.
Guru Har Rai (AD 1645 - 61):
Guru Amardas (AD 1552 – 74):
 He met Dara shikoh, son of
 Divided his spiritual empire into
Aurangzeb.
22 parts called Manjis which was
Guru HarKishan (AD 1661 – 64):
put under the charge of a Sikh.
 Ramraya established separate
Mughal Emperor Akbar visited
seat of Guru at Dehradun.
him.
The first man to introduce printing press in India- James Hicky
Page 12
Guru Teg Bahadur Lahore in 1799 and made it his

(AD 1664 – 75): capital.
 Executed by Aurangzeb at Delhi,  He annexed Amritsar (1802),
Sis GanjGurudwara marks the site Ludhiana, Kangra, Multan,
of his martyrdom. attacked Kashmir and Peshawar.
Guru Gobind Singh  The treaty of Amritsar was
(AD 1675 – 1708): formally signed on April 25, 1809
 Born in Patna, He organized a with British.
community of warriors called  Meeting between Ranjit Singh and
Khalsa (Baisakhi Day, 1699) Lord Bentinck took place in 1831.
summoned the assembly of Sikhs  Conclusion of the Tripartite
at Anantpur and 5 persons were Treaty by Ranjit with Lord
selected (PanjPiaras) who took the Auckland (Governor General of
water of immortality. India) and Shah Shuja (1838) to
 The Sikhs were required to keep 5 invade Afghanistan and to place
k’s viz Kesh, Kripan, Kachcha, Shah Shuja on its throne was
Kanga and Kara. He compiled followed by the outbreak of the
DasweenPadshahkaGranth. He First Afghan War (1838-42). But
was stabbed to death by a Pathan Ranjit refused to permit the
in 1708. British troops to march through
his territory during the war.
Maharaja Ranjeet Singh  Successors of Ranjit
(1792 – 1839): SinghKharaksingh (1839 – 40);
 Born to the chief of the Naunithal Singh (1840), Sher
Sukerchakia in 1780 at singh (1841 – 43), Dalipsingh
Gujranwala, he founded the Sikh (1843 – 49).
rule in Punjab. He occupied
The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India- General

Cariappa
Page 13
EXPANSION &CONSOLIDATION OF
BRITISH RULE IN INDIA
ANGLO-FRENCH OR CARNATIC Second War (AD 1749 – 54)
WARS Cause
First Carnatic War (AD 1746– 48)  The French supported Chanda
Cause Sahib to become the Nawab and
 Capture of the French ships by the the English wanted to install
English navy under Barnet (1745) Muhammad Ali as the Nawab.
and retaliation of the French Course
under Dupleix by the capture of  After initial victory of French,
Madras (1746). ultimately Robert Clive emerged
Course victorious and Chanda Sahib was
 Refusal of the French to obey the beheaded.
Nawab (Anwar-ud-din) and the  Placement of Muhammad Ali on
battle between the forces of the the throne of the Carnatic.
Nawab (10,000) and the French  War ended with Treaty of
(around 1,000) at St. Thome Pondicherry / Treaty of Godehu.
which resulted in a severe defeat  Hero of Arcot – Robert Clive
to the Nawab.  Treaty of Pondicherry – 1755
 The war ended with Treaty of Aix- Third War (AD 1758 – 63)
la-Chapelle (1748) which also Cause
ended the Austrian war of  Outbreak of the Seven Year‟s War
succession and restoration of in Europe in 1756, the capture of
Madras to the English by the Chandranagore by Clive and
French. Watson (1757) in Bengal and the
arrival of Count de Lally to
retrieve the position of the French
in India (1758).
Page 14
Course
 French Governor Count de Lally
captured Fort St. David.
 After the series of conflicts the
English Army under General Eyre
Coote decisively defeated the
French forces at Wandiwash (a
took place. Robert Clive
fort in the Carnatic state) on
recovered Calcutta and Treaty of
January 22, 1760.
Alinagar was signed on 2nd
 The treaty of Paris (AD 1763)
January, 1757.
brought seven years war to an
 Battle of Plassey on 23rd June,
end. According to this treaty,
1757-English won the battle
Pondicherry and some other
against Siraj-ud-daula, and
French settlements were returned
compelled the nawab to concede
to the French.
all the demand.
 Hero of Wandiwash - Sir Eyre
 Mirjafar, (Mir Bakhsi), Manick
coote.
Chand, Officer incharge of
BATTLE OF PLASSEY
( 23RD JUNE, 1757) Impact of Plassey and
Buxar
 Under firman of 1717, the
Victory of Plassey laid the
company had rights to import or foundation of British rule in
export their goods in Bengal India and made them a
powerful factor in Bengal
without paying tax and right to Politics.
issue passes or dastaks. Dastaks Victory of Buxar established
English supremacy over
were misused for private trade by whole of North India as the
company servants. emperor of Hindustan was
defeated.
 In 1756, Siraj-ud-daula seized the
English factory at Kasimbazar and
marched to Calcutta and occupied Calcutta Omichand, rich Sikh
Fort William. Black hole tragedy merchant Jagat Seth, banker

Khadim Khan commander of
Page 15
Nawab‟s army all were on English the throne and he signed a treaty
side. on 20th February, 1765 by which
 Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, the Nawab was to disband most of
nawab‟s soldiers fought bravely. his army and to administer Bengal
 Nawab was killed by Mir Jafar‟s through a Deputy Subedar
son Miran. nominated by the company.
 Robert Clive became the 1st
BATTLE OF BUXAR Governor of Bengal in 1765.
(22ND OCTOBER 1764)  After the Battle of Buxar, the
 Mir Jafar granted free trade right company gave Shah Alam-II a
to the company in Bengal, Bihar subsidiary of Rs.26 lakh and
and Orissa. secured Diwani of Kara and
 In 1760, Mir Jafar was replaced by Allahabad.
his son-in-law, Mir Qasim. Governor of Bengal
 Mir Qasim (1760 – 64) ceded
Burdwan, Midnapur and Robert Olice (First 1757-60
Administration)
Chittagong. He shifted his capital Holwell (officianing ) 1760
from Murshidabad to Monghyr. Banst hart 1760- 65
 Mir Qasim soon revolted as he Robert clive (seland 1765 – 67
was angry with the British for Administration)
Verelst 1767 – 69
misusing dastaks (free duty
Cartier 1769 – 72
asses).
Warrem Hastings 1772 -74
 He formed an alliance with Nawab
Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765)
of Awadh, Suja-ud-daula and
 English got the Diwani right (right
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam-II
to collect revenue) of Bengal,
and fought with the British army
Bihar and Orissa.
at Buxar on 22, October 1764.
 The dual Government of Bengal
 Mir Jafar was again put on throne
was established in 1765 where in
by the Britishers.
the company got the right to
 On Mir Jafar‟s death, his son
collect revenue but the Nizamright
Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on
Page 16
(administration) was with the  Outbreak of hostilities between

Nawab. the English and the French (an
 Warren Hastings ended the dual ally of Haider) during the
system of Government in 1772. American War of Independence.
Course
CONQUEST OF MYSORE STATE
First Anglo-Mysore War(1766-69)  Warren Hastings attacked French
Causes port Mahe which was in Hyder
 Haider‟s ambition to drive the Ali‟s territory.
British away from the Carnatic  Hyder Ali led a joint front with
and finally from India and the Nizam and Maratha and captured
British realization of the threat Arcot. In 1781, Hyder Ali was
posed to them by Haider. defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre
 Haider Ali defeated the British, Coot.
and the Treaty of Madras was  Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was
signed. signed by Tipu sultan and Lord
Course Macarfency (Governor of Madras)
 Haider played a diplomatic game, ended the war.
bought the Marathas, allured the
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Nizam with territorial gains and
(AD 1790 – 92)
together with the latter launched
Cause
an attack on British.
 The growing power of Mysore and
 The panic stricken Madras
the success of Tipu in
Government was forced to sign a
strengthening his position by
humiliating treaty (Treaty of
undertaking various internal
Madras) on 4 April, 1769.
reforms made the British, the
Second Anglo-Mysore War Marathas and the Nizam
(1780 – 84)
apprehensive.
Cause
 Lord Cornwallis worked on the
 Mutual distrust and refusal of the
anti-Tipu suspicion of the Nizam
English to fulfil the terms of the
and the Marathas and arranged a
defensive treaty with Haider.
Page 17
Triple Alliance (AD 1790) with remove the threat from Tipu once
them against Tipu. for all.
Course  Arthur Wellesley attacked Tipu
 Success of Cornwallis in who died while fighting.
surrounding Srirangapatnam after
some initial setbacks. Course
 The End of the war with the  The war against Tipu began in
signing of the treaty of 1799 and he was defeated first by
Srirangapatnam. Stuart at Sedaseer (5th March)
and then by General Harris at
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Malvelley (27th March).
(AD 1799)  The English captured
Cause Srirangapatnam and Tipu died
 Desire of Tipu to avenge his defending his capital.
humiliating defeat and the terms  Signing of a subsidiary treaty by
imposed on him by the British and the new Raja with British (1799).
his success in making Mysore  1831, Bentick took over the
strong once again. administration of Mysore because
 Determination of Lord Wellesley of misgovernment by its ruler,
(the new governor general) to 1881 Ribon restored it.
War BetweenHaider Ali and English British Commander
Battle of Changana Colonel Smith Indecisive

Battle of Vaniambadi Colonel Smith (Dec. Indecisive
1767)
Battle of Mulbagal Colonel Smith (Oct. 1768) Indecisive
Battle of Ariyalur Colonel Smith (Nov1768) Indecisive
Battle of Porto Novo Sir Eyre Coote (July , English won
1781)
Battle of Pollilore Sir Eyre Coote (Sep 1781) English won
Battle of Sholingur Sir Eyre Coote (Oct 1781) English won
Page 18
ANGLO-MARATHA WARS  The Peshwas signed the Treaty of

First War (1775 – 82) Bassein (1802) which was a treaty
Cause for subsidiary alliance.
 Struggle for power among the  Defeat of the combined forces of
Marathas (between SawaiMadhav Scindia and Bhonsle by the British
Rao, supported by the Nana under Arthur Wellesley at Assaye
Phadnis and Raghunath Rao, and Argaon in 1803 and the
uncle of Madhav Rao). conclusion of Subsidiary Treaties
 Treaty of Surat (1775), British Vs with them.
Ragunanda Rao.  The war resulted in the company
 Treaty of purander (1776), English becoming the paramount power in
Vs Nana Pradnavis India.
Course Third War (1817 – 19)

 English favoured Raghunath Rao Cause
to become the Peshwa but were  Resentment of the Marathas
defeated and signed the against the loss of their freedom
convention of Wadgaon. to the British.
 British later signed Treaty (1782) Course
of Salbai renouncing the cause of  Dethronement of the Peshwa (he
Raghunath Rao. was pensioned off and sent to
Bithur near Kanpur) and the
Second War (1803 – 05)
annexation of all his territories by
Cause
the British (the creation of the
 Wellesley‟s aggressive policy of
Bombay Presidency).
interference in the internal affairs
 A subsidiary treaty with Holkar
of the Marathas – his desire to
known as the “Treaty of Mandsor”
impose Subsidiary Alliance on the
was signed.
Marathas.
Page 19
PESHWA  Sikh were defeated, „Treaty of

BalajiVishwanath 1713 – 20 Lahore‟ ended the war.
Baji Rao I 1720 – 40  9th March 1846 Treaty of
BalajiBaji Rao 1740 – 61 Bhairowal – 16th Dec 1846.
Madhav Raw I 1761-1772
Second War (1848 – 49)
(Nana Saheb)
Cause
Narain Rao 1772 – 74
 Desire of the Sikh army to avenge
Madhav Rao II 1774 -95
their humiliation of the first war.
Baji Rao II 1796 -1898
Course
The last peshwa died on 14
 Final defeat of the Sikhs by Gough
January 1851 at Bithur.
in the Battle of Gujarat (a town
ANGLO-SIKH WARS near the Chenab) in 1849, and the
 Began after the death of Ranjit surrender of Sher Singh and other
Singh in 1839. Sikh chiefs and the army in 1849.

 Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Sir
First War (1845 – 46)
John Lawrence became the first
Cause
commissioner of Punjab.
 Anarchy in Punjab after the death
of Ranjit; Murder of three rulers ANGLO-BURMESE WARS
(Kharak Singh, Nao Nihal Singh  Burma was united by King
and Sher Singh) within six years AloungPaya between 1752 – 60
(1839 – 45); sucession of  His successor Bodopaya repelled
Dalipsingh (five year old son of many Chinese invasion and
Ranjit) (1845); absence of any conquered the states of Arakan
control over the army (Khalsa). and Manipur (1813).
Course First War (1824 - 26)
 Defeat of the Sikh army at Mudki,  Lord Amherst declared war
at Ferozpur, at Aliwal and against Burma and the state was
Sobroan. attacked by both land and sea

route.
The first Indian Naval Chief- Vice Admiral R D Katari
Page 20
 In 1824, British Indian authority Peshawar from Ranjith Singh.

declared war on Burma and Lord Auckland rejected his
occupied Rangoon and reached proposal. Dost Mohammad then
the capital Ava, peace came in accepted the Friendship of the
1826 by Treaty of Yandabo. French.
 Auckland sent an English mission
Second War (1852 - 56) under Alexander Burns which was
 The main reason behind the in turn, rejected by Afghan Chief.
conflict was the oppression of Course
English merchants settled in
 In 1839, British replaced Dost
Burma by Burmese officials at
Rangoon. Muhammad by placing Shah
 Annexation of Pegu, the capital Shuja.
province only remained free.  British faced a popular revolt but
were able to re-occupy Kabul.
Third War (1885 - 86) However, they had to restore the
 The Burmese King Theebaw throne to Dost Muhammad.
allowed trade concessions to the British occupied Kabul in 1842.
French and imposed fine on Second War (1878 – 80)
English East India Company and Cause
arrested its officials.  Sher Ali, the Afghan Chief rejected
 British attacked over Burma and the English Missions sent by Lord
Thibaw surrendered.In 1935, Lytton under Sir Lewis Pelly and
Burma was separated from India. Sir Neville Chamberlain but
Movement of Burma gained them accepted the Russian mission led
independence on 4th January by Stolietoff.
1948.
ANGLO-AFGHAN WARS
First War (1839 – 42)
Cause
 Dost Mohammad asked for the
helped of English in order to win
Page 21
Course
British attacked Afghanistan during the Course
period of Sher Ali. Sher Ali was  He invaded the British territories
defeated by Lord Lytton and his sons
War Years Place Place Treaty Year
First Carnatic war 1746 – 48 Fort St. David St. Treaty of Aux – 1748
Thome la Chappell
Second Carnatic 1748 – 54
War
Third Carnatic War 1758 -63 Wandiwash Treaty of paris 1763
First Anglo – 1767 -69 Arcot Treaty of 1769
Mysore War Madras
Second Anglo 1780 -84 Arcotporlo Novo Treaty of 1784
Mysore War Mangalore
Third Anglo Mysore 1790 – 92 Travancore Treaty of 1792
war SrirangaPatnam Sriranga
Patnam
Fourth Anglo 1799 SrirangaPatnam Tipu Sultan was
Mysore war killed
Anglo – Gorkha 1814 – 16 Treaty of 1816
War Sagauli
First Anglo 1826 Treaty of Yanda 1826
Burmesc war boo
First Anglo Sikh 1845 – 46 Mudki; Ferozshah; Treaty of Lahore 1846
War Buddiwal
Second Anglo Sikh 1848 – 49 Ramnagar; Chillianwal Punjab war
war and Gujarat annexed
signed the Treaty of Gandamas (Yakub on the instigation of the German
Khan).British adopted the principle of agent but was defeated.
non-interference.
 Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed
Third War (1919 - 21) according to which Amirs were
Cause
now free to pursue their policy
 In 1919 Habibullah, the Amir of
within their territory and their
Afghanistan was murdered and
annual subsidy was stopped.
his son, Ammanullah tried to
declare his independence from
British regency.
Page 22
BRITISH
ADMINISTRATION
ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL Industrial Phase (1813 – 1858)
POLICY  The British mercantile industrial
 The gradual under development of capitalist class exploited India as
India has been traced through Industrial revolution in Britain
three stages of British colonialism completely transformed Britain‟s
by R.C Dutta. economy.
Phases of Economic Policy –  Charter Act of 1813 allowed „one
Early Phase (1600 – 1757) way free trade‟ for British
 East India Company was purely a citizens resulting in Indian
trading company dealing with markets flooded with cheap and
import of goods and precious machine made imported goods
metals into India and export of from Britain.
spices and textiles.  Indians not only lost their
Mercantile Phase (1757 – 1813) foreign markets but their Indian
 They imposed their own price markets also.
which had no relation with the 1858 Onwards: Finance
cost of production. Imperialism
 The company used its political  This phase saw export of capital
power and monopolized trade and from India and also chains of
dictated terms to the weavers of British controlled banks, export
Bengal. import firms and managing
 The company used revenue of agency houses.
Bengal to finance exports of  Exploitation through Railways is a
Indian goods. best example of finance
imperialism.
The first Indian Air Chief Marshal- Subroto Mukherjee
Page 23
Economic Committees/Commissions
Lord Lansdown Harshell 1893 Hershell To give suggestion

(1888-1894) Committee regarding currency
Lord Lansdown Opium 1893 ------- To investigate about
(1888-1894) Commission the effect of opium on
health
Lord Elgin (1894- Henry Fowler 1898 H. Fowler To gives suggestion
1899) currency
Lord Curzon Irrigation 1901 Sir Wolvin To plan for the
(1899-1905) Commission Scott expenditure on
Monkinj irrigation
Lord Hardinge Maclagon 1914- Maclagon To advise for
(1910-1916) Committee 1915 cooperative finances
Lord Irwin (1926- Linlithgow 1928 ------ To study the problem
1931) commission in agriculture(Report
by Linlithgow)
Lord Irwin (1926- Whitelay 1929 J.H. To study the condition
1931) Commission Whitelay of labour in Industries
and gardens
Lord Wellington Indian 1935 Lary To arrange for
(1931-1936) Measurement Hamand inclusion of labour in
Committee Federal Assembly
Lord Linlithgow National 1938 Jawaharlal To Prepare economic
(1936-1943) Planning Nehru plan
Committee
Drain of Wealth Theory  Drain of

“Drain of Wealth”
 Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the wealth began refers to a portion of
National Product of
drain of wealth theory in his book in 1757 after India, which was not
available for the
titled Poverty and Un-British Battle of
consumption of its own
Rule in India. Plassey. In people.
 RC Dutt blamed the British policy 1765, the

for Indian economic ills in his company acquired the diwani
book Economic History of rights of Bengal and began the
India. purchase of Indian goods out of
Page 24
the revenue of Bengal and were known as company‟s

exported them. These purchases investment.
Important famine in India
1770 Bengal
1866 -69 Orissa
1869-70 United Provinces
1872 Punjab, Rajasthan
1871 North Bihar
1876 Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay, United Provinces
1896- 97 North – West provinces, Oudh Bihar, Madras, Bombay,
Punjab
Famine Commissions
Lord Lytton Famine 1880 Richard To give relief for famine

(1876-1880) Commission Strachey strikers
Lord Elgin Famine 1897 James To give suggestion on
Commission Lyall earlier
Lord Curzon Famine 1900 Anthony To give the suggestion
(1899-1905) Commission McDonnell on earlier reports
Lord Wavell Famine 1943- John To investigate in the
Commission 44 Woodhood events of Bengal famine.
REVENUE  The overwhelming majority of its

ADMINISTRATION AND people depend on agriculture for
ECONOMIC POLICY OF sustenance.
THE BRITISH  If the crop is good, prosperity
British Agrarian Policy prevails otherwise it leads to
 It is a well-known fact that India famine and starvation.
is primarily an agricultural  Till the 18th century, there was a
country. strong relation between
Page 25
agriculture and cottage industries principally adopted three land

in India. tenures.
 India was not only ahead in the  Roughly 19 per cent of the total
field of agriculture than most area under the British rule, i.e.,
other countries but it also held a Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of
prominent place in the world in the North Western Provinces and
the field of handicrafts northern Karnatak, were brought
production. under the Zamindari System or
 The British destroyed handicraft the Permanent Settlement.
industry in the country while  The second revenue system, called
unleashing far-reaching changes the Mahalwari Settlement,
in the country‟s agrarian structure was introduced in about 30 per
by introducing new systems of cent of the total area under British
land tenures and policies of rule i.e., in major parts of the
revenue administration. North Western Provinces, Central
 India‟s national income, foreign Provinces and the Punjab with
trade, industrial expansion and some variations.
almost every other dominion of  The Ryotwari System covered
economic activity, depended on about 51 per cent of the area
the country‟s agriculture. under British rule comprising part
 The British policies revolved of the Bombay and Madras
around getting maximum income Presidencies, Assam and certain
from land without caring much other parts of British India.
about the interests of the Indian Land Revenue System
cultivators.  It is appropriate to recall that
 They abandoned the age-old Warren Hastings introduced the
system of revenue administration annual lease system of auctioning
and adopted in their place a the land to the highest bidder. It
ruthless policy of revenue created chaos in the revenue
collection. administration.
 After their advent, the British  Cornwallis at the time of his
Page 26
appointment was instructed by the zamindars had to pay to

the Directors to find a satisfactory the Company was firmly
and a permanent solution to the fixed and would not be raised
problems of the land revenue under any circumstances. In
system in order to protect the other words the Government
interests of both the Company and of the East India Company
the cultivators. got 89% of the revenue
 It obliged the Governor-General leaving the rest to the
to make a thorough enquiry into Zamindars.
the usage, tenures and rents (iii) The ryots became tenants
prevalent in Bengal. since they were considered
 The whole problem occupied Lord the tillers of the soil.
Cornwallis for over three years (iv) This settlement took away
and after a prolonged discussion the administrative and
with his colleagues like Sir John judicial functions of the
Shore and James Grant he zamindars.
decided to abolish the annual  The Permanent Settlement of
lease system and introduce a Cornwallis was bitterly criticised
decennial (Ten years) settlement on the point that it was adopted
which was subsequently declared with „undue haste‟.
to be continuous.  The flagrant defect of this
 The main features of the arrangement was that no attempt
Permanent Settlement were as was made ever either to survey the
follows: lands or to assess their value.
(i) The zamindars of Bengal  The assessment was made roughly
were recognised as the on the basis of accounts of
owners of land as long as previous collections and it was
they paid the revenue to the done in an irregular manner.
East India Company  The effects of this system both on
regularly the zamindars and ryots were
(ii) The amount of revenue that disastrous. As the revenue fixed
Page 27
by the system was too high, many to be a great boon to the

zamindars defaulted on payments. zamindars and to the government
 Their property was seized and of Bengal.
distress sales were conducted  It formed a regular income and
leading to their ruin. The rich stabilised the government of the
zamindars who led luxurious lives Company. The zamindars
left their villages and migrated to prospered at the cost of the
towns. welfare of the tenants.
 They entrusted their rent Ryotwari Settlement
collection to agents who exacted  The Ryotwari system was
all kinds of illegal taxes besides introduced mainly in Madras,
the legal ones from the ryots. Berar, Bombay and Assam. Sir
 This had resulted in a great deal of Thomas Munro introduced this
mystery amongst the peasants and system in the Madras Presidency.
farmers.  Under this settlement, the peasant
 Therefore Lord Cornwallis‟ idea of was recognised as the proprietor
building a system of benevolent of land.
land-lordism failed.  There was no intermediary like
 Baden Powell remarks, “The zamindar between the peasant
zamindars as a class did nothing and the government.
for the tenants”.  So long as he paid the revenue in
 Though initially the Company time, the peasant was not evicted
gained financially, in the long run from the land.
the Company suffered financial  Every peasant was held personally
loss because land productivity was responsible for direct payment of
high, income from it was meagre land revenue to the government.
since it was a fixed sum.  However, in the end, this system
 It should be noted that in pre- also failed. Under this settlement
British period a share on the crop it was certainly not possible to
was a fixed sum. collect revenue in a systematic
 Nevertheless, this system proved manner.
Page 28
 The revenue officials indulged in revenue rested with the entire

harsh measures for non-payment Mahal or the village community.
or delayed payment.  So the entire land of the village
was measured at the time of fixing
Mahalwari Settlement the revenue.
 In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement  Though the Mahalwari system
was introduced in the Punjab, the eliminated middlemen between
central provinces and parts of the government and the village
North Western provinces. community and brought about
 Under this system the basic unit improvement in irrigation facility,
of revenue settlement was a yet its benefit was largely enjoyed
village or a Mahal. by the government.
 As the village lands belonged  Indian Civil Services Act of 1861
jointly to the village community, was passed
the responsibility of paying the
BRITISH LAND REVENUE POLICY
Land Revenue Originator Area

Year
System
Izardari/Farming Warren Bengal
1773
System Hastings
Permanent Sir John Shore Bengal, Varanasi division of

Settlement (Governor U.P., Bihar, North Karnataka
1793
General Lord and Orrisa
Cornwallis )
Ryotwari Settlement Sir Thomas Madras, Coorg, East Bengal,
Munro & Berar, Bombay and Assam.
Charles Reed
1820
(Governor
General
Hastings)
Page 29
Mahalwari Holt Mackenzie Punjab, Central Provinces,

Settlement & (Governor Upper Provinces including
General 1833 Agra, Avadh and Delhi.
William
Bentinck)
This was the precursor of much
Evolution of Civil Services famous Indian Civil Service.
 The Civil Services in India during Cornwallis introduced very
British Rule went through attractive pay scales for the
constant experimentation and covenanted civil servants who
innovation. It has evolved entered into a covenant with the
meticulously by way of a series of company‟s government
legislations by the British  In 1800, Lord Wellesley founded
authorities. the College of Fort William at
 The Pitt’s India Act of 1784, Calcutta for the purpose of
established a Board of training of new recruits to the
Commissioners to the company covenanted services.
also called the „Board of Control‟.  As per Charter Act 1853, the
 The Act placed the civil and services were open to all the
Military Government of the citizens of British kingdom,
company in due subordination of including Indians. But, for all
the Government in England. practical purposes the selection
 Lord Cornwallis introduced process remained highly biased
first major reforms in Civil against the entry of Indians.
Services. He was the one who  The main reasons for low
introduced the category of representation of Indians in the
covenanted and non-covenanted services were the very low
service in the company‟s maximum age of eligibility for
bureaucracy. taking the entrance exam and the
 The covenanted was exclusive to location of examination centre in
the British then the European. England.
Page 30
 In fact, after successive reductions much so that the first all India
the maximum age was reduced to political association the India
19 years from 21 years during the Association headed by Surendra
tenure of Lord Lytton. Nath Bannerjee started the „Civil
 Facilitation of entry of Indians in Services Agitation‟ all over India
the elite civil services remained  Indian Civil Services Act of 1861
one of the strongest demand of was passed
the early political agitations, so
Administrative Committees/Commissions
Lord Dufferin Etkinson 1886 Charles To involve more

(1884-1886) Commission Etkinson Indians in Civil
Service
Lord Curzon Fraser 1902 Fraser To investigate the
(1899-1905) Commission working of police
Lord HardingeRoyal 1912 Lord To give 25% high
(1910-1916) Commission Islinton posts to Indian
on Civil
Service
Lord Reading Royal 1924 Lord Lee To remove defects of
(1921-1926) Commission Civil Service
Lord Reading Sandhurst 1926 Andrews To suggest
(1921-1926) Committee Skeen Indianizations of
Indian army
Lord Irwin Butler 1927 Hercourt To examine nature of
(1926-1931) Committee Butler crown relation with
native States
Satyendranath Tagore was the first Indian to Join Civil Services

(1863).
The intellectual skill among the English educated middle class prompted a
group of people to introspect about the backwardness of Indian society and
the way and means to over come that. The zeal to eradicate these social
evils and superstitions which had become part of the religious belief of 19 th
century India led to a series of Reform Movements.
Page 31
GOVERNOR-GENERAL
(1773 – 1833)
GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF  First Anglo-
BENGAL Maratha War
Warren Hastings (1772-85) during his
 He became Governor of Bengal in period, which
1772 and first Governor-General ended with
of Bengal in 1773, through the Treaty of
Regulating Act. Salbai(1776-
 He abolished the dual system of 82).
administration.  Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-
 Divided Bengal into districts and 84), ended with Treaty of
appointed collectors and other Mangalore.
revenue officials.  Rohilla War in 1774.
 Established India’s first Supreme  Pitts India Act, 1784 and Edmund
Court at Calcutta. Burke Bill, 1783 was passed.
 He founded Asiatic Society of  Deprived zamindar of their
Bengal with William Jones in judicial powers. Maintenance of
1784 and wrote introduction to records was made compulsory.
the first English translation of the  Impeachment proceedings started
Gita by Charles Wilkins. against him in Britain on the
 Started Diwani and charges of taking bribe. After a
Faujdariadalats and the district trial of 7 years, he was finally
level Sadardiwani and acquitted.
Nizmatadalats (appellate courts).
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
 He redefined Hindu and Muslim
 First person to codify laws (1793).
laws. A translation of code in
The code separated the revenue
Sanskrit appeared under the title
administration from the
‘code of Gentoo laws’.
administration of justice.
Page 32
 He started the permanent

settlement of Bengal.
 He created the post of District
Judge. He is called Father of Civil
Services in India.
 Fourth Anglo-Mysore war in
1799, Tipu Sultan died.
 First subsidiary treaty with Nizam
of Hyderabad.
 Second Anglo-Maratha War.
 In 1800, he set up Fort William
 Third Anglo-Mysore War and the
College in Calcutta. He was
Treaty of Srirangapatnam.
famously called as Bengal Tiger.
 He undertook police reforms.
 He brought the Censorship of
Sir John Shore (1793-1798) Press Act, 1799.
 He played an Subsidiary Alliance
important role in  The subsidiary alliance system
planning the was used by Wellesley to bring
permanent Indian states within the orbit of
settlement. British political power.
 Introduced First Charter Act
(1793).
 Famous for his policy of non-
interference.
 Battle of Kharla between Nizam
and Marathas  Under this system, the ruler of the
Lord Wellesey(1798-1803) allying Indian state was compelled
 Introduced the system of to accept the permanent
Subsidiary alliance. Madras stationing of a British force within
presidency was formed during his his territory and to pay a subsidy
tenure. for its maintenance.
The first Indian woman Director General of Police- Kanchan C Bhattacharya
Page 33
 British promised that they will not Lord Hastings(1813-23)

interfere in the internal affairs but  Adopted the
this was a promise they seldom policy of
kept. intervention
 It disarmed the Indian states and and war.
threw British protectorate over  Anglo-Nepal
them. War (1813-23).
 First to accept subsidiary alliance  Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-
was Nizam of Hyderabad 1798, 18).
second Nawab of Awadh, 1801.  Introduced the Ryotwari
 The Peshwa, the Bhonsle, the settlement in Madras by Thomas
Scindhia and Rajputs of Jodhpur, Munro the Governor.
Jaipur accepted the subsidiary  Treaty of Sagowliwith Gurkhas
alliance. (1816).
 Treaty of Poona (1817-1818).
Sir George Barlow (1805-07)  Suppression of Pindaris (1817-
 Vellore mutiny (1806, by 1818).
soldiers).
 Second Anglo-Maratha War Lord Amherst (1823-28)
ended.  First Anglo Burmes War (1824-
Lord Minto I (1807-1813) 26), signed Treaty of
 Treaty of Gandabooin 1826 with lower
Amritsar (1809) Burma of Pegu, by which British
with Ranjit Singh. merchants were allowed to settle
 Charter Act on Southern coast of Burma.
of 1813, ended the  Acquisition of Malaya Peninsula
monopoly of East India Company and Bharatpur(1826).
in India.
The first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest twice- Santosh Yadav
Page 34
GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF Sir Charles Metcalfe (1834-36)

INDIA  Passed the famous press law,
Lord William Bentinck(1828- which liberated the press in India.
1835) He is known as “Liberator of
 Most liberal press”.
and
Lord Auckland (1836-42)
enlightened
 First Afghan War (1836-42).
among all
 Death of Ranjit Singh (1839).
Governor-
General of
Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)
India.
 Brought an end to the Afghan War
 Regarded as the ‘Father of
(1842).
Modern Western Education in
 Abolished Slavery
India’.
 Sind was annexed as First
 Abolition of Sati in 1829.
Governor of Sind.
 Suppression of Thugs (1830).
 Passed the Charter Act, of 1833.
Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
 Deposition of Raja of Mysore and
 First Anglo-Sikh War and the
annexation of his territories
Treaty of Lahore.
(1831).
 Abolition of provincial court of
Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
appeal and appointment of
commissioners instead. He was
First Governor-General of India.
 First medical College was
opened in Calcutta in 1835.
 Treaty of Friendship with Ranjit
Singh (1831).
 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)
 Annexed Coorg (1834) and
and annexation of Punjab.
Central Cachar (1831).
 Abolished title and pensions.
 Window Remarriage Act (1856).
Page 35
 Introduced Doctrine of Lapse.

 Wood Educational Despatch of
1854.
 Introduction of the Railway,
Telegraph and the Postal
System in 1853.
 Establishment of a separate
Public Works Department in
every province.
 Engineering College was
established at Roorkee.
 Planned to open universities in
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on
the model of Universities of
London.
 Second Anglo-Burmese War
(1852).
 Santhal uprisings (1855-56).
 Charter Act of 1853.
Page 36
GROWTHOF MODERN
EDUCATION IN INDIA
Development of Modern  For one, the political tumult under
Education and Press the British regime could hardly
 Modern Education and foster concern on intellectual
Development of Press & pursuits and secondly, the public
Education side evolved during endowments to these schools were
the British rule in India. not forthcoming any more. But
 With modern education came later, plea to promote learning by
modern political, social and the India officers of the company
economic thoughts and these and others finally bore fruit.
thoughts were propagated  The Calcutta Madrassa
through the nationalist press. established by Warren Hastings in
 Some half hearted initiatives 1781 for the study of Muslim law.
were take by British government  The Sanskrit College
of India for the development of established by Jonathan Duncan
education but many full-hearted at Banaras in 1791 for the study of
obstacles were placed in the way Hindu law and philosophy.
of evolution of Independent  Fort William College
press by same Government established by Wellesley in 1800
Development of Education for training of civil servants of the
 The traditional school of learning company in Indian languages and
in India suffered under the impact customs. (Closed in 1802).
of colonial expansion.
School / college Year Established by
Calcutta Madarasa 1781 By Warren Hastings
Asiatic Society of Bengal 1784 By William Jones
Sanskrit college at Banaras 1791 By Johnthan Duncan
Fort William collect at Calcutta 1800 By Lord Wellesely to train
Civil Servents.
Hindu college at Calcutta 1817 By Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
Page 37
David Hare, Edward hyde

fast
School Book society 1817 By David hare, Louis
rirvianDerozio and HH
Wilson
School at Suripara (Calcutta) By Raja ram Mohan Ray for
promoting English education
Anglo Hindu School 1822 By Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Vedanta College 1825 By Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Mohammadan Anglo Oritental 1875 By Jayyid Ahmed Khan
college at Aligan
Bethune School 1849 By John Elliot Drink water be
thune
Dayanand Anglo vedic college at 1886 By LalaLajpat Raj and
Lahore LalaHansraj
Central Hindu school at benaras 1898 Annie Besant
Benaras Hindu University 1916 By Madan Mohan Malviya
Wardha Scheme 1939 By Gandhi
1813 Charter Act, and the  Establishment of Calcutta
Education College in 1817 with the efforts of
 The English missionary activists, Raja Ram Mohan Roy for
such as Charles Grant and imparting Western education.
William Wilberforce, Three Sanskrit colleges were set-
compelled the East India up at Calcutta.
Company to give up its policy of General Committee of Public
non-intervention in education. Instructions, 1823
 For the first time, the British  In 1823, a General Committee of
Parliament included in 1813 public instruction was appointed
Charter, a clause under which the to look after the development of
Governor-General-in-Council was education in India.
bound to keep a sum not less than  The Orientalist dominated
one lakh rupees, for education. committee and advocated the
However, the Company used this promotion of Oriental learning
fund for promoting Indian rather than the Anglists.
language and literature.
Page 38
 However, different sections both  Agriculture Institute was

in England and in India created established at Pusa (Bihar)
mounting pressure on the  Engineering Institute was
Company to promote Western established at Roorkee.
education. Wood’s Despatch, 1854
Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy  In1854, Charles Wood prepared a
1835 dispatch on an educational system
 In 1835, Lord Macaulary was for India which came to be called
made a law member of the the Magna Carta of education in
Governor-General-in-Council. the country. According to wood’s
Soon, under the Macaulay system scheme,
of education (approved by - The government needed to
Governor-General Bentinck), spread Western education
Persian was abolished as the through English medium for
court language and was higher education. But,
substituted by English. vernacular primary schools
 Printing of English books was should be set-up in rural areas.
made free and these were Its other recommendations
available at a relatively low price. were
 The approved Macaulayian system - A grants-in-aid system to
was an attempt to foucs on encourage private enterprise’s
educating the upper strata of involvement in education,
society through English and - A department of public
leaving it up to these people to instruction in each of the five
promote vernacular languages provinces,
and literature. Western learning - Universities in Calcutta,
would also spread through to the Bombay and Madras,
masses in this manner. - Teacher’s training institutions
 Bethune School was founded by and
JED Bethune at Calcutta (1849). - Promotion of education for
women.
Page 38
Hunter Commission (1882-1883) improving the working and

 To evaluate the progress achieved prospects of Indian Universities, a
under the Despatch of 1854, a commission was appointed in
commission under WW Hunter 1902 (Sir Thomas Relay). It
was set up in 1882. The commission’s report led to the
commission’s views restricted to Indian Universities Act, which
primary and secondary education was passed in 1904.
emphasised Provisions of Indian Universities
- The state’s role in extending Act, 1904
primary education;  More stress was over research
- Literacy and practical learning activities. The number of fellows
for secondary-level education; of a university and their period in
- That female education had been office was reduced. Government
largely ignored; can veto universities senate
- A whole-hearted attempt to regulations. Strict regulation for
involve private enterprise in affiliation of private colleges. Five
education. lakh rupees were to be sanctioned
 Many institutions were set-up to per annum for five year for
promote oriental and Indian improvement of higher education.
learning as well. Teaching-cum- Sadler Commission (1917-1919)
examining universities sprang up,  The Sadler Commission was
an example being the Punjab appointed to study the problems
University established in 1882. of the Calcutta University though
In 1887, the Allahabad its recommendations were
University was founded. applicable to other universities as
Curzon’s Reforms well. The commission’s
 Under Curzon (1899-1905), suggestions included
education was restricted by - A 12-year school course,
official control and educated - A three-year degree course after
persons were motivated to express the intermediate stage,
loyalty to the British rule. For
Page 39
- More flexibility in laying down  Following the recommendations of

university regulations, the commission, from 1916 to 1921,
- Centralised unitary-residential- seven universities were set-up.
teaching bodies with autonomy The control of the Education
to replace traditional Indian Department was put in the hands
universities, of provincial ministries after the
- Facilities for teacher’s training Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms
and female education, (1919).
- Instituting university degree
and diploma and applied
science and technology courses.
Educational Committee/Commissions
Viceroy Committee/ Year Chairman Objectives

Commission
Lord Ripon Hunter 1882 William To study the
(1880-1884) Commission Hunter development in
education
Lord Curzon University 1902 Thomas To study the Universities
(1899-1905) Commission Raleigh and introduce reforms
Lord Calcutta 1917 Michael To study the condition of
Chelmsford University Sader University
(1916-1921) Commission
Lord Reading Indian 1923 Lord To discuss the Central
(1921-1926) Disbandment Itchcap Committee of Edcation
Committee
Lord Wavell Sargeant plan 1944 John To raise the standard of
(1943-1947) Sargeant Education like Britain
The first woman Pilot in Indian Air Force- Harita Kaur Dayal
Page 40
Hartog Committee, 1929 Education in 1944 called for

 Recommended the policy of elementary and higher secondary
consolidation and improvement of schools, universal free and
primary education. compulsory education for children
Recommended a selective system in the 6-11 age group, and a six-
of admission to universities and year school course for the 11-17
diversified courses leading to age group.
industrial and commercial  Through the plan aimed to
careers. Universities should be reconstruct education in 40 years,
improved. Wardha Scheme of it was later restricted to 16 years.
basic Education (1937) worded  Sir John Sergeant was the
out by the Zakir Hussain Educational Advisor to the
Committee, after Gandhiji Government of India.
published a series of articles in the
Harijan. Development After Independence
 After Independence, the
Wardha Scheme, 1937 Radhakrishnan Commission
 Gandhi proposed his Wardha was set-up in November 1948to
Scheme for basic education that review university education. The
aimed at learning through activity main recommendations were
and emphasised on Vocational - 12 years of pre-university
education. The details, as studies;
prepared by the Zakir Hussain - Higher educational set-up to
Committee, focused on manual impart general, liberal and
productive work. As the Congress occupational education,
Ministries soon resigned, the increased focus on subjects
scheme could be take up only after such as agriculture, law and
1947. medicine and improvement of
Sergeant Plan, 1944 engineering and technical
 The Sergeant plan, worked out by institutes;
the Central Advisory Board of
Page 41
- University education must not Development of Technical

be made compulsory for Education
administrative services;  1794 Guindy college of
- Subject-wise exams at different Engineering (affiliated to Madras
stages for acquiring the first University)
degree;  1835 Medical College at
- Uniform examination standards Calcutta, Agriculture College at
in all universities; Pune
- Raised pay scale for teachers  1856 The Calcutta College of
and Engineering
- The establishment of University  1858 Oversee’s School
Grants Commission. at Poona developed into Poona
 The Indian Government adopted a College of Engineering (affiliated
resolution in 1968 which was to Bombay University)
mostly based on the
recommendations of the Kothari Development of Press
Commission appointed in 1964.  The evolution of the Indian media
 The resolution also called for a was fraught with development
three-language formula which difficulties, illiteracy, colonial
would involve regional constraints and repression
languages as well Promotion of patriotic movements grew in
science and research, agriculture proportion with the colonial
and industry- related studies; and ruthlessness and a vehicle of
increased emoluments for information dissemination
teachers and a better status for became a tool for freedom
them. struggle. In the struggle for
 On the recommendation of Radha freedom, journalists in the 20th
Krishnan Commission the century perfomed a dual role as
Universities Grant professionals and nationalists.
Commission was constituted in  The first attempt to publish
1953. newspapers in India were made by
Page 42
the disgruntled employees of the Doorbeenand Sultan-ul-

East India Company who sought Akhar faced trail in 1857, for
to expose the malpractices of having published a ‘firman’ by
private trade. The first newspaper Bahadur Shah Zafar, urging the
in India entitled Hickey’s people to drive the British out of
Bengal Gazette or The India.
Calcutta General Advertiser  This was followed by the
was started by James Augustus notorious Gagging Act of Lord
Hickey in 1780. Canning, under which restrictions
 Soon other newspapers came into were imposed on the newspapers
existence in Calcutta and Madras, and periodicals.
the Calcutta Gazette, the Bengal  The first book published in India
Journal, the Oriental Magazine, was by the Jesuits of Goa in 1557.
the Madras Courier and the In 1684, the East India Company
Indian Gazette. set-up a printing press in Bombay.
 During the first half of 19th However, for about a century after
century, several newspapers were this no newspaper was published
in operation in the country. Many in the country, because the
of these like Bengadoot of Ram company’s servants in India
Mohan Roy, Rastgoftarof wished to with hold the news of
DadabhaiNaoroji, etc. advocated their malpractices and abuses of
social reforms and thus helped to private trading from reaching
arose national awakening. London.
 In 1857, Payam-e-Azadiwas Press Laws and Regulations in
started in Hindi and Urdu, calling British India
upon the people to fight against  The earliest regulatory measures
the British. can be traced back to 1799, When
 Again the first Hindi daily, Lord Wellesley promulgated the
SamacharSudhavaashanand Press Regulations, which had
two newspapers in Urdu and the effect of imposing pre-
Persian respectively, censorship on an infant
Page 43
newspaper publishing industry. act was particularly aimed at

The onset of 1835, saw the Indian language newspapers or
promulgation of the Press Act, by those edited by Indians.
Charles Metcafe undid with most  Every printer and publisher and
of the repressive measures. He publishing any literature without
was also known as ‘The the requisite license was 400
liberator of Indian Press’. rupees for each such publication
Censorship of the press Act, 1799 or imprisonment in default
 Imposed by Lord Wellesley on the thereof. Magistrates were
grounds of apprehension of the authorised to attack unlicensed
French attack on India. The presses.
Censorship of Press Act, 1799  As the consequence of the act Raja
imposed almost wartime Ram Mohan Roy’s, Mirat-ul-
restrictions on the press. Akbar had to stop publication.
 The newspaper clearly print in Licensing Act, 1857
every issue the name of the  The act imposed restrictions upon
printer, the editor and the the press on the ground of
proprietor and the publisher to emergency caused by the rebellion
submit all material for pre- of 1857.
censorship to the secretary to the  The Act prohibited the keeping or
government. using of printing presses without a
 The restrictions on press were license from the government and
relaxed to some extent under Lord the government reserved the
Hastings. discretionary right to grant
Licensing Regulations, 1823 licenses or revoke them at any
 Promulgated by John Adams time.
press regulations of 1823, proved  Metcalfe’s Act was still applicable.
more stringent than any that had The Press and Registration of
been in force earlier. Books Act XXV of 1867 finally
 The new regulations required that replaced it.
The first Indian woman Air Vice Marshal- P Bandopadhyaya
Page 44
Vernacular press Act, 1878 newspapers, which published

 The purpose of the act was to objectionable materials that
facilitate better control and to offended government’s interests.
curb the vernacular press, which  The editors and printers of the
had become highly critical of the offending newspapers enjoyed the
Government Policies since 1857 right to appeal to the High Court
and mobilised public opinion on a within 15th days of the order of the
large scale against the imperialist press.
act of Lytton.
 The worst feature of the act was Indian Press Act, 1910
that it discriminated between the  The act further strengthened the
English press and the Vernacular repressive hands of the
Press and no right of appeal to a government and is said to have
court of law was given. revived the worst features of
 In this context the Amrita Lytton’s Press Act of 1878.
Bazaar Patrikaturned overnight  The act empowered the Local
into English newspaper to escape Government to demand security,
the restrictions of the act. Lord at the time of registration from
Ripon finally repealed it, in 1882. the printer or the publisher of a
 The period 1903-05 saw the rise of newspaper and to forfeit it, if the
nation wide protests against the newspaper publishes any
anti nationalist activities of Lord objectionable material.
Curzon.  The printer of every newspaper
 To curb the Swadeshi and Boycott was required to submit two copies
movements and to repress the of each issue to the local
militant nationalist trends, Government.
restrictions were imposed on the
Developments during First World
press.
War 1914 - 18
 The act empowered the
 During the I-World War, 1914-18,
magistrates to confiscate printing
the Defence of India was
presses and other assets of
promulgated. The executive used
Page 45
these powers not only to repress Developments During Second

the political agitations, but also to World War
suppress the free public criticism.  The government under the
 In 1921, a press Committee was Defence of India Act, assumed
appointed under the special powers during the II
chairmanship of Sir Tej World War (1939-45)
Bahadur sapru, then Law  Pre-censorship was in force.
Member of the Viceroy’s Amendments were made in the
Executive Council, to review the Official Secrets Act and Press
working of press laws. On the Emergency Act.
recommendations of the
committee, the Press Acts of 1908 Developments after
and 1910, were repealed. Independence
 With the nationalistic struggle  Press (Objectionable Matters) Act,
intensifying in thirties especially 1951 was passed along with an
under the impact of the civil Amendment to Article 19(2) of the
disobedience movement launched Indian Constitution.
by Mahatma Gandhi, the Press  This act empowered the
Ordinance of 1930 was issued. government to demand and forfeit
This act revived the provisions of security for publication of
the Press Act of 1910. objectionable matter.
 It was followed by the Indian
press Emergency Powers Act,
1930 to provide for the better
control of the Press. The act
invested immense powers in the
hands of the provincial
governments, to suppress the
propaganda for the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Page 46
Important Newspaper and Journals during Pre-Independence India
Newspaper/ Journal Founder/Editor Year

Bengal Gazetta James Augustus Hicky 1780
SambadKaumudi Rammohan Roy 1822
(Bengali)
Mirat-ul-Akbar Rammohan Roy 1822
RastGoftar DadabhaiNaoroji 1854
KavivachanSudha BhartenduHarishchandra 1868
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh 1868
Tahzib-ul-Akhalab Sir Syed Ahmed Khan 1871
Statesman Robert Knight 1875
Hindu VirRaghavachariar and GS iyer 1878
Kesari Bal GangadharTilak 1881
Maratha Bal GangadharTilak 1881
Sudharak Gopal Krishna Gokhale 1888
New India (weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal 1902
VandeMataram Aurobindo Ghosh 1905
Bombay Chronicle Firoz Shah Mehta 1910
Al-Hilal (Urdu) Abdul Kalam Azad 1912
Commonwealth Annie Besant 1914
New India (Daily) Annie Besant 1914
Independent Motilal Nehru 1919
Navjeevan Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1919
Young india Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1919
Mooknayak Bhimrao RMJI Ambedkar 1920
Hindustan Times Kavalam Narayana Panicker 1925
Harijan Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1033
Hindustan Madan Mohan Malaviya 1936
Page 47
Sandhya BimalBabuUpadhyaya 1906

Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate 1927
Free Hindustan TarakNath Das -
Talvar VirendraNathChattopadhyaya -
Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh -
Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma -
Native Opinion Vishwanath Narayan Mandilk -
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar -
JugantarPatrika (Bengali) BhupendranathDutt, Barinder Kumar -
Ghosh, Abhinash Bhattacharya
Udbodhana Swami Vivekananda -
PrabuddhaBharata P Aiyasami, BR Rajamiyer, GG -
Narsimhacharya and BV kamesvaraiyer
(Supported by Swami Vivekananda)
Indian Mirror DebendraNathTagore -
Punjabi LalaLajput Rai -
Vichar LahiriKrishnastriChiplunkar -
Essays in Indian MahadevGovindRanade -
Economics
Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidhyarthi -
Comrade Mohammed Ali -
Al-Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad -
Page 48
VICEROYS OFINDIA
LORD CANNING (1856 – 58) LORD ELGIN – I (1862 – 63)

 Revolt of  Wahabi Movement suppressed.
1856 – 58
 Universities of SIR JOHN LAWRENCE (1864 –
Calcutta, Bombay 69)
and Madras were  High Courts were established at
opened in 1857. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in
 He was last Governor General of 1865.
India appointed by the East India  War with Bhutan in 1865.
Company and first Viceroy.  The Punjab Tenancy Act was
 Passed the Act of 1858, which passed.
ended the rule of the East India
Company. 10.4 LORD MAYO (1869 – 72)
 The Doctrine of Lapse was  Introduction of financial
withdrawn. The Indian Penal decentralization in India and
Code of Criminal Procedure made the first provincial
(1859) was passed. settlement in 1870.
 Income tax was introduced for the  He established the department of
first time in 1858. Agriculture and Commerce.
 The Indigo riots in Bengal.  He organized the statistical survey
 The Indian Councils Act of 1861 of India. In 1872, first census was
was passed, which proved to be a done in India.
landmark in the constitutional  He established the Rajkot College
history of India. in Kathiawar and Mayo College at
 Indian High Court Act, (1861). Ajmer.
Under this Act, High Courts were
opened in 1865.
Page 49
 He was the only Viceroy to be  Second Anglo-Afghan War 1878 –

murdered in office by a convict in 80.
the Andaman in 1872.  Famine Commission under
Stratchey was appointed by him in
LORD NORTHBROOK 1878.
(1872 – 76)  In 1876, Deccan Agrarian Relief
 In 1872, Kuka Rebellion in Punjab Act was passed.
led by Ram singh.
 Famine in Bihar (1876). LORD RIPON (1880 – 1884)
 He resigned over Afghanistan  He was appointed by the Liberal
question. Party under Gladstone.
 Repeal
LORD LYTTON (1876 – 80) of the
Most unpopular Vernacular
Viceroy of India. Press Act in
 Arranged the 1882.
Grand Durbar in  The first Factory Act, came in
Delhi (in 1877) 1881 (improve the labour
when the country condition).
was suffering from severe famine.  In rural areas Local Boards were
 Passed the Royal title Act, (1876) set up in 1880, Madras Local
and Queen Victoria was declared Board Act was passed. He was
as Kaiser-i-Hind. famously known as “Father of
 Arms Act, (1878) made it Local Self Government”.
mandatory for Indians to acquire  First Official Census in India
license for arms. (1881).
 The infamous Vernacular Press  Famine code was adopted (1883).
Act, (1878)  Appointed Hunter Commission
 Lowered the maximum age of ICS for education reforms in 1882.
from 21 to 19 years.
Page 50
 Ilbert Bill controversy (1883 – 84)  In 1891, Age of Consent Act, under
which empowers Indian Judges to which marriage of girl below 12
inquire into European cases. years was prohibited.
 Foundation of Punjab University.  Appointment of Durand
Commission to define the line
LORD DUFFERIN between British India and
(1884 – 88) Afghanistan.
 Third Anglo-
Burmese War and LORD ELGIN II
annexation of (1894 – 1899)
Burma (1885).  The Santhal uprising, 1899.
 Formation of  Munda uprising, 1899.
Indian National  Assassination of two British
Congress (INC) in 1885. officials by the Chapekar brothers
 Bengal Tenacy Act, in 1885. in 1897.
 Dufferin called INC as  Plague spread in Bombay.
„microscopic minority‟.
LORD CURZON
LORD LANSDOWNE (1899 – 1905)
(1888 – 94)  Appointed a Police Commission in
 Factory Act, 1902 under Andrew Frazer.
of 1891.  Universities commission
 Indian appointed in 1902 under Thomas
Council Act, Railey.
of 1892.  Indian Universities Act passed in
 Civil Services 1904.
were classified Imperial,  Famine Commission under
Provincial and subordinate Macdonell.
services.  A new department of commerce
and industry established.
Page 51
 Partition of Bengal (October 16, LORD HARDINGE – II (1910 –

1905). 1916)
 The rising of the frontier tribes in  Annulment of the partition of
1897 – 98 led him to create the Bengal in 1911.
North Western Frontier Province.  Bomb was thrown at Hardinge
 Passed the Ancient Monuments near Chandni Chowk but escaped
Protection Act, (1904) to restore unhurt.
India‟s cultural heritage. Thus,  Transfer of capital from Calcutta
the Archaeological survey of India to Delhi (1911 – 12).
was established.  Darbar in Delhi and Coronation
 Passed the Indian Coinage and of George V.
Paper Currency Act (1899) and  In 1911, Bihar and Orissa
put India on a gold standard. separated from Bengal and
 PUSA, agricultural institute in became a new state.
1903.  Establishement of Hindu
Mahasabha by Madan Mohan
LORD MINTO – II Malviya (1915).
(1905 – 1910)  Gandhiji came back to India from
 Swadeshi movement. South Africa (1915).
 Surat split (split in Congress
between moderate and extremist LORD CHELMSFORD
1907). (1916 – 21)
 Indian Council Act, 1909 (or) and  Government of India Act, 1919
Morley-minto reforms. also known as Montague-
 Foundation of Muslim League, Chelmsford Reforms.
1906  Repressive Rowlatt Act, (1919).
 Newspapers Act, 1908.  JallianwalaBagh Massacre (13
April, 1919)
 Home Rule Movement both by
Tilak and Annie Besant.
Page 52
 Saddler Commission of Education  Chauri-Chaura incident and

in 1917. withdrawal of Non-cooperation
 Appointment of Hunter movement.
commission to look into  Formation of Swaraj Party by CR
JallianwalaBagh Tragedy. Das and Motilal Nehru (1923).
 Chambers of Prince, 1921  Communist Party of India
established. founded by MN Roy (1925).
 Non Co-operation Movement  Kakori Train Conspiracy (1925).
started.  Vishwabharati University (1922).
 An Indian, Sir SP Sinha was  Lee Commission (1924) for public
appointed as the Governor of services.
Bengal.  Young Hilton committee for
currency notes (1926).
LORD READING  Royal Commission on agriculture
(1921 – 1926)  RSS founded in 1925
 Rowlatt Act was repealed along  Murder of Swami Sraddhanand.
with Press Act, of 1910.
 Holding of the simulataneous LORD IRWIN (1926 – 1931)
examination for the ICS in  Simon Commission
England and India from 1923. visited India in
 Prince of Wales visited India in 1928.
November, 1921.  Butler Commission
 Moplah Rebellion (1921) took in 1927.
place in Kerala.  All India Youth
Congress, 1928.
 Nehru Report – 1928
 Lahore Session of the Congress
(1929) and Poorna Swaraj
declaration.
 First Round Table Conference
1930, Congress boycotted it.
Page 53
 Civil Disobedience Movement,

1930 started with Dandi March LORD LINLITHGOW
(March 12th, 1930). (1934 – 1943)
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact, March, 05  First General Election (1936 – 37)
1931. Congress Ministries.
 Sharda Act, 1929, under which  Forward Block founded in 1939.
marriageable age of girls (14  Deliverance day by Muslim
years) and boys (18 years) was League, 1939.
raised.  Lahore Resolution of Muslim
 Jawaharlal Nehru and Subbash League (1940), demand of
Chandra Bose founded Pakistan
Independence of India League.  August Offer 1940
 Cripps Mission, 1942
LORD WILLINGDON  Quit India Movement, 1942
(1931 – 1936)  In 1943, Muslim celebrated
 Second and Pakistan day.
third Round  In Haripura Session (1939)
Table Congress declared Complete
Conference. Independence.
 Communal
Award by MagsayMcdonald LORD WAVELL
(British PM). (1934 – 47)
 Government of India Act, 1935.  CR Formula (Rajaji
 Poona Pact was signed. Formula), 1944.
 All India Kisan Sabha 1936.  Wavell Plan and
 Foundation of Congress Socialist Shimla Conference,
Party, 1934. 1945.
Orissa separated from Bihar  Cabinet Mission came to India in
(1936) and a new province Sind May 1946. Congress and Muslim
was created (1936), also Burma League both rejected its
separated from India, 1937. proposals.
Page 54
 Muslim league celebrated 16

August, 1946 as „Direct Action
Day‟.
 INA trials and the naval Mutiny,
1946.
LORD MOUNTBATTEN (MARCH-

AUGUST, 1947)
 Last British Viceroy of British
India.
 First Governor General of
Independent India.
 Boundary commissions under
Radcliffe.
 Introduction of Indian
Independence Bill in the House of
Common.
C . RAJGOPALACHARI
 Last Governor
General of free
India.
 The only Indian
Governor General remained in
office from 21st June, 1948 to
27thJanuary, 1950.
The first woman Chairperson of Indian Airlines- Sushma Chawla
Page 55
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS
REFORM MOVEMENTS
RISE OF THE MOVEMENTS intellectuals.
 Introduction of Western  These movements emerged in
education and ideas played an different periods of time in
important role in bringing the different parts of India, but
knowledge of some advanced having considerable similarities
ideas of the Western world and in their objectives. Religious
modern science to India reformation was a precondition
 From the late 18th century, a for social reformation.
number of Indian scholars began  There was cultural ideological
the study of ancient India‟s struggle against backward
philosophy, science, religion and element of traditional culture.
literature. It helped the reformers The movement could not reach to
in their work of religious and the masses of peasantry and
social reform. For their struggle urban poor.
against social evils, superstitions
and inhuman practices and MAJOR ISSUES OF THE
customs, the reformers used the MOVEMENTS
authority of ancient texts.  Religious sphere To
 Thus, Indian religious and social revitalise religion in the
reformers made use of their light of modern science
knowledge of Western ideas as and reason. As there
well as of ancient learning. was no aspect of Indian
life, which religion
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE didn‟t influence.
MOVEMENTS  Social Sphere Poor position of
 Social base of social reforms was women and evil of caste system.
newly emerging among middle  Political Sphere Generating
class and Western educated political opinion of the people by
Page 1
vernacular pamphlets, William Bentinck to declare the

newspapers etc. practice of Sati a punishable
offence in 1829. He also protested
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the
against the child marriage and
BrahmoSamaj
female infanticide.
 In 1815, he established the
 In 1817, he founded the Hindu
Atmiya Sabha. Later, it was
College (now Presidency College,
Association Related with Calcutta) along with David Hare, a
BrahmoSamaj
 Atmiyasabha, Brahmsamaj missionary. He also set up schools
--- Ram Mohan Roy for girls.
 Tatvabodhinisabha –
DevendraNath Tagore  Rammohan Roy started the first
 Sangat Sabha – Keshav Bengali weekly
Chandra sen
 Veda Samaj (Madras) SamvadKaumudiand edited a
 PrarthanaSamaj Persian weeklyMirat-ul-akhbar.
(Maharastra)
 AdiBrahmoSamaj (1866) He stood for the freedom of the
press. Rammohan died in Bristol
developed into the Brahmo Sabha
in England in 1833.
in August 1828. Through this
organisation, he preached that Raja Rammohan Roy
there is only one God. He established the
BrahmoSamajat Calcutta
combined the teachings of the in 1828 in order to purify
Upanishads, the Bible and the Hinduism and to preach
Koran in developing unity among monotheism. He is
considered as the first
the people of different religions.
‘modern man of India’. He
The work of the Atmiya Sabha was was a pioneer of socio-
carried on by Maharishi religious reform movements
Debendranath Tagore (father of
Rabindranath Tagore, who
Henry Vivian Derozio and the
renamed it as BrahmoSamaj.
Young Bengal Movement
 Raj Rammohan Roy is most
 Derozio was the founder of the
remembered for helping Lord
Young Bengal Movement. He
Page 2
was born in Calcutta in 1809 and into its fold. He wrote the book
taught in the Hindu College, SatyarthaPrakashwhich contains
Calcutta. He died of cholera in his ideas.
1833. His followers were known  Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV)
as the Derozians and their School was founded in 1886 at
movement, the Young Bengal Lahore. The Arya Samaj had also
Movement. They attacked old spread nationalism. Hundreds of
traditions and decadent customs. Arya Samaj patriots, including
They also advocated women’s LalaLajpat Rai, took part in the
rights and their education. They
Swami Dayanand Swami
founded associations and
Three Books
organized debates against idol  Satyartha Prakash (in Hindi)
worship, and superstitions.  Veda-BhashyaBhumika (in
Hindi and Sanskrit)
 Veda-Bashya (in Sanskrit).
Swami DayanandSaraswathi and
Indian freedom struggle.
the Arya Samaj
 The Arya
PrarthanaSamaj
Samaj was
 The PrarthanaSamaj was founded
founded by
in 1867 in Bombay by
Swami
Dr.AtmaramPandurang. It was
an off-shoot of BrahmoSamaj.
DayanandSaraswathiat  Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G.
Bombay in 1875. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and
 Born in Kathiawar in Gujarat, he infused new strength to it.
believed the Vedas were the  Justice Ranade promoted the
source of true knowledge. Deccan Education Society
 His motto was “Go Back to the
Vedas”.
 He started the Shuddhi movement
to bring back those Hindus who
had converted to other religions
Page 3
humanitarian relief and social

work through the establishment of
Swami Vivekananda and schools, colleges, hospitals and
Ramakrishna Mission orphanages.
 In 1886 Narendranath took the Theosophical Society-1875
vow of Sanyasa and was given the  The Theosophical Society was
name, founded in New York (USA) in
1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, a
Russian lady, and Henry Steel
Olcott, an American colonel.
 Their main objectives were to
form a universal brotherhood of
man without any distinction of
Vivekananda. He preached
race, colour or creed and to
Vedantic Philosophy. He
promote the study of ancient
condemned the caste system and
religions and philosophies. They
the current Hindu emphasis on
arrived in India and established
rituals and ceremonies. Swami
their headquarters at Adyar in
Vivekananda participated in the
Madras in 1882. Later in 1893,
Parliament of Religions held in
Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in
Chicago (USA) in September
India and took over the leadership
1893.
of the Society after the death of
 The best way to serve god is by
Olcott.
service the poor and the
 Mrs. Annie Besant founded the
downtrodden
Central Hindu School along with
 He believed that service to
Madan Mohan Malaviya at
mankind is service to God. He
Benaras which later developed
founded the Ramkrishna Mission
into the Banaras Hindu
at Belur in Howrah in 1897. It was
University.
a social service and charitable
society. The objectives of this
Mission were, providing
Page 4
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Brahmanical supremacy. In 1873

Vidyasagar he founded the SatyashodakSamaj
 Pandit to fight against the caste system.
Ishwar Chandra He pioneered the widow
was a great remarriage movement in
educator, humanist Maharashtra and worked for the
and a social education for women.
reformer who JyotibaPhule and his wife
established many schools for girls. He established the first girls school at
helped J.D. Bethune to establish the Poona in 1851.
Bethune School. He founded the
Metropolitan Institution in Calcutta. Muslim Reform Movements
He protested against child marriage  The Muslim reform movements
and favoured widow remarriage started a little later because they
which was legalised by the Widow had avoided western education in
Remarriage Act (1856). It was due to the beginning. The first effort was
his great support for the spread of in 1863 when the Muhammad
education that he was given the title Literary Society was set up in
of Vidyasagar. Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise
the study of English and western
JyotibaPhule sciences.
 JyotibaPhule belonged to a low Aligarh Movement
caste family in Maharashtra. He  The Aligarh Movement was
waged a life-long struggle against started by Sir Syed
upper caste domination and
AhmadKhan (1817-98) for the

social and educational
Page 5
advancement of the Muslims in white clothes and gave up meat

India. eating.
 In 1875, he founded a modern Parsi Reform Movement
school at Aligarh to promote  The Parsi Religious Reform
English education among the Association was founded at
Muslims. This had later grown Bombay by FurdunjiNaoroji and
into the Mohammadan Anglo S.S. Bengalee in 1851. They
Oriental College and then into advocated the spread of women‟s
the Aligarh Muslim University. education. They also wanted to
reform their marriage customs.
The Deoband School Naoroji published a monthly
 The orthodox section among the journal, Jagat Mithra.
Muslim ulema organised the
Deoband Movement. It was a Saint Ramalinga
revivalist movement whose twin  Saint Ramalinga
objectives were: (i) to propagate was one of the
among the Muslims the pure foremost saints of
teachings of the Koran and the Tamil Nadu in the
Hadis and (ii) to keep alive the nineteenth
spirit of Jihadaganist the foreign century. He was
rulers. born on October 5, 1823 at
Marudhur, near Chidambaram.
Sikh Reform Movement  He founded
 Punjab also came under the spell theSamarasaSuddhaSanmarg
of reforms. Baba Dayal Das ha Sangha for the promotion of
founded the Nirankari his ideals of establishing a
Movement. He insisted the casteless society. He preached
worship of God as nirankar love and compassion to the
(formless). The Namdhari people. He composed TiruArutpa.
Movement was founded by Baba His other literay works include
Ram Singh. His followers wore Manu Murai Kanda Vasagam
Page 6
and JeevaKarunyam. His death, the religion was spread on

language was so simple as to the basis of his teachings and the
enable the illiterate people to religious books
understand his teachings. In 1870 AkilattirattuAmmanai and
he moved to Mettukuppam, a ArulNool.Hundreds of
place three miles away from NizhalThangals (places of
Vadalur. There he started worship) were built across the
constructing the Satya country.
GnanaSabai in 1872. He
introduced the principle that God Self-Respect Movement and
could be worshipped in the form Periyar E.V.R
of Light.
Sri VaikundaSwamigal
 Sri VaikundaSwamigal was born
in 1809 at Swamithoppu in the
Kanyakumari district of Tamil
Nadu. His original name was
 Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy was a
MudichoodumPerumal but he was
great social reformer. In 1921,
called Muthukkutty. He preached
during the anti-liquor campaign
against the caste system and
he cut down 1000 coconut trees
untouchability. He also
in his own farm.
condemned religious ceremonies.
 In 1924, he took an active part in
Many came to his place to worship
the Vaikam Satyagraha. The
him and slowly his teachings came
objective of the Satyagraha was
to be known as Ayyavazhi. By
to secure for untouchables the
the mid-nineteenth century,
right to use a road near a temple
Ayyavazhi came to be recognized
at Vaikom in Kerala.
as a separate religion and spread
 E.V.R. opposed the
in the regions of South Travancore
Varnashrama policy followed
and South Tirunelveli. After his
Page 7
in the V.V.S.  In 1938 at Tamil Nadu Women‟s

Iyer‟sSeranmadeviGurukulam. Conference, appreciating the
During 1920-1925 being in the noble service rendered by E.V.R.
Congrees Party he stressed that he was given the title “Periyar”.
Congress should accept On 27th June 1970 the UNESCO
communal representation. organisation praised him and
 Subsequently in 1925, he started adorned him with the title
the “Self-Respect Movement”. “Socrates of South Asia”.
The aims of the „Self-Respect
Movement‟ were to uplift the Sree Narayana Guru
Dravidians and to expose the  Sree Narayana Guru
Brahminical tyranny and was a great social
deceptive methods by which they reformer from
controlled all spheres of Hindu Kerala.
life.  In 1903 Sree
 He denounced the caste system, Narayana Guru Dharma
child marriage and enforced ParibalanaYogam was started to
widowhood. He encouraged work for the social economic and
inter-caste marriages. He himself educational development of the
conducted many marriages Ezhava Community and other
without any rituals. Such a backward people.
marriage was known as “Self  He condemned animal sacrifice,
Respect Marriage”. He gave casteism and other social evils.
secular names to new born
babies. He attacked the laws of Sripade B.V. Sadhu Maharaja
Manu, which he called the basis
of the entire Hindu social fabric
of caste. He founded the Tamil
journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and
Viduthalai to propagate his
ideals.
 Sripade B.V. Sadhu Maharaja
Page 8
belonged to the Royal family of India.

Mungir became a Vaishnava,  BhimaraoAmbedhkar was also
even though his family had the first Law Minister of
previously been devoted to independent India.
workshipping Lord Shiva.  For his yeoman service to the
 He constructed a temple in nation, B.R.Ambedhkar was
honour of Sri Chaitanya, called bestowed with BharathRatna in
the PremaMandir in Mungir. 1990.
 He started many Ashramas to  Dr.B.R.Ambedhkar was born on
serve is this was humanity. April 14, 1891 in Mhow
(presently in Madhya Pradesh).
Dr.B.R.Ambedhkar  In July 1924, he founded the
BahiskritHitkaraini Sabha
(Outcastes Welfare Association).
 The aim of the Sabah was to
uplift the downtrodden socially
and politically in the Indian
society.
 Dr.B.R.Ambedhkar is viewed as  In 1927, he led the Mahad March
messiah of dalits and near Bombay, to give the
downtrodden in India. untouchables the right to draw
 He was the chairman of the water from the public tank the
Drafting committee that was „Manusmriti‟ publicly.
constituted by the Constituent
Assembly in 1947 to draft a
constitution for the independent
Muslim Socio-religious movement and organization
Movement/ Year Place Founder
Organization
Faraizi or Faraidi 1804 Faridpur,Bengal Haji Shaiatullah and
Movement DudhiMiyan
Taayuni Movement 1839 Dacca Karamati Ali Jaunpur
Page 9
Deoband Movement 1867 Deoband Muhammad

(a school and Islamic QasimNanautavi and
Theology at RashidcAhmed Gangohi
DeobandShahranpur,
Uttar Pradesh
Aligarh Movement 1875 Aligarh Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Ahmadiya Movement 1889-90 Faridkot Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of

Quadiyan
NadwatalUlema 1894-95 Lucknow MaulanaShibliNumani
Ahrar Movement 1910 Punjab Riza Khan and Ali

Brothers
Founder of Sikh Movements

Nirankari Movement BabuDayal Das
Namdhari Movement Baba Ram Singh
ShrimaniGurdwarPrabandhaksamiti Nationalist Sikhs
The singh Sabha Thakur Singh SandhawaniGianiGian
Singh
Lower Caste/Caste Movements and Organisation

Organization
Satya ShodhakSamaj 1873 Maharashtra JyotibaPhule
Aravippuram Movement 1888 Aravippuram Shri Narayan Guru

,Kerala
Shri Narayan 1902- Kerala Shri Narayan Guru, Dr.
ParipalanaYogam 03 Palpu and Kumaran Asan
Movement
The Depressed Class 1906 Bombay V.R. Shinde
Mission Society
BahujanSamaj 1910 Satara, MukundraoPatil

Maharashtra
Page 10
Justice (Party) Movement 1915- Madras, Tamil C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair
16 Nadu and P. TyagarajaChetti
B.R. Ambedkar
Depressed Class Welfare 1924 Bombay B.R. Ambedkar

Institute (BahiskritHitkarini
Sabha)
Self-Respect Movement 1925 Madras, Tamil E.V. Ramaswaminaiker

Nadu „Periyar‟
HarijanSevakSangh 1932 Pune Mahatma Gandhi

DravidaMunnetraKazhagam 1944 Conjeevaram Natarajan
Annadurai and
RamaswamiNaicker
Socio-Religious Reform Movements and Organisation

Organization
Swami Naryanan 1800s Gujarat Swami Sahajanand (original
Sampraday name Ghanshayama)
Atmiya Sabha (later 1815-28 Calcutta Raja Ramamohan Roy
BrahmoSamaj)
Wahabi Movement 1820 Rohilakhand Shah Waliullah popularized by
Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareli
BrahmoSamaj 1828 Calcutta Raja Ramamohan Roy, Keshub
Chandra sen, Debenranath
Tagore
Young Bengal 1826-32 Calcutta Derozio, Rasik Krishna Mallick,
TarachandChakraborthy,
Krishnamohan Banerjee
Dharma Sabha 1830 Calcutta Raja Radha Kant Deb
Namdhari/Kuka 1841-71 NWFP and Bhai Balak Singh and Ram
movement Bhaini Singh
(Ludhiana
district,
Punjab)
Rahanumai 1851 Bombay SS Bengali, NaorojiFundoji, JB
Page 11
Mazdayasnan Sabha Nachaetc

RadhaSoamiSatsang 1861 Agra Tulsi Ram, Also known aas
Shiva DayalSaheb
ParthanaSamaj 1867 Bombay DrAtmaramPandurang
Indian Reform 1870 Calcutta Keshub Chandra Sen
Association
Arya Samaj 1875 Bombay Swami Dayananda Saraswati
Theosophical Society 1875 New York Madane Helena Prtrovna
Blavatsky and Colonel Henry
Steel Olcott
Deccan Education 1884 Pune MahadevGovindRanade,
Society Vishnu Sastri Chiplunkar
and Gopal Ganesh Agarkaretc
SevaSadan 1885 Bombay Behhramji M Malabari
Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Belur Swami Vivekananda
Indian National Social 1887 Bombay MahadevGovindRanade and
Conference Raghunath Rao
Deva Samaj 1887 Lahore Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
Madras Hindu 1892 Madras VirasalingamPantalu
Association
Bharat Dharma 1902 Varanasi Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya
Mahamandal and Pandit Din Dayal Sharma
The Servants of Indian 1905 Bombay Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Society
Poona SevaSadan 1909 Pune GK Devadhar and
RamabaiRanade (wife of
MahadevGovindRanade)
Nishkama Karma 1910 Pune DhondoKeshavKarve
Math(The monastery
of disinterested work)
The Bharat stree 1910 Allahabad Sarala Devi Chaudhuani
Mandal
Social Service League 1911 Bombay Narayan Malhar Joshi
SevaSamiti 1914 Allahabad PanditHaridaynathKunzru
The woman‟s Indian 1917 Madras Mrs Annie Besant
Association
KhudaiKhidmatgar 1929 NWFP Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Movement
Page 12
The first person of Indian origin to get Nobel Prize in Medicine - HarGobind
Khorana
Women Movements
Organisation/
Year Place Founder Objectives
Movement/
Society
Social Service 1911 Bombay Narayan Malhar Securing better life and
League Joshi work for the masses.
Indian National 1887 Bombay M.G. Ranade, The social reform cell of
Social Raghunath Rao Indian National
Conference Congress, attached with
pledge movement.
Satnami sect Bilaspur Guru Ghasi Das Equality of human
being, belief in a single
true God and absention
from liquor,meat, drugs
etc.
Deva Samaj 1887 Lahore Shiva Supremacy of Guru,
NarainAgnihotri ideal social conduct.
Sangat Sabha 1859 Calcutta Keshav Chandra To discuss social and
Sen spiritual problems of
the day.
BrahmoSamaj of 1866 Calcutta Keshav Chandra Social and moral
India Sen reformation of India
Indian Reform 1870 Calcutta Keshav Chandra To create public
Association Sen opinion against child
marriage and improve
the social status of
women.
Deccan 1884 Pune M.G. Ranade, Social reform and
Education G.G. Agarkar, expansion of education.
society Vishnu Sastri
Chiplunkar
Madras Hindu 1892 Madras VirasalingamPantal Social purity movement
Association u and oppose to Devadasi
System.
Page 13
The first Indian to receive Nobel Prize in Economics- Amartya Sen
Social Legislations in Moderns India
Year
Social reforms
1795 Abolition of infanticide by Bengal Regulation

1802 Abolition of infanticide by Lord Wellesly
1811 Abolition of Slavery under Regulation X by Bengal Govt.
Abolition of sati by lord William bentick (under regulation XVII)
1829 pioneering efforts in this direction were made by raja Ram Mohan
Roy
1831 – 37 Abolition of thugs by William Bentick operation by William Sleeman.
1832 Abolition of slavery by Lord Ellenborough
Approval of widow remarriage by Hindu Widow remarriage Act by
1856
the efforts of Ishwar Chandra VidyaSagar
Banning of child marriage, polygamy and approval of intercaste
1872
marriage and widow remarriage by native marriage Act.
The first Indian to win the Nobel Prize- RabindranathTagore(1913)
Page 14
INDIA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
 After the Independence in 1947, CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

the most immediate and  The Constituent Assembly began
its work on 9th December 1946
and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was
elected as its Chairman.
 Dr. B.R. Ambedkarwas
appointed as the Chairman of the
Drafting Committee.
 After a detailed discussion, the
important tasks before the Indian
Constitution of India was finally
leaders were the drafting of the
adopted on 26th November 1949.
constitution and the integration of
 The Constitution came into effect
Indian states into the Indian
on 26th January 1950. Since then
union.
the day is celebrated as Republic
 They had also been vested with
Day.
the responsibility of making India
 The salient features of the Indian
economically sound and
Constitution are the Adult
scientifically modern.
Suffrage, Parliamentary System,
 In the long term perspective, the
Fundamental Rights and Directive
most challenging tasks ahead have
Principles.
been the removal poverty and the
 It provides a combination of
progress of education among the
federal and unitary forms of
masses for which the successive
governance at the centre and the
governments continue to take
powers of the government have
necessary steps.
been clearly stated the three lists:
Central, State and Concurrent.
Page 1
 The President is the constitutional THE INTEGRATION OF THE

head of the state while the Prime PRINCELY STATES
Misister is the Head of the  The Integration of Indian states
Executive. was the greatest achievements of
 The Prime Minister is the leader Patel.
of the party that has a majority in  On the eve of Indian
the Lok Sabha. Independence there were nearly
 The Indian Parliament has two 565 princely states in India.
houses – the Rajya Sabha or  They were ruled by the native
upper house and the Lok Sabha Nawabs, Kings and Nizams.
or lower house.  The task of unifying them was
 Each state has its own undertaken by SardarVallabhai
government headed by the Chief Patel.
Minister who remains the leader  Patel invited them to join the
of the majority party in the Indian union. Many responded
respective Legislative Assembly. promptly to his appeal.
 Thus, democratically elected  About 562 princely states were
governments rule the nation and merged with the Indian union.
provision is made for periodical But states like Kashmir,
elections. Hyderabad and Junagarh were
 The judiciary remains the reluctant to join.
upholder of the constitution. The  Patel, by his diplomacy and stern
Indian judiciary system consists of actions integrated them with
the Supreme Court at the centre Indian union and earned the
and High Courts in the states. name, the Iron man of India or
 The subordinate courts in each "Bismarck of India".
state are under the control of the THE LINGUISTIC
High Court. REORGANIZATION OF THE
STATES
 In 1948, the first Linguistic
Page 2
Provinces Commission headed by

S.K.Dhar was appointed by the  In 1953, Prime Minister
Constituent Assembly to enquire Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the
into the possibility of linguistic States Reorganization
provinces. Commission with Justice Fazal Ali
 This commission advised against as its chairman and
such a step. In the same year PanditHridayanathKunzru and
another committee known as JVP SardarK.M.Panikkar as its
committee consisting of members.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel  The commission submitted its
and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah was report on 30th September 1955.
appointed by the Congress Party.  Based on this report, the States
 This committee also did not Reorganization Act was passed by
favour for linguistic provinces. the Parliament in 1956.
 But there were popular  It provided for 16 states and six
movements for states union territories.
reorganization all over the country  The Telengana region was
and it was intensive in Andhra. transferred to Andhra.
 Therefore, in 1953 Andhra was  Kerala was created by merging the
created as a separate state. Malabar district with Travancore-
Simultaneously, Madras was Cochin.
created as a Tamil speaking state.  There was a strong movement of
 The struggle led by the Tamil Linguistic people in
M.P.Sivagnanam to retain Travancore (Kannyakumari) who
Tiruttani with Madras was a struggled to be part of the state of
memorable event in the history of Tamil Nadu.
Tamil Nadu.
INDIAN POLITY
 The success of Andhra struggle
(1947-2000)
encouraged other linguistic
 India‟s first Prime Minister
groups to agitate for their own
Jawaharlal Nehru was considered
state.
Page 3
the architect of modern India.  However, she restored democratic

 He consolidated the Indian rule by announcing general
Independence by forging national elections in 1977 in which she was
unity, nurturing democratic defeated. Later in 1980, she was
institutions, promoting science able to regain power by
and technology, planning for democratic means.
economic development and by  In 1983 she undertook “Blue Star
following independent foreign Operation” in the Golden Temple
policy. at Amritsar – Punjab.
 He was truly a nation builder. He  As a result, unfortunately, she was
died in 1964. Lal Bahadur Sastri shot dead by her own bodyguards
in 1984 as a vengeance to her
succeeded Nehru as the next
policy towards Punjab militancy.
Prime Minister of India.  The Janata Party rule for brief
 He remained a role model for period between 1977 and 1980
honesty in public life. brought Morarji Desai as Prime
 He ended the Indo-Pak war of Minister of India.
1965 by concluding the Tashkent  For the first time a non-Congress
Agreement in January 1966. ministry was formed after
 His untimely death was a great independence.
loss to the nation.  The lack of unity among the
 Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru Janata leaders had resulted in the
became Prime Minister in 1966 fall of the Janata Government.
and bravely faced the domestic  Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime
challenges such as scarcity of food Minister of India in 1984 after her
and foreign pressures during the mother Indira Gandhi‟s
1971 Bangladesh crisis. assassination.
 When opposition to her rule  He introduced New Education
gathered momentum in 1975, she Policy and encouraged foreign
brought emergency rule, a black investment.
mark in the democratic tradition  In 1987 he sent the Indian Peace
of India. Keeping Force to Sri Lanka with a
Page 4
view to put an end to the ethnic  Singh‟s role in this sphere is worth
violence. noting. As a result, India started
 He continued as Prime Minister moving towards Liberalization,
till the next elections held in 1989. Privatization and Globalization.
 Later in May 1991, he was  After the elections of 1996, Atal
assassinated (by the Sri Lankan Bihari Vajpayee became Prime
Tamil Extremists). Minister from the BJP party but
 V.P. Singh was the Prime he was not able to prove majority
Minister between 1989 and 1991. in the Parliament.
 He was leading an anti-Congress  Deva Gowda formed a coalition
coalition called the Janata Dal. government.
 During his tenure he decided to  He was the eleventh Prime
implement the Mandal Minister of India (1996-1997). He
Commission Report which was from the state of Karnataka.
provided reservation for other  His government also fell due to
backward classes. the no confidence motion voted
 His government was marked by jointly by the Congress and the
factionalism and he was forced to BJP.
resign in 1990.  He was succeeded by I.K.
 The next Prime Minister Gujralfor a brief period in 1997.
Chandrasekhar held the office Atal Bihari Vajpayee became
from November 1990 to March the Prime Minister of India in
1991. 1998.
 In June 1991 P.V. Narasimha  In the 1999 elections the National
Rao became Prime Minisiter. Democratic Alliance under the
 He moved decisively toward new leadership of Vajpayee formed the
economic reforms, reducing the government.
government‟s economic role,  His period witnessed two
instituting foreign investment. At important events. One was the
the time Finance Minister Kargil War with Pakistan and
wasDr. Manmohan Singh another was the nuclear tests at
Page 5
Pokran. economy.
ECONOMIC ECONOMIC PLANNING

DEVELOPMENT  The National Planning
 When India became independent Commission was established on 15
in 1947, it was gripped by mass March 1950 with the Prime
poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, Minister Nehru as its chairperson
static agriculture, poorly  The main objectives of the the
developed industries and Planning Commission were:
inadequate infrastructure.  To achieve higher level of
 There was an urgent need national and per capital
immediate efforts on national income.
scale to achieve the path of  To achieve full employment.
progress in the socio-economic  To reduce inequalities of
front. income and wealth.
 Jawaharlal Nehru, was greatly  To setup a society based on
influenced by the achievements of equality and justice and
Soviet Planning. absence of exploitation.
 But he also realized the
importance of the democratic THE GREEN REVOLUTION
values.  Despite creditable growth of
 He encouraged planning for rapid agricultural output in the 1950‟s
Industrial and agricultural India faced food shortage in the
growth. mid sixties.
 He encouraged Mixed Economy as  The increase in population and
result both Public Sector the huge outlay to the plan of
(Government owned) and Private industrialization, put pressures on
Sector companies come into agricultural growth.
existence.  India was forced to import
 His fundamental objective was to millions of tons of food grains.
build an independent self-reliant  The two wars with China (1962)
Page 6
and Pakistan (1965) and two who succeeded Sastri in 1966 after
successive drought years (1965- his brief tenure, put their efforts
66) brought enormous pressures to the development of agriculture.
to food production.  The term Green Revolution was
 In this background the Green coined by Dr William Gaud of
Revolution was launched in India USA in 1968, when Indian
with the aim of achieving self- farmers brought about a great
sufficiency in food production. advancement in wheat
 The then Prime Minister, Lal production.
Bahadur Sastri, Food Minister, C.
Subramanian, and Indira Gandhi,
INDIA FIVE YEAR PLANS
Plans Notes
First Plan (1951-56)  It was based on Harrod-Domar Model.
Community Development Program launched in
1952 focus on agriculture, price stablility, power
and transport.
 It was a successful plan primarily, because of good
harvests in the last two years of the plan
Second Plan (1956- Also called Mahalanobis Plan named after the well
61) Target Growth: known economist.
4.5% Actual Growth : Focus-rapid industrialization.
4.27% Advocated huge imports through foreign loans.
Shifted basic emphasis from agriculture to industry.
During this plan, prices increased by 30%, against a
decline of 13% during the First Plan.
Third Plan (1961-66) At its conception, it was felt that Indian economy has
Target Growth: 5.6% entered a take-off stage. Therefore, its aim was to make
Actual Growth: India a „self-reliant‟ and self-generating economy.
2.84% Based on the experience of first two plans, agriculture
Page 7
was given top priority to support the exports and

industry.
Complete failure in reaching the targets due to
unforeseen events – Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-
Pak war (1965), severe drought 1965-66
Three Annual Plan  Prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious food
(1966-69) Plan shortage necessitated the emphasis on agriculture
holiday for 3 years. during the Annual Plans.
 During these plans a whole new agricultural
strategy was implemented. It involving wide-
spread distribution of high yielding varieties of
seeds, extensive use of fertilizers, exploitation of
irrigation potential and soil conservation.
 During the Annual Plans, the economy absorbed
the shocks generated during the Third Plan.
 It paved the path for the planned growth ahead.
Fourth plan (1969-  Main emphasis was on growth rate of agriculture
74) Target Growth: to enable other sectors to move forward.
5.7% Actual Growth:  First two years of the plan saw record production.
3.30% The last three years did not measure up due to
poor monsoon.
 Influx of Bangladesh refugees before and after
1971 Indo-Pak war was an important issue.
Fifth Plan (1974-79)  The fifth plan was prepared and launched by
Target Growth: 4.4% D.D.Dhar.
Actual Growth: 3.8%  It proposed to achieve two main objectives:
„removal of poverty‟ (GaribiHatao) and
„attainment of self reliance‟.
 Promotion of high rate of growth, better
distribution of income and significant growth in
the domestic rate of savings were seen as key
Page 8
instruments.
 The Plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of 1979)
when Janta Party Government rose to power.
Rolling Plan (1978- There were 2 Sixth Plans. JantaGovt, put forward a plan
80) for 1978-1983. However, the government lasted for only
2 years. Congress Government returned to power in
1980 and launched a different plan.
Sixth Plan (1980-85) Focus – Increase in national income, modernization of
Target Growth: 5.2% technology, ensuring continuous decrease in poverty and
Actual Growth: unemployment, population control through family
5.66% planning, etc.
Seventh Plan (1985-  Focus – rapid growth in food-grains production,
90) Target Growth: increased employment opportunities and
5.0% Actual Growth: productivity within the framework of basic tenants
6.01% of planning.
 The plan was very successful, the economy
recorded 6% growth rate against the targeted 5%.
Eighth Plan (1992-  The eighth plan was postponed by two years
97) because of political uncertainty at the Centre
 Worsening Balance of Payment position and
inflation during 1990-91 were the key issues
during the launch of the plan.
 The plan undertook drastic policy measures to
combat the bad economic situation and to
undertake an annual average growth of 5.6%
 Some of the main economic outcomes during
eighth plan period were rapid economic growth,
high growth of agriculture and allied sector, and
manufacturing sector, growth in exports and
imports, improvement in trade and current
account deficit.
Page 9
Nineth Plan (1997- It was developed in the context of four important

2002) Target dimensions: Quality of life, generation of productive
Growth: 6.5% Actual employment, regional balance and self-reliance.
Growth: 5.35%
Tenth plan  To achieve 8% GDP growth rate.
(2002-2007)  Reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by
2007.
 Providing gainful high quality employment to the
addition to the labour force over the tenth plan

period.
 Universal access to primary education by 2007.
 Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates
by atleast 50% by 2007.

 Reduction in decadal rate of population growth
between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%.

 Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the plan
period and to 80% by 2012.

 Reduction of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 45 per
1000 live births by 2007 and to 28 by 2012.

 Cleaning of all major polluted rivers by 2007 and
other notified stretches by 2012.

Eleventh Plan  Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10%. Increase
(2007- 2012) agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year.

 Create 70 million new work opportunities and
reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.

 Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20
percent.
 Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary
school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12.
Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or
above.
Page 10
 Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point.
Increase the percentage of higher education from the

present 10% to 15%.
 Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal
mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births.

 Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1.
 Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009. Reduce
malnutrition among children between 0-3 years to

half its present level. Reduce anaemia among
women and girls by 50%.
 Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-
12 and to 950 by 2016-17.

 Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation
with population 1000 and above (500 in hilly and

tribal areas) by 2009 and ensure coverage of all
significant habitation by 2015.
 Connect every village by Telephone by November
2007 and provide broadband connectivitiy to all

villages by 2012.
 Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
 Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major
cities by 2011- 12.

 Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river
waters. Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage

points by 2016-17.
Twelfth plan  The Twelfth Five – Year Plan of the Government of
(2012 - 2017) India has decided for the growth rate at 8.2% but
National Development Council (NDC) on 27 Dec
2012 approved 8% growth rate for 12th five-year plan.
 With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy
Chairman of the Planning Commission,
Page 11
Mr.MontekSingh Ahluwalia has said that achieving

an average growth rate of 9 percent in the next five
years is not possible.
 The Final growth target has been set at 8% by the
endorsement of plan at the National Development

Council meeting held in New Delhi.
GROWTH OF SCIENCE AND kharagpur.

TECHNOLOGY  Subsequently, IITs were set up at
 Independent India has also Madras, Bombay, Kanpur and
witnessed a tremendous growth in Delhi.
the sphere of science and  The expenditure on scientific
technology. research and science-based
 After 1947, Nehru became aware activities has increased year by
of the significant role of scientific year.
research and technology for the  There are about 200 research
progress of India. India‟s first laboratories in India carrying out
national laboratory, the National research in different areas.
Physical Laboratory was  The Department of Science and
established in 1947. Technology (DST) which was set
 It was followed by seventeen such up in 1971 has been assigned the
national laboratories for responsibility of formulating
specializing in different areas of science policy.
research. ATOMIC ENERGY
 Nehru himself assumed the
chairmanship of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research.
 In 1952, the first Indian Institute
of Technology, on the model of
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, was set up at  India was one of the first
Page 12
countries in the world to recognize HomiJ.Babato formulate a policy

the importance of nuclear energy. for all atomic energy activities in
 The Atomic Energy Commission the country.
was set up in August 1948 under  The Department of Atomic Energy
the chairmanship of (DAE) was set up in 19
 54 as executive agency for programmes.

implementing the atomic energy  In 1956, India‟s first nuclear
reactor in Trombay near Bombay
Page 13
(first in Asia also) began to Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

function. at Trombay, the Indira Gandhi
 Research and development work
Centre for Atomic Research at
in the field of atomic energy and
Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and the
allied fields are carried out at
Center for Advanced Technology,
three research centres, namely the
Chennai.
SPACE RESEARCH Organization] looks after the

 India has also evinced interest in activities in space science,
space research. The Indian technology and applications.
National Committee for Space  The Vikram Sarabhai Space
Research was set up in 1962. Side Centre at Trivandrum, the largest
by side, a Rocket Launching of the ISRO centre is primarily
Facility at Thumba came up. responsible for indigenous launch
 The first generation Indian vehicle technology.
National Satellite System (INSAT- INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
1) represents India‟s first step  After 1947, India began to follow
towards implementing national independent foreign policy.
requirements.  It was designed by the first Prime
Minister Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru.
 He developed the basic principles
of India‟s foreign policy. He was
the architect of the Non-aligned
Movement during the Cold War
era.
 Also, he extended support to
 The INSAT-1A and the INSAT-1B colonial countries in their struggle
served country‟s need in the field for independence.
of telecommunications and  Nehru outlined the five principles
meteorological earth observations. of coexistence or PanchSheel for
 The ISRO [Indian Space Research conducting relations among
Page 14
countries. They are:  India maintained friendly

- Mutual respect for each other‟s relations with both USA and
territorial integrity and USSR during the Cold War era.
sovereignty  In 1971 India and USSR signed the
- Non-aggression Indo- Soviet Treaty of Friendship
- Non-interference in each and Alliance during the
other‟s internal affairs Bangladesh crisis.
- Equality and mutual benefit  India and China are the two most
and important powers of Asia. These
- Peaceful coexistence. two are the most populous
 India plays an active role in countries of the World.
international bodies such as the  Also, they possess the significance
Common Wealth and the United of proud, history and civilization
Nations Organizsation. dating back to ancient times.
 After the Independence, Nehru  When the communist regime
decided to stay within Common under the leadership of Mao Tse
Wealth, an organization Tung was established in 1949,
consisting of former British India was one among the first
colonies. countries to recognize the People‟s
 India had also played an active Republic of China.
role in the UN peacekeeping  In Inspite of India‟s friendly
forces in various parts of the relations with China, India had to
world. defend herself when China
 It had sent its troops as part of UN attacked India in 1962.
peace keeping Mission to Korea,  The emergence of Bangladesh as
Indo-China,Suezcanal and the an independent state with the
Congo. active help of India was an
 India had to fight three major important event.
wars [1965,1971 and 2000] with  During the liberation struggle
Pakistan over the issue of between East Pakistan and West
Kashmir. Pakistan India supported East
Page 15
Pakistan.
 The coordinated approach of the
Indian forces along with Mukti
Bahini ultimately led to the
liberation of Bangladesh (East
pakistan) in December 1971.
India is maintaining friendly
relations right from the birth of
Bangladesh in 1971.
 India has also been maintaining
friendly relations with its
neighbours for which purpose the
South Asian Association of
Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
was established. India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Bhutan and Maldives are its
members.
 The aim of SAARC is to increase
economic, social and cultural
cooperation among its members.
Periodic meetings are beings held
to achieve this goal.
Page 16
Unity in Diversity in India
1. Geographical Unity: united under one umbrella by the redoubtable

Country that lies to the north of the ocean and leadership of Chandragupta Maurya. Right
to the south of the snowy mountains is called from him, the concept of ‘Rajachakravartin’
bharata where dwell the descendants of bharat.” or the Paramount Sovereign’ began to evolve
The kings of ancient india like chandragupta and Asoka, Samudragupta, Chandragupta,
mourya, asoka, pushyamitra sunga, kanishka, Harsavardhan, Akbar and many others
chandragupta ii, harsavardhan and others maintained it.
considered india as one geographical unit. Even after the british conquest of india,
In the medieval period akbar, shahjahan and this political unity was maintained like today
others considered this land as a single entity with uniform pattern of law, penal code,
and ruled over it. The british authorities also administrative works etc. Everywhere inside
did the same thing. the country. The concepts of ‘dandasamata’
After independence, India maintained and (uniformity of penalcode) and ‘vyavahara
still maintains that uninterrupted geographical samata’ (uniformity in judicial procedure)
entity. Thus goes the popular saying – ‘from invoked by asoka became the ideal for all the
Kashmir to Kanyakumari India is one’. The rulers of india. No mughal rule, british rule or
concept of ‘Bharatmata’ our national song the present democratic set up of india could
‘Vande Mataram’ and national anthem ‘Jana- escape it. Thus, politically india remained one,
gana-mana’ clearly project India as one remains one and will remain one in future.
geographical unit. The poets, philosophers, 3. Religious Unity:
prophets, reformers had conceived this Diverse religions found their ways in the
geographical unit of this land and to-day the Indian subcontinent. Spiritualism became
Indians are preserving that ideal with all its the most essential part in one’s life. Many
sanctity. sects and creeds began to rise in this soil and
2. Political Unity: gained momentum. Everybody pays respect to
Article 1 of the Indian constitution speaks, Ramayana, Mahabharata and other scriptures
“India that is Bharat shall be a union of states”. anywhere and everywhere in the country.
This political unity is not recent It had its origin Many Holy Places Or India Are Adored By
in the long past. For the first time India was The People Of North, South, East And West.

Everybody Takes Pride In Chanting Such Place India were absorbed in the Hindu way of life.
Names Ignoring The Differences Of Regions With the gradual march of time they were
4. Cultural Unity: termed as Hindustani irrespective of the state
Cultural unity amidst various diversities they belong to.
is found in India In spite of differences in This identity as an Indian effaces all the
language, religion, dress and manners, Indian racial discrimination. All the Indians belonging
culture is homogeneous. In ancient time, the to any race feel pride in the name of India,
rock-out architecture of the Mauryan period their mother country. That is why Indian army
found its expression throughout India The accepts Indians without any inhibition of their
Gandhara school of art and Mathura School caste or race. The racial difference is not at all
of art also flourished in this land. The Indo- found inside our country.
Islamic art and architecture were alike in the 6. Unity of Language:
nook and comer of India. Amidst diversity in language unity is also
Several inscriptions found from different maintained in the same sphere. During Asoka’s
parts of the country bore uniformity in many period prakrit became the vehicle of spreading
respects though the events and narratives were the message of moral-ethical codes of conduct.
different. Similarly many festivals like Holi, Prof H.C. Raychaudhuri writes –
Diwali, Dashahara, Rakshabandhan, Id, Shab- “Prakrit was the one single language
e-barat Christmas, Good Friday are observed sufficient to bring the message of a royal
throughout the country with their colourful missionary to the doors of his humblest subject
lusture. throughout this vast kingdom.”
Further, the Kumbhmela at Allahabad, With the advancement of time, Sanskrit
Hardwar and Ujjain are attended by people took the place of prakrit. During medieval
from different parts of the country. Similarly period Hindi emerged as a great language
many rites like birth-rite, funeral-rite etc. are to bring coherence among all the languages.
observed throughout the country. The caste Although sixteen and more languages and
system, family sanctity, modes of offerings, numerous dialects exist in India, now Hindi
several social ceremonies are celebrated almost is trying to be the cementing force among all
in a similar manner in different parts of the the languages and rightly it has been called the
country. Thus, the cultural unity in India amidst national language.
several diversities is a unique phenomenon. However, English is used more or less
5. Racial Unity: for carrying on the official correspondence.
Various races have dwelt in India down Although Oriya, Bengali, Punjabi, Telugu,
through the ages. By circumstance, some karnada, Gujarati and numerous other
Indian Hindus were converted to Islam and languages exist in India but they express in
Christianity. However, they preserve the national level either through Hindi or English.
Indian identity. The Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Thus, diversity in language mingles bringing
Mongols, Turks and Mughals who came to linguistic unity.

7. Unity in Literature: Ballavachaiya, Nimbarka, Kabir, Nanak, Sri

In different parts of India literature has Chaitanya, Nizamuddin Auliya, Eknath,
been written in several languages. The ancient Tukaram and many other saints preached their
literature like the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, philosophy. Monotheism and polytheism have
Dharmasastras etc. were written in Sanskrit. been preached in this subcontinent. However,
Basing upon those, literature has been written the ultimate aim of every philosophy is to lead
in different languages. a life full of bliss and happiness, the concept of
The theme and characters of Ramayana, Nirvana, Moksha, Mukti etc. or the life in this
Mahabharata, Raghuvamsam etc. are same in world and the other are certain other aspects of
different languages may be Oriya, Kannad, each philosophical system. This unity in Indian
Bengali, Ahamiya and so on. Thus, the influence philosophical system has allured the attention
of Sanskrit is greatly felt over those literatvire of the people of the world at large.
and really it plays a cementing force to bind 10. Promoter of this Unity:
together the literary traditions of different There are several agencies which have
parts of the country. promoted the unity amidst diversity. The sages,
8. Social Unity: saints, reformers and pilgrims who have visited
It is a well known fact that Indian society is throughout India sing the glory of several
diversified. In dress, food-habit and customs, places like Kurukeshtera, Allahabad, Hardwar,
the northern Indians are quite different from Rishikesh, Dwaraka, Mathura, Kanchipuram
the southern Indian people. However, there so on and so forth. Their description makes
are certain common factors that guide all the Indians feel that they belong to a glorious land,
societies of India. Treatment of guests, offering their motherland, India.
alms to beggars, to help others at the times of In the past the conquerors like Chandragupta
need, to show mercy to the poor, destitute and Maurya, Asoka, Chandragupta II and Akbar
needy etc. are certain common practices found wanted the unity of this land which inspired
in every Indian society. The magnanimity of the leaders of the past and inspires the present
Indian society is well recognized by all the leaders too to maintain the unity and integrity
people of the world. For this greatness, the of our country.
Indian society has received commendation Among other factors, uniform
from the tourists who came to visit India from administration, language and religion, modern
abroad. means of transport and communication,
9. Philosophical Unity: common history and nationalism and the
India is the birth place of many present democratic set up act as agencies for
philosophical systems of the world. The Vedic maintaining this fundamental unity of India
philosophy, the philosophy of the Sankhyas, amidst various diversities.
Yogas, Advaita Vedantins, Buddhists, Jainas, Unity in diversity is the basic postulate of
Saivas, Shaktas etc. vary in many respects from Indian culture. It is a wonder that in-spite of
each other. Buddha, Mahavir, Sankaracharya, several diversities Indian culture preserves

unity. That is quite unique and unparalleled in

the chequered annals of history. That is why,
perhaps Herbert Risley had rightly pointed
out
Beneath the many-fold diversity of physical
and social type, language, custom and religion
which strikes the observer in India, there
can still be discerned a certain underlying
uniformity of life from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin.

ART AND CULTURE OF INDIA

17.1 RELIGION  Holy book of Islam is Quran.
Religion is a collection of belief  Islam is the second largest
systems, cultural system and world religion in the world.
views that relate humanity to  Most Muslims belong to two
spirituality and sometimes to moral denominations Shia and
values. Religion is different from Sunni.
private belief in its social character.  Islam arrived in India in 8th
century AD.
Hinduism
 It consists of a collection of Christianity
intellectual and philosophical  Jesus is the founder of
points of views, rather than a Christianity.
rigid system of beliefs.  Bible is the Holy book of
 There is no specific founder of Christianity.
the religion.  Christain religion is mainly
 Its roots can be traced to the divided into 2 streams-Catholic
historical Vedic religion of the and Protestant.
Iron age India.  Christianity is the world’s largest
 Hinduism is the third largest religion.
religion in the world after  Holy texts of the Christianity are
Christianity and Islam. the Old Testament and the
 Prominent texts are the Vedas, New Testament.
the Ramayana and the Sikhism
Mahabharata.  Guru Nanak is the founder of
Islam Sikhism.
 Prophet Mohammed is the  Guru Granth Sahib is the
founder of Islam. Holy book of Sikhism. Sikhism
Page 1
MODERN INDIA
is the third largest religion of 17.2 LANGUAGES

India. Sanskrit
 Sikhism developed in India  Sanskrit is the mother of many
during 16th and 17th centuries. Indian languages.
 Sanskrit is the most ancient
Buddhism
language of our country.
 Mahatma Buddha is the
 The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas
founder of Buddhism. Buddhism
and Dharmasutras are all written
is the indigenous religion of
in Sanskrit.
India.
 It is one of the twenty-two
 Holy book of Buddhism are the
languages listed in the Indian
Tripitakas.
Constitution.
 The three Jewels of Buddism are
 The Dharmasutras, the
Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
Manusmriti, Arthashastra and
 Buddhists generally classify
Gita Govinda are the famous
themselves as either Theravada
books in Sanskrit.
or Mahayana.
 Panini, Kautilya, Kalhana and
Jainism
Jayadeva are the famous writers
 MahaviraSwami is the
of Sanskrit.
founder of Jainism.
Pali
 Jainism is a religion indigenous
 Pali is an Indo-Aryan language,
to the Indian subcontinent.
which was used for the earliest
 Holy book of Jainism is the
Buddhist Scriptures. Pali
Kalpa Sutras.
literature is mainly concerned
 The Main doctrines of Jainism
with Theravada Buddhism.
are Anekantavada, Syadvada and
Nayavada. The two sects of Telugu
Jainism are Svetambaraand  The Vijayanagara period was the

golden age of Telugu literature.
Digambara. Jain holy texts
 Eight Telugu literary luminaries
consist of Purvas, Agamas, are popularly known as
Angas and Upangas. Ashtadiggajas.
The first Indian woman Judge- Anna Chandy
Page 2
 Ramakrishna was the author of Tamil

PandurangaMahatmayam, which  Tamil is the mother language of
was considered as one of the the Dravidian language family.
greatest poetical works of Telugu  The Sangam literature is a
literature. collection of long and short
poems composed by various
Kannada
poets in praise of numerous
 Kannada language developed
heroes and heroines.
fully after the AD 10th century.
 There are about 30000 lines of
The earliest known literary work
poetry, which are arranged in
in Kannada is Kavirajamarg,
eight anthologies called
written by the Rashtrakuta King
Ettuttokai.
NripatungaAmoghavargha.
 Pampa, known as the father of Persian and Urdu
Kannada, wrote his great poetic  Urdu emerged as an
works AdiPurana and independent language towards
VikramarjivaVijaya in the AD the end of the AD 4th century.
10th century.  Urdu language was born out of
Malayalam the interaction between Hindi
 The language of Malayalam and Persian.
emerged around the AD 11th  Urdu became more popular in
century. By 15th century, the early 18th century.
Malayalam was recognised as an  The earliest Urdu poet is
independent language. supposed to be Khusrau.
 BhasaKautilya, a commentary on  Urdu has given us a new form of
Arthashastra and Kokashndisam poem, that is called a Nazam.
are two great works. Hindi
 Rama Panikkar and Ramanujan  Hindi is direct descendant of the
Ezhuthachan are well known Sanskrit language, through
authors of Malayalam literature. Prakrit and Apabhramsha.
The first Indian woman Lawyer- Cornelia Sorabjee
Page 3
MODERN INDIA
 It is spoken largely in North Geetanjali.

India.
Assamese Literature
 Evolution of Hindi literature can
be better understood through  Like Bengali, Assamese also
four stages of AdiKal, Bhakti developed in response to the
Kal, Riti-KavyaKaland Bhakti movement.
AdhunikKal.
 Shankaradeva, who introduced
17.3 LITERATURE
Vaishnavism in Assam helped in
Bengali Literature
the growth of Assamese poetry.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote in
Even the Puranas were
Bengali besides English, which
translated in Assamese.
gave an impetus to Bengali
 The earliest Assamese literature
literature.
consisted of buranjis (court
 Ishwar Chandra
chronicles). Shankaradeva has
Vidhyasagar(1820-91) and
left several devotional poems,
Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-
which people sang with
86) were the two other writers of
rapturous pleasure, but it was
this early period.
only after 1827 that more
 Sharat Chandra Chatterji (1876-
interest was shown in producing
1938) and RC Dutta, a noted
Assamese literature.
historian and a prose writer, too
contributed to the making of Oriya Literature
Bengali literature.  Oriya language shows the
 But the most important name maximum influence of Sanskrit.
that influenced the whole of It originated in the AD 9th
India was that of century and its literary
RabindraNath Tagore (1861- development took place in the
1941). Novels, dramas, short 13th century.
stories, criticism, music and  Worth mentioning in Oriya
essays, all flowed from his pen. literature are
He won the Nobel Prize for FakirmohanSenaptiand
literature in 1913 for his RadhaNath Ray, whose
Page 4
writings deserve considerable  comprising of notes from the

attention in the history of Oriya basic seven –Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa,
literature. Dha and Ni.
 The works of UpendraBhanja  On the basis of notes included in
(1670-1720) were important as it, each raga attains a different
they ushered a new period of
character. the form of the raga is
Oriya literature. In Odisha, the
works of Saraladasaare also determined by the particular
regarded as the first works of pattern of ascent and descent of
Oriya literature.
the notes, which may not be
17.4 MUSIC strictly linear.
 The music of India is said to be  Hindustani classical music is
one of the oldest unbroken primarily vocal-centric. The
major vocal forms associated
musical traditions in the World.
with Hindustani classical music
 Many different legends have are the Khayal, ghazal, dhrupad,
grown up concerning the origin dhammar, tarana and thumri.
and development of Indian Thumri
classical music.  It is an informal vocal form of
Hindustani Music Hindustani classical music and is
Classical Music said to have began with the court
 Hindustani classical music of NawabWajid Ali Shah, the
originated in North India around Nawab of Oudh.
the 13th and 14th centuries. In Dadra

contrast to Carnatic music, the  Refers to two separate, but
Hindustani classical music was originally linked concepts in
not only influenced by ancient Hindustani classical music. The
Hindu musical traditions and Dadra tala consists of six beats in
Vedic philosophy but also by the two equal divisions of three. It is
Persian elements. mostly performed in Agra and in
 Hindustani music is based on the the Bundelkhand region.
Raga system. The Raga is a
melodic scale, The first Indian lady to become Miss World- ReitaFaria
Page 5
MODERN INDIA
Qawwali Gharana
 It is a form of Sufi devotional  There is a rich tradition of
music. Originally, it was Gharanas in classical Hindustani
performed at mainly Sufi shrines music. These Schools or
or dargahs. Its roots can be Gharanas have their basis in the
traced back to 8th century Persia. traditional mode of musical
Songs in Qawwali are mostly in training and education. Every
Urdu and Punjabi languages. Gharana has its own distinct
Ghazal features.
 It is a poetic form consisting of Gwalior Gharana
rhyming couplets and a refrain,  This is the oldest among all the
with each line sharing the same KhayalGayaki (Vocal) styles. The
meter. distincitive feature of this style of
 It is an ancient form originating singing has been noted to be its
in 6th century Arabic verse. It simplicity.
spread into South Asia in the 12th Agra Gharana
century, due to the influence of  The Agra Gharana places great
Sufi mystics. importance on developing
Hori forcefulness and deepness in the
 It is a genre of semi-classical voice, so that the notes are
singing which is popular in Uttar powerful and resonant.
Pradesh and Bihar. It comes KiranaGharana
under the category of season  It derives its name from the
songs. birth-place of Abdul Kharim
Kirtan Khan of Kirana near
 It is a call and response chanting Kurukshetra. In the Kirana style
performed in Indian devotional of singing, the swara is used to
traditions. It is closely associated create an emotional mood by
with the Bhakti movement. means of elongation and use of
Kana-s.
The first Indian woman Honours Graduate- Kamini Roy
Page 6
Rampur SahaswanGharana Banaras Gharana

 The Rampur SahaswanGharana,  The Banaras Gharana evolved as
there is a stress on the clarity of a result of great tilting style of
swara in this style and the khayal singing known by thumri
development and elaboration of singers of Banaras and Gaya.
the raga is done through a MewatiGharana
stepwise progression.  The MewatiGharana gives
Patiala Gharana importance to developing the
 Patiala Gharana is regarded as mood of the raga through the
an off-shoot of the Delhi notes forming it and its style is
Gharana. The Patiala Charana is Bhava Pradhan. It also gives
characterised by the use of equal importance to the meaning
greater rhythm play and by of the text.
Layakari with the abundant use 17.5 DANCE
of Bols, particularly Bol tans. Indian Classical Dances
Delhi Gharana India has an old tradition of
 The Delhi Gharana was thousands of years in regard to fine
represented by Tanras Khan and arts and classical and folk music and
Shabbu khan. The highlights of dances. Some of the world-famous
Delhi Gharana are pleasing dance forms that originated and
vistaar and exquisite evolved in India are Bharatnatyam,
compositions. Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi,

Manipuri, Mohinaiattam and Odissi.
Bhendi Bazaar Gharana
 The most distinctive feature of
the Bhendi Bazaar Gharana is Bharatnatyam
 Bharatnatyam is
the presentation of Khayal,
one of the most
which is open voice using Akar.
There is a stress on breath- popular
classical Indian
control and singing of long
dances. Bharatnatyam is more
passages in one breath is highly
popular in South Indian states of
regarded in the Gharana.
Page 7
MODERN INDIA
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Kathakali

 The music accompanying this  Kathkali is the classical dance
dance is Carnatic music. It form of Kerala. The word
evolved out of the Devadasi kathakali literally means Story
system of South Indian temples. play.
Two famous styles are
Pandanallurand Tanjore.
 Famous dancers associated with
Bharatnatyam are E Krishna
 Kathakali is considered as one of
Iyer, Rukmini Devi Arundale and
the most magnificent theatres of
Ana Pavlova.
imagination and creativity.
Kathak  Famous exponents of Kathakali
 Kathak is are Vallathol Narayan Menon,
one of the KujuKurup, GuruGopinath etc.
most
Kuchipudi
important
classical
dances of
India. Kathak is said to be
derived from the work katha,
meaning the art of storytelling.  Kuchipudi is one of the classical
 Famous centres are Lucknow dance forms of South India.
and Jaipur, Lucknow school Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from
depicts Mughal Court etiquette, the Hindu epics, legends and
while the Jaipur School depicts mythological tales. Famous
stories of Rajput Kings and exponents of Kuchipudi are
Gods. Famous exponents are Lakshmi Narayan Shastri, Raja
Sitara Devi, SambhuMaharaj, and Radha Reddy,
Uma Sharma Shovana Narayan Swapanasundari and
etc. YaminiKrishnamurti.
Page 8
Manipuri  Famous exponents of this dance

form are KalyaniAmma,
Vaijayanthimala, Bharati Shivaji
and HemaMalini.
Odissi
 Odissi is one of the
 Manipuri is one of the major
famous classical
classical dances of Inida. The
Indian dances from
most striking part of Manipuri
Odisha state.
dance is its colourful decoration,
 It is a graceful and sensous
lightness of dancing foot,
dance style and involves the
delicacy of abhinaya (drama),
tribhanga (three bends) posture.
lilting music and poetic charm.
 The (three bends) symbolise the
Popular exponents are Javeri
means to escape the limitations
sisters, Rita Devi, Nirmala
of the body.
Mehta, GuruBipin Singh etc.
 Famous dancers of Odissi are
IndraniRehman,
Mohiniyattam
SonalMansingh, Kiran Sengal,
 Mohiniyattam from Kerala is a
Rani Karna, Sharon Lowen and
solo female dance and is known
MyrtaBarvie.
for its rhythmic and unbroken
flow of the body movements.
17.6 ARCHITECTURE
Mohiniattam has the grace and

Indian architecture, which has
elegance of Bharathanatyam and
evolved through centuries is the result
vigour of Kathakali.
of socio-economic and geographical
Page 9
MODERN INDIA
conditions of the region. Indian unlike the architectural styles of

architecture evolved in various stages the other provinces, which
in different parts and regions of the combined both the temple
country. architecture and the Islamic
building ideals. It derived its
Rajput Architecture: elements from the architectural
 The Rajputs were great patrons styles of the Sultan of Delhi and
of art and architecture, the finest that of the distant Persia.
examples being their forts and  Some keys features of this style
palaces. The Rajputs palaces are are the presence of bulbous
complex composition built as domes with lotus neck, military
inner citadels surrounded by the style of architecture, presence of
city and enclosed by a fortified thick walls and combination of
wall as at Chittorgarh and gateway and mosque-like
Jaisalmar. Some forts, such as charminar.
those at Bharatpur and Deeg,
were protected by wide moats. Mughal Style:
 The palaces of Jaisalmer,
Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and
Kota represent the maturity of
the Rajput style.
Deccan Style:
 The medieval period saw great
developments in the field of
architecture. With the coming of
Muslims to India, many new
features came to be introduced
in buildings. The development of
 The architecture of the Deccan is Muslim style of architecture of
marked by its distinct originally this period can be called the
and independence of style, Indo-Islamic architecture or the
Page 10
India architecture influenced by

Islamic Art. Mughal School:
 The Indo-Islamic style was  This school has a specific style of
neither strictly Islamic nor south Asian painting. Usually, it
strictly Hindu. was confined to miniatures
 The earliest building of this either as book depictions or as
period is Quwwat-ul-Islam individual works to be kept in
Mosque and the QutubMinar at albums.
Delhi.  This practice materialised from
Persian miniature painting, with
PUPPETRY: Indian influences of Hindu,
 The early puppet shows in India Buddhist and Jain.
dealt mostly with histories of  It wonderfully blossomed during
great Kings. Princes and heroes the Mughal Empire. Later, this
and also political satire in rural school of painting reached other
areas. India courts of Muslims and
 Slowly, this art form emerged Hindus and afterwards Sikhs.
from the precincts of the temple  Akbar and Jahangir were
and village to reach out to the exceptionally great patrons of
outside world performing on this painting. Mughal School of
various social and contemporary painting revolved around court
themes in Indian towns and scenes, portraits, hunting scenes,
cities. lover’s battle fronts etc.
Rajput School:
PAINTING:  This school progressed and
 The history of Indian painting is thrived during the 18th century
just about as old as the history of in the majestic Rajputana
the people of India. courts.
 The most primitive instances of  This school of painting flooded
paintings in India can be traced from the approach of Mughal
back to cave paintings. painting.
Page 11
MODERN INDIA
 A typical style of painting with

particular common Institutions for the promotion of
characteristics came up in every Art and Culture
Rajput real  The National Musecum : 1948
 This school illustrated an  The Indian Council for cultural
assortment of themes like Relations : 1950
landscapes, events from the  Sahitya Academy : 12 March
Mahabharata, Ramayana, 1954
Krishna’s life and about human  SangeetNatak Academy : 1953
beings.  Lalit Kala Academy : 1954
 Center for cultural resourece and
Bengal School: training : 1979
 This school was a fashion of art,  Seven zonal centres at : Patiala,
which progressed during the Santiniketan, Udaipur,
British Raj in Indian of early 20th Allahabad, Thiruvaiaru, Nagpur,
century. and Dinapur
 Indian Nationalism was greatly  Indira Gandhi National Center
linked to this painting. British for Arts :
art administrators also  The Indira Gandhi
supported and promoted it. Kalanidhi
 Raja Ravi Verma and  The Indira Gandhi Kala
Abanindranath Tagore were Kosha
amongst the pioneer artists of  The Indira Gandhi
this school. Today’s renowned JanapadaSampada
artists, who belong to this school  The Indira Gandhi Kala
include Nilima, Dutta, Sudip Darshana
Roy, Paresh Maiti and  The National Gallery of Modern
BikashBhattacharjee. Art
The first Indian woman Lieutenant General- Puneeta Arora
Page 12
Role of Tamil Nadu in

Freedom war
The Poligars Revolt (A.D.1799) collection of taxes and the superiority complex
After the decline of the Vijayanagar of the British severely affected the people. By
Empire, the Mughals established their following the mercantile policy of gain, they
supremacy in the south. The Nawab of Arcot increased taxes and collected it in a high-
acted as their representative in the Carnatic. handed manner. Katabomman was humiliated
He acquired the right to collect taxes from the and hanged. Their relatives were subjected to
poligars. He could not collect taxes properly. severe punishments. These factors made the
Moreover the borrowed money from the revolt inevitable.
East India company. In 1792 the company Marudhu Pandiar and the Southern
made a treaty with Nawab and acquired the League
right to collect taxes from the poligars and Marudhu Pandiar was one
appointed English collectors of tax collection. of the heroes of south Indian
They followed Rough and ruthless methods rebellion. He served loyally
to collect taxes. The poligars opposed the under Muthu Vadukanath
British. Kattabomman was the first man who Deva of Sivaganga. When
raised his voice against the British. Kattabomman was hanged to
The South Indian Rebellion death, he gave protection to
(1800-1801) Umathurai and others. This was not liked by
The South Indian Rebellion was the outburst the merchants of Sivaganga. Anticipating a
of the accumulated hatred and anger against struggle with British, Marudhu Pandiar
the company’s rule. prepared himself to face any attack from the
Causes British. This greatly alarmed the British. The
The interference of the company in the British sent their force under Col. Agnew
matters of local principalities reduced the against Marudhu Pandiar. Realising the
power and prestige of the local rulers. The seriousness, Marudhu Pandiar issued a
princes and the poligars lost their dignity and proclamation to call the Indians to unite against
respectable status in the society. The oppressive the British. A copy of it was pasted on the walls
policy in administration, the rude means of of the gate-way of the Nawab’s Palace in the

fort at Trichy. Another copy was pasted on the Palayams, arguing that their lands had been
walls of the great Vaishnava Temple at handed down to them across a span of sixty
Srirangam. He invited people of all castes and generations. Such claims were brushed aside
religions to join in the struggle against the by the East India Company.
British. Marudu Brothers
The conflict started on 29th May 1801. The Despite the exemplary
rebels were defeated at various places. Dindigul, repression of Palayakkarars
Ramanad and Madurai came under the control in 1799, rebellion broke out
of the British. Marudhu Pandiar hid himself in again in 1800, this time in a
the Singampunari forest. But Thondaiman of more cohesive and united
Pudukottai captured Marudhu Pandiar and manner. Although the
handed over to the British. Marudhu Pandiar 1800-1801 rebellion was to be categorized in the
and others were hanged to death on Oct 24, British records as the Second Palayakkarar
1801 A.D and Umaithurai was impaled at War, it assumed a much broader character than
Panchalamkuruchi on 16th November 1801 its predecessor. It was directed by a confederacy
A.D. Thus the south Indian rebellion came to consisting of Marudu Pandian of Sivaganga,
an end. Gopala Nayak of Dindugal, Kerala Verma of
In Tamil Nadu, as in other parts of India, Malabar and Krishnappa Nayak and Dhoondaji
the earliest expressions of opposition to British of Mysore.
rule took the form of localized rebellions and The insurrection, which broke out in
uprisings. Chief among these was the revolt of Coimbatore in June 1800, soon spread to
the Palayakkarars (Poligars) against the East Ramanathapuram and Madurai. By May 1801,
India Company. it had reached the northern provinces, where
The Palayakkarar system had evolved with Marudu Pandian and Melappan provided
the extension of Vijayanagar rule into Tamil the leadership. Oomathurai, the brother of
Nadu. Each Palayakkarar was the holder of Kattabomman emerged as a key leader. In
a territory or Palayam (usually consisting of February 1801, Oomathurai and two hundred
a few villages), granted to him in return for men by a cleverly move took control of
military service and tribute. In most cases, Panchalamkuruchi Fort.
the Palayakkarars gave little attention to The fort now re-occupied and reconstructed
perform their duties and were interested by rebel forces, Panchalamkuruchi became the
in increasing their own powers. With their centre of the uprising. Three thousand armed
numerical strength, extensive resources, men of Madurai and Ramanathapuram,
local influence and independent attitude, the despatched by Marudu Pandian, joined up with
Palayakkarars came to constitute a powerful the Panchalamkuruchi forces. However, British
force in the political system of south India. forces quickly asserted itself. The Palayakkarar
They regarded themselves as independent, forces based at Panchalamkuruchi were
sovereign authorities within their respective crushed. By the orders of the government, the

site of the captured fort was ploughed up and Puli Thevar and the Marava Palayakkarars of
sowed with castor oil and salt so that it should the Western bloc stood firm against the British.
never again be inhabited. Col. Heron decided to deal with the Maravas
The British forces quickly overpowered firmly.
the remaining insurgents. The Marudu Col. Heron tried to change the mind of Puli
brothers and their sons were put to death. Thevar by diplomatic moves and by show of
Oomathurai and Sevatiah were beheaded at force. But he failed in his attempts. Puli Thevar
Panchalamkuruchi on 16 November, 1801. proceeded to consolidate his position by
Seventy-three of the principal rebels were organising the Marava Palayakkarars of the West
sentenced to transportation. So savage and into a strong confederacy. He also attempted
extensive was the death and destruction to get the support of Haider Ali of Mysore
wrought by the English that the entire region and the French against the British. The British
was left in a state of terror. approached Ramnad, Pudukottai and the Dutch
The suppression of the Palayakkarar for help. Haider Ali couldn’t help Puli Thevar
rebellions of 1799 and 1800-1801 resulted in the due to a Mysore - Maratha struggle. Yusuf Khan
liquidation of the influence of the chieftains. (Khan Sahib) was entrusted by the British with
Under the terms of the Karnatac Treaty (31 July, the duty of tackling Puli Thevar and his allies.
1801), the British assumed direct control over Puli Thevar attacked Madurai and captured
Tamil Nadu. The Palayakkararr system came it from Mahfuz Khan. Puli Thevar’s military
to a violent end and the Company introduced success had no parallel. The native ruler
the Zamindari settlement in its place. triumphed against the British. It is a clear
Puli Thevar demonstration of the Marava might and
Among the Palayakkarars, the heroism of the patriots. But Yusuf Khan
there were two blocs, namely recaptured Madurai. With the help of the
the Western and the Eastern Palayakkarars of the Eastern bloc and the king
blocs. The Western bloc had of Travancore, Yusuf Khan had many victories.
Marava Palayakkarars and After fierce battles, Nerkkattumseval was
the Eastern bloc had Telugu attacked in 1759. In 1767, this city was captured
Palayakkarars. Puli Thevar of by Col. Campbell. Puli Thevar escaped and died
Nerkkattumseval headed the former and in exile without finally fulfilling his purpose of
Kattabomman of Panchalamkuruchi led the checking the growth of the British influence.
latter. These two Palayakkarars refused to pay Although his attempt ended in failure, he leaves
the kist (tribute) to the Nawab and rebelled. a valiant trail of a struggle for independence in
Many of the neighbouring Palayakkarars the history of South India.
put up certain pretexts and did not pay the Vira Pandya Kattabomman
tribute. Mahfuz Khan, with the assistance of the Vira Pandya Kattabomman became the
British army under Col. Heron undertook an Palayakkarar of Panchalamkuruchi at the age of
expedition to suppress the revolt in March 1755. thirty on the death of his father, Jagavira Pandya

Kattabomman. Yet, several events led to the Sivasubramania Pillai, had to stand before the
conflict between Kattabomman and East India arrogant collector for three hours together.
Company. During this period the collection of Still he did not permit them to leave the
tribute served as a cause of friction. The Nawab place, but directed them to stay inside the
of Arcot who had this right surrendered it fort. Kattabomman suspected the intensions
to the English under the provisions of the of Jackson. Hence, he tried to escape with his
Karnatc Treaty of 1792. Therefore, the chief of minister and brother Oomathurai. At the gate
Panchalamkuruchi, Kattabomman had to pay of the fort there followed a clash, in which some
tribute to the English. In September 1798, the people including Lieutenant Clarke were killed.
tribute from Kattabomman fell into arrears. Sivasubramania Pillai was taken prisoner. But
Collector Jackson in his characteristic Kattabomman escaped. After his return to
arrogance and rashness wrote letters to Panchalamkuruchi, Kattabomman appealed to
Kattabomman in a threatening language. There the Madras Council submitting the facts. The
is a tradition to indicate that Kattabomman Madras Government directed Kattabomman
declared : “ It rains, the land yields, why should to appear before a Committee. Meanwhile, the
we pay tax to the English?” By the 31 May 1789, government released Sivasubramania Pillai
the total arrears of tribute from Kattabomman and suspended the Collector, Jackson. He
amounted to 3310 pagodas. Though Jackson appeared before the Committee, with William
wanted to send an army against Kattabomman, Brown, William Oram and John Casmayor as
the Madras Government did not give permission. members. The Committee found Kattabomman
Hence, on the 18 August 1798 Jackson sent an order not guilty. S. R. Lushington was now appointed
to Kattabomman to meet him at Ramanathapuram Collector in the place of Jackson, latter was
within two weeks. In the meantime, Kattabomman eventually dismissed from service.
went with arrears of tribute to meet Jackson. League of the Palayakkarars
Kattabomman was humiliated twice by Jackson Thus the English removed the source of
when the former wanted to meet him at grievance to Kattabomman. Yet, the humiliation
Tirukutralam and Srivilliputttur. suffered by Kattabomman affected his self-
Kattabomman respect. During this time, Marudu Pandyan
But he was told that he could meet the of Sivaganga organized the South Indian
collector only at Ramanathapuram. Despite Confederacy of rebels against the British.
this humiliation, Kattabomman followed The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation was made.
Jackson for twenty three days in a journey of He sent missions Panchalamkuruchi. Thus a
400 miles through the latter’s route and reached close association between Kattabomman and
Ramanathapuram on the 19 September. Marudu Pandyan established. The events now
An interview was granted by Jackson and moved to a crisis. In August 1798 the son of the
Kattabomman cleared most of the arrears Palayakkarar of Sivagiri and his adviser visited
leaving only 1090 pagodas as balance. During Panchalamkuruchi and held consultations.
this interview Kattabomman and his Minister, Kattabomman decided to establish his

influence in Sivagiri with the aid of the son summoned at Kayattar. Thereupon, Bennerman
of the Palayakkarar. As the Palayakkarar of announced death penalty. On the 16th of
Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company, the October Kattabomman was hanged to death at
Madras Council considered this move as a a conspicuous spot near the old fort of Kayattar.
challenge to its own authority and ordered war Vira Pandyan faced the last moments of his life
against Kattabomman. with the pride of a hero.
Expedition to Panchalamkuruchi Vellore Mutiny
In May 1799, Lord Wellesley issued orders Vellore was the
from Madras for the advance of forces from capital of erstwhile
Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Madurai to North Arcot
Tirunelveli. Major Bannerman, armed with district in Tamil
extensive powers, assumed the command of the Nadu. At present,
expedition. On the 1 September, 1799 the Major this district is
served an ultimatum directing Kattabomman to named after its
surrender and attend on him at Palayamkottai capital Vellore. It is a well fortified and
on the 4th. Kattabomman replied that he would beautiful city.
submit on a lucky day. With the expansion of the East India
Bannerman considered this reply as evasive Company’s rule in India, the native rulers and
and decided on military action. On 5 September their dependents suffered. The native rulers
Kattabomman’s fort was attacked. On the 16th either submitted or rebelled. These rebellions
reinforcements reached from Palayamkottai. In had no clear vision or ideal but purely
a clash at Kolarpatti the Palayakkarar troops motivated by the territorial interest of the
suffered heavy casualty and Sivasubramania native rulers and their ambition to preserve
Pillai was taken prisoner. Kattabomman escaped the old feudal order. The heroism and sacrifice
to Pudukkottai. The ruler of Pudukkottai of individuals like Puli Thevar, Kattabomman
captured Kattabomman from the jungles of and Marudu Brothers had no parallel. But all
Kalapore and handed him over to the British. these leaders never organised the common
Fall of Kattabomman people for a unified and meaningful cause. The
Bannerman brought ideas of nationalism, political consciousness
the prisoners to an and organized struggle came much later.
assembly of the Pal 31 In Vellore the native sepoys rose in revolt
May 1789 Ayakkarars in 1806. This incident differs from other
and after a mockery of previous rebellions in. The earlier rebellions
trial sentenced them to were those of the native rulers. The Vellore
death. Sivasubramania Pillai was executed at Mutiny was organized by the sepoys. The
Nagalapuram on the 13th of September. On earlier rebellions had only a regional interest.
the 16th of October Vira Pandyan was tried Every prince wanted to safeguard his own
before an assembly of Palayakkarars, kingdom at any cost.

But Vellore Mutiny was the result of the foreigners. They can never forget their
spontaneous outflow of the feelings of the original loyalties.
sepoys who served under the Company. It was The Vellore uprising was preceded by a
a protest by the sepoys against the Company. series of protests by the Indian troops. In May
This protest showed the future possibilities. 1806, the 4th Regiment rose in revolt against
Causes the new turban. The Commander-in-Chief
Several causes are attributed to the Vellore took severe action the sepoys who were found
Mutiny. Indian sepoys had to experience guilty were punished with 500 to 900 lashes.
numerous difficulties when they went to serve Before the mutiny secret associations were
in the Company’s army. The sepoys were formed and meetings held in which Tipu’s
forced to serve under the Company since family took part.
their earlier patrons (the native chieftains) On June 17th 1806 a sepoy of the 1st Regiment
were all disappearing from the scene. The named Mustapha Beg, secretly informed his
strict discipline, practice, new weapons, new commanding officer, Colonel Forbes, that a
methods and uniforms were all new to the plot had been planned for the extermination of
sepoys. Anything new appears to be difficult the European officers and troops. But this was
and wrong for a man who is well-settled in the not taken seriously .
old way of life for a long-time. On the eve of the Mutiny at Vellore Fettah
Sir John Cradock, the commander-in-chief, Hyder, the first son of Tipu, tried to form an
with the -approval of Lord- William Bentinck, alliance against the English and sought the
the Governor of Madras, introduced a new help of the Marathas and the French.
from of turban, resembling a European hat. Fettah Hyder received secret information
Wearing ear rings and caste marks were also through one Mohommed Malick. Besides,
prohibited. princes Fettah Hyder and Moiz-ud-Deen
The sepoys were asked to shave the chin in particular were active in planning the
and to trim the moustache. The sepoys felt that execution of the Mutiny.
these were designed to insult them and their Thus, there was the desire to revive the old
religious and social traditions. There was also Muslim rule in this region. The sepoys were
a popular belief that this was the beginning aware of the tragic end of Puli Thevar, Khan
of a process by which all of them would be Sahib, Kattabomman, Marudu Brothers, Tipu
converted to Christianity. Sultan and others. Hence there were ill-feelings
The English treated the Indian sepoys as about the British in the minds of the sepoys.
their inferior. There was the racial prejudice. All these led to the rebellion.
This was the psychological base for the sepoy Course of the Mutiny
mutinies in India during the Company’s rule. On July 10th in the early morning the native
The sepoys once served the local chieftains sepoys of the 1st and 23rd Regiments started
(either Hindu or Muslim). The chieftains were the revolt . Colonel Fancourt, who commanded
their own kinsmen but now they served under the garrison, was their first victim. Colonel Me

Kerras of the 23rd Regiment, was shot down Some rebels were hung, some shot dead.
on the parade-ground. Major Armstrong was The uprising was thus brought to a bloody
the next officer to be killed during the mutiny. end. Tipu’s son was sent to Calcutta. The
About a dozen other officers were also killed. commander-in-chief and the governor were
Major Cootes who was outside the fort recalled. Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no
dashed to Ranipet, 14 miles away, and proper leadership. The rebellion was also not
informed Colonel Gillespie at 7 am . Col. well organized. But it is the starting point of a
Gillespie reached the Vellore fort at 9 a.m. new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the
Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh British rule. The 18th century was marked by
Hyder, Tipu’s first son, as their new ruler the resistance of the local chieftains. The first
and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. six decades of 19th century was marked by
But the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. the resistance of sepoys.
Gillespie. 800 Indian soldiers were found K.K. Pillai rejects the thesis that Vellore
dead in the fort alone. Six hundred soldiers Mutiny led to the 1857 revolt. V.D.Savarkar
were imprisoned in Tiruchi and Vellore. calls the Vellore Mutiny of 1806 as the prelude
Some rebels were hung, some shot dead. to the first War of Indian Independence in
The uprising was thus brought to a bloody 1857. N. Sanjivi proclaims that the Tamils
end. Tipu’s son was sent to Calcutta. The had taken the real lead in the Indian freedom
commander-in-chief and the governor were struggle. K. Rajayyan argues that this mutiny
recalled. Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no was a continuation of the Marudu Brothers’
proper leadership. The rebellion was also not resistance movement against the colonial rule.
well organized. But it is the starting point of a The south Indian rebellion was over
new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the by A.D.1801. But the rude shock was not
British rule. The 18th century was marked by erased from the minds of the people. The
the resistance of the local chieftains. The first English East India Company emerged as the
six decades of 19th century was marked by Unopposed ruler of Madras Presidency and
the resistance of sepoys. John Cradock was commander-in-chief. His
Major Cootes who was outside the fort army reforms invited a mutiny at Vellore. The
dashed to Ranipet, 14 miles away, and Vellore Mutiny of 1806 was the first Instance
informed Colonel Gillespie at 7 am . Col. of a mutiny by Indian sepoys against the East
Gillespie reached the Vellore fort at 9 a.m. India Company. It is one of the significant
Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh event not only in the history of Tamil Country
Hyder, Tipu’s first son, as their new ruler but also India. It took place in the south Indian
and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. town Vellore. As it was led by the sepoys of
But the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. Vellore. As it was led by the sepoys of Vellore
Gillespie. 800 Indian soldiers were found fort, it was called as the Vellore Mutiny. It was
dead in the fort alone. Six hundred soldiers presumed as a prelude to the Great Revolt of
were imprisoned in Tiruchi and Vellore. 1857.

Causes for the Failure of the Mutiny Results

There was no proper leadership. The Many Indian soldiers were arrested and
revolt was not well organised. Tipus’s imprisoned. Tipu’s family was taken to Calcutta
sons did not have proper training in and kept in prison for more than six years. The
warfare as they spent most of their life Mutiny revealed the patriotic and the revengeful
time in prison. The sepoys could not get attitude of the Indians toward the British.
the support and supplies on time from Through the mutiny failed, it became a prelude
the native rulers. to the First War of Indian Independence of 1857.
•••
10
Dravidan Movements in
Tamil Nadu
The Justice Party rule in the Madras the Dravidian concept. Later the ancient Tamil
Presidency constitutes an important chapter in literature had been rediscovered and printed
the history of South India. The ideology and by various Tamil scholars including Arumuga
objectives of the Justice Party had been unique Navalar, C.V.Damodaram Pillai and U.V.
and somewhat different from those of the Swaminatha Iyer. V. Kanakasabhai Pillai in his
Congress Party. The Justice Party represented famous historical work, The Tamils 1800 Years
the Non-Brahmin Movement and engineered Ago pointed out that Tamils had attained a
a social revolution against the domination of high degree of civilization before the Advent
Brahmins in the sphere of public services and of the Aryans. This led to the growth of
education. Dravidian feelings among the non-Brahmins.
Birth of the Justice Party These factors collectively contributed to the
Various factors had contributed to birth of the Non-Brahmin Movement and the
the formation of the Justice Party, which Justice Party.
represented the Non-Brahmin Movement. The precursor of the Justice Party was the
The social dominance of the Brahmins was Madras United League which was renamed
the main cause for the emergence of the Non- as the Madras Dravidian Association in
Brahmin Movement. Their high proportion November 1912. Dr.C.Natesa Mudaliar played
in the Civil Service, educational institutions a significant role in nurturing this organization.
and also their predominance in the Madras In 1916 the South Indian Liberal Federation
Legislative Council caused a great worry was formed for the purpose of ‘promoting the
among the non- Brahmins. The Brahmins had political interests of non-Brahmin caste Hindus’.
also monopolized the Press. The rediscovery The leaders who stood behind the formation
of the greatness of the Tamil language and of this organization were Pitti Theagaraya
literature also provided a stimulus to the non- Chetti, Dr.T.M. Nair, P.Ramarayaninger (Raja
Brahmins. Particularly, the publication of the of Panagal) and Dr. C. Natesa Mudaliar. The
book entitled A Comparative Grammar of the South Indian Liberal Federation published an
Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages English newspaper called Justice and hence
by Rev. Robert Caldwell in 1856 gave birth to this organization came to be called the Justice
11
Party. The other news paper which supported to lead the ministry, A.Subbarayalu Reddiar
the Justice Party was Dravidan (in Tamil). formed the ministry. In the election of 1923
Besides, the Justice Party organized a series it fought against the Swarajya Party. The
of public meetings, conferences, lectures to Justice Party again won the majority and the
popularise Non- Brahmin movement. Similarly, ministry was formed by Raja of Panagal. In the
the Justice Party formed District Associations, election of 1926 a divided Justice Party faced
the Non-Brahmin Youth League. the opposition of a united Congress. Therefore,
The Justice Movement an independent, A.Subbarayan with the help
The Justice Party’s rule in the of the Swarajya Party formed the ministry.
Madras Presidency constitutes In 1930 when the next election was held the
an important chapter in the Justice Party won the majority and formed a
history of South India. The ministry with B. Muniswami Naidu as the
Justice Party represented the leader. In 1932 Raja of Bobbili replaced him as
Non-Brahmin movement and Prime Minister of the Presidency. In 1934 Raja
engineered a social revolution against the of Bobbili formed his second ministry, which
domination of Brahmins in the sphere of public continued in power until the election of 1937.
services and education. Then Justice party came under the leadership
The Justice Party, officially known as South of Periyar E.V.Ramasamy and his self-respect
Indian Liberal Federation was a political party movement. In 1944 at Salem conference.
in the Madras Presidency of Periyar transformed the Justice Party into a
British India. This party was social organization called Dravidar Kazhagam
established in 1916 by T.M. and withdrew it from the electoral politics.
Nair and Thiyagaraya Chetty. There were many causes for its failure.
During its early eyars, the party  The Justice Party came to power
involved in petitioning to the when the world was in economic
imperial administrative bodies demanding depression.
more representation for non-Brahmins in  The Nationalist Movement was
administration. This party published popular and heading for freedom.
‘Dravidian’ in Tamil, ‘Andhra Prakasika’ in  Caste and Wealth played vital role.
Telugu and ‘Justice’ in English. Hence it came Hence the party lost its hold.
to be called as the ‘Justice Party’.  The rise of Congress under the
Justice Party Rule Thus the Justice Party lost its vitality after a
The Justice Party came to power following few years of its existence.
the election of 1920 held according to the Achievements of the Justice
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. The Justice Party
Party captured sixty three out of ninety The Justice Party remained in power for
eight elected seats in the Madras Legislative a period of thirteen years. Its administration
Council. As Pitti Theagaraya Chetti declined was noted for social justice and social reform.
12
Justice rule gave adequate representation temples. Justice Party Government introduced
to non-Brahman communities in the public economic reforms. To assist the growth of
services. It improved the status of depressed industries State Aid to Industries Act, 1922 was
classes through education reforms. Justice passed. This led to the establishment of new
Party introduced following reforms in the field industries such as : sugar factories, engineering
of Education : works, tanneries, aluminium factories, cement
1. Free and compulsory education was factories and oil milling so on. This act provided
introduced for the first time in Madras. credits to industries, allotted land and water.
2. Nearly 3000 fisher boys and fisher girls This proved favourable for industrial progress.
were offered free special instruction by Similarly, Justice Party Government
the Department of Fisheries. introduced schemes for rural development
3. Midday Meals was given at selected to help agrarian population, public health
corporation schools in Madras. schemes to prevent diseases. To improve
4. The Madras Elementary Education Act village economy village road scheme was
was amended in 1934 and in 1935 to introduced. In the city of Madras the Town
improve elementary education. Improvement Committee of the Madras
5. The Education of girls received Corporation introduced Slum Clearance
encouragement during the Justice rule in and Housing Schemes. As a social welfare
Madras. measures the Justice Party Government gave
6. Education of the Depressed Classes was waste lands in village to Depressed Classes.
entrusted with Labour Department. The Devadasi system, a disgrace to women,
7. Encouragement was given to Ayurveda, was abolished. The Justice administration
Siddha and Unani medical education. reorganized the working of the University of
The government took over the power of Madras. During the administration of Justice
appointing district munsiffs out of the control Party, the Andhra University was established
of the High Court. The Communal G.O.s in 1926 and Annamalai University in 1929.
(Government Orders) of 1921 and 1922 provided It inaugurated the era of rural development
for the reservation of appointments in local through economic and social reforms.
bodies and educational institutions for non-  The Justice Party government set right
Brahmin communities in increased proportion. the imbalances in the representation
The Staff Selection Board, created by the of different communities and improved
Panagal Ministry in 1924, was made the Public the status of Depressed Classes.
Service Commission in 1929. It was the first of  The Communal G.O’s of 1921
its kind in India. The women were granted the and 1922 provided reservation of
right to vote on the same basis as was given to appointments in local bodies and
men. The Hindu Religious Endowment Act of educational institutions for Non-
1921, enacted by the Panagal Ministry, tried Brahmins.
to eliminate corruption in the management of
1
 To avoid Nepotism, Favouritism and Thus, the rule of Justice Party which introduced
other influences in the process of important social legislations came to an end.
selection, this government created a In 1944 the Justice party conference was held
staff selection board in 1924 and it in Salem. There Peraringar Anna passed a
became the Public Service regulate resolution thereby the name of justice party
the higher educational institutions. was changed as Dravidar Kazhagam.
 In 1925 Andhra University and in 1929 During the 19th and 20th centuries great
Annamalai University were opened. leaders like V.O.C, Subramaniya Bharathi, Bala
 To regulate temple accounts, Temple Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal
Committees were created. In 1926 Nehru, Rajaji were actively involved in the
the Hindu Religious Endowment Bill Freedom Struggle. Some of the great leaders
was passed. of Tamilnadu not only fought for political
 The Women were granted the right freedom has no meaning when people are
to vote in 1921, abolished Devadasi denied social justice, self respect and dignity.
system, prevented immoral traffic of Self Respect Movement
Women and passed Industries Act. E.V.Ramasamy Periyar was
 The system of giving free pattas the greatest social reformers of
for housing sites to the poor was Tamil Nadu. He was the first
introduced. leader, the country had ever
 By way of introducing mid-day seen to inculcate self respect,
meal schemes at Thousand lights rationalism, women liberation
Thiyagaraya Chettiar strengthened and social equality in the minds of the people.
the school. E.V.Ramasamy was born on September 17,
 It gave encouragement to Ayurveda, 1879 in Erode in a very rich Hindu family. He
Siddha and Unani Medical got married at 13th year and renounced his
Education. life in his 19th year. by wearing saintly dress,
End of Justice Party Rule he went to many holy places. He went to Kasi
The Government of India Act of 1935 where he noticed that the Brahmins ill-treated
provided for provincial autonomy and the the Non-Brahmins. He condemned it and
electoral victory meant the assumption of a returned to Tamilnadu. He joined the Congress
major responsibility in the administration in 1919 to realize his ideas. He was elected as the
of the province. K. V. Reddi Naidu led the Secretary of Madras State Congress Committee
Justice Party, while C. Rajagopalachari led the in 1921 and its President in 1923.
Congress in the South. In the election of 1937, He joined the non-cooperation movement,
the Congress captured 152 out of 215 seats in Temple entry movement. Finally the
the Legislative Assembly and 26 out of 46 in the Travancore government relaxed such
Legislative Council. In July 1937 the Congress segregation and allowed the people to enter
formed its ministry under C. Rajagopalachari. into the temple. Hence Periyar was given the
1
title of ‘Vaikam Hero’. opposed child marriage.

Periyar visited a school on Gurukulam style Achievements
run at Sheramandevi out of congress funds. He Periyar criticized the meaningless ideas,
noticed the segregation of Non-Brahmin students superstitious beliefs and unbelievable puranic
from the Brahmins by providing drinking stories in the public meetings. He spread self
water and food in separate places. He protested respect principles through Kudiarasu, Puratchi,
against this anti-social practice and resigned Viduthalai. He also published some books
the Secretaryship of Madras State Congress. He against social evils propagated 14 points of the
moved a resolution for reservation in government Socialists Manifesto. The Justice Party accepted
services for non-brahmins in the state Congress the same and tried to propagated it.
conference held at Kanchipuram. But this was In order to check the growing population and
not allowed. So Periyar left the Conference and to keep good health, he suggested the family
started Self Respect Movement in 1925 to spread planning. He also encouraged Tamil Script
and execute his ideas and policies. reform and suggested to adopt Roman Script to
Aims ensure easy learning. He was given the title of
 The self respect movement condemned ‘Periyar’ by Ladies Conference held at Madras.
and fought against Brahmin In 1937 election, the Justice Party was
domination over other castes, society, defeated and its decline became inevitable. At
politics and religion. Salem conference of 1944, the name of Justice
 It fought to abolish traditionalism and Party was changed as ‘Dravidar Kazhagam’.
superstitions Periyar’s ambitions were fulfilled by DMK and
 It advocated women education, widow AIADMK.
remarriage, intercaste marriages and
•••
1
Role of Tamil Nadu in the

Freedom Movement
Madras Mahajana Sabha receive the welcome address from the Madras
Association: Mahajana Sabha.
Madras Mahajana Sabha was considered
to be a unique one that paved the way for our
national freedom. The Sabha voiced out the
fundamental rights of our countrymen. It had
developed very close relationship with the
Indian National Congress since 1920 onwards.
Consequently in 1930, the Sabha organized
the Salt Satyagraha movement on April 22nd
in Madras George town, Esplanade, the High
court and beach areas. The members were
It was established by Harley, Lakshmi attacked savagely by the British police. As
narasu Chetty and Srinivasa Pillai in 1852. The the Sabha insisted on a legal enquiry about
Association criticized the policies of the East the injustice done towards the participants of
India company. In 1884, the Madras Native the enquired thirty people and submitted its
Association was merged with the Madras report to the government.
Mahajana Sabha established by S.Ramaswami When the British Government banned
Mudhaliar, P.Anandacharlu and P.Rangaiah the Congress party, Madras Mahajana Sabha
Naidu. The Sabha functioned at the office conducted numerous exhibitions to instigate
of ‘The Hindu’, Ellis Road Junction, Mount the partriotic feelings in the hearts of our
Road. countrymen such as All India Khadi Exhibition
P.Rangaiah Naidu was elected first and Swadeshi Exhibition.
President of the Sabha. The Sabha adopted a The father of our nation-Mahatma Gandhiji
moderate policy in its early days. However, had delivered a speech at the meeting of
its aims and the objectives were considered Mahajana Sabha on Oct 24th 1896. Pandit
seditious. In Dec 1895, on his visit to Madras, Jawaharlal Nehru also had participated in the
the Viceroy of India, Lord Elgin refused to golden Jubilee celebrations of the Sabha.
1
Tamil Nadu in the Indian National started to mobilize people in the rural areas
Movement of Tamil Nadu. The third session of the Indian
Tamil Nadu played an important role in the National Congress was held in Madras in 1887
Indian National Movement. Even prior to the under the presidentship of Fakruddin Thyabji.
Great Revolt of 1857, the rebellion in Panchalam Later a number of such annual sessions were
Kuruchi, the 1801 “South Indian Rebellion” of also held in the city of Madras.
the Marudu brothers and the Vellore Mutiny Swadeshi Movement in Tamil Nadu
of 1806 were the early anti-colonial struggles in The Partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the
Tamil Nadu. During the nationalist era Tamil beginning of Swadeshi Movement in Tamil
Nadu provided the leaders like G. Subramania Nadu. During this period the important
Iyer, V.O.C. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania leaders of the National Movement were –
Bharathi, C. Rajagopalachari and K. Kamaraj V.O.Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva and
to the National Movement. Besides, the Subramania Bharathi. In May 1907 Bharathi
nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu was as brought Bipin Chandra Pal one of the leaders
active as elsewhere. of extremists in the Congress to Madras city.
Beginning of the National Movement After the Surat split in 1907, V.O.C and fellow
in Tamil Nadu nationalists started the Chennai Jana Sangam.
The earliest political organisation, the Subramania Bharathi was a non-conformist,
Madras Native Association was started in July unorthodox and a revolutionary in social and
1852. Lakshminarasu Chetty and Srinivasa political ideas. He edited the Tamil Weekly
Pillai were the founders of this organization. India. He wrote nationalist songs called the
The Madras Native Association was sharply Swadesa Geethangal. V.O.Chidambaram
critical of the policies of the East India Pillai was a lawyer by professionand he joined
Company’s rule. Subsequently in 1884, the the nationalist movement in 1905. He was a
Madras Mahajana Sabha was established by follower of Bal Ganghadar Tilak. He led the
P. Anandacharlu and P. Rangaiya Naidu. The Coral Mill Strike in February 1908 in Tuticorin.
Madras Native Association was ultimately In 1906 he launched the Swadeshi Steam
merged with this organization. Navigation Company in Tuticorin. Hence
The Madras Mahajana Sabha strongly he was called Kappalottiya Tamilan. There
supported the activities of the Indian National was competition between Swadeshi Steam
Congress. It had also initiated social reform. G. Navigation Company and British India Steam
Subramania Iyer performed the remarriage of Navigation Company. V.O.C advocated the
his widowed daughter in December 1889. He boycott of the British India Steam Navigation
moved the first resolution in the first session Company and this had resulted in the
of the Indian National Congress in 1885. He Tirunelveli uprising in March 1908. He was
started the nationalist papers like The Hindu ably assisted by Subramania Siva. Both were
in English and Swadeshamitran in Tamil. In arrested and imprisoned. They served six
1892, the Madras Provincial Conference was years rigorous imprisonment. They were given
1
harsh punishment inside the prison. V.O.C Cooperation Movement in Tamil Nadu.
was asked to draw an oil press and hence he is At that time E.V.Ramaswami Naicker was
known as Chekkilutta Chemmal. the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress
The arrest of the nationalist leaders, harsh Committee. C. Rajagopalachari stressed that
punishment for the nationalist leaders inside the the council boycott was a central part of the
prison and the collapse of the Swadeshi Steam Gandhian Programme. However, this view
Navigation Company led to the formation was not shared by Kasturi Ranga Iyengar,
of a revolutionary organization in Tamil Srinivasa Iyengar, Varadarajulu Naidu and
Nadu called the Bharathamatha Association. Vijayaraghavachari. In the meantime, Periyar
Nilakanta Bramachari played a vital role in it. E.V.R launched the Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala
One of the followers of this association Vanchi against the practice of social segregation. Later
Nathan shot dead the notorious British official he resigned from the Congress and came out
Robert William Ashe at Maniyatchi junction in on the social segregation issue at Seramandevi
June 1911. Guru Kulam of V.V.S. Iyer. S. Satyamurthi of
Home Rule Movement in Tamil Nadu Pudukkottai was one of the important freedom
The Home rule Movement in Madras was fighters. He led the anti-Simon Campaign in
organized by Mrs. Annie Besant between 1916 1929 when the Simon Commission visited
and 1918. The first indication of Annie Besant’s Tamil Nadu. The other important nationalist
decision to launch a Home Rule Movement leader was K.Kamaraj from Virudhunagar.
appeared in New India in September 1915. He participated in the Vaikom Satyagraha in
Besant sought the support of the Indian National 1924 and thus entered nationalist movement.
Congress at its annual meeting at Bombay in He was the vice-president and treasurer of the
December, 1915. She was supported in her Ramnad District Congress Committee in 1929.
movement by Tilak. Home Rule Movement From the beginning, Kamaraj was the man
was vigorous during the First World War. of the masses. He spoke in simple and direct
Non-co-operation Movement language. He had a sound common sense and
In Tamil Nadu the Non-co-operation practical wisdom. He was fully aware of the
Movement was strong during the years rural Tamil Nadu. He visited each and every
1921—23. Beginning in March 1921 there were village and understood the different problems
campaigns of Non-Cooperation against the of the masses. He always identified himself
foreign regulations. In 1921 and 1922 there were with the common man of Tamil Nadu. Thus,
campaigns against the consumption of liquor he really brought the Congress movement to
in many parts of the province. Temperance the villages in Tamil Nadu.
campaign was particularly prominent in Salt Satyagraha
Madurai. Non- Cooperation had been a As part of the Civil Disobedience Movement,
success in Tamil Nadu. C. Rajagopalachari, S. Gandhi launched the Salt Satyagraha.
Satyamurthi and E. V. Ramaswami Naicker He undertook the Dandi March in 1930.
were the important leaders of the Non- C.Rajagopalachari became the TNCC president
1
in April 1930. Authorized by TNCC and AICC Quit India Movement

to direct the Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu Later, in 1937 when elections were held in
Rajaji undertook the famous Vedaranyam accordance with the 1935 Act, Congress won
Salt Satyagraha March. He selected the the elections and formed the ministry in Madras
route from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam headed by C. Rajagopalachari. There were nine
in Thanjauvr district. The March began on other ministers in his cabinet. The ministry
Tamil New Year’s Day (13th April). The was in power from July 1937 to October 1939.
March reached Vedaranyam on 28 April 1930. The ministry had resigned along with other
Two days later Rajagopalachari was arrested Congress ministries in the different provinces
for breaking the salt laws. Some of the other over the issue of the Indian involvement in the
important leaders who participated in the Second World War. During Second War, after
Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha were T.S.S.Rajan, the failure of the Cripps’s Proposals Gandhi
Mrs. Lakshmipathi Sardar Vedaratnam Pillai, had launched the Quit India Movement. In
C. Swaminatha Chetty and K.Santhanam. Tamil Nadu Quit India Movement drew the
Tiruppur Kumaran who led the flag march was factory workers, students and common people.
fatally beaten. Since he guarded the national It was a wide spread movement.
flag in his hands he was called Kodi Kaththa The Buckingham & Carnatic Mills, Port Trust
Kumaran. Commemorating his sacrifice the and the Tramway workers joined the movement
Government of India issued a postal stamp in in large numbers. Quit India Movement was
his honour. launched in places like North Arcot, Madurai
Similarly, the National Movement was and Coimbatore. There was police firing at
encouraged by songs composed by Namakkal Rajapalayam, Karaikudi and Devakottai.
Kavinjar Ramalingam Pillai. In his songs he Besides, Subhash Bose’s INA had many men
praised the Gandhian methods in the struggle and women soldiers from Tamil Nadu. Finally,
for freedom. He sang that “a war is coming when India attained independence on 15th
without knife and blood”. This highlighted August, 1947 the Madras Government under
the Gandhian principle of non-violent struggle O.P. Ramaswami Reddiar passed a resolution
against the British. appreciating the Indian Independence Act.
•••
1
Political Parties and their

schemes in T.N after
independence
Political parties in T.N

Foundation
S.No Name Abbreviation States / UT
Year
1. All India Anna Dravida Puducherry,
AIADMK 1972
Munnetra Kazhagam Tamil Nadu
2. Desiya Murpokku
DMDK 2005 Tamil Nadu
Dravida Kazhagam
3. Dravida Munnetra Puducherry,
DMK 1949
Kazhagam Tamil Nadu
4. Puducherry,
Pattali Makkal Katchi PMK 1989
Tamil Nadu
5. Marumalarchi Dravida
MDMK 1994 Tamil Nadu
Munnetra Kazhagam
Populist schemes in TN  Transport Corporations established.

1967 - 1969  Electricity to all the villages.
 “Madras” State was renamed as  Link roads to all the villages having a
“Tamil Nadu”. population of 1500.
 Act to provide legal status to the Self-  Slum Clearance Board.
respect Marriages.  Drinking Water Supply and Drainage
 Two language formula providing for Board.
Tamil and English.  Free Eye camps Scheme.
 Surrender of Earned Leave and  Beggars Rehabilitation Scheme.
its encashment for Government  Abolition of Hand-pulled Rickshaws and
Servants. free distribution of Cycle Rickshaws.
1969 - 1971  Free Concrete Houses for Scheduled
 Nationalisation of Transport. Castes and Tribes.

 Act to provide conferment of ownership  Inclusion of Urdu Speaking Muslims

of house-sites (Kudiyiruppu Act); Act in the list of Backward Classes, like
fixing fair wages to farm labourers. Tamil Speaking Muslims.
 Police Commission – First in India.  Abolition of Land Tax on dry lands.
 Separate Ministry for Backward  “Manu NeethiThittam”.
Classes and Scheduled Castes.  Poompuhar Shipping Corporation.
 Constitution of the Backward Classes  “KonguVellalar” included in the list
Commission and increasing the of Backward Classes.
quantum of reservation for Backward  Green Revolution.
Classes to 31 percent from 25 percent 1989 - 1991
and for Scheduled Castes to 18  20 per cent separate reservation for
percent from 16 percent. Most Backward Classes including
 Free Education to all upto P.U.C.. Vanniar and Seer Marabinar.
 May Day declared as a Holiday with  18 per cent separate reservation for
wages. Scheduled Castes and 1 per cent for
 Birthday of “NabigalNayagam” Scheduled Tribes.
declared as a Holiday.  Free Education to Most Backward
1971 - 1976 Classes and subject to income ceiling
 First Agricultural University at to Backward Classes upto Degree level.
Coimbatore  Free Education to Scheduled Castes
 Family Benefit Fund Scheme to and subject to income ceiling to
Government Employees women upto Degree level.
 Confidential Reports on Government  Free Electricity to Farmers – First
servants abolished. time in the Country.
 Free Housing Scheme to  Law for equal property rights to women.
Fishermen.  30 per cent reservation for women in
 “KarunaiIllam” in Temples for Government services.
children.  First Veterinary and Animal Sciences
 Salem Steel Plant. University – First in Asia.
 Land Ceiling Act, fixing 15 standard  Financial Assistance to poor girls for
acres as the ceiling. marriages.
 Second Mine-Cut and Electricity  Financial Assistance to Widows for
Scheme at Neyveli. remarriages.
 Petroleum and Industrial Chemicals  Financial Assistance to encourage
at Thoothukudi. inter-caste marriages.
 Small Industries Development  Direct Paddy procurement centres.
Corporation (SIDCO).  Incentive and payment of cart-hire
 SIPCOT Complexes. charges for procurement from farmers.

 Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation  15 per cent reservation in professional

established. courses for rural students.
 Financial assistance to pregnant  Periyar Memorial Samathuvapuram
women. Scheme to eradicate caste
 Wage hike for Government employees discrimination.
on par with the Central Government  Mini Bus Scheme for Rural areas.
Employees with retrospective effect.  Dr.Ambedkar Law University – First
 Women’s Self-Help groups benefiting in India.
10 lakh women.  Periyar University in Salem.
 Manonmaniam Sundaranar  Tamil Virtual University to help world
University. Tamils.
 PavendharBharathidasan University.  Urdu Academy.
 Dr. M.G.R. Medical University.  Minorities Economic Development
 Efforts to set up Cauvery Tribunal. Corporation.
1996 - 2001  Chennai Film City named after MGR,
 Within six months after assuming by changing the name “J.J. Film
office, elections for local bodies and City”.
cooperatives.  Farmers Market Scheme.
 33 per cent reservation for women in  VarumunKappom.
local bodies – by which 44,143 women  Cattle Protection Scheme.
including 2 Women Mayors assumed  VazhvoliThittam in Schools.
office; of the two Women Mayors one  133 feet high Thiruvalluvar Statue in
belonged to SC community. Kanniyakumari.
 ‘Madras’ renamed as ‘Chennai’.  Tidel Park in Chennai.
 Single window system for admission  Computer Training Scheme for
in Engineering and Medical Government college students.
colleges.  Over two lakh families given house
 Transparent New Industrial Policy. sites in poramboke lands, where they
 Single window system for obtaining were living in houses constructed.
all licenses for starting industries.  Community Certificate, Nativity
 Improved roads, new bridges. Certificate, Income Certificate
 Concrete streets in villages. on completion of 10th and 12th
 Desilting of rivers, tanks and canals standards from the year 1999-2000.
in an unprecedented scale.  Scheme for grant of expenses of
 24 hour Primary Health Centres. higher education for first three rank
 For the first time in India, MLA holders in State and District levels
Constituency Development Fund. in the 10th and 12th standard
 Protected water for all villages. examinations from the year 1996.

 Bus Terminal at Koyambedu in  New Medical colleges at Vellore,

Chennai – Biggest in Asia. Tuticorin and Kanniyakumari
 Special Scheme for the economic districts.
development of Southern districts.  Tamil Virtual University.
 Women’s Small Trade Loan Scheme 2006 - 2011
with saving scheme.  1 Kg. of rice for 1 Rupee.
 Separate Welfare Board for  Distribution of palm oil, red gram,
agricultural labour. black gram, suji, maida and fortified
 Welfare Boards for wheat flour under Special Public
unorganisedlabour. Distribution system at subsidised
 Manimandapam for Tamil Scholars rates.
and martyrs.  10 items of provisions at Rs.50.
 Supply of eggs with nutritious meal.  Cooperative loan of Rs. 7,000 crores
 Construction of over 20 dams. waived to benefit 22 lakh 40 thousand
 New buildings for Collectorates in and 739 families of farmers.
nine districts.  No interest on crop loan to farmers
 For the first time Bench of High who repay on time.
Court at Madurai; Construction  Enhanced procurement rice at
of buildings for it and for courts in Rs.1050/- for common variety of
various districts. paddy and Rs.1100/- for fine variety
 Free bus passes for students. of paddy per quintal.
 Anna Marumalarchi Scheme.  Renewal of 117 old UzhavarSandhais
 NammakuNaame Scheme. and 45 new UzhavarSandhais.
 Indigent Family Welfare Scheme.  Rs.2000 per tonne of sugarcane,
 Rs.104 crore new buildings for including transport charges and
Chennal General Hospital. incentive to sugarcane farmers.
 Reappointment of 13,000 welfare  Linking of rivers within the State :
workers. Cauvery – Gundaru Linking Project
 For the first time 10,000 road workers taken up at a cost of Rs.189 crores.
appointed.  Tamirabarani – Karumeniyaru –
 Nationalisation of the works of Tamil Nambiyaru Linking Project taken up
scholars. at a cost of Rs.369 crores.
 Nine fly overs in Chennai.  UnorganisedLabour Welfare Boards
 350 electricity sub-stations (power) numbering 31 established, including
at Rs. 1500 crores. the Welfare Board for Agricultural
 Pension scheme for contract labour. labour and enrolment of 2 crore 2
 Pension Scheme for transport lakhs 21 thousand 564 members in
workers. the Welfare Boards.

 Disbursement of 616 crores 43  A new Medical Insurance Scheme for

lakhs 44 thousand and 832 rupees Government Servants for providing 2
as financial assistance to 13 lakhs lakhs worth of medical assistance in
6 thousand 492 members of the a period 4 years.
UnorganisedLabour Welfare Boards.  Under “VarumunKappomThittam”
 Free house-sites to 1 crore 58 lakhs 18 thousand 742 camps have been
8 thousand and 288 families. conducted so far, benefiting 77 lakhs
 Kamarajar Birthday celebrated as 5 thousand and 8 persons.
“Education Development Day” in all the  “NalamanaThamizhagamThittam” for
schools – A Special Legislation enacted. medical check-up to create awareness
 5 Eggs / Bananas per week with in regard to heart disease, diabetics
Nutritious Noon Meal. and cancer.
 Free Bus pass to 24 lakhs 82  Under Kalaignar Insurance Scheme,
thousand school students and 2 2 lakhs 70 thousand 265 poor people
lakhs 99 thousand college students have got their life-saving surgeries at
every year. a cost of Rs.702 crores.
 Common Entrance Examinations to  Free 108 Emergency Ambulance
Professional Courses scrapped. Scheme with the Central assistance has
 Tamil made a compulsory subject upto benefited 8 lakh 8 thousand 907 persons
10th Standard in all the schools. so far; Further, lives of 42 thousand 232
 Central Institute of Classical Tamil persons have been saved.
shifted to Chennai from Mysore.  25 MoUs have been signed for starting
 Kumbhabishekam and renovations 37 new industries on an investment of
works carried out in 4724 temples Rs.46,091crores, which would provide
at a cost of Rs.523 crores; during the employment opportunities to about 2
current year Kumbhabishekam 1100 lakh 52 thousand 569 persons.
temples at a cost of Rs.100 crores.  Monthly doles totaling Rs. 240 crores
 10,000 cycles on an estimate of have been disbursed so far to 3 lakh 5
Rs.277 lakhs, distributed to Archakas thousand 801 educated unemployed
and Poojaris free of cost. youth.
 MoovalurRamamirdhamAmmaiyar  New Employment to 4 lakhs 65 thousand
Financial Assistance for marriages of 658 youth in Government offices.
poor girls increased to Rs.25,000/-  Tidel Parks at Coimbatore, Trichy,
from Rs.10,000/-. Madurai and Tirunelveli.
 Financial Assistance of Rs.6000/-  Monthly Maintenance Grant of
disbursed to each of 20 lakh 11 Rs.200 increased to Rs.500 for 10
thousand 517 poor pregnant thousand differently abled persons,
women. who are severely affected.

 So far 4 lakhs 41 thousand 311 Self  With a view to create a casteless society,
Help Groups for Women have been 145 PeriyarNinaivuSamathuvapurams
formed; Loan assistance of Rs.6342 have already been established; 95 new
crores has been given to these SHGs Samathuvapurams are added.
so far.  World class Anna Centenary Memorial
 Basic infrastructural facilities have Library at Kotturpuram-Chennai at a
been created in 10 thousand 96 Village cost of Rs.171 crores.
Panchayats at a cost of Rs.2033  New Secretariat-Assembly Complex
crores, under “AnaithuGrama Anna in Omandurar Government Estate at
MarumalarchiThittam”. a cost of Rs.1200 crores.
 Basic infrastrutural facilities  Adyar Ecological Research Park
have been created in 420 Town established at a cost of Rs.100 crores.
Panchayats at a cost of Rs.210  “SemmozhiPoonga” in the heart of
crores, under “AnaithuPeruratchi Chennai City.
Anna MarumalarchiThittam”.  Desalination of Sea Water Project at
 Improvement and maintenance Minjur, North Chennai.
works have been carried out on 57  Desalination of Sear Water Project at
thousand 787 kilometer long roads Nemmeli, South Chennai.
at a cost of Rupees 12 thousand 94  Metro Rail Project at a cost of
crores. Rs.14,600crores with the assistance
 4,945 Kilometer long roads have of Japan Bank for International
been broadened and converted to Cooperation.
two-lane roads.  Hogenekkal Combined Water Supply
 Local Cess, Local Cess Surcharge and Scheme at a cost of Rs.1929 crores
water charges have been scrapped. with the assistance of Japan Bank
A notional tax of Rs.2 per acre of dry for International Cooperation.
lands and Rs.5 per acre of wet lands  Ramanathapuram – Paramakudi
levied as a mark of land-ownership. Combined Water Supply Scheme at a
 Without increase in tariff 12 cost of Rs.630 crores completed.
thousand 137 new buses plying on  TESMA and ESMA scrapped;
the roads; Further 300 new buses Concessions withdrawn from
being added. Government servants and teachers
 3 per cent separate reservation for have been given back to them;
Arunthathiyar Community. Recommendations of the 6th Pay
 Persons of any caste can become Commission have been implemented
Archakas in Temples – Legislation with effect from 1.1.2006, on an
enacted to establish an equitable annual expenditure of Rs.5,155.79
society. crores.

 Kalaignar Housing Schemes for  Equitable Education being

converting 21 lakh huts into concrete implemented.
houses in a period of 6 years.  One Man Commission has been
 Pension for Pressmen increased from appointed for fixing the fee structure
Rs.4000 to Rs.5000 and their family in private schools.
pension increased from Rs.2000 to  The cradle baby scheme
Rs.2500.  Thalikkuthangam
 First World Classical Tamil Conference  AmmaUnavagam
held at Coimbatore in June 2010.  Amma Scheme
 119 new Courts have been opened;  Thai Scheme
Rs. 302 crores allocated for providing  Amma Salt
infrastructural facilities in the Courts.  Amma Cement
 Action has been taken to reduce the  Amma water
pendency of cases, by establishing  Amma Laptop
Evening and Holiday Courts, as per  Amma Mobile
the recommendation of the 13th  Amma Pharmacies
Finance Commission.  Ammamixi and Grinder
 Anna Technical University at Trichy,  Amma Seeds
Madurai, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli  Uzhavar scheme
established.  Amma vegetable shop
 Rs. 331 crores allocated for filling  Amma Call Centre
11,307 teacher vacancies and 648
non-teacher vacancies in Government-
Aided Minorities Schools.
•••

Freedom Fighters in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu played a remarkable part He organized Coral mill Strike in the town
in the struggle for freedom in India. The near the sea shore that resulted in the increase
great leaders like Puli thevar, Kattabomman, of workers’ wages and reduction of working
Maruthu brothers, Velu Thambi played hours. In 1907, he attended the Congress
major role in the revolt. They were all noted sessions held at Surat; where the Congress
for their patriotism, courage, self respect and split into Moderates and Extremists. He
sacrifice. During the British rule, the great followed the millitant leader Bala Gangadhar
leaders, poets and the social reformers like Tilak and preached his philosophy. Charged
G.Subramania Iyer, V.O.chidambaram Pillai, with sedition, he was sentenced to forty years
Subramanya Baharathi, C.Rajagopalachari, of imprisonment. His right leg was chained
Periyar E.V.Ramasamy, Thiruppur Kumaran, and he was used as a bullock in pulling the oil
K.Kamaraj and many others had contributed press (chekku).
a lot towards the success of our freedom Subramaniya Siva
struggle. Subramaniya Siva was born
V.O.Chidambaram Pillai in Vathalagdundu in Dindugal
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai is district. He was afreedom fighter
remembered by the Tamils as and a creative writer. He was
Sekkilutta Semmal, Kappalotiya arrested many times between
Tamizhan. He was born in 1908 and 1922 for his anti-
Ottapidaram on September 5, imperialist activities. While
1872. He started his career as a serving his last prison term, he was affected by
lawyer at Tirunelveli. leprosy and was ordered to be shifted to Salem
He encouraged the formation of Trade jail. When Siva was unable to walk due to the
Guilds and Worker’s Association. He was the severity of disease, the British Government
founder of the Swadesi Dharma Sanga Weaving enacted a law for Siva, stating that leprosy
Association and Swadesi Co-operative Stores patient should not travel by rail. As a result of
at Tuticorin and Colombo. The Partition of this, Subramaniya Siva travelled the whole
Bengal in 1905 had drawn him into politics. length of Madras province on foot though his

whole body was covered with sores. Then he Vanchinathan

eventually died of the disease on 23rd July Vanchinathan was under the service of the
1925. State of Travancore. The activities of the
Subramanya Bharathiyar extremists greatly alarmed the British. The
Subramanya Bharathi was collector, Ashe, shot down and
born on Dec. 11, 1882 at killed four persons in
Ettayapuram in Tirunelveli Thirunelveli. So Vanchinathan
District. He worked as Tamil wanted to take revenge against
Teacher in 1904 at Madurai. the Collector. He secretly went
He also served as Assistant to Maniyachi Railway Station
Editor of Swadeshimithran and shot dead Ashe on 17th
in 1904. In 1907 , he became the editor of the June 1911, and he himself committed suicide.
Tamil weekly ‘India’. At the same time he also A letter was found in his pocket describing
edited the Enlish newspaper ‘Bala that the act of murder of collector Ashe was the
Bharatham’. first rehearsal to assassinate King George V
In Madras, in 1908, he organized a huge who was expected to Madras.
public meeting to celebrate ‘Swaraj Day’ Thiruppur Kumaran
His poems ‘Vande Matharam’, ‘Achamillai, Thiruppur Kumaran was born
Achamillai’, ‘Enthaiyum, Thayum’ Jaya on 1904, in Chennaimalai,
Bharatham were printed and distributed free Erode District in Tamilnadu.
to Tamil people. He was a great holding the flag
In 1908, he gave evidence in the case which of the Indian Nationalists.
had been instituted by the British agains Kumaran is revered as a martyr
‘Kappalotiya Thamizhan’, V.O.Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu, as is known by
Pillai. Hence, British ordered to arrest the epithet Kodi Kaththa Kumaran. The
Bharathi. Faced with the prospect of arrest, government has erected his statue in a park
Bharathi escaped to Pondicherry which was near the railway station in Thiruppur.
under the French rule. From there he edited S.Satyamurti
and published the dailies weekly and monthly. Satyamurti was a politician and
But the British banned them in India in 1909. patriot. He was the political
After the World War I, Bharathi entered mentor of K.Kamaraj.
British India near Cuddalore in November Rajagopalachari nominated
1918. He was arrested and released after the Satyamurti to succeed him as
three weeks in custody. Today, more than 90 the President of the Indian
years later Subramanya Bharathi stands an National Congress in Tamil Nadu in 1930. He
undying symbol not only of a vibrant Tamil served as Mayor of Madras in 1939, leading a
nationalism but also of the unity that is campaign to restore public education, improved
India. water supply and improve the life of the citizens.

S.Satyamurti was born in Tirumayyam, he introduced Prohibition, passed several laws

Madras presidency on August 19, 1887. He to uplift Adi Dravidar and other depressed
started practising as an advocate prior to classes. He also made Hindi as compulsory
his initiation in the National Movement. He subject but it was opposed by Periyar EVR.
plunged into politics at an early age and He resigned his Chief Ministership in 1939
eventually emerging as one of the foremost in protest against the use of Indian men and
protest the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and materials in the Second World war by the
the Rowlatt Act. British Government without their consent.
When Satyamurti became the Mayor of He became the first Indian Governor
Madras in 1939, the city was in the grip of an General of free India. In 1952 he formed the
acute water scarcity and it was left to him to ministry in Tamilnadu. During that time
impress upon the British Governor for building ministry he introduced ‘Kula Kalvi Thittam’.
Reservoir in poondi about 50 kms west of the But it was opposed by Kamaraj and Periyar
city to augment the water supply position. EVR and at last Rajaji resigned from Chief
The reservoir was commissioned by Kamaraj Ministership in 1954. Later he resigned form
and named it as Satayamurti Sahar. To honour Congress and founded Swatandra party in
this great man, the Headquarters of the Tamil 1959. Rajaji wrote many books. He wrote
Nadu Congress Committee was named after Sakkravarthi Thirumagal, Vyassar Virundu
him as, Satyamurti Bhavan. and commentaries on Gita and Upanisad.
He participated in the Swadeshi Movement In 1955, he was awarded ‘Bharat Ratna’. He
and Quit India Movement and imprisoned died on Dec 25, 1972. He was often referred as
for several times. He was a highly regarded ‘Chanakya’ for his diplomatic skills.
politician of rare abilities, who had dedicated K.Kamaraj
his life to bring freedom and justice to the Kamaraj was born on July
people. He passed away on 28th March 1943. 15th 1903 at Virudupatti now
C.Rajagopalachari known as taking part in Vaikam
National Congress and Sathyagraha in 1924. He
participated in the Calcutta enrolled himself as a full time
session in 1906. He became the worker of the Congress party
staunch follower of Gandhiji. in 1929.
He participated in the Surat When Gandhiji announced Salt Sathyagraha
session in 1907. In 1930, he broke he participated in the Vedaranyam march
the salt laws at Vedaranyam. along with C.Rajagopalachari in 1930. He
He started his March to Vedaranyam from was arrested and imprisoned for two years in
Thiruchirapalli with hundreds of volunteers Alipore jail. As a result of Gandhi Irwin Pact of
to break salt laws. He won the 1937 provincial 1931 he was released.
elections and became the Chief Minister of In 1940, he went to Wardha to meet Gandhiji
Madras Presidency. During his administration to get approval for the list of Sathyagrahis.

But he was arrested and sent to Vellore jail. as one of the foremost speakers of those days.
Because of his active participation in Quit When Anna joined the Justice Party he had the
India Movement in 1942 he was arrested and privilege of working under the leadership of
sentenced to three years in the Amaravathi Periyar E.V.Ramasamy. The party provided
prison. He hoisted the Indian National flag in the right platform for him and so he joined the
Satyamurti’s house in 1947. self respect movement which was started for
He served as the Chief Minister of Tamil the elimination of social inequalities.
Nadu for nine years and introduced various In the Anti-Hindi conference organized
welfare measures like opening of new schools, by Periyar at Kanjeewaram Anna quoted that
free education, mid-day meals scheme, Hindi could never take the place of Tamil and
construction of dams and canals etc.. He was make any road in well settled Tamil culture.
widely acknowledged as ‘King Maker’, as he In the Salem Conference of 1944, Anna
made Lal Bahadur Sastri as the Prime minister brought a resolution for changing the name
of India in 1964 and Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1966 of Justice Party as Dravidar Kazhagam and
after the death of Sastri. He died on October became very close to Periyar. The marriage of
2nd 1975. Kamaraj was famous for his policy Periyar with Maniammai in 1947 gave severe
known as ‘K’ Plan. He was affectionately called blow to the party men. A new party called
by the people as ‘Perum Thalaivar’ means Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam was formed on
‘Great Leader’. 17th September 1949 Anna and principles of
Thus Tamil Nadu played a vital role in the the Party. He became the General Secretary of
freedom struggle of our Country. the Party.
C.N.Annadurai In the election of 1967, his Party got victory
C.N.Annadurai, who was and Anna became the Chief Minister of Tamil
affectionately called as Nadu in 1967. He introduced the scheme of 1 kg
‘Peraringnar Anna’ by the rice for Re.1. Due to financial strain he was not
people of Tamil Nadu was born able to promulgate this system all over Tamil
on 15th September. 1909 at Nadu. He also introduced Tamil Language
Kancheepuram. He had his Development Scheme.
M.A., in the Pachaiyappa’s In 1967, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu
College, Madras. He was the founder of the announced, the first day of Chittirai as Tamil
“Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam”. New Year day. Government under the
Anna’s inception into politics was through leadership of Anna changed the official name
the Justice Party. The desire to work for social of the state from ‘Madras’ to ‘Tamizhaga
cause made him to join the Justice Party. Arasu’ or ‘Tamizhagam’. On 16th April in the
Anna chose the Justice Party to work for the Seretariat in Fort St. George, the Chief Minister
establishment of a casteless and classless Anna ceremoniously switched on neon light in
society. the form of State Emblem-a Temple Gopuram,
Anna was a good orator. He was recognised above the words ‘Tamizhaga Arasu Talaimai

Cheyalagam’. At the same day he announced She was personally praised by Gandhiji
that the national motto ‘satyameva Jayate’ for her active propaganda against Devadasi
would hence for the appear as ‘Vaimaye system.
Vellum’ and that Sanskrit forms of address Appreciating her role in the agitation against
Sri/Srimathi/Kumari would replace the Tamil Devadasi system she was nominated to the
forms of Thiru/Thirumathi/Selvi. Tamil Nadu Legislative Council in 1929. She
He was conferred Doctorate by Annamalai was Vehemently supported in her efforts by
University in 1968. He passed away on 3rd Thiru.V.Kalyana Sundaranar and Periyar. As a
February 1969. result the Justice party Government enacted a
Contribution of women Leaders for law abolishing Devadasi System.
Social reformation In 1930, she organized All india Women
Reformation refers to eradication of some social conference at Pune. She was the President
practices which are deep rooted in the society for of Indian Women Association from 1933
to achieve the above not only men but also women to 1947. She also started Avvai Illam and
have contributed a lot. Among the women orphanage the Santhome in Madras. (Now at
reformers some of them are worth mentioning. Adyar). Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy, through
Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy her dedicated and entering work proved the
Tamil Nadu was the forerunner world, hardwork never fails. She passed away
in the transformation of society. in 1968 at the age of 82.
In the great cultured heritage Dr.S.Dharmambal
of Tamil Nadu there are some Many people became famous
black spots often formed and not because of wealth, power,
removed. One such a black spot education and status but
was ‘Devadasi’ system. One of the important because of their dedication. One
leaders who fought vigorously against this such a reformer who proved
system was Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy. that service to the people could
Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy was born on 30th be done through humanity and
July, 1886 in Pudukottai. She was the first goodwill was Dr.S.Dharmambal.
woman in India to get a degree in medicine. In She had the instrict of social service, she
1923 her sister died of cancer. On that day she studied Siddha medicine and started a hospital
took a vow to eradicate cancer. So she started in Chennai. Later she entered into the public
Cancer Relief Hospital in 1949. The Cancer service Dr.Dharmambal was born at great
Institute at Adyar was started due to her good interest in implementing widow remarriage,
efforts. intercaste marriage and women education.
She was not only interested in medicine also She had also great interest in the
in politics and social reforms. She dedicated development of Tamil literature and Tamil
herself to the cause for removing the cruel music. She participated in the Hindi agitation
practice Devadasi system from Tamil Nadu. programme and went to jail many times. Till

1940 the Tamil teachers had no due recognition caste.

in the society. They were not paid equal On seeing this attrocities and cruelties,
salary like other teachers. So she started an Moovalur Ramamirdham decided to fight for
agitation called ‘Elavu varam’. As a result the their emancipation.
Educational Minister Thiru. Avinasilingam She travelled all over the country and spoke
Chettiar announced equal pay to Tamil teachers about the miseries of her own girls and won
like other teachers. the support of many leaders.
To make the students improve their She joined the Indian National Party and
knowledge in Tamil and to score good marks organized the conference of Isai Vellalar at
in Tamil “Chennai Manavar Mandram” was Mayiladudurai in 1925. This conference was
established. She was the President of this attended by many great leaders like Thiru.
association for more than 10 years. Vi.Ka.Periyar. S.Ramanathan and Mayuramani
Appreciating her service to Tamil language Chinnaiah Pillai who raised slogans against
and literature she was conferred the title “Veera the cruel practice of Devadhasis. As a result
Tamilannai”. She gave the title “Periyar” to the Government passed “Dr.Muthulakshmi
E.V.Ramasamy Naicker and “Ealisai Mannar” Devadasi Abolition Act”.
to M.K.Thiyagaraja Bagavathar. Along with the social work she actively
The great woman who sacrificed and involved in the National Movement. She
dedicated her whole life for the Tamil people, inspired women to take part in the National
Tamil language and Tamil literature was died movement on a large scale. With the continuous
in 1959 at the age of 69. moral support by Rajaji, Periyar and Thiru.
Moovalur Ramamirdham Vi.Ka, she brought awareness against Devadasi
Most of the women system and national awakening among the
revolutionaries of the early people of Tamilnadu especially on women.
twentieth century dedicated In her memory, the Government of
themselves to the cause of Tamil Nadu has instituted the “Moovalur
freedom of our nation. Only a Ramamirtham Ammal Ninaivu Marriage
few revolutionaries alone Assistance scheme”
fought for the causes of both After seeing her dream become true. She
freedom and social Moovalur, a village near passed away on 27th June 1962.
Mayiladudurai. Hence she was commonly The tradition bound Tamil society was still
known as Moovalur Ramamirdham clinging to the old values. The widows were
Ammaiyar. still forbidden from participating in auspicious
She belonged to Isai vellalar caste. In olden and social functions, Inspite of the fact that
days girls belonging to this particular caste the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in
were sacrificed to temples to do service to God. 1856. The forward and progressive social
Later they were ill-treated and humiliated by policies adopted by the justice Party and the
the landlords and zamindars in the name of Self Respect Movement in the 20th century

supported by legislative measures, led to the illustration.

acceptance of the widow remarriage concept Temples were once the monopoly of the
in Tamil Nadu. The abolition of sati and upper caste where as the low caste people
the acceptance of an widow remarriage and were denied the right to enter the temple.
the steps to prevent child marriages were Many social reformers like E.V.Ramasamy,
note worthy landmarks in the history of Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy, Vallalar, Bharathi,
Tamilnadu. Bharathidasan, Moovalur Ramamirthammal,
Caste inequality was another significant Dr.S.Dharmambal fought for the eradication of
shot coming of the Tamil Society. Temple these social evils. Thus women also contributed
Entry Movement could be cited as a suitable a lot for the social transformation in Tamil Nadu.
•••

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History & Culture of India

The Sangam and the two epics – Silappathigaram and

Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were Political History

Sangam Polity The people living in these five divisions

The Geographical Thinais and sandalwood. In this region millet grows

Bhakthi movement (Muzhauu) were used in such performances.

outstanding specimens of Chola architecture. Tamil’s versatile achievements. Kaniyans were

Hieun Tsang: Hieun Tsang visited

The Cholas as Cholamandalam. He defeated Gangas and

He had very close relationship with Srivijaya and Revenue

The Pandya Empire Maravarman, Rajasimha-I, Varaguna-I and

Rajendra-III some of the territories which he Local self Government

Structural temples were constructed by the

VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE  The copper plate inscriptions such

Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Economic Condition

of Vijayanagar. They were continued by

temple and Vittalaswamy temple are fine

Vittasaswami Temple: Vittalaswami

The Nayak Rule in Tamil

veli of land to the Mulavur Temple. He repaired Maninagapuram

The Rule of the Marathas

Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai invaded Serfoji I

ADVENT OF THE EUROPEAN

The three important trade routes Coast.Through Persia and Syria

First Governor-General of India -William Bentinck

 The Sea route passing through the  Prince Henry of Portugal

were also closed as a result of the He reached port of Calicut on 17

discover a new sea route to India

school for training sea men on

 Cochin (1502) was the early (Salsette and Bassein in 1739),

(1535).  Dutch United East India Company

 Portuguese acquired Daman in was formed in 1602 AD

during the reign of Shahjahan. established factories in India at

 In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Masulipatnam in 1605, Pulicat

Bombay to Charles II of England (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatnam

as dowry, for marrying his sister. (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura,

 tin Alfonso de Souza (1542 – 45). Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore,

 Gradually almost all of their Nagapatnam and Cochin.

territories were lost to Marathas

 They replaced the Portuguese as

 In 1690, Job Charnock,

 The factory at Sutanati was reign of Louis XIV.

in 1700. established at Surat by Francois

 In 1717, John Surman obtained Caron in 1668, later Maracara

royal firman from Mughal setup a factory at Masulipatnam

emperor Farrukhsiyar. This in 1669.

Carta of the British rule in India Karaikal.

as it gave large concessions to the  A small village was acquired from

company. the Muslim governor of

The First Muslim President of India- Dr. Zakir Hussain

The Advent of the Europeans

The first Indian to join the ICS- SatyendraNath Tagore

THE RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES

Omichand – a rich merchant of Mir Qasim (1760 – 63)

AWADH (1722 – 1856)  Saadat Ali signed subsidiary treaty

The first Field Marshal of India- SHFJ Maneskshaw

Nasir Jung (1748 – 50) merging of Hyderabad with the

throne in 1752. Lord Wellesley Mysore. He established a modern

Guru Teg Bahadur Lahore in 1799 and made it his

The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India- General

Fort William. Black hole tragedy merchant Jagat Seth, banker

(administration) was with the  Outbreak of hostilities between

Battle of Changana Colonel Smith Indecisive