Manufacturing High Quality Worsted Knitting Yarns INDEX 1, Introduction 3 2. Physical and mechanical characteristics of textile fibres 5 21 Fibre fineness 5 2.2 Fibre Length 9 2.3 Fibre density or specific weight u 2.4 Fibre tenacity or resistance to breaking ul 25 Fibre Extension u 26 Fibre Crimp 1 27 Fibre regain 12 28 Fibre surface properties 13 | 29 — Static Electricity ise S | 2.10 Total fatty Matter 4 | 3. Some Terms and Definitions 16 1 3.1 Yarn Count 16 | 3.2 Twist 16 | 3.3 Draft and drafting 12 3.4 Evenness (Mass Irregularity) 13 3.5 Shrink resist treatment of wool 17 4. Greasy or Shorn Wool and its properties 18 5. Conversion of Greasy (Shorn) Wool to Combed Fibre (Top) 19 6. Properties, Specification and Testing of Wool Top 22 7. Processes in Converting Combed Wool (Top) to Yarn 23 7.1 Recombing . 23 7.2 Drawing 24 7.3 Roving 27 8. Spinning, Winding and twisting 28 8.1 Spinning 28 82 Yarn relaxation 298.3 Special considerations for Spinning fine (60Nm) and 31 very fine (100Nm) yarns: 8.4. Winding and Yarn Fault removal of Spinning Bobbins 31 8.5 Removal of yarn faults 33 8.6 Factors affecting hairiness of worsted spun yarns 34 8.7 Assembly Winding 36 88 twisting 36 8.9 Waxing yarn 37 8.10 Yarn conditioning and packaging 38 9Practical Considerations in Testing, Quality Control and Problem 39 Solving 9.1 Fineness or fibre Diameter - average and distribution. 39 9.2 Fibre Length 40 9.3 Dark Fibre 42 9.4 Total Fatty Matter (TFM) 42 9.5 Neps 42 9.6 Regain 4B 9.7 Yarn Specification 44 10.Considerations ii 46 11, Numbers of fitres ‘ the yora cross section 48 12.References 49 P50 to 58 ( Figs i to 7 - copied from the original report and need formatting consideration)1. Introduction ‘The successful production of quality worsted all wool machine knitting yams relies on a number of important factors: Judicious raw material selection . Selection of suitable processing sequence and conditions. Strict application of quality and process control measures . The textile designer generates fabrics with a range of appeal, tactile and functional properties, and texture. A number of these properties come directly from the properties of the fibre and in turn that of the textile yam. In making hundreds if not thousands of metres of a particular fabric, it is imperative that the properties designed into the fabric must not vary outside agreed tolerances and are not to vary irregularly throughout the fabric length and therefore in the final garments. For medium fine wool yarns for knitwear, the yarns are largely produced by the worsted system of yarn manufacture. For detailed description of both this system and of other systems of yarn manufacturing suited to wool, such as woolen and semi-worsted, refer to the AWI publication, "Worsted Spinning Manual", 2013. The worsted system is differentiated from the other systems by the inclusion of a combing step. Combing, also referred to as “Top Making’ or “early stage processing” is generally carried out independent of the spinning process, The combed material or top is the feed stock for the yam manufacturing or spinning department. Worsted yarns are finer, more regular and smoother than yarn from the alternative two wool manufacturing systems. The individual operations which can make up the step from top to weaving yarn are given below in Figure 1. Note also that in the worsted process, colouring of the material can be achieved as early as dyeing the fibre when in top. This stage of colouring allows creative mixes if colour to be achieved. The material can also be coloured in yarn or as fabric. ‘Once the yarn has been spun, further questions need to be addressed by the spinner to best serve his customer. There are questions such as: What types of yarn packages are needed? Which type of shipping container is best? How should it be transported? What method should be used for identification and storage? These questions along with many other raised in both this manual and the spinning manual referred to above, need to be discussed and agreed with the customer. Consistent follow up with the customer ensures a good business relationship with assurance of quality.Top to Yarn (for weaving yarn pure wool) Ecru Tops Top Dye Route Ecru/Yarn Dye Route Dye Blend (2 pass) v v Hyco Recomb DryBackwash Drawing (4/6 pass) v v Bien (2 pass) Roving v Recomb Spinning v v Drawing (46 pes Wind/Clear Roving Steamset v Spinning v Singles 2 Fold whee Yarn Yarn Steamset (Wing) Assembly Wind Weft Yam Singles 2Fold Cone Twist Yarn Yarn v v Steam (Wind) Assesmbly Wind v (Wind) | Weft Yarn Twist v Cone Vv Yarn Dye Route <— WarpWeft Steam v Yarn Cone Yam Dye ' Wind v Hydro Warp/Weft Yarn Cone v Ory v Rewind Warpiwett Fig 1. - Processes from Top to Yarn in weaving yarn manufacturePhysical and mechanical characteristics of wool fibres and selction of raw materials, Although there are many vertical processors who produce their own tops from greasy wool blends for their own spinning plants, the majority of worsted spinners do not have any topmaking facilities, The selection of raw material for these spinners then becomes a matter of obtaining wool tops which meet with agiven set of top specifications. Examples for setting up these specifications are discussed below. Fibre characteristics vary from one wool type to another, and this fact determines the choice of process route and type of machinery used. Therefore, it is extremely important to know these characteristics of the fibre very well. The main physical and mechanical characteristics are: 2.1 Fibre fineness i.e, fibre thickness, Historically it was common to describe wool qualities by its "grade", such as 54's, 64's, 70's, etc, Originally, the quality of a wool was given a grade by an experienced wool sorter and would be his estimate of the finest yarn that could be satisfactorily spun from this wool on the worsted spinning machinery available at the time. A given set of wool qualities tended at one time to be internal to a particular firm or group of firms, but with the development of fibre measurement techniques, a number of semi-official scales of quality related to fibre diameter emerged between 1930 ond 1950, all differing to a greater or lesser extent. Asa consequence of the resulting confusion, the International Wool Textile Organisation passed a resolution deprecating the Publication of these scales and urging their withdrawal, Thus no official international wool quality scale has ever existed, and with the increasing use of instrumental measurement and specification (fibre diameter, length, yield, etc.) the need for such a scale has all but disappeared, It is for this reason that spinners now describe the wool quality primarily by its average fibre diameter, supplemented by its length characteristics, and colours, ete. Wool as a textile fibre suffers from two important disadvantages relative to its competitors. Firstly it is relatively coarse, and secondly it is relatively weak. While the past decade or so has seen the Australian clip trend finer by approximately 1 micron, even the finer sectors of the clip remain somewhat coarser than their competitors, cotton and man-made fibres, both typically having fibre diameters closer to 10 to 15micron. The major drivers for wool to become finer and to a lesser extent, stronger, have been: 1. the trend for lighter fabric weights in the latter part of the last century. This has been driven by both the reducing need for clothing to protect and insulate from the external environment and the changing fashion trends. 2. The need for the wool fibre to be more flexible than previously in the range of end product applications, e.g. next to skin garments, and softer fabrics. Both these trends require fibres of reduced fibre diameter. 3. the move to higher processing speeds and the associated demand for higher labour productivity. All are likely to be irreversible. iDue to these demands woo! fibre diameter continues to be the most important characteristic from the point of view of both quality and commercial value and the Australian woolgrower has followed these demands, Table1, of the industry by breeding for and producing finer wools supplies for his customer,Table 1. Changes in Fibre Diameter of Australian Merino Wool Supply - mkg Fibre Diam, (micron) 1992/03| 2005/06 «19.0 >19.1 «22.0 2224 Compared to its competitors, wool is « relatively coarse fibre, see Table 2, and like cotton has a high variation in fibre diameter. The jatter only becomes important if the spread of diameters is too broad for the end-use, ¢.9. a high proportion of coarse fibres may be suitable for a heavy knit sweater but not for @ next to skin garment. Table 2. Wool Fibre Diameter - comparison with other fibres SYNTHETIC Typical Fibre Diameters 8 to 22 Coeff. of Variation, % 5108 Unlike worsted all wool weaving yarns, where the majority of them are spun to their count limits (ie. approximately 40 fibres per singles cross-section), machine knitting yarns, particularly those aiming for outerwear, are spun to meet a given specified product requirements, such as handle, softness and appearance, etc. The principle of using formula (1) is to seek the approximate yarn count for a given micron that does not necessarily apply for machine knitting yarns.Yam count (tex) = 0,0436 x fibre micron2 1) However, providing one is aware of the fact that this approximate relationship describes the "finest" yarn count one may be able to produce froma given micron, then misuse of this formula will not occur. Tt is instructive to look back at examples of the average fibre diameter employed in the production of different machine knitting yarn counts that existed a mere 20 to 30 years ago Table 3 shows the average fibre diameter of the tops commonly used for producing different two-fold machine knitting yarn counts at that time: Table 3: Common Top Diameter for Different Two-Fold Machine Knit Yarn Counts Yarn Count (Nm)] Fibre Diametr (micron) in the top 20/2 28/2 36/2 _ It is therefore quite cbvicus rnat especially for the medium to coarse counts, often the yarns are not limit spun. In the last 20 to 30 years there has been a significant change in the relation of fibre diameter to yarn count with finer wools often being used across the yarn count range as demands for softness and comfort from retailers and customers mean the introduction of finer fibres across the product range. Worldwide, over 60% of the machine knitting yarn production, Fig 1, (see page ) is concentrated in the count range between 24/2 to 36/2 Nm. Although folded yarns are sometimes used in heavier double jersey fabrics production on coarse gauge machines, the majority of double jersey yarns are knitted as singles with the most popular counts being in the region of 36/1 Nm. Fibre diameter can be expressed in two different ways: a) By diameter expressed in microns: 1 micron = 1/1000th mm. The representative symbol isu. b) by count or linear density in denier or dtex: the count in denier expresses the weight in grams of a length of 9,000 m, the count in dtex expresses the weight in grams of a length of 10.000 m. Typically, for wools destined for the worsted system, 18 to 24 micron (3.3dtex to 5.8dtex) wools are selected. The very finest wools can be as low as 11.5micron (1.3dtex) in average fibre diameter, but are exceptionally expensive and only used in the highest end fashion items.2.2 Fibre Diameter Distribution Theoretically, the fibre diameter distribution in the top can affect the number of imperfections in the yarns, For the same average diameter, a top which has a higher coefficient of variation (CV%) in fibre diameter may result in a more irregular yarn and produce more thin places. This is because the variation in fibre diameter is an extra source of variability which will contribute to the total variability of the linear density of the yarn, However, the actual effect of fibre diameter distribution in the top on yarn irregularity is not significant in practical terms. For example, a yarn with 40 fibres per cross-section requires a variation of 6 to 8% (absolute) in the CV of the fibre diameter distribution to ef fect a change of 1% (absolute) in the yarn CV. According to the experiences of Uster, the difference in yarn evenness becomes visually detectable when the CV of the two yarns differ by 2%. Having said that, there is c guideline for the expected CV% of fibre diameter for average top diameter, which is shown in Figure 2. °2°< » ) Of greater importance is pr10mm Acceptable up to 3 to 6 per 1009 3mm-10mm Acceptable up to _10 to 20_ per 1009 152.12 Coloured Fibre ‘Among all the different generic types of contaminant found in a woo! top sliver, coloured fibres probably occupy a unique position as their levels can be absolutely critical for certain end uses, such as underwear, bleached whites, pastel and light shades; while in some other cases, their presence, even in relatively large numbers, may be tolerated. Traditionally, the test method described in TWTO-24-73, based on the Toennisoenn (or similar instrument) has always been used to quantify this parameter. The major difficulty however, is that there has not been any standardisation of the various levels of darkness. At the same time, it also appears that some standardisation of the different coloured fibre length classes is perhaps required. Given these industrial requirements, a separate test method exclusively designed for quantifying coloured fibre contaminants is now under preparation (IWTO(E)-13-88). At present, the trend in Europe is towards an upper limit of 10 "dark" fibres per 100 gm of top sliver, based on the results obtained from the Toennisoenn type machine. Note that for a hosiery top, a more stringent threshold may be necessary because, unlike woven cloth, it is extremely difficult to mend or burla knitted fabric. 2.13 Total fatty Matter Wool tops when delivered to the spinners are expected to contain 0.5-0.9% dichloromethane extractables. Even more important than the actual Fatt fatty substance. To facilitate efficient processing ot gilling for recombing, an effective anti-static agent should form part of the fatty substance. This is particularly recommended in view of the fact that many mills do not have sufficient space or proper storage room for conditioning the wool before it is processed. matter content in the top is the composition of the .» eaty stages of drawing, such as blending and preparer Tt is important to have in place specification documents to protect the buyer against faulty material, This is especially true for wool as it is a relatively expensive material and a well specified acceptance/rejection data sheet protects the customer from unprotected variations in supply. In summary it is apparent that measurement then is central to the trading relationship between combing plant and spinner. The properties to be specified, the average value, and the tolerance specific to each property need to be agreed to between the two parties.3. Other Useful Terms and Definitions 3.1 Yarn Count: is the linear density of the yarn. This may be expressed as mass/unit length or length/unit mass, Traditionally there are many different systems in use but over the years, two or three important systems have been adopted in the worsted yarn trade. The most common is the metric system, Nm. Nm = the number of kms which counterbalance 1kg. The higher the number, the finer the yarn Examples: Nm 8 is relatively coarse Nm 80 is very fine A second system is the ISO recommended Tex system. It is the number of gms to counterbalance 1,000m (1Km) of yarn or the number of gms in 1m of sliver. The higher the number the coarser or heavier the yarn or sliver. Examples: 8 tex is avery fine yarn 80 tex is a coarse yarn 25g/m is often the linear density of a top. Finally, the traditional count system, now little used, but frequently enough to sometimes causes confusion is the Worsted system, Nw. The number is the number of hanks of yarn, each 560yards in length; it takes to counterbalance one English pound (453g). The higher the number the finer the yarn. Nm = 1000/tex Nw = 886/tex 3.2 Twist: is the amount of twist inserted in a textile strand over a specific length. Most often, the number of turns per metre, tpm, is used. Tf tpm only is used, it becomes confusing to communicate if the yarn is softer or harder due to twist as the yarn count changes. To allow sensible comparison across different yarn counts, both yarn count, Nm, and twist, tpm, are combined into a single index. This index is referred to as the Twist Constant or Twist Alpha, and = tpm x J Nm. Typically ranges for the spinning alpha are from 75 for soft knits to 125 for singles weaving, The twist can be inserted in either the clockwise (S-twist) or anticlockwise (Z-twist) direction, The final direction is of significance for the appearance of the finished goods. 3.3 Draft and drafting: is the mechanism by which textile strands are reduced in mass/length. To achieve this attenuation or drawing out of the strand, a twin set of rollers is used. The fibre strand is fed to the first set of rollers, moving at a surface speed, SF, and then to a second set of rollers moving at a higher speed, SD, which deliver a strand of fibres reduced in mass/unit length by an amount equal to the speed ratio, SD/SF. This speed ratio is known as the “draft” of the system. Of course if the roller pairs are set to close to each other, fibres will be broken. Usually the distance between the roll pairs (often known as the nip distance) is set wider than the maximum fibre length to exclude unwanted fibre breakage. To improve the control of fibre movements in the zone between the roll pairs, a control mechanism of some sort is introduced to ensure uniform fibre movement takes place (see page 25 of this manual for a more detailed explanation of this phenomenon).3.4 Evenness (Mass Irregularity) As the machinery and in particular the drafting control systems in yarn production are not nearly perfect, we need to measure the variations in the mass per unit length of slivers, rovings ‘and yarns to understand how effective we are being in manufacturing an acceptable yarn. For this purpose, a device commonly known in the worsted business as an Uster Tester is used. This instrument uses a capacitive method of measuring principle to indicate the percentage Coefficient of Variation in mass irregularity. Sometimes the percentage mean deviation, U%, a less robust statistic, is used for the measurement. CV approximately equals 1.25U%. These statistics are the average unevenness which depends on the count and the fibre diameter ‘and the number of drawing passages. Uster provide a set of guidelines for reference for a wide range of materials and spinning systems. For yarns, other parameters are available from the instrument. These are the so-called Imperfection Count or IPI, the Spectrograph and the yarn hairiness index. The IPI is made up of the frequency of thick, thin and nep like faults in the yarn. The fault numbers are given in number/km which oversteps the following sensitivity settings. Thin places = -50% of the test yarn thickness Thick places = +50% of test yarn thickness Neps = +200% of test yarn thickness Due to a lack of maintenance, incor tings by the operators, or accidental cause, regularly occurring faults can be found in the material These faults can be often recognised by their periodic frequency. Such faulty muterio! can analysed by spectrographic analysis of the mixture of wavelengths in mass occurring in * nal from the Uster instrument and the periodic fault detected and reported. The output aszigns a length to the fault. The output is known as a spectrogram. From this information the defective part con be detected. A few careful steps are useful in localising the defects indicated on a spectrogram: o Examine the spectrogram and determine if the defect is mechanical (single wavelength) or produced by a draft wave (several wavelengths). o Determine if the defect is produced by the draft or after the draft. This can be done by use of the draft distribution. If unsure, alter the draft and determine if the wavelength changes. If it moves, search at the feed or previous machine, Tf the wavelength remains unaltered, search at the delivery (front draft cylinder, coiler, can, delivery tension belt) © Check belt/ chain tensions, A small issue may be accentuated by to tight a tension. © It is recommended an analysis sheet for records be kept in the QC department. The working sheet should contain the following: Material details; machine details/date along with a record of the Spectrogram code/ doublings/ load/creel tension/ autoleveller tension/ feed tension/draft/deliv. Tension/ deliv. Weight/ deliv speed/ feed guide width/ nip distance/ roll height/ Uster results/ Observations. 35 Shrink- resist treated wool This is the special treatment of wool to avoid shrinkage of the garment during use. Refer to IWS Training Course Manual - No 1 - The Continuous Shrink proofing of Wool Tops ~ February 1996,4, Greasy or Shorn Wool and its properties The wool fibre is the product of sheep. The length, strength, colour and diameter of the fibres produced vary according to the breed of sheep and the growing conditions. Fine, or wools of a lower fibre diameter, are used in high quality woven and knitted fabrics while coarser wools tend to be used in carpets, rugs and blankets. As sheep run in pastures, greasy wool contains some amount of foreign matter and impurities that must be removed from the wool during processing. These impurities can represent up 50% of the weight of the shorn fleece. ‘These impurities are: - Grease, 8 to 20%, is largely removed during washing or scouring of the wool in warm water and detergents. ~~ suint, 10 to 15%, are produced from the sheeps sweat, consists of potassium and sodium salts and are soluble in cold water = Sand, dust, and dirt, in various proportions are removed in opening, scouring, and carding. - Burrs, seeds and straws - in various proportions, 0 to 20% are removed in carding and combing to ensure none reach the finished fabric.5, Conversion of Greasy (Shorn) Wool to Combed Fibre (Top) Tt is impossible to isolate product quality from the condition under which the material is processed, Given the most ideal raw material, poor yarn and fabric quality will still be the result if the material is mistreated during preparation. The object of this section is to highlight those areas in processing which can affect the running performance of the material and the quality of the product. 5.1 Conditioning of Wool Before Processing The minimum ambient atmospheric condition for efficient wool processing is 20-22°C and 65- 70% relative humidity. Under this condition, the equilibrium regain of wool is around 16- 17%. Ideally, wool tops should be conditioned in this atmosphere for at least 24 hours before processing, It is common to find that mills have facilities to warm the air but not to cool i This results in better temperature control in winter than in summer. One way to get round this problem is to increase the relative humidity of the processing room to meet the regain requirement. Table 6 shows the combined effect of relative humidity and temperature on the average wool regain. Table 6: Relation between Regain and Relative Humidity for 100% Wool Temperature 514 1 | 16.1 14-22 13.7| 14.7) 15:7| 168 23-31 134| 143| 153] 164 32-40 13.1 | 140| 150| 16.0 ‘As mentioned before, many mills do not have sufficient space for conditioning wool tops before they are processed. The decision to condition wool in the store room however, should not be taken too lightly. This is because it is difficult to control the atmosphere ina store room uniformly over a whole area. Places near the floor or comer are likely to have high humidities due to lack of air movement. When the relative humidity of these isolated areas exceeds 85%, mildew formation becomes more likely, and more so for higher temperatures. For this reason, relative humidity in stores should not exceed 55% and that temperature be kept as low and as uniform as possible. Additionally forced air convenction is needed if the moisture is to penetrate the inner layers of the tightly wound tops in a reasonable time frame. All of these factors need to be balanced and considered. 5.2 Conditioning of Wool During Processing Wool tops not properly conditioned before processing or not containing an efficient anti-static processing aid already are likely to cause lapping problems at the first stage of gilling. Thelikelihood of this happening is less for old slow gill boxes such as the open gill type, and greater for modern high speed gill boxes such as the chain driven type. To improve the processing performance of unconditioned wool at the first stage, a mixture of lubricant, “antistat" and water may be added via an air assisted spray on the creel with the sliver ends preferably fed on the creel ina sandwich form. In order to work out the amount of water which needs to be added, the regain of the wool should measured. The WIRA Rapid Regain Monitor or instrument of similar design is ideal for this purpose. Note that the ceiling add-on figures by weight of wool should no be higher than 2-3% to avoid lapping on the fallers due to excessive wetness and poor distribution. Adding processing aids at the output of the gill as an alternative when processing completely unconditioned material may be possible only when the gill box is running at a very slow speed. However, this restriction does not apply to tops which have already been properly conditioned or contain an effective antistat before gilling. ‘When choosing a suitable anti-static agent, one should pay attention to the following: (@) Tonic Nature - non-ionic and/or anionic preferred readily soluble in (b) cold water © Solubility Viscosity low viscosity and foaming properties @ Stability remain stable in prepared solution form even in hard water no separation, increase in viscosity, gel or discolour resistant to oxidation, anti-bacteria and non- srnining after application totclly compatible with the other processing aids 4 have. been or will be added, (€) Compatibit An ef fective anti-static agent does not need to be added in large quantity to become effective. A typical add-on level will be around 0.1-0.2% active. If the wool is to be recombed, then a further small dose of around 0.1% may be needed at the first drawing passage. If the wool does not require recombing, then further addition should not be necessary, providing the “anti-stat" is powerful enough. Given that, one should attempt to take a flexible approach towards the issue in terms of the amount of processing aid which need to be added at whichever position. For instance, in a plant where ideal ambient condition cannot be achieved, processing aids may need to be applied at more than one or two processing stages. Tt should also be remembered that pure water is an excellent anti its own right, and so the aim should always be to maintain the optimum regain of the material being processed. For tops that are to be recombed, the target fatty matter content of the prepared sliver should be aroundpr 0. 0.8-1,0%, which then allows for further addition of a very small amount of proc processing aids in drawing. The ceiling figure for dry combed worsted yarn is set at 1.25% (on dry fat-free basis using dichloromethane by Soxhlet extraction) by IWTO for calculation on the average of the consignment. 5.3 Combing ‘As mentioned in the Introduction section of this manual, there are three main manufacturing paths for converting greasy wool to yarn, the worsted, semi-worsted, and woolen systems, As Australian wool is predominantly processed via the worsted route, this processing system alone is considered in this manual. The major steps in the worsted process are: - Opening and blending - Scouring - to remove grease and suint salts with minimum entangling of the fibres. - Carding - to disentangle and align fibres while removing vegetable contaminants. Roller cards are used, - Gilling - to both better align the fibres for combing, and to help mix and blend the wool. Gilling machines consist of rows of pins that intersect the card slivers so that some straightening of the urs, - Combing - straightens the fit:re< in the sliver to give them a high degree of alignment required for spinning. Yery short fibres, less than about 30 to 40mm are also removed, along with neps or very tight fibre entanglements and foreign matter such as straws and burrs. This separation of fibre lengths is shown diagrammatically - and ideally - below. 22Fly Dust Hauteur Diagram The objects of combing are: 1. The separation of long and short fibres, the long fibres ultimately becoming the feed to the spinning plant and the short fibres going to waste. 2, The ultimate straightening and individualising of the fibres, the comb being the most ef fective equipment in wor'sted processing for straightening fibre. 3, Removal of ony residuai shart fibres, vegetable matter and neps still remaining in the sliver. The comb used is of the rectilinear type. Its action is described in more detail in Section 7 of the AWI publication “Wersted Spinning Manual". ‘An example of the working pian for combing 21 micron wool and its associated gilling processes is given in Table 7. Table 7 Machine loading in gilling and combing for a 2imicron wool. 23Machine Dra | From | Faller ee Loading ra | Ratch | Pinning | Output Weight Istprep. gill 7x25 gmim | 58 [35mm ]3.5R_ | 30 gr/m 2nd prep. gill 4x30gmim 167 | 35mm | 4R 18e0/m Combing 24x 18 gm/m Ist fin, gill 180gmim | 6 35mm | SR — | 30 g/m 2nd fin, gill 6x30gmm ]72 |35mm | 6F — | 25 g/m The combed sliver is gilled twice more to better arrange the fibres in the sliver thereby producing a final sliver ready for introduction to the spinning department. 246, Properties, Specification and Testing of Wool Top To confirm the reliability of the delivery, tops are tested on arrival at the spinner for the following properties. ‘Measurement is central to the trading relationship between combing plant and spinner. The properties to be specified, the average value, and the tolerance specific to each property need to be agreed to between the two parties. Typically, the following properties should all be considered as part of the specification for the top. + Fibre Diameter - micron + Cof Vof Diameter - % + Fibre Length or Hauteur ~ mm + CVH-% + Sofibres « say30mm + Total fatty matter -% + Regain - % + Sliver weight - g/m + Neps - frequency and size per 100g ( refer to IWTO test method for photographic examples of faults) + VMand straw - frequency and size per 100g( refer to WTO test method for photographic examples of faults) + Regularity of mass - Ustzr CV% + Colour + Fibre Modification Treatment ‘Measurement of these properties has been considered in Section 2, p7 of this manual. A practical commercial example of a wool top specification for spinners is given in the ‘AWI publication "Worsted Spinning Manual”. 257. Processes in converting combed wool (top) into yarn 7.4 Recombing In contrast to 25 years ago when ecru yarn coarser than about 1/36Nm was not recombed, today, the majority of yarns destined for machine are recombed. This is because irrespective of the end-use, the benefits of recombed yarn out weigh the costs, A CSIRO study in 1996 revealed occurrence of neps in finished knit fabrics decreased by as much as 70 to 90% due to the introduction of recombing. Fig ..222. Indicates that for the first combing, nep or fibre fault in the combed fibre tends to have a weak positive relationship with faults in the yarn from which the yarn is spun, This relationship strengthens considerable, Fig ??? if the test for neps is taken from the re-combed material. It is also noteworthy the considerable reduction in yarn faults and nep levels caused by the recombing. NEPS IN TOP VS YARN FAULTS _ S = 605 R’=035 4 5 504 Sie ail > ac 3 E30 a . x 20 ° Ee 10 iS oe en 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Neps (per 100 g) 26NEPS IN RECOMBED TOP VS YARN FAULTS 10 Yarn Faults (per 10( 8kms 3 8 7 40 The increase in the number of passes referred to above > Anassociated increase in the total number of doublings linked to this increase in the number of passages > Anassociated ability to reduce the total draft needed when drafting finer shorter wool styles > Introduction of a special blending frame used before combing to blend both lengthwise and crosswise directions, These machines can also be fitted with a defelting unit for breaking the cohesion in dyed and/or shrink-resist treated wool. > The use of special pinned rollers in final drawing to allow better fibre control via closer set ratches > Smaller diameter rollers in the drafting zone of the finisher to allow closer ratches to 25mm ‘A double rubbing system that provided the necessary cohesion in these finer count roving while still allowing working speeds of 2200 rubs/min. 34A popular spinning technology is the production of wool + Lycra combinations. To allow this process to occur effectively, special units that control the tension and position of entry of the highly elastic material into the region on the spinning machine where the wool is running are required. As the control must be exact and consistent cm to cm for hundreds of kilometers of yarn on each spindle and also on every spindle on all of the machines upon which the operation is taking place, settings must be critically reproducible, simple to apply and constant in time. Special devices to avoid premature wear of rubber covers (cots) and aprons is also a vital design aspect of these units. 8.4. Winding and Yarn Fault removal of Spinning Bobbins After autoclaving, bobbins are then wound at high speed onto larger packages for improved efficiencies in the following processes. Today, winding is carried out on highly automated and very efficient machinery, in conjunction with clearers for removing objectionable yarn faults. 4 i q 3 & e ze 5 3 3 Fig 8 - yorn clearers for removing These clearers cut out, or ‘clear’ thin and thick spots and neps, which are sensed by capacitive or optical sensors set to the required tolerances. In mill practice, it is usual to clear different yarn qualities and counts at different clearer settings, Optical sensors such as Siroclear can even detect dark or discolored fibre in an ecru yarn. At the winder, the ends of the yarn from the bobbins and those caused by the cutting of yarn faults, are joined automatically, commonly using a Thermosplicer, in which the ends to be joined are re-entangled together in a stream of hot air, This technology takes advantage of wool's thermoplastic properties, The type of prism, timing and air 35pressure used by the splicer all need to be considered to obtain acceptable yarn splices for every lot, Cold air splicing is also available. In Section 10, above, spinning of elastic yarns was mentioned. These elastic core yarns make specific demands on the winding process. Machinery manufacturers have responded with additional clamping pressures; loop prevention; optimized splicer geometry for sound joins: and special software to optimize the joining cycles, coupled with automatic sensing and adjustment of winding tension. For quality improvement in spinning, the use of instruments such as the Uster Classimat is an invaluable tool for the spinner. They test for the presence of the infrequently occurring faults in yarn and having detected them, classify them into specific groups or classes according to their length and thickness. The results can be used in two ways: I. With the use of special tools, the clearing lines for removal of undesirable faults con be set for different yarn and fabric requirements. These settings can be discussed and agreed to between spinner and customer and then optimized for cost and quality. IZ. The results can be used by the spinner in-house to assess the effect of any changes in the spinning plant on yarn faults. On-line quality control remains an important part of the winding process. Although colored fault detection was first developed to remove vegetable matter contamination in ecru wool, the technology has achieved large penetration in both the worsted and cotton sectors, Yarn hairiness can also be measured on-line during winding. Moreover, it is now possible, with electronic tagging of bobbins, to measure yarn quality in winding and generate a list of individual spinning frame spindles that need attention. 8.5 Removing Yarn Faults The choice of aporticular clearing level for agiven yarn type has always been largely based on previous experience and other established technological standards, the advent of splicing being a prime example. In the past, when knotting was the standard jointing technique, it was always necessary to consider, among other things, whether faults of a particular size were worth replacing with a knot, which in itself may also be "disturbing" practically and visually. Nowadays, when splicing has more or less become the standard yarn jointing method, winding productivity and the threshold fault sizes which are considered to be disturbing when appearing on the fabric have become the only remaining two main considerations for the determination of an acceptable clearing level. However, it does appear that many spinners still retain some knotting heads for jointing fine to extra-fine yarns (e.g. finer than 64 Nin). For machine knitting yarns, additional considerations must be given to the fact that knitting efficiency can be affected by yarn fault incidence and type. For medium to coarse counts, knitting faults are mostly a result of thick places in the yarn, such as 36slubs and knots. Finer yarns, however, mostly break at the thin places and are rarely affected by knots. Comparing knitting yarns with weaving yarns, one may find that spinners tend to clear out more shorter "fly'-type faults from the knitting yarn as such faults could cause blocking between the needle and the wall of the trick. Translating to the USTER CLASSIMAT fault grading system, this could imply that all the A3, B3 some C2 and all of D2 faults are cleared out. As the majority of knitting yarns are usually not spun ‘near count limits, a tighter clearing level does not necessarily imply a higher clearer cutting rate than a weaving yarn of equivalent count. A provisional Uster statistic on the experience values for all wool worsted yarn joint frequency published in 1980 shows the number of joints in each of the following: those due to bobbin changes those due to yarn breaks during winding those due to clearing of disturbing faults. These statistics are shown in Figure 5, It must be understood that different end uses place different requirements on the yarn cleanliness, The statistics therefore do not necessarily reflect the quality distribution of the yarns included in the survey. ‘More precisely they represent the distribution of the optimum clearing condition selected by various spinners for different yarns. By optimum one means the compromise obtained between the faults which can be allowed to remain in the yarn and the number of yarn joints which are required to replace the "disturbing" faults. Therefore, as an example, the graph shows that 50% of the mills seem to have achieved optimum conditions with 70 joints per 100 Km of 40 Nm yarn, within which 44 Joints were put in for replacing "disturbing" faults. ‘Many spinners also adopt a two-fold clearing procedure during rewinding of two-fold packages. This is a recommended procedure particularly for medium to coarse yarn to be used for single jersey knitting. Clearers designed specifically for this purpose have been developed. Quality control personnel are strongly recommended to inspect regularly the faults which have been extracted, be it singles or two-fold. Careful fault analysis will often determine the fault origins, as well as leading to better clearer performance, 8.6 Factors affecting hairiness of worsted spun yarns Unacceptable levels of hairiness in yarns leads to problems of poor appearance in the resulting fabric, but perhaps more concerning, also to the easier loosening of hairs during rubbing in wear of the product leading to even poorer appearance and most likely the onset of unsightly pills. 37Hairiness in yarns can be a general problem for a particular batch of yarn or it may be that a few or several individual rogue spindles give rise to the problem. These few bobbins of yarn are then spread randomly through the fabric leading to downgrading or rejection of the fabric. Some of the more frequent causes of yarn hairiness are given in the following Table: ‘Stage of Manufacture Variable ‘Comments Fibre ‘Material Different materials behave differently. Finer fibres tend to give hairier yarns. Fibres of lower regain tend to give hairier yarns, Rubbing of synthetic fibres raises hairs more than natural fibres like wool. Nylon tends to be more difficult than polyester. Fibre length Longer fibres tend to have fewer fibre ends in the yarn, Crimp Low crimp fibre are less bound into the yarn structure and increase hairiness Lubrication Insufficient lubricant increases hairs. Special care is needed after dyeing of fibre or yarn. Lubricant needs to be considered with moisture content. Spinning Draft ‘According to the fibre material, high drafts assist with keeping the fibre stand narrow in the drafting system and in turn in the spinning triangle. Twist in roving While only having a small effect, false twist is better then real twist and balanced with drafting requirements, higher twist levels help reduce hairiness. Spindle speed Increased spindle speeds increase hairs. Yorn twist Higher twist reduces hairs Yarn tension Hairs are determined by the length of the spinning triangle, and width of same. Maintaining a useful level of tension minimizes yarn contact with machine elements, and ensures free flow of twist to the delivery rollers and thereby both narrows the triangle while reducing its length. A front zone condenser will improve hairs if properly set and maintained, Winding Winding the yarn from cop to cone can significantly increase hairs. Ensure there is min 38contact with machine parts on the winding frame and that these elements are smooth where contact is unavoidable, Ensure adequate ‘tension on the yarn to assist with minimizing yarn/metal contacts. ‘Machine Roller assembly | Close settings are preferred, especially that - setting between the double apron unit and the front -condenser__| delivery rollers, Thread guides | Friction between yarn and guide to be minimal. Monitor carefully for surface damage. Balloon ring | See thread guides. Traveler/ring Reduce friction between ring and traveler. Select the best profile traveler for the yarn count and fibre material. Nylon travelers tend to produce more hairy yarns. Tube length | Longer lengths can increase hairs. Tube diameter _| Seek optimal diameter Process Number of Provided associated care is maintained in the drawing spinning system then increased numbers of operations drawing can have a small benefi Relative Ensure adequate moisture is available to the Humidity fibre. Ensure moisture is sent to where the fibre is processing and not into the upper regions of the room. If possible, rest the roving in a high RH room. Spaying water onto the fibre surface can be detrimental to hairs. The moisture needs to be within the fibre. Notes: 1, Inspect the frequency of the problem. Are all cops affected or only a few percent? The latter will indicate rogue spindles, the former a more general problem. 2. Inspect the surface of the cops on the spinning frame to determine the level and variation of hairs present. 3. Also inspect the wound cones and similarly the twofold yarn to determine if hairs increase or reduce with processing 8,7 Assembly Winding 39Frequently in worsted yarn manufacture, it is required that two singles spun yarns need to be twisted together to meet final fabric requirements. To bring the two strands of spun yarn together ina yarn package suitable for the efficient twisting of the yarns, an operation known as assembly winding is introduced. | Tt is critical in this operation that both ends of yarn are brought together on the final yarn package with equal length. Therefore, tension adjustment on each strand is critical, and, in turn, this tension has to be uniform across all positions on the assembly winding machine, If this is not the situation, variations in the final twisted yarns will lead to visible imperfections in the fabric, Given the apparently simple nature of this process, it often too easy to overlook the routine maintenance and processing procedures, which ensure that the two ends are “assembled” correctly. 88 Folding: ‘Two folding or twisting two strands of spun yarn together is common practice in worsted yarn manufacture. The relations between the singles twist and the folding twist determines many properties of the final fabric and is an issue of particular relevance in designing a textile fabric. Folding two or more yarns together significantly improves the mass regularity and therefore the appearance of the yarn. Associated properties such as tensile and uniformity of the yarn are also improved. More particularly in knitting yarns are plied to create a balanced yarn that is not twist lively and will not cause spirality or other distortions in the resulting knitwear, ‘The machinery used in this operation is undertaken by “2-for-1" twisting machines rather than the older ring twisters. These machines can be fed by either two packages of singles yarn or an ‘assembly wound’ package as mentioned in Section 12.2 of this manual. ‘The operation is shown diagrammatically below in fig 8. 40Fig.8 - a2 for 1 twister spindle fed with an assembly wound package ‘Twist is inserted by continuously looping the pair of yarns together around the package thus inserting two turns of twist for each rotation of the loop. 89 Waxing Yarn Almost all machine knitting yarns need to be waxed before use, so that the yarn. metal friction can be reduced during knitting. Not all knitting yams are waxed however, before leaving the spinning plant. This is because in storage conditions which are very hot the wax can melt, resulting in wax penetrating into the yarn thus significantly reducing its effectiveness, In the event that yarns are waxed before arriving at the knitters, special attention should be paid to the type and amount of wax applied. In terms of type, the knitting yarn wax should at least conform to the following specifications: Structure Coarse crystalline Oil Content 0.5% mineral oil residue Melting Point - <5% fully-refined white paraffin oil 50°C- Hardness 60°C Based on DIN 5179 and ASTM D1321-65 1.2- 1.3 mm penetration for raw stock wax 1.9-2.0 mm penetration for finished roll wax (2.4-2.5 mm for soft twist and bleached yarns at low wii tension). 4lIn terms of amount, the average wax take-up rate should be around 2 gms of wax per kg of yam, The uniformity of wax take-up can be affected by the mounted method of the wax roll and the winding tension variation. Generally speaking "side pressing" wax- roll mounting system gives better uniformity in wax application than the gravity mounting type. Winding tension should be chosen within a small range that the effect of any variation on the yam-to-metal friction coefficient is minimum. This condition is depicted in Figure 6, which shows the effect of wax take-up on yam-to-metal friction coefficient. On average, the expected a decrease in yam-to-metal friction coefficient for wool dyed or undyed, should be about 50% after waxing. Experience has shown most cases, the over-application of wax, and corresponding higher coefficient of friction do not lead to complaints during knitting. 8.10 Yarn Conditioning and Packaging Wool yarns are normally sold on the basis of dry weight plus an additional allowance for moisture. The standard allowances stipulated by IWTO for dry- combed worsted yarn is 18.25%, and although yarns may not contain this amount of moisture an adjustment is made to the invoice in order to base charges on the nett weights at correct moisture content. Knitting yarns are usually delivered with between 14-18% regain, The higher range of regain should only apply when the transportation distance is short, weather condition do not fluctuate cantly and the storage condition is under control. It is commonly accepted that moisture in the yarn assists knitting as it increases yarn extensibility and reduces the likelihood of loop distortion. Moisture is usually applied by the spinner by mechanical systems. The main task here is to ensure that the distribution of moisture is even throughout the package. This becomes particularly critical for knitters who may not be able to use the yarns soon after receipt from the spinners, and have storage conditions that are not ideal (e.g. where yarns may dry out), In order to retain the moisture of the yarn and to prevent damage to the cone surface, cones should be wrapped individually with paper or polyethylenes. Perforated wrappings are sometimes used in order to prevent an excessively high build-up of condensation. Note that if the yarn warehouse of the knitter is likely to be hot and humid and that the yarns are likely to be stored for a long period before use, then extra moisture in the yarn should always be avoided to prevent mildew formation. The implication is that the spinners should always liaise with their customer to ensure that the final yarns are properly conditioned and packaged according to requirements. 429. Practical Considerations in Specification, Testing, and Quality Control of Tops and Yarns, While many of the practical aspects of modern worsted yarn manufacture have already been considered in the relevant sections of this manual, the contents of this section relates some of the practical issues and problems encountered that are related more directly to fibre properties. At the same time, the methods of testing and application of this knowledge are mentioned and referenced. Consequently, the Section is broken into parts directed to each of the important fibre properties. Firstly, these properties of the fibre top, the feed material for the spinning plant, have to be considered in terms of specifying the top (see Section 6 of this manual). Additionally their contribution to the final properties of the yarn, and their influence on the efficiency of manufacture, needs to be understood. It has to be remembered that wool is an expensive commodity so it is vitally important that the material purchased be comprehensively tested for the relevant fibre properties and the results recorded and analyzed for each wool type. The important fibre properties that need to be specified in the top, and tracked and understood by the spinner, along with their relevance in processing are discussed below. 9.1 Fineness or fibre Diameter - average and distribution. This property is the major determinant of price in the top, and so it is sensible for management of the spinning plant to perform regular checks on this property. ‘Measurement can be done by ~ projection microscope but this is a slow and costly method. Airflow apparatus that is quick and economical, but gives a derived average only and nothing of the distribution of fibre diameters, In fine and very fine count spinning, it is the distribution that is important, More sophisticated and expensive methods such as OFDA, FDA200 and the more refined and accepted Laserscan method are now available to fill this need. The fibre diameter is the major limiting factor into how fine a yarn can be spun. A minimum number of fibres must be present in the cross section of any commercially ‘acceptable yarn. The finer the fibre, the finer the yarns and in turn the lighter and softer the fabric, It is this luxurious property of the final fabric that adds value to the product in the eyes of the consumer and so determines the value of a product. Processing considerations relating to fibre diameter: 4BPossible Implications in Remedy Options for the fibre Processing when not conformed Yarn strength/ extension _| Increase numbers of fibres Spinning/winding performance | By spinning coarser or using a finer wool Yarn faults Blend with synthetic fibres Yarn irregularity/thin places Fabric appearance 9.2 Fibre Length. The average fibre length and more importantly it distribution is critical information for the fabric end use but also for the spinner to have specified and controlled over ‘time. Additionally, this information is vital in purchasing control. Methods for measurement include the slow and laborious comb sorter and WIRA single fibre length testing devices, The more sophisticated Almeter is the popular method of test. This instrument uses electronic means to measure a sample and give detailed results of the fibre length distribution and while expensive to purchase, is highly productive and reliable. A sample is formed from a draw of parallel fibres and placed in a slide that moves the fibres at a constant speed through a measuring condenser. The resulting variation in capacitance is proportional to the mass of the draw of fibres situated in the condenser. The average fibre length can be delivered in two different ways: 1. Hauteur - a numerical term used to describe the mean length of fibres. It is cross-sectional biased distribution and is used commercially for the specification of wool tops. 2. Barbe - is the weight biased distribution that is, depending on the CV% of fibre length distribution, approximately 25% longer than a Hauteur measurement of the same sample. Barbe = Hauteur (1+ VL) where VL is the fractional CV of hauteur. For example: if CVH=50% and H=65mm Barbe= 65 (1+ [50/100]*) = 81.25mm. Processing considerations: Possible Implications in Processing | Remedy Options for the fibre when not conformed 1. Fibre length Yarn strength/ extension Increase the fibre length and / or reduce the Spinning/winding performance _| variation in fibre length. Yarn faults | Yarn irregularity/thin places | Yarn hairiness/softness. Blend with synthetic fibres 442. Short fibre Yarn faults Recomb Spinning/winding performance Machine cleanliness | Fabric mending/fibre based faults | in fabric | | Fibre length is important to the efficiency of processing, longer fibres and perhaps more uniform batches being generally more efficient to process. Length also contributes to the yarn properties as shown in the diagram below, with strength, extension at break and the variation in these properties all improving when fibre length increases, [ YT cNitex~H as ste ; . | : 75 Sur cuore ne z 7.0 eeieiggis ery es sire aes f= or te 6.0 ° 5.5 te oe 5.0 50 60 70 80 90 100 Hauteur mm Fig 9 the effect of hauteur on yarn tenacity. For many decades the spinning industry has adhered to a relationship known as the cup of yarn evenness when examining the relationship between CVH in the top and the evenness of the yarn spun from it. This is shown schematically in the line diagram in Fig 10. Unfortunately this relationship is based on very weak evidence, there being only three data points in the graph, and the work upon which it is based, made use of spinning equipment from the 1950's, More recent studies by CSIRO are shown by the data points (red and blue) which strongly indicate that within the boundaries of % to % , variation in fibre length has little effect on the evenness of the final yarn. 45 ee«Commercial Mill Data (235 lots from 8 mills) 4 CSIRO Data (90 lots) CV% (Meas.~- Pred.) 20 40 60 CV% (Hauteur) Fig 10 Effect of CVH on the Evenness of the final yarn 9.3 Dark Fibre Unlike most wool from other countries, Australian wool is conspicuously free of dark fibres, and commands a premium in the market. Dark fibres may be naturally pigmented or stained by urine. There is a standard method for testing wool top for dark fibre when this is considered necessary. 9.4 Total fatty Matter Content (TFM) ‘TFM is determined in several ways which are characterized either by the solvent or the equipment used in the test e.g. DCM, Soxhlet extraction. When applied to top, the ‘TFM is a mixture residual wool grease remaining after wool scouring, applied lubricants or processing aids. It is usual for tops to be delivered with a TEM of 0.6 to 1.0%, Spinners like 0.7 - 0.8%n the top to allow for addition during spinning when necessary. Dichloromethane (DCM) is the standard solvent used for removal of wool grease, added lubricants and other solvent solubles in wool top. Due to increasing restriction on the use of DCM on environmental grounds, DCM has been increasingly been replaced by acetone which gives comparable results, It is important to know which sol vent is used in test results used in trading 4614.5 Neps ‘Small "balls" of entangled fibres up to approximately 3mm in diameter that are created in processing are known as neps. Almost all neps are removed during the primary combing process. Neps with core diameters greater than 3mm are regarded 4s “slubs" and should not be found in the top. Few if any neps should be present after re-combing. Possible Implications in Remedy Options for the fibre Processing __| when not conformed Spinning/winding performance | recomb Yarn faults Yarn irregularity/neps frequency Fabric appearance 14.6 Regain The section on Regain discussed in Section 2.7 is repeated here for convenience. The properties of absorption and desorption of textile fibres are well known. In this Field, wool is ‘champion all categories’, as it is able - according to the wool type - absorb up to 40 % of its weight in water. In order to avoid disputes between buyers and sellers of tops or yarns, of ficial “regain rates have been established. Regain is defined as the weight of water in the material expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight of the material, % regain = weight of water Oven dry weight of material ‘The main regain values are: + scoured wool 17% + wool (tops) 18.25% + flax, hemp, ramie 12% + cotton 8.50% + acrylic 2% + polyester 15% + polyamide 6.25% + polypropylene 2% + viscose 13% 47