REVISION

I. MAJOR EVENTS IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

1750: Industrial Revolution starts in the United Kingdom and quickly transforms the nature of
business.
1908: A. E. Phillips publishes the first public speaking book specifically aimed at businessmen,
Effectively Speaking.
Harvard Business School becomes the first academic program to focus on the scholarship of
business.
1910, April: The first meeting of the Eastern Public Speaking Conference is held. The association
changed itself to the Speech Association of the Eastern States in 1950 and then to the Eastern
Communication Association in 1973.
1914: The National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking is formed and holds is
first convention the following the year. This association changed its names four times over the
next hundred years: National Association of Teachers of Speech, 1923; Speech Association of
America, 1946; Speech Communication Association, 1970; and National Communication
Association, 1997.1923: Speech Association of America, 1946; Speech Communication
Association, 1970: and National Communication Association, 1997.
1919: Edward L. Bernays and Doris Fleishman open the first public relations firm.
1929: William Phillips Sandford and Willard Hayes Yeager are the first speech scholars to
publish a public speaking book aimed at business professionals titled Business and Professional
Speaking.
1937: W. Charles Redding publishes an article titled “Speech and Human Relations” in the
academic journal The Speaker. Redding is widely considered the father of organizational
communication.
1938: Chester Barnard publishes The Functions of the Executive and argues that “The first
function of the executive is to develop and maintain a system of communication” (p. 226).
1941: Paul F. Lazarsfeld publishes the first review of the discipline of communication based on
his and others’ research at the Bureau of Applied Social Research and determines that
communication could be broken into four categories: 1) who, 2) said what, 3) to whom, and 4)
with what effect.
1942: Alexander R. Heron argues that successful communication with one’s employees is
necessary for good business in his book Sharing Information with Employees.
1945: University of Denver holds the first graduate-level seminar in industrial communication.
1949: Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver publish The Mathematical Theory of
Communication, which provides the first major model of human communication (source,
message, receiver, noise).
1952: The first dissertation specifically in industrial communication was completed by Keith
Davis in the department of business at Ohio State University. The title of the manuscript was
“Channels of Personnel Communication within the Management Setting.”
1953: Ohio State University and the University of Nebraska offer the first Ph.D. degrees
conferred by speech departments in industrial communication.
1961: Lee Thayer, a speech professor with an interest in communication in businesses, publishes
Administrative Communication which is the first true textbook in organizational communication.
1963: The Journal of Business Communication is started by the American Business
Communication Association.
1964: W. Charles Redding and George A. Sanborn publish Business and Industrial
Communication: A Source Book, which compiled copies of previously published articles on a
wide range of organizational communication topics. The publication of this book is generally
seen as the true start of the field of organizational communication.
1967: The first “Conference on Organizational Communication” is held at Marshall Space Flight
Center in Huntsville, Alabama. At the conference, Philip K. Tompkins reviews the state of
organizational communication and divides the types of research into two categories: (1) informal
and formal channels of communication and (2) superior-subordinate relationships. Tompkins’
presentation marks the official acceptance of the term “organizational communication.”
Henry Voos publishes Organizational Communication: A Bibliography sponsored by the Office
of Naval Research.
1968: Division IV, organizational communication, becomes an officially recognized group by
NSCC, which became the International Communication Association in 1970.
1972: W. Charles Redding publishes his book Communication with the Organization: An
Interpretive Review of Theory and Research. In this monograph he poses 10 basic postulates of
organizational communication.
1973: The Academy of Management authorizes a new division within its association titled
Organizational Communication.
1982: The Western Journal of Communication publishes a series of articles based out of a
conference held in Alta, Utah, “The Summer Conference on Interpretive Approaches to the Study
of Organization Communication.” This series of articles argues for the importance of
incorporating interpretive methods in the study of organizational communication.
1983: Linda Putnam and Michael E. Pacanowsky publish Communication and Organizations: An
Interpretive Approach. This edited book further solidifies the importance of interpretive research
methods in organizational communication.
1987: Fredric M. Jablin, Linda L. Putnam, Karlene H. Roberts, and Lyman W. Porter publish the
Handbook of Organizational Communication: An Interdisciplinary Perspective.
1991: Wert-Gray, Center, Brashers, and Meyers publish an article titled “Research Topics and
Methodological Orientations in Organizational Communication: A Decade in Review.” The
authors find that of the 289 articles published in the 1980s, 57.8% were social scientific, 25.9%
were qualitative, 2.1% were critical, 14.2% were categorized as other.
1993: Dennis Mumby puts for a research agenda for critical organizational communication
research in an article titled “Critical Organizational Communication Studies: The Next 10 Years”
in Communication Monographs.
2001: Fredric M. Jablin and Linda L. Putnam publish The New Handbook of Organizational
Communication: Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods.
2004: Elizabeth Jones, Bernadette Watson, John Gardner, and Cindy Gallois publish an article
titled “Organizational Communication: Challenges for the New Century” in the Journal of
Communication. In the article they identify six challenges organizational communication scholars
face in the 21st Century: (1) innovate in theory and methodology, (2) acknowledge the role of
ethics, (3) move from the microlevel to macrolevel issues, (4) examine new organizational
structures, (5) understand the communication of organizational change, and (6) examine diversity
and intergroup communication.
The history of organizational communication is a complicated one. Starting with the industrial
revolution and the evolution of the modern corporation, the idea of organizational
communication was ultimately crystalized in the 1950s and 1960s. During the early years, most
of the research conducted examining communication within an organization was conducted from
a social scientific perspective, but starting in the 1980s with the work of Linda Putman,
organizational communication research has become more diversified to include both interpretive
and critical perspectives.
II. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Human communication is the process whereby one individual (or groupof individuals) attempts
to stimulate meaning in the mind of another individual (or group of individuals) through
intentional use of verbal, nonverbal, and/or mediated messages.
The basic model of communication examines four basic components: source, message, channel,
and receiver. The source of a message is the individual or group who is originating an idea and
attempting to transmit that idea to another person or persons. The message is the idea that is
attempting to be transmitted. The channel is the specific method of communication an individual
uses to convey a specific message: verbal (the use of words), nonverbal (other communicative
characteristics outside of the words themselves), and mediated (the use of technology to convey a
message). Lastly, the receiver is the individual who is targeted for a message who receives the
message and then has to make sense of the message itself.
III. WHAT IS ORGANIZATION?
When one analyzes a variety of definitions for the term “organization,” three common themes
tend to emerge: the structure, the goal, and the people. Organizational structure examines how an
organization functions both internally and with its larger external environment. The goal is the
general purpose a group of people is trying to achieve. Lastly, the people refer to the various
internal and external stakeholders associated with the organization.
There are four common organizational types: mutual benefit, business concerns, service, and
commonwealth. Mutual benefit organizations are designed to help the individuals who belong to
the group (e.g., fraternities, sororities, clubs, etc…). Business concerns organizations are
primarily concerned with turning a profit for the organization and its shareholders (e.g. anything
from Walmart and Citibank to your local grocery story or restaurant). The third type of
organization is the service organization, which is geared towards providing a specific service to
people within society (e.g., hospitals, legal-aid societies, etc…). Lastly, commonwealth
organizations are those that are generally run by the government for the greater good of society
(e.g., the military, fire/ police departments, department of education, etc…).

What the Organization Needs/Wants What Workers Need/Want

Minimize Costs Maximize Salary/Benefit Package
Systemization of Job Duties Autonomy to do one’s job
Ability to Streamline the Organization Job Stability
Agreement Dissent
Transparency Privacy
Conventionality Innovation
Organization-Focused Self-Focused
Permanence Change
Rights of the Organization Rights of the Individual
Work life Social life

Dimensions of Communication
In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions:
1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Horizontal /Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. Grapevine Communication
Downward Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization
to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication from superiors to
subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. This communication flow is
used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels.
Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations
oftheir managers. Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes:
 Providing feedback on employees’ performance.
 Giving job instructions.
 Providing a complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate them
how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.
 Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples
of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward
communication, managers must:
 Specify communication objective.
 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form
Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an
organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the organization
is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their problems and
performances to their superiors.
The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the
downward communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas
and to participate in the decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more
committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the employees are given a chance to
raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers get to know about the
employees’ feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in general. Managers
can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.
Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys, etc. all
help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -
performance reports made by low level management for reviewingby higher level management,
employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.
Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of
hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers,
between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational member.
The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
 It is time saving.
 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
 It facilitates co-operation among team members.
 It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
 It helps in solving various organizational problems.
 It is a means of information sharing.
 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.
Diagonal Communication or crosswise communication: Communication that takes place
between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It
generally, does not appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a
training manager interacts with operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their
task. The Accounts people of an organization visiting different employees in various departments
for their IT calculation, bonus for workers etc. fall under diagonal communication.
Grapevine Communication: A communication held without following a recommended structure
in an organization is informal communication. So, grapevine communication can be described as
a casual and unofficial communication system within the organization.
The advantages of grapevine communication are:
Grievance Redressal: Often, during informal meetings, employees are able to talk about their
requirements and express their opinions and feelings to others without any hesitation.
Improved Relationships: An informal communication system effectively solves most of the
problems or clashes between employees and the organization’s management. This, in turn, creates
positive relations among the teams and the management.
Increased Efficiency: Employees share their concerns and issues openly under the informal
system. This helps the management and the organization get precise feedback and solve the
problems. Consequently, it develops and improves the efficiency of the employee.
The disadvantages of grapevine communication are:
Risk of Misunderstandings: When it comes to informal meetings, employees sometimes don’t
follow the formal authorization process. This may create misunderstanding among the team
members and the management.
Difficult to Control: As informal conversations have no set rules or policies to be followed,
controlling the spread of information can become difficult.
IV. CLASSICAL THEORIES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Theories help us understand and predict communication and behaviors.
1. Classical Perspective
• Frederick Taylor created the idea of “scientific management”, which is a management style that
focuses on producing outcomes and high orientation on management.
• Max Weber felt that bureaucracy was the best way to select authority. It is based on criterion
and standard for the task rather than other variables such as family relationship or popularity.
• Henri Fayol believed that there are principles of management, which include: unity of direction,
unity of command, authority, order, subordination of individual interest to the general interests,
scalar chain. He also felt that classical perspectives have two functions: control and command.
2. Human Relation Theories
• Elton Mayo and his research associates studied how lighting effects production. They later
realized that the workers were not affected by lighting rather the researchers presence.
• Kurt Lewin felt that group dynamics impacted behavioral outcomes. If workers can talk about
their tasks with others it impacts the organization.
• Workers usually had a tendency of creating an informal standard for output that was never
stated but also predetermined by the group.
3. Human Resources Theories
• Human Resources encourages an environment where employees have the ability to be creative
and take risks in order to maximize outcomes.
• Human resources places an emphasis on more communication than human relations.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs help us to understand what motivates people in organizations.
• Herzberg’s theory focuses on what motivates individuals to work and he also focused on what
factors lead individuals to demotivation at work.
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y are assumptions that managers have about their
employees. They differ in the type of communication involved as well as the expectations of
workers.
• Rensis Likert’s ideas were based on the idea that supervisors are employee centered and to treat
all employess as unique humans rather than just another worker.
HUMAN RESOURCES AND HUMAN RELATIONS
HUMAN RESOURCES HUMAN RELATIONS

Worker Needs Workers need to belong, be liked, While workers need to belong, be liked,
and be respected. and be respected, workers also want to
creatively and effectively contribute to
worthwhile goals.
Workers really desire to feel as Workers really desire to exercise
Worker though they are a useful part of initiative, responsibility, and
Desires the organization. creativity, so management should
allow for these.
If worker needs and desires are
filled, they will willingly Management should tap into worker
Outcomes capabilities and avoiding wasting
cooperate and comply with
management. untapped resources.

When employees feel that they

Job When employee needs and
Satisfaction desires are met, they’ll be
more satisfied.
Job satisfaction and reduced
resistance to formal authority
Productivity
will lead to more productive
workers.
have self- direction and control and
are able to freely use their
creativity, experience, and insight
they will be more satisfied.
When employees feel that they
have self- direction and control and
are able to freely use their
creativity, experience, and insight
they will be more productive .
 Managers should strive to
Management ensure that all employees feel
Goal like they are part of the team.
Management should allow
employees to offer input on
routine decisions and be willing
Decision
to discuss these decisions, but
Making
management should keep
important decisions to
themselves.
Information sharing is a useful
Informatio tool when helping employees
n Sharing feel like they are part of the
group.
Management should allow
teams to exercise moderate
Teamwork
amounts of self-direction and
control.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THEORY X & THEORY Y
THEORYX
People dislike work and find ways to avoid
it
Workers want to avoid responsibility
Want direction
Resists change
Not intelligent
Not creative
Managers must control, reward, and/or
punish employees to maintain performance
Managers should help employees
discover hidden talents and ensure
that all workers are able to fully use
their range of talents to help
accomplish organizational goals.
Management should allow and
encourage employees to freely
participate in the decision-making
process with all types of
decisions. In fact, the more
important the decision is, the
more the manager should seek out
his employee resources in the
decision-making process.
Information sharing is vital for
effective decision making and
should include the full range of
creativity, experience, and insight
from employees.
Management should encourage
teamwork and continually look for
greater areas where teams can
exercise more control.
THEORY Y
People perceive work as natural and find it
enjoyable
People want responsibility
Prefer self-direction
Wants to work toward organizational goals
Have the potential to develop & adapt
Are intelligent
Are creative
Work conditions need to be set to
achieve worker & organizational goals
•Human Resources encourages an environment where employees have the ability to be creative
and take risks in order to maximize outcomes.
•Human resources places an emphasis on more communication than human relations.
•Maslow’s hierarchy of needs help us to understand what motivates people in organizations.
•Herzberg’s theory focuses on what motivates individuals to work and he also focused on what
factors lead individuals to demotivation at work.
•McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y are assumptions that managers have about their employees.
They differ in the type of communication involved as well as the expectations of workers.
•Rensis Likert’s ideas were based on the idea that supervisors are employee centered and to treat
all employess as unique humans rather than just another worker.
V. LEADERSHIP
• The trait approach to leadership is the oldest approach to leadership and theorizes that certain
individuals are born with specific personality or communication traits that enable leadership. As
such, trait leadership scholars have examined thousands of possible traits that may have an
impact on successful or unsuccessful leadership practices.
• The situational approach to leadership focuses on specific organizational contexts or situations
that enable leadership. Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Theory examines an individual’s preference
for either task or relationships and then theorizes that leaders who find themselves in situations
that favor that type of leadership will be fine while leaders who are out of balance need to either
change the situation or adjust their leadership styles. Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory, on the other hand, examines how leadership is dependent upon
whether a follower is someone being developed or someone who has already been developed.
New followers, Hersey and Blanchard theorize, need more guidance leaders should focus on the
task and at hand and not on relationships with these followers. Old followers, on the other hand,
need little guidance and little relationship building.
• The functional approach to leadership posits that a leader is someone who looks like, acts like,
and communicates like a leader. Chester Barnard’s Functions of the Executive posits that leaders
should engage in three specific functions: (1) formulating organizational purposes and objectives,
(2) securing essential services from other members, and (3) establishing and maintaining a
system of communication. A second functional approach is Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats’
Classification of Functional Roles in Groups, which examines how different people take on
various group/team roles in an effort to keep the group/team striving towards a specific goal.
Each of the roles that group/team members take on serve a specific function in the group/team
decision making and implementing process.
• The relational approach to leadership theorizes that leadership is a matter of building and
maintain relationships with one’s followers. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton’s Managerial Grid
examine the intersection of relationship-oriented or task-oriented leader perspectives. Ultimately,
Blake and Mounton propose five distinct types of leadership: (1) impoverished (low task, low
relational), (2) authority- compliance (high task, low relational), (3) country club (low task, high
relational), (4) team (high task, high relational), and (5) middle-of-the- road (moderate task,
moderate relational). A second relational approach is George Graen’s Leader-Member Exchange
(LMX) Theory, which looks at the exchange relationship between a follower and a leader. Under
LMX theory, leaders take on protégés into an interpersonal communicative relationship that
enables a follower to succeed within an organization.
• The transformational approach to leadership espoused by James MacGregor Burns looks at
leadership as a comparison to the traditional transactional model of leadership. In the
transactional model of leadership, leaders promise to punish or reward followers in order gain
support. Transformational leadership, on the other hand, occurs when a leader utilizes
communication in an effort to increase follower morale, motivation, and performance to
accomplish organizational goals.
VI. GROUPS AND TEAMS
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS AND TEAMS

GROUPS TEAMS
Everyone is accountable for their work to the group
Every person is accountable. & others’ work.
The focus is to share information The focus is to discuss, make decisions, solve
and opinions. problems, and strategize.
Emphasis on individual
goals. Emphasis on team goals.

Outcome is on each individual’s

contribution. Outcome is on the entire group’s contribution.

Indentify every person’s roles & tasks in regards to

Identify every person’s roles & help the collective effort. Each person can often
tasks. switch and/ allocate parts of their tasks to others.
The focus is each person’s
outcome and struggles. The focus is on the team’s outcome and struggles.

The objectives and goals of the

group are placed by a manager The objectives and goals of the group are placed by
or leader. team leader with team members.

• Groups can be informal or formal.

• There are many differences between groups and teams. Group stresses individual outcomes,
whereas team stresses individual and collective outcomes. The individual is a key element in the
group. Teams share responsibility. Moreover, the communication is very different.
• Team development takes place in phase: forming, storming, norming, and performing.
• The team developmental model showcases seven stages that groups go through before they can
work efficiently and effectively as a team.
Team performance model
Types of teams
• Work teams are integral for an organization because they have the have the objective of
completing certain outcomes.
• Parallel teams are formed externally. Parallel teams look at specific items that the organization
might overlook or not perceive accurately.
• Project teams are composed of specific/specialized members that need to obtain a goal in a set
amount of time.
• Management teams have the responsibility of running and maintaining the organization. There
are many different people with specific tasks to keep the organization running in an efficient and
effective manner.
The Downside to Teams
• Groupthink occurs when there is a crisis and none of the group members stop to analyze the
pros and cons of the solution.
• Conflict occurs in teams. There are two types of tensions: primary and secondary. Primary
occurs before the meeting starts and secondary occurs after the meeting begins.
• Risky shift occurs when group members are more likely to make a riskier decision as a group
rather than individually.
• Social loafing happens when group members do not work as hard in a group context compared
to when they work by themselves.
VII. NON-VERBAL DELIVERY
Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words; it
relates to the dynamic process of communication, the perception process and listening, and
verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing, and contextual. It can add to
or
replace verbal communication and can be intentional or unintentional.
• Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to believe
nonverbal messages more than verbal ones.
• Nonverbal communication can be categorized into eight types: space, time, physical
characteristics, body movements, touch, paralanguage, artifacts, and environment.
• To use nonverbal communication to enhance your message, watch reactions and consider
enrolling an observer to help you become aware of your nonverbal habits and how your audience
receives nonverbal messages.
VIII. CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION
Conflict occurs when individuals, groups, or entire organizations perceive or experience
frustration in the attainment of goals. Described as an episode, the conflict process involves the
stages of (1) latent conflict, (2) perceived conflict, (3) felt conflict, (4) manifest conflict, and (5)
conflict aftermath. Conflict episodes occur in intrapersonal, interpersonal, small-group,
organization-wide, and organization-to-environment contexts.
Regardless of context, participants interact in conflict with their individual preferences or styles,
strategic orientations, and tactical communication behaviors. Conflict styles are described as five
orientations based on the balance between satisfying individual needs and goals and satisfying the
needs and goals of others involved in the conflict. These five most commonly referred-to styles
are avoidance, competition, compromise, accommodation, and collaboration. Strategic objectives
are determined by preferences for conflict styles and by assessment of the probable outcomes of
behavior within particular contexts. Strategic objectives structure the conflict in one of four
strategic directions: escalation, reduction, maintenance, or avoidance. The tactics adopted are
influenced by conflict preferences and strategies and by overall organizational values. Emotion is
a critical part of conflict processes. Group conflict is common in organizations. Framing and
sensemaking contribute to how conflict processes occur. Organizations frequently manage
conflict through negotiation, bargaining, mediation, and third-party arbitration. The use of a
variety of power processes is prevalent during conflict. Negative and abusive workplace conflicts
include sexual harassment, discrimination, bullying, and ethical abuses. Conflict outcomes are
more likely to be productive if parties in conflict foster supportive and ethical climates.
Guidelines for constructive conflict can be used to integrate all of our competencies: knowledge,
sensitivity, skills, and values. Guidelines include: (1) monitoring your personal behavior and the
behavior of others for signs of destructive conflict; (2) identifying common goals and interests;
(3) developing norms to work on problems; (4) working on problem identification and definition;
(5) focusing on mutual gain; (6) setting a meeting to work on the conflict; (7) developing
solutions and narrowing the choices for action; (8) committing to solutions; and (9) monitoring
the process.
IX. PARTICIPATING IN ORGANIZATIONS
Decision making is the process for choosing from among several alternatives, and problem
solving is a multistage process for moving an issue, a situation, or a state from an undesirable to a
more desirable condition. Groups make decisions and solve problems through a variety of
methods including leader mandate, majority rule, powerful-minority influence, and consensus.
Organizational culture, the problem itself, technical competencies, and communication
competencies all influence decision-making and problem-solving processes.
Problem-solving processes include the Standard Agenda, brainstorming, the Decision Tree
process, and a variety of experientially based processes. Decisionmaking and problem-solving
effectiveness can be increased by developing fact-finding and evaluation skills.
Nowhere will our communication competencies be more challenged than by the increasing use of
information and communications technologies (ICTs) in all types of organizations. Technology
will change the way we work in time, geography, culture, location, and many other ways.
Communication competencies with technology will support human communication
competencies.
X. ORGANIZATIONAL INNOVATION, CHANGE, AND COMMUNICATION
Organizational innovation is the development of ideas, practices, products, and processes which
meet needs in new ways. Organizational change is a somewhat ambiguous concept often simply
defined as an alteration from one state to another.
Organizational change is both planned and unplanned. Most organizations support planning for
continuous improvement or change. How change is handled, the amount of change, who decides
what to change, and a host of other issues are all responsibilities of those with professional
communication competencies.
Developing and sustaining organizational excellence is the rationale for innovation and change.
Innovation and change barriers include complacency, organizational silence, knowledge /
information deficits, risk perception, uncertainty, contradictions and misalignments, active and
passive resistance, organizational leaders, organizational trust, organizational decline,
organizational crisis, and a host ofother possibilities. The leadership of innovation and change
often is a professional communication responsibility. Models and processes for organizational
innovation and change include accelerators of innovation and change; diffusion of innovation;
stakeholder theory; the purchase, doctor–patient, and process models; and appreciative inquiry
processes. Professional responsibilities for change include data collection, data evaluation, and
planning and implementing solutions. Structural, technological, and behavioral changes all are
included in change efforts. Finally, evaluating results informs the change process and prepares
the organization to begin the process again. The communication strategy and the communication
plan are developed in support of planned change efforts and are designed to seek input from those
involved in the change and to disseminate information about the change. Strategy involves
making choices about approaches based on an understanding of various audiences for messages.
The communication plan is the tactical implementation of the strategy.
 XI. STRATEGIC ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Strategic organizational communication can be described as communication processes in which
organizational messages are deliberately generated; are based on environmental data, analysis,
and strategy selection; and are guided by organizational objectives.
Strategic organizational communication messages usually are developed by communication
professionals. Strategic organizational communication is based in part on environmental
information and an understanding of the concepts of multiple publics and stakeholders. Public
relations and marketing are two types of strategic communication functions that support strategic
organizational direction.
Public relations functions frequently include image management, internal communication,
public affairs and issues management, media relations, and risk and crisis communication.
In broad terms, public relations is responsible in part for shaping an organization’s image or
reputation. Internal communication refers to communication with employees and is frequently a
responsibility of the public relations function. Public affairs and issues management involve the
shaping of public opinion regarding social and political issues important to the organization.
Media relations involve working with the media on behalf of an organization. Marketing is the
management communication process directed at bringing about an exchange between an
organization and a customer. Integrated marketing communications is growing in importance,
stressing strategy that communicates a single, unified message to a customer. Advertising,
branding, and the increase in social media usage all contribute to the marketing mix. Risk and
crisis communication are planning and messages which help publics understand and respond to
risks and to understand and take action during crises. Emerging technologies play a significant
role in strategic communication. Finally, ethical choices continually are required when making
decisions about strategic organizational communication.
XII. CAREER OPTIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Careers are the sum of our job experiences over time. Careers involve decisions about personal
interests, aptitudes, educational preparation, and the match of our individual competencies to the
needs of particular organizations. This employment match is based on the knowledge,
sensitivity, skills, and values of both the individual and the employing organization. Self-
analysis helps generate awareness of influences for our occupational choices and can be used to
develop important criteria for career planning. Self-awareness in turn can help us evaluate the
major career options in organizational communication: internal communication, external
communications, sales, human services, education, research, management, and consulting.
Each of these areas requires educational preparation and a diverse set of communication s.
Informational interviews and employment interviews are important communication processes
in our employment search. Individuals will assume increasing responsibility for career and job
transitions in the twenty-first century. Boundaryless careers include contracting and the new
concept of free agency and entrepreneurial activity. New organizational forms— networked and
cellular organizations—will place new emphasis on participation competencies, international
experience, and personal traits of flexibility and adaptability. Finally, team-based careers will
emphasize the success of entire teams as well as individuals.