Wear, 46 (1978) 109 - 126 109 © Elsevier Sequoia 8.A., Lausanne — Printed in the Netherlands EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM TITANATE FIBER ON THE WEAR OF AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE LININGS* M. L. HALBERSTADT and S. K. RHEE Bendix Corporation, Southfield, Mich. 48075 (U.S.A.) J. A. MANSFIELD Ames Research Center, NASA, Moffett Field, California (U.S.A.) (Received July 5, 1977) Summary Asbestos reinforcing fiber in an automotive friction material was replaced by an experimental ingredient having better thermal stability, and the effects on wear and friction were studied. A friction materials test machine (SAE J661a) was used to determine friction and wear, under constant energy output conditions, as a function of temperature between 121 and 343 °C (250 and 650 °F). When potassium titanate fiber replaced one-half of the asbestos in a standard commercial lining, with a 40% upward adjustment of phenolic resin content, wear above 204 °C (400 °F) was improved by 40% and friction by 30%. Tests on a full scale inertial dynamo- meter supported the findings of the sample dynamometer tests. It was dem- onstrated that the potassium titanate fiber contributes directly to the im- provement in wear and friction. Introduction As increasingly severe requirements are placed on the automotive brake system, intensive efforts have continued on the improvement of all com- ponents of the system including the friction material. The friction and wear characteristics of a friction material under various operating conditions are a manifestation of the chemical and physical changes taking place in the components of the composite. It thus seems reasonable that, if improved high temperature properties are desired, ingredients with high thermal stability are to be favored over less stable ones. It also seems reasonable to expect that the effects of abrasive and three body wear could be reduced if an ingredient with appreciable hardness could be replaced with one of lesser hardness, providing that strength and friction were not affected adversely. *Paper presented at the International Conference on the Wear of Materials, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A., April 26 - 28, 1977.110 TABLE 1 Properties of fibrous potassium titanate Formula (K20}, (TiOg),, 2/x = 8 Average fiber length 8-10 um Average diameter 0.10 - 0.16 um Melting point 1260 - 1810 °C (2300 - 2390 °F) Moh's hardness =3 Density ~3.3eqn > Brunauer~Emmett~Teller (BET) (Ng) surface area. 7-10m" g? This sort of reasoning was in part responsible for the present study in which the asbestos reinforcing agent — one of three principal types of in- gredients in a secondary organic brake lining — was replaced in varying quantities by potassium titanate fiber. The experimental ingredient was supplied by Ames Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, while fabrication and testing of friction materials was performed by the Bendix Corporation. After completion of the initial portion of the study, in which general indications were obtained of the friction and wear behavior of the experimental ingredient, a more detailed investigation was made of friction materials containing the potassium titanate fiber. This was followed by full scale inertial dynamometer tests which compared the performance and wear of linings containing the experi- mental fiber with those of a commercial lining which served as a standard. While improvements were sought in both friction and wear behavior, this paper will discuss primarily the effect of the experimental ingredient on the wear of a friction material composition. The materials and testing procedure employed are considered first, followed by a presentation of the results and their implications. Materials Potassium titanate fiber An insoluble synthetic fibrous form of potassium titanate was used in this study; it has good thermal stability and its hardness is lower than that of asbestos, and thus it has potentially lower brake lining and metal rotor wear. Its general properties are given in Table 1. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of this material indicates very little weight change other than that due to a slight initial loss of adsorbed water (Fig. 1); the apparent slight gain (about 1%) above 500 °C (932 °F) is attributed to instrument non- linearity at the high suppression used. This thermogram is compared in Fig. 1 with that of asbestos, which undergoes two decompositions below 750 °C (1382 °F), the brucite dehydration and the chrysotile dehydroxyl- ation. Additional properties of the potassium titanate fiber are given by Linsen and Regester [1].i a Fig. 1. TGA thermograms of asbestos and potassium titanate fiber in air. Friction materials containing potassium titanate fiber ‘The samples prepared to study inclusion of this ingredient will be described in some detail. Two types of composites, which will be referred to as type A and type B, were studied, both comprising asbestos fiber, phenolic binder and organic and inorganic modifiers. The two types differed in that the corresponding ingredients were not chemically identical, e.g. the resin or cashew friction particles in type A were not the same as those in type B. For both types of composites the properties of friction materials with potassium titanate fiber added were compared with corresponding friction materials not containing potassium titanate; the latter are referred to as the “‘standard composites” of type A or type B and their compositions are shown in Table 2. The single standard composite B is a commercial lining suitable for application as a secondary lining in automobiles and light trucks, and meets the United States Federal specifications for certain (1973) government vehicles. ‘The composites containing the potassium titanate fiber were prepared with various amounts of resin and varying ratios of titanate fiber to asbestos. In general, however, relative amounts of other ingredients were not varied and were the same as in the standards. This is shown in Table 3. A conventional compression molding technique was used to fabricate the composites. Ingredients were weighed and dry blended in a P-K cantilever12 TABLE 2 Composition of standard formulations Ingredient Ingredient content ‘Type B Phenolic resin binder 18 Pee Asbestos fiber 36.2 348 336 37.5 Organic modifiers* 35.3 34.0 32.6 36.5 Inorganic modifiers 10.5 10.2 9.8 11 “Principally cashew friction particles. TABLE 3 Ingredient ranges for experimental composites with potassium titanate fiber Ingredient Type B Binder content (vol. %) 18-24 15-24 Ratio of potassium titanate fiber to asbestos 0.25-1.5 0.33 - 1.0 Ratio of total fiber to modifiers 0.79 0.73 - 0.88 Ratio of inorganic to organic modifiers 0.30 0.30 twin shell laboratory blender with an intensifier bar for efficient achievement of homogeneous blends. They were then molded at 177 °C (350 °F) and 6000 Ibf in-? (4 X 107 N m~?) for 15 min and cured at 260 °C (500 °F) for 8 h. The physical form of the friction material thus fabricated was that of a small disc pad, about 5 in? (32 cm?) in area and 3/8 in (1 cm) thick. For sample dynamometer tests small portions were cut directly from this cured material. Full scale dynamometer tests were conducted also for the single experi- mental friction material which provided the greatest overall improvement in friction and wear, which will be described below. To ensure that the full scale tests were conducted with friction materials which were identical to those used in the small scale dynamometer tests, the full scale experi- mental linings were fabricated by the following procedure. A number of disc pads of the experimental formula were fabricated by the procedure just described, cut into rectangular pieces of the correct width for the shoe (2 in = 5.1 cm) and machined to the curvature of the shoe. They were then bonded to the shoe to give a “segmented” lining which was handled in con-113 ventional fashion for testing. Since the secondary lining must be used in conjunction with a suitable primary lining, these full scale tests were made using the commercial primary with which the commercial standard secondary lining is normally paired. Development of techniques for full scale fabrication was not a part of this program. Attempts to manufacture secondary linings of the best experi- mental composition by normal large scale processing indicated that further refinement of procedures for this composition is necessary. Testing procedure Small scale sample dynamometer Friction and wear measurements were conducted with a friction materials test machine of the type specified in SAE Standard J-661a [2], which has been described in the literature [3]. At temperatures ranging from 122 to 353 °C (250 - 650 °F) a series of 40 applications of the com- posite sample against a rotating cast iron drum was made with the sample/ drum sliding speed maintained at 7.6 m s (25 ft s). The output torque was held constant at 4.0 kgf m (350 in 1b), and the normal load necessary to maintain the torque, averaged over 40 applications, provided the measure of the friction coefficient. Sample wear at each temperature was determined by measuring the cumulative dimensional and weight loss resulting from the 40 applications. The drum had a 28 cm (11 in) inside diameter, and its composition corresponded to the specifications given in SAE Standard J661A [2]. The drum temperature was measured through a slip ring assembly with a chromel-alumel thermocouple located at the center of the wear track, 0.13 cm (0.05 in) below the friction surface. An auxiliary heater-blower system was available for maintaining the desired temperature. Upon receiving the cured experimental sample, the operator cut a piece to the desired dimensions (2.54 X 2.54 X 0.7 cm), measured its density and arced the friction surface to conform with the drum curvature. Before the initial series of applications at 122 °C (250 °F), the sample was “broken in” by dragging it against the drum at a sliding speed of 4.75 m s * (15.6 ft st) and a constant load of 6.9 X 10° N m~? (100 Ibf in”). This served to create a wear track on the drum, which was cleaned and ground before each new sample was tested, and ensured that the entire surface of the sample was in proper contact with the drum. The sample was then weighed, measured and re-positioned, and the first 40 applications at 122 °C (250 °F) were begun. Inertial dynamometer tests These tests were conducted at the Bendix Corporation Automotive Control Systems Group (ACSG) facilities in South Bend, Ind. Either a Gilmore or a Link full scale inertial brake dynamometer was used for the tests, whichever became available when the tests were scheduled to be run.114 ANCHOR FORCE tt LON \ me _/ Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the operation of a duo-servo brake. The basic brake information used for the tests was as follows. Type of brake: —_D.S.8.A. (duo-servo). Size: 27.9 om X 5.1 cm (11 in X 2 in). Rolling radius: 31.12 em (12.26 in). Wheel cylinder size: 2.86 cm (1.125 in). Wheel load: 445 kg (980 Ib). ‘Two separate tests were conducted, one to give an indication of lining wear and one to test lining performance in terms of friction. Basic principle of operation ‘The duo-servo principle is the basic principle of operation of the maj- ority of passenger car drum brakes in use at present. The brake shown schematically in Fig. 2 is representative of a left-hand assembly as viewed from the outside of the vehicle. Drum to lining and shoe to anchor clearances are purposely exaggerated so that the movement of the shoes can be easily shown. The operational description applies to either the front or rear brake assembly. When the brake is in its released position, the shoe return spring holds the primary and secondary shoes against the anchor and clearance is provided between the linings and drum rubbing surface. When hydraulic pressure is115 applied to the brake system by the master cylinder, the force from the wheel cylinder is applied through the links to the brake shoes and the shoes are moved out to contact the drum. If the drum is rotating counterclockwise as indicated in Fig. 2 (corresponding to forward motion of the vehicle), the friction force between the drum and the linings rotates the shoes counter- clockwise. This movement causes the primary shoe to leave the anchor and causes the secondary shoe to move against the anchor. The frictional force between the drum and the primary shoe is transmitted through the pivot screw and adjusting nut assembly to the secondary shoe. This servo action increases the pressure between the secondary shoe and the drum. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the wheel cylinder, the shoe return spring moves the shoes away from the drum surface and the shoes return to the anchor. If the brakes are applied while the vehicle is backing (corresponding to clockwise drum rotation, Fig. 2), the shoes rotate clockwise with the drum, ‘This causes the secondary shoe to leave the anchor and causes the primary shoe to move against the anchor. In this case the secondary shoe applies the primary shoe against the drum. Action of the brake therefore is the same in reverse as in its forward direction. Wear test The inertial dynamometer wear test performed in this program is actually quite similar in concept to the sample dynamometer test described above. Under controlled laboratory conditions it enables relative comparisons to be made of the durability of brake linings under increasingly severe con- ditions of usage. This means, of course, that both the experimental lining and the standard were tested so that a comparison could be made. In this test 300 stops were made from 22.4 m s~! (50 mph) at each of a series of temperatures at a constant deceleration rate of 3.66 ms * (12 ft s-). Line pressure and lining and drum temperatures were recorded, the latter serving as the control temperature. Weight and thickness were measured for both primary and secondary linings initially and after each series at a temperature. The commercial primary lining was used in com- bination with both the standard and experimental secondaries. The detailed test procedure will not be given here*. Performance test Rather than measuring wear, this test is designed to test the frictional properties of a brake system, and it is usually only defined for a vehicle in which interactions between front and rear brakes are important. The par- ticular aspects of a lining’s performance that are emphasized in this test are effectiveness, i.e. the ability to stop a vehicle within a given distance, and fade, i.e. the loss in friction with repeated short interval high torque stops. *Step-by-step detailed descriptions of the wear and performance tests carried out on the full scale dynamometer may be found in ref. 4.116 Fig. 3. Wear as a function of temperature for an experimental composite containing potassium titanate fiber compared with type B standard, O—O, standard, log Ws = 0.930 — 1820/T; , experimental, log We = 1.02 — 1960/T. The actual test performed in this study was a single wheel dynamometer simulation of FMVSS 105-75 [5]. Here also both standard and experimental secondaries were tested with the standard primary in order that a comparison could be made. A step-by-step listing of the procedure used will not be given here [4]. Results and discussion Sample dynamometer tests It was apparent from the outset that the fabrication of samples con- taining potassium titanate fiber would present some difficulties because of its small particle size, high surface area and consequent large resin demand. Fabrication of a type B experimental composite in which all the asbestos was replaced with potassium titanate fiber was, in fact, not possible because there was insufficient resin to hold the materials together. By systematic variation of the resin content, as well as the ratio of potassium titanate fiber to asbestos, it was found that the strength of the friction composite could be brought within acceptable limits by simultaneous increase in resin content and decrease in potassium titanate content. If the titanate ratio was above unity, i.e. if more than one-half of the asbestos was replaced, the sample either could not be fabricated or it broke up during testing.117 18 ie 36 3 ze 28 wre Fig. 4. Semilogarithmic plot of wear as a function of reciprocal absolute temperature for standard and experimental composites: —O—, standard; —4— experimental. The net result of these tests was identification of a formulation in which one-half of the asbestos had been replaced by potassium titanate fiber and the resin content had been adjusted upward by 40%. When com- pared with the standard, this friction material is improved, both in friction and in wear, in the temperature range between 232 and 348 °C (450 and 650 °F). Figure 3 shows plots of wear as a function of temperature for the standard composite (circles) and experimental material (triangles) just described. Experimental points on each curve are averaged from tests on three separate samples of the respective material. The error bars give an indication of the scatter observed in these wear tests. ‘The smooth curves through each set of points above 260 °C (500 °F) were drawn by assuming that the wear for those friction materials of the organic type is an exponential function of the absolute temperature in that temperature range. This has been demonstrated previously by Rhee [6] who showed that the wear of an organic friction material above 232 °C (450 °F) can be explained by assuming that the thermal decomposition of the phenolic resin is the controlling process. Further support for this view is provided by the work of Liu and Rhee [7] in which the wear of several commercial phenolic resin bound friction materials is shown to be controlled by a temperature activated process. If the wear of the friction materials is expressed in Arrhenius-like form log AW=A—B/T Qa)118 4 FRICTION COEFFI ENT “0 350 450 «650650 TEMPERATURE, °F 50 Ey 30 TEMPERATURE, °C Fig. 5. Friction coefficients as a function of temperature for standard and experimental composites. where AW is the wear, expressed in mils, for 40 applications at absolute temperature T, and A and B are constants, then a plot of log W versus 1/T should be linear if the thermally activated process is controlling. Such plots are shown in Fig. 4. They are obviously not linear over the entire temper- ature range studied: 394 - 617 K (250 - 650 °F). We may speculate, however, that the curves on this semilogarithmic plot are representative of two thermally activated processes. The first is dominant at low temperatures up to about 478 K (400 °F) and leads into a zone of transition. The wear in this low temperature region is normally attributed primarily to abrasion and adhesion [6]. Above 533 K (500 °F) a more strongly temperature dependent process takes over, and it is suggested that this is the thermal decomposition of the phenolic resin binder. The least squares lines through the high temperature points are seen to be very nearly parallel for the standard and experimental linings, suggesting that the same activation process is dominant in both cases. If the slope of these lines is used to calculate an Arrhenius activation energy for the wear of these materials, the following values are obtained: for the standard lining Es = 8.3 + 2.0 kcal mol * (2) and for the experimental lining Ey, = 8.9 + 1.0 keal mol" (3) These values are in good agreement with those reported by Liu and Khee, who found activation energies varying from 4.0 to 9.6 kcal mol for three organic friction materials. ‘The wear improvement of the experimental composite over the standard lining formula is about 40% on average between 177 and 343 °C (350 and 650 °F). The friction behavior of both composites is shown in Fig. 5, in which the curves for experimental materials are typical, indicating higher friction than the standard above 282 °C (450 °F) and lower below 204 °C (400 °F). Having shown that high temperature properties can be improved by adjustment of both potassium titanate and resin content, it remains to be119 Wean an, x 10-3) Fig. 6. Wear as a function of temperature for type A standard lining composites containing various quantities of resin. demonstrated that the titanate fiber makes a positive contribution towards wear improvement since it is known that the wear of a friction material can be improved by increasing the resin content over a fairly wide range [8] . Fabrication and testing of the series of standard and experimental composites of type A served to prove this. The effect of increasing the resin content in 20% steps over a baseline composition of type A is shown in Fig. 6. The dramatic improvement in high temperature wear at the intermediate resin levels followed by gradual deterioration as the resin is raised still further should be noted. Although it is not shown here, the friction of all these materials was quite low above 260 °C (500 °F), i.e. fade was getting rather high. While these curves are all quite similar, an interesting effect takes place upon the introduction of potassium titanate fiber. This is shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. In the region below 232 °C (450 °F), where abrasion and adhesion are the predominant wear mechanisms [6] , there is little difference between the standard and experimental composites in all cases. Above 232 °C (450 °F), as we cross into the thermal decomposition regime [6], large differences become evident. At the 18 and 21 vol. % resin level addition of potassium titanate causes a deterioration of the wear, although a trend toward improvement is noted as the relative amount of titanate is increased, ie, as the titanate to asbestos ratio is increased. However, a dramatic reversal takes place at 24 vol. % resin level; the introduction of potassium titanate120 Fig. 7. Wear as a function of temperature for experimental composites containing 18% resin at three ratios of titanate to asbestos. ! va-007 | i wean an x10) (a)121 2c nesIN 8 roo p44 fan 7“ “oF La 08 70 0 e (b) TEMPERATURE Fig. 8. Wear as a function of temperature for experimental composites containing 21% resin: (a) ratio of titanate to asbestos, 0.067; (b) ratio of titanate to asbestos, 1.0, 1.5. a F i| / gu fms z¢ ¢ I re En ee | ao | ‘TEMPERATURE. Fig. 9. Wear as a function of temperature for experimental composites containing 24% resin at three ratios of titanate to asbestos.122 (a) Feenatune Cr 7 3 eo oe ‘enrenarune =) (b) Fig. 10. Wear as a function of temperature as determined on an inertial dynamometer: (a) standard lining combination (~~ ~ primary lining, — secondary lining); (b) experimental lining combination. fiber now gives better wear than in the standard. This thus demonstrates that some wear improvement can indeed be attributed to the addition of this experimental fiber. While it may be argued that a similar wear improve- ment is obtained relative to the standard material containing 15 vol.% by adding resin alone (compare Figs. 6 and 9), it must be recalled that the main- tenance of high friction was also one of our objectives. This was achieved only when the potassium titanate fiber was added. Inertial dynamometer tests While the use of a friction material test machine is adequate for pre- liminary screening purposes, the development of a viable commercial friction material must be supported by full scale tests on an inertial dynamometer and/or a vehicle. Full scale linings of type B composition, both standard and of the best experimental formulation, were thus fabricated as described above and subjected to inertial dynamometer testing. This necessitated the use of a primary lining as described under the operation of the duo-servo brake. For application as a primary lining the stability of frictional properties is of greater importance than wear resistance. Thus friction materials for123 primary linings are usually formulated to have a faster wear rate with more frequent surface removal and greater frictional stability. When a direct comparison is made in a single test of the wear and friction of a primary and secondary lining, we expect the primary to have higher and steadier friction but with attendant higher wear. In a properly designed duo-servo brake, however, the primary lining will transmit the major portion of the load to the secondary, which is designed to have higher wear resistance. ‘The primary will thus be exposed to less severe conditions, and can be formulated for high and stable friction rather than high wear resistance. ‘The primary lining that was chosen for the full scale tests described here is the one which is used commercially with the standard commercial secondary lining. Sample tests under temperature, speed and load conditions identical to those described above indicated that the primary lining wears about five times faster than the secondary, especially above 232 °C (450 °F). Its friction coefficient is high and steady, ranging between 0.36 and 0.47 and averaging 0.41. ‘Two different inertial dynamometer test schedules were run, one to probe the longevity or wear of the lining, and one to investigate the frictional characteristics of the lining or the ability of the brake to stop the wheel within a certain distance under various conditions. Since it was only possible to perform a single wheel test, no absolute determination of compliance with a given set of stopping requirements could be made since they depend on brake system characteristics. However, by running identical tests on separate sets of standard and experimental linings some useful comparisons could be made. Wear test In this test, which was described briefly above, the wear was measured several times, each after a series of stops at successively higher temperatures which provided an accelerated wear condition. The wear of the linings, in the form of loss in thickness averaged over the surface of the linings, is shown graphically in Fig. 10. Very similar graphs are obtained if the weight loss is plotted in place of the thickness loss. It should be noted that the wear of the secondary lining is higher than that of the primary, even though the primary lining wear was five times higher than that of the secondary in sample dynamometer tests. The duo-servo principle has come into play, and the secondary lining is the one that does most of the work and thus has the greater wear. Comparison of the wear of the standard and experimental linings is shown on an incremental basis in Fig. 11. Focusing on the all-important secondary, we find that there is very little difference between the two linings up to 450 °F (232 °C), with the standard having a slight possible advantage. At higher temperatures the experimental seems to show a definite improvement over the standard, of the order of 30%. It is interesting to note that this behavior is paralleled closely by the corresponding prima- ries, though the formulation was the same in both cases. This test suggests124 ‘Fonmearune #1 AVERAGE THICKNERE WEAR (b) Fig. 11. Comparison of incremental average thickness wear as a function of temperature on an inertial dynamometer: (a) primary lining, (b) secondary lining (— standard eom- bination, ~ — — experimental combination). then that the experimental secondary lining at high temperature has superior wear resistance to that of the standard, and it is even capable of removing some of the load from the primary so that the wear of the pair is improved in a parallel fashion. It must be noted that this is the result of a single test, however, and extreme caution must be exercised in reaching a definitive conclusion regarding the actual improvement before additional tests are performed. Friction characteristics Although the principal emphasis of this paper is on the wear charac- teristics of the materials discussed, a brief report of their frictional charac- teristics under full scale testing will be included. FMVSS 105-75 [5] is a complex procedure which specifies requirements for hydraulic service brake and associated parking brake systems to ensure safe braking performance under normal and emergency conditions. The single wheel dynamometer simulation of this procedure allowed us to compare the performance of the125 standard and experimental friction materials, without enabling a determina- tion of their absolute compliance with the Federal Standard. ‘The length of the tests, volume of data obtained and complexity of analysis does not permit a detailed discussion here*. However, the major conclusions reached will be stated. Ideally, a brake lining would have con- stant friction under all normal and abnormal driving conditions. This means, for example, that it would behave identically at 30 mph and 60 mph; it would also behave identically under normal flat road driving and after having been exposed to the temperature extremes experienced when driving down a mountain (fade conditions). In actuality, linings undergo physical and chemical changes in usage that affect their performance under varying con- ditions. Compliance with FMVSS 105-75 makes it desirable to minimize these changes in performance. Identical procedures were run for standard and experimental lining combinations, and comparisons were made between the two. In every instance it was found that the experimental lining showed advantages relative to the standard by having better friction stability (i.e. less change in friction level before and after exposure to fade conditions) and less speed spread (i.e. less change in friction level when stopping from different speeds). ‘The experimental lining thus appears superior in its potential for allowing avehicle brake system to meet the requirements of the Federal Safety Standard. Summary and conclusion It has been found that partial substitution of potassium titanate fiber for asbestos, together with a resin adjustment, can allow fabrication of a secondary lining material with improved high temperature friction and wear. The formulation in which resin has been increased by 40% and in which one-half of the original asbestos has been replaced appears to be near an optimum. Average wear improvement, compared with the standard com- mercial formulation which served as baseline, was of the order of 30 - 40%, especially in the range above 204 °C (400 °F) in both sample dynamometer and full scale inertial dynamometer tests. Advantages for this experimental lining were also found in friction stability and in speed spread, enhancing its ability to allow a brake system to meet legal stopping distance requirements. We may speculate briefly on the mode of action which has brought about the observed improvement. It may be said in general that while the inclusion of thermally stable ingredients is a necessary condition for the improvement of high temperature properties of a friction composite, it may not be sufficient. While the properties of the composite do reflect the characteristics of the individual components, the interaction between com- ponents also exerts an influence — perhaps a major one. ‘*Details may be found in ref. 4.126 Thermal wear must result from at least two principal causes. One is the thermal degradation within the organic components, which are pyrolized and oxidized and finally wear away as gases or other degradation products because of continued thermal or mechanical stresses. The other cause of thermal wear of a composite must be attributed to the interfaces between the various components. If a strong bond is formed of the same order as that within each separate ingredient, e.g. phenolic resin and cashew friction particle, a strong composite will result. Alternatively, if a weak bond is formed and the matrix merely contains the various ingredients as adjacent particles, excessive wear will take place as soon as the thermal and mechan- ical stresses are sufficient to remove some of the binder holding the matrix together. Evidently a difference between one or more of the properties of asbestos and potassium titanate fiber, including the manner in which they interact with the other ingredients, contributes to wear improvement. In addition, the presence of potassium titanate fiber contributes significantly to high temperature friction improvement. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Mr. R. D. Stapleton for his work in the fabrication and characterization of experimental materials and composites, Mr. H. M. Danbert for performing the friction and wear tests with the friction materials test machine and Mr. H. W. Schwartz for supervision of the tests and for many helpful discussions. The cooperation and assistance of Mr. P. A. Thesier and Mr. G. B. McRae of Bendix Automotive Control Systems Group in performance and interpretation of the full scale dynamo- meter tests is gratefully acknowledged. The work described is based on a research report prepared for the Ames Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, under Contract No. NAS 2-758. References 1 P. G, Linsen and R. F. Regester, New inorganic fibers for plastic reinforcement, 27th ‘Technical and Management Conf., Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1972, Society of the Plastics Industry, New York, 1972 1973 SAE Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, 1973, p. 1018. A. R, Spencer, W. M. Spurgeon and J. L. Winge, Four tests for consistency of automo- tive brake linings, SAE Paper No. 660412, June 1966. 4 M. L. Halberstadt, Fabrication and test of experimental automotive friction materials, Final Rep. NASA CR 137852, May 1976. 5 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 5715 105-75-1, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., September 1, 1975. 6 8. K. Rhee, Wear mechanisms for asbestos-reinforced automotive friction materials, Wear, 29 (1974) 391. 7 T, Liu and §. K. Rhee, High temperature wear of asbestos-reinforced friction materials, Wear, 37 (1976) 291 8 M. G. Jacko, W. M. Spurgeon, R. M. Rusnak and 8. B. Catalano, Thermal stability and fade characteristics of friction materials, SAE Paper No. 680417, May 1968.