ABSTRACT

Vanadium redox flow batteries are one of the most promising electrochemical energy storage
devices for storing huge amounts of energy and integrating them into power grid systems. The
current work provides a general review of VRFB while also discuss the cell design. Flow battery-
related significant difficulties are addressed. Membranes are an important component of the VRFB
system. As a result, membrane-related concerns such as Vanadium ion crossing through the
membrane and the subsequent capacity decay have been thoroughly studied. Numerous studies
have been conducted on the modification of Nafion membranes utilising various materials with
varying functional groups. This study examines the most relevant modification strategies that
considerably improved the VRFB system's performance. It investigates the causes of capacity
decay as well as rebalancing strategies for dealing with it. The cost analysis assessment has been
done in this manner to provide readers with an approximate estimate of how much the VRFB
system costs on a larger scale. The scaling-up concerns are also addressed. As a result, this paper
gives an overview of the main challenges in Vanadium flow batteries, followed by ways for
addressing them and guiding membrane research for future advancement.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 3
1. OVERVIEW OF VANADIUM REDOX FLOW BATTERY ........................................... 4
1.1 DESIGN OF VRFB (SINGLE FLOW CELL SETUP) .............................................. 4
1.1.1 ELECTRODE: ........................................................................................................ 4
1.1.2 ELECTROLYTE .................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 MEMBRANES ....................................................................................................... 4
1.1.4 BIPOLAR PLATE: ............................................................................................... 5
1.1.5 END PLATE ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1.6 CURRENT COLLCTOR ....................................................................................... 5
1.2 ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE SYSTEM: ........................................................... 6
2 CRITICAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH VRFB SYSTEM ................................. 8
3 SPECIES CROSSOVER THROUGH MEMBRANES (MODELLING AND
EXPERIMENTAL): ..................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 MITIGATION STRATEGIES: ......................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 MODIFICATION IN NAFION MEMBRANES USING GRAPHENE OXIDE
(GO) ........................................................................................................................................ 9
3.2.2 NAFION COMPOSITE MEMBRANE .................................................................... 10
4 CAPACITY DECAY - ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE: .............................................. 12
5 COST ANALYSIS OF VRFB: ........................................................................................... 13
6 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 17
7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 18
1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the imminent threats of fossil fuels depletion and uplifting carbon dioxide
emission raises environmental-related consequences such as global warming and climatic change,
this situation urged us to utilize electricity from renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind.[1] However, the uncertainties and fluctuations in renewable energy sources are still
challenging to integrate into the grid scale. Thus, the development of an energy storage system is
highly demanded to store electrical energy very efficiently during peak production and consume
it into the grid during peak demand. [2]–[4]Electrochemical energy storage (EES) has gained
widespread attention and is an auspicious candidate for storing electricity in large-scale
applications. Among the most promising large-scale energy storage technologies, redox flow
batteries (RFBs) are efficient electrochemical energy storage and conversion devices owing to
their decoupling of energy and power density[5]. RFB adopts redox active materials stored in
separate tanks and pumped into the cell by using an external peristaltic pump at a fixed flow rate.
The amount of energy stored can be dependent upon the concentration or volume of the electrolyte
whereas the amount of power drawn from the cell can depend on the area or the number of the
cells. Moreover, RFBs offer long cyclability, flexibility in cell design which is power, and energy
can be varied independently according to the needs, deep discharge up to 0V, high safety and high
efficiency. Thus, RFBs can be integrated with renewable energy sources in electrical grid systems
to provide stable electricity to meet the current energy demands[6]. Among the other RFBs,
Vanadium Redox Flow batteries (VRFB) have gained a lot of attention since it involves the same
active species in both (Vanadium ions) in both anolyte and Catholyte which avoids cross
contamination between the anolyte and catholyte tanks. The VRFB possess several merits such as
high solubility of Vanadium ions, depth of discharge up to 0 V), high cyclability and wide
operating temperature.
VRFBs has shown great potential for commercialization and can be integrated into renewable
source for storing energy. In the recent years, battery performance and the design of VRFB has
enhanced through constant innovations. One of the major limiting factors in the commercialization
of VRFB is the cost associated with its setup and low energy density. The energy density we can
achieve is mere 35 Wh kg-1 however the stated theoretical capacity is 50 Wh kg-1. This is due to
issues such as crossover of Vanadium ions and the water molecules across membranes leading to
battery polarisation. These are the areas still need to develop in the VRFB system.
In this, we are going to analyze the limitations associated specifically with membranes and try to
mitigate those limitations through our analysis.
The objective of this project is to analyse and discuss the key elements and critical concerns
regarding membranes that affects the performance operation of VRFB system and providing
reference and recommendations for future research.
1. OVERVIEW OF VANADIUM REDOX FLOW BATTERY
All Vanadium flow batteries are electrochemical storage systems that chemical energy into
electrical energy via reversible oxidation and reduction of molecules contained in the working
fluid. Vanadium Flow Battery typically consists of a flow cell setup, and anolyte and catholyte
tanks connected to the setup with tubes and pump. The detailed cross section of the Vanadium
flow system is as follows.

1.1 DESIGN OF VRFB (SINGLE FLOW CELL SETUP)

Flow cell setup which includes an anode and cathode with a membrane, a graphitic plate with flow
field engraved.

1.1.1 ELECTRODE:
RFB electrode materials are classified as follows: a) composite (carbon-based or metallic), b)
thermal or chemical treatment (treated or untreated), c) electrocatalyst coating (coated or
uncoated), d) their geometrical structure (2-D or 3-D) and e) flow mode of the electrolyte (flow-
by or flow-across).
In RFB, the porous electrodes are used since they are easy to function without any blockages and
planar electrodes are used for hydraulic sealing. Typically used electrodes are made of both porous
electrodes as primary and composite graphite-polymer as secondary electrodes. These are usually
used as electrodes due to their high specific are, electrochemical stability and high specific area.
To enhance the electrochemical activity of redox species on electrodes further modifications can
be done through acid treatment, thermal treatment, surface modification and plasma treatment.

1.1.2 ELECTROLYTE
Electrolytes are a major part of a redox flow battery in which energy is stores where in
conventional batteries energy is stored in electrodes. In VRFB system both electrolyte tank
consists of Vanadium species in which V2+/V3+ and V4+/V5+ present in the anolyte and catholyte
respectively. Usually in VRFB system, the Vanadium are dissolved in Sulphuric acid and in some
cases mixed electrolyte such as sulphuric acid + hydrochloric acid is also used to get better
performance.

1.1.3 MEMBRANES
Membranes also play a crucial role VRFB system. Its purpose is to have high permeability towards
H+ ions and block the crossover of other species. Typically, Ion exchange membranes are used in
VRFB systems which includes membranes such as Nafion membrane or other perfluorinated or
per sulfonated polymers. Since this project relies on problems in membrane, we will investigate
this part more in detail in the upcoming sections.

1.1.4 BIPOLAR PLATE:

Bipolar plates are applied to both half cells and provide positive and negative polarity. The liquid
flow channels are embedded in them, and as the liquid flows through them, it makes contact with
the electrode, causing electrochemical reactions to occur in this region. Better flow field and cell
structure design is also an ongoing field of research that improves cell performance.
The Bipolar plates have multiple functions in Redox Flow Batteries. First, the Bipolar plates
mechanically support the electrodes. Meanwhile, the BPs function as sealing elements to avoid
electrolyte leakage. Second, the BPs provides a pathway for the electrons between adjacent single
cells to complete the internal circuit in battery stacks. In addition, in the modern structure design
of RFBs, the BPs act as flow distributors to improve the homogeneous distribution of electrolytes
through the engraved flow channels on the surface.

1.1.5 END PLATE

The end plate is used to complete the cell stack at the ends. They are used at both ends to compress
all these components of both half cells together into a single stack.

Fig 1. Exploited view of Flow Battery[7]

1.1.6 CURRENT COLLCTOR
Current collector is the plate through which current goes into the electrode from the load and vice
versa. Highly conducting materials such as gold, copper is used for this cause.
1.2 ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE SYSTEM:
In VRFB system, simultaneous reactions occur on both +ve and -ve sides of the membrane. While
charging V3+ is converted into V2+ in the anolyte and VO2+ is converted into VO2+ in the catholyte
while H+ ions transfer through the membrane to keep the electrolyte electrically neutral. The
overall cell reaction is stated below.
Positive electrode reaction:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
VO2+ + H2O – e- VO2+ + 2H+ Ecathode = 1.004 V
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Negative electrode reaction:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
V3+ + e- V2+ Eanode = -0.255 V
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Overall cell reaction:
VO2+ + V3+ + H2O VO2+ + V2+ + 2H+ Ecell = 1.259
The standard Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) of a single VRFB cell is 1.25 V at room temperature.
From the knowledge gained from this coursework, the voltage of a cell is calculated from adding
open circuit voltage, concentration polarization, ohmic polarization and activation polarization.
Ecell = EOCV + ηact + ηconc. + IRcell
OCV of the VRFB can be calculated by the following equation,

𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 5+ 𝐶𝑉 2+ 𝐶𝐻++ (𝐶𝐻++ )2
𝐸𝑂𝐶𝑉 = 𝐸0 + ln [ ]
𝑛𝐹 𝐶𝑉 4+ 𝐶𝑉 3+ 𝐶𝐻−+

The coulombic efficiency of the system is given by the ratio of the capacity input during discharge
and the output capacity during charging.
𝑄𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐼 .𝑡
Coulombic Efficiency = = 𝐼 𝑑𝑖𝑠 .𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑠
𝑄𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑔

The losses in coulombic efficiency (CE) can occur due to the crossover of ions, irreversible
reactions, and losses due to shunt current.
The Voltage efficiency of the system is given by the ratio of the average voltage during charge and
the average voltage while charging.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑝𝑡𝑈 𝑐ℎ𝑔
Voltage Efficiency = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑠

The losses in Voltage efficiency (VE) can occur due to the overvoltage while charging and
discharging.
The Energy efficiency (EE) of the system is given by the product of both Coulombic and Voltage
efficiency.
Energy Efficiency = Coulombic Efficiency * Voltage Efficiency
The losses in Energy efficiency (VE) can occur due to the cell components and operation
parameters.
There are some side reactions that possibly occur during while the system is operating which
including Hydrogen and Oxygen evolution at negative and positive electrode respectively. These
gas bubbles can influence the battery performance by blocking the electrolyte flow, reducing the
mass transfer, charge transfer and diffusion coefficients.

Fig 1. Vanadium Flow Battery

Load

+
H
2+ 5+
V V
Discharge
Charge

Charge
Discharge

Anolyte Catholyt
- + e
-ve +ve
Electrolyte 3+ 4+ Electrolyte
V V 4+ 5+
2+ 3+ V /V
V /V

Membrane

Pump
Pump
Fig 2. Vanadium Flow Battery
2 CRITICAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH VRFB SYSTEM

The major concerns which deal with the operation of VRFB system are listed below.
1. Vanadium ion transport across membranes can diminish cell capacity and, eventually,
efficiency.
2. When it comes to system modelling, a single modelling technique will not enough in the VRFB
system. Due to the intricate nature of VRFB, multiphysical field coupling modelling involving
chemical, electrical, and kinetic fields should be performed to obtain accuracy.
3. During the years, the performance of the VRFB has only been optimised in the flow field, flow
rate, and EE analysis without the implementation of new materials.
4. The cost of the redox species in the electrolyte and membranes is substantial, and there are no
market incentive mechanisms in place to encourage the development of VRFB.
This study analyses the some of these critical issues in the following section which can lead to a
significant development of flow batteries. [8]

3 SPECIES CROSSOVER THROUGH MEMBRANES (MODELLING AND

EXPERIMENTAL):

When vanadium ions, specifically V2+ and V3+, diffuse through the ion-exchange membrane (IEM)
that separates the positive and negative electrolyte solutions in the battery, vanadium crossover
occurs. Several causes can be responsible for vanadium crossover:
Concentration gradient: Vanadium ions travel from the side of greater concentration to the side of
lower concentration because of the concentration gradient across the membrane. This can happen
when the concentration of vanadium ions on one side of the membrane is higher than on the other,
causing vanadium ions to diffuse across the membrane.
Size of Vanadium ions: Vanadium ions are relatively small, and the holes in the ion-exchange
membrane may not be narrow enough to prohibit their passage completely. V2+ and V3+ ions have
a size that is equivalent to the pore size of many commonly used ion-exchange membranes,
allowing them to diffuse through the membrane.
Membrane properties: The ion-exchange membrane's porosity, thickness, and surface charge can
all influence vanadium crossover. Vanadium crossing is more likely in membranes with higher
porosity or thinner thickness. Furthermore, the surface charge of the membrane can alter the
migration of vanadium ions across the membrane since vanadium ions are charged species and the
surface charge of the membrane might affect their transport.
Electrochemical reactions: Vanadium crossover can also be caused by electrochemical events,
such as vanadium ions undertaking redox reactions at the membrane-electrolyte interface. These
processes can cause vanadium ions' charge states to change, changing their transport characteristics
and resulting in crossover.
Vanadium crossover in VRFBs is generally undesired since it can impair battery efficiency,
capacity, and induce membrane breakdown over time. Mitigating vanadium crossover is an
important field of research, and several tactics such as using different membrane materials,
optimising battery operating conditions, and employing membrane coatings have been proposed
to minimise vanadium crossover and improve the performance of VRFBs.
Unlike most of present studies in ion crossover, the crossover model developed by Ertan et al., has
included the transfer of all possible species including V2+, V3+, VO2+, VO2+, H+, HSO− 4 . In his
model, he has formulated series of equations incorporating mass transfer balance, diffusion
coefficients, boundary conditions and the membrane electrolyte interface. The formulated
equations were solved using COMSOL Multiphysics using Darcy law, inbuilt tertiary current
distribution with ODE options. From these equations they have simulated the species crossover
and compared with experimental studies done by Kim et al.

Fig 3. Comparison of experimental results with simulated data a) charge-discharge cycle b)

change in cell capacity.[9]
It shows the model developed by almost perfectly oriented with experimental results.

3.2 MITIGATION STRATEGIES:

3.2.1 MODIFICATION IN NAFION MEMBRANES USING GRAPHENE OXIDE (GO)
To improve the ion selectivity of Nafion membrane, there are series of modifications has been
done on this membrane which are as follows. Many of the researchers have incorporated Graphene
oxide/Nafion composite membranes because of its unique 2D layered structure, oxygen functional
groups and its ability to act as a filler. Thus, the GO embedded systems could effectively reduce
the permeability of Vanadium ions through the membrane. Yu et al., has studied the commercial
Nafion 117 membrane with GO/Nafion composite.

Fig 4. Comparison of a) Coulombic efficiency of Nafion 212, amino strengthened GO/Nafion,

GO/Nafion b) Vanadium permeability of PFSA, PFSA-PTFE, GO@ PFSA-PTFE & d-
GO@PFSA-PTFE membranes.[10], [11]
The experimental results show that GO/Nafion membrane has effectively improved the battery
performance by preventing the crossover Vanadium ions. Research done by Lee et al., also shows
that cross linked interface strengthened amino strengthened GO/Nafion composite could
effectively reduce the Vanadium permeability 84% lower than the original Nafion 212 membrane
and shows better electrochemical performance and higher CE% as stated in Fig 4 a)
Similar tests have also done by Ye et al., with defective GO sheets incorporated in Nafion matrix
(Perflurosulfonic acid membrane PFSA) and porous Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hybrid
membrane to effectively supress the vanadium crossover. The results are shown in fig 4 b) which
shows the sandwiched membrane exhibit lower Vanadium permeability comparing others. This is
due to the synergistic effect in which the hybrid membrane blocks the path of Vanadium ions by
bending or lengthening it. In another studies, optimization has done to improve the GO
compatibility in Nafion membrane, and it has been found that increasing GO contents in Nafion
membrane results in decreasing the protonic conductivity and vanadium permeability and optimum
amount of GO content is found to be 0.001 wt.% to 0.1 wt.% for better performance. These studies
have shown that molecular sieving effect of GO could effectively block the permeability of
Vanadium ions and thus helps in enhancing the overall efficiency of the VRFB cell.
3.2.2 NAFION COMPOSITE MEMBRANE
Other than GO several other composites have also been employed to improve the properties of
Nafion.
From the studies done by Yang et al., it is reported that double layered structure colloidal Silicate
Nafion composite membrane tends to exhibit high proton to vanadyl ion transport selectivity and
and reduced electrical resistance when compared the Nafion 117 membrane. Since they have
smaller zeolite pores, they do not allow the diffusion of multivalent Vanadium ions through
membrane. These membranes accomplished higher CE, EE than Nafion 117 due to the reduced
thinness of Nafion base film and thin silicate top layer.
In another study done by Teng et al., it is found that addition of PTFE to the Nafion membrane
reduce the water uptake and conductivity to certain level, yet it increases the crystallinity and
thermal stability. Since the expense of PTFE is lower than that of Nafion, this blend membrane
will be cost effective and can be used for large scale RFB applications.

Aziz et al., prepared a composite made of Zr nanotubes blend Nafion whose structural analysis
showed the presence of tube-like walls made of Zr nanotubes joining together. These wall results
in blocking the Vanadium ions and improves the performance which is confirmed from the Fig a
and b that shows the exceptional capacity retention and low self discharge rate of Zirconium blend
Nafion membrane when compared with Nafion-117

Fig 5. comparison of a) Capacity retention of Nafion -117 and GO coated Nafion membranes with
weight% 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 b) Cell voltage of Nafion and GO coated membrane with wt.% 0.5 & 1[12]

Other than these, the preparation methods of hybrid blend membrane also play a crucial role in
protonic conductivity of membranes. For example, Pre treatment methods, like thermal treatment
can affect lower the permeability while soaking in boiling sulfuric acid could increase the
permeability as stated by Xie et al.,

Because our area of inquiry is Nafion, the literature studies cited above have only focused on
Nafion. Researchers are focused on other Poly sulfonated membranes such as SPEEK and anionic
exchange membranes due to the crossing of water and vanadium ions and the expensive cost of
Nafion. Even though all of these membranes have been shown to greatly boost Coulombic
efficiency and decrease Vanadium ion permeability, there is no influence on energy efficiency or
overall cell performance. Even though several membranes have been tested in place of Nafion,
they have not been evaluated for a substantial number of cycles. There is still a need to test the
long-term stability of such membranes in acidic environments.

4 CAPACITY DECAY - ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE:

The unbalanced vanadium active is not the only cause of capacity degradation during real charge-
discharge cycling. As previously discussed, capacity decay in VRFB can occur due to unbalanced
vanadium ion species, as well as asymmetrical valence of Vanadium ions in anolyte and catholyte
tanks. The inequality reduces the vanadium utilisation ratio and distorts the total amount of
vanadium species during cycling. This eventually leads to a decrease in the state of charge of
anolytes and an increase in the state of charge of catholyte and causes capacity decay.
The study of the capacity decay mechanism of the VRFB system gives useful information to
develop membranes and modifications, as well as for long-term system operation. The research
approaches given here allow for the investigation of the capacity performance of Redox flow
batteries that use different redox chemistries and ion exchange membranes.
Another possibility is that as protons and vanadium ions pass through the membranes, they drag
some bound water molecules with them, causing an electrolyte imbalance and, eventually, capacity
degradation. There are several methods have been employed to rebalance the electrolyte
inequalities. These methods include the periodic remixing of electrolytes, using asymmetric
volumes in positive and negative electrolyte tanks, altering of charge-discharge current, by
interdiffusion of electrolytes between two half cell compartments, electrolyte reflow method and
using hydraulic shunt.
Fig 6. Charge, Discharge capacity and Energy efficiency of VRFB system a) before electrolyte
mixing b) after electrolyte mixing.
From, the studies done by Luo et al, showed the capacity lost due to vanadium ion crossing during
cycling can be recovered by moving surplus positive vanadium species back to the negative half-
cell, allowing long-term cycling to be performed without the significant energy loss caused by
frequent total electrolyte remixing. Notably, the current study employs new electrodes and
electrolytes. Other issues, such as ageing of porous electrodes, membrane fouling, and decreasing
reaction conditions in the cell, may also alter the performance and capacity behaviour of VRBs
during long-term operation.

5 COST ANALYSIS OF VRFB:

In the worlds economy is constantly fluctuating it is very difficult to estimate the production cost
of VRFB flow batteries, from the research studies done so far.
The relatively high and unpredictable price of Vanadium is a typical concern of the VRFB system.
For example, the price of Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), one of the most common Vanadium
electrolyte precursors, approximately doubled in 2018 before falling in early 2019. At this point,
supply instability and high pricing can be attributed to the Vanadium market’s limited size, rather
than shortage or geological limits. It should be noted that for all Vanadium RFBs, a wide range of
costs have been explored, and pricing frequently reflect development expenses. Access to
commercial flow battery costs is limited, and costs vary by location and time. Electrolyte which is
the critical components involved in the construction of VRFB needs the following materials,
Vanadium, Sulphuric acid, reducing agent, DI water, additives. For storing and transporting the
electrolyte pumps, pipes and storage tanks are needed. The major components in cell/stack
assembly includes membranes, carbon felt/paper electrodes, bipolar plates, current collector,
gasket, stack frames. The additional components needed for electrolyte flow include valves,
sensors, and heat exchangers. The power and electrical system incorporates cabling, breakers,
transformers, and computer system. In economic point of view, building and site for vanadium
system implementation, shipping costs, warranty are also considered.
Fig 7 shows the cost modeled for VRFB systems with energy to power ratio, b) E/P = 4 hrs, c) E/P
= 8 hrs. [13]
A comparison show in this study shows that the electrolyte cost account for half of the system
expenditure (43%-55%). Assembly costs accounts for 16% - 17% of total costs. As indicated above
in the stack cost study, membranes range about 12%; 8% and BPP 6%; 4% are identified as cost
drivers among cell and system components. Further components have no substantial impact (4%
at most)

Fig 8. Cost structure (in Euros, €) of 250 kW VRFB stack with a) Nafion and b) SPEEK membrane
Fig 8 state an estimate components of Flow batteries which occupies maximum amount of
percentage in total cost. It is obvious that cost of membranes plays a major role in flow battery
assembly.

In the research study done by Li et al., an estimate cost analysis for VRFB system is provided with
certain assumptions (the costing refers to USD in 2017- this model could estimate the cost with
up-to data if resources are available). The following assumptions are included in his study.

1. The expenditure for consumption of VRFB system includes addition of both variable and
fixed costs. It is governed by costs that scale proportionally to fixed costs and power
expenses, with power capacity relies on cell stacks and the electrolyte of the system.
2. The capacity of VRFB depends on the electrical potential of the objectives.
3. For this research study, we assume 100% depth of discharge ((DOD) rate and energy
transfer efficiency is assumed for the mentioned applications.

The following equation is used to compute the total costs of the system and it is major formula in
evaluating the relationship between the total costs (in $) and the factors that influence them in
under various circumstances.
TCVRFB = VC + FC
= (x1 * a + y1 * b) + FC
Where TCVRFB = total expenditure for VRFB system, VC = Variable cost, FC = Fixed costs,
x1 & y1 = capacity of cell stack and electrolyte (in kW h)
a & b = scaled capacity costs. (in $/kW and $/kW h)

The cost estimation has calculated over a three different system with good, appropriate, and normal
level for cell stacks and electrolyte.
The cost estimation for the good electrochemical VRFB system is as calculated as follows.

NAME MEASUREMENT PRICE ($)

Cell stacks kW 3030.3
Electrolyte kW h 227.3
Circulation pump Per unit (2 units) 909
Control system Per unit 151.5
Inverter Per unit 37878
Consider a building which has 20 levels, each with capacity of 80 kVA. Based on few available
data, we will assume that UPS lasts for 3 hours and having a capacity of 1 kVA which is equals to
0.8 kW. The total capacity is 1600 kVA = 0.8*1600 = 1280 kW. The complete expenditure VRFB
system based on the above-mentioned equation, and using values in the table,
Total cost = VC + FC
= 3030*1280 + 227.3*3840 + 485.5 + 151.5 + 96969
~ 4849191 ($)
This is just an estimate for getting the knowledge of range for complete VRFB system expenditure.
From these studies, it is obvious that main cost of the VRFB totally relies on the stack component
and the electrolyte. Improving materials with low cost and highly efficient is the only way to
mitigate this problem. Cutting of costs should not come at the expense of severely compromising
performance.
Cost cutting should not come at the expense of severely compromising performance. (ii)
Developing low-cost, high-performance BPP and ion membranes is a crucial strategy to lower
stack costs. (iii) In addition to material costs and performance, consideration should be given to
manufacturing costs and efficiency. Other than these, spotlight should also be placed on production
cost and efficiency.
6 CONCLUSION

RFBs consist of electrodes, membranes, bipolar plates, and electrolytes, but the research and
development of these materials can be expensive and time-consuming. Future research should
consider the differences between single cells, stacks, and modules to improve overall battery
system performance. Establishing a scientific battery model can improve research and
development efficiency and provide theoretical guidance for battery structure design, as well as
exploring the internal mass transfer law and stable operation of the batteries. A high-precision
model is needed to achieve high performance in VRFBs, requiring a hybrid model with multiple
physical factors to reflect the internal and external characteristics of the batteries.
Although this study highlights gaps in VRFB research and development, future work will refine
the modeling framework to solidify conclusions and assess relevant technical and economic
factors. Vanadium crossover studies can guide the development of better ion-exchange
membranes, optimize operational parameters, and identify strategies for electrolyte management,
ultimately improving VRFB efficiency and performance for large-scale energy storage
applications.
Since VFB is a relatively new technology, cost evaluation in early phases is rough. Therefore,
there are few detailed studies on system and modeling frameworks published from 2004 to present.
When comparing system cost figures, the scope of the system and proportion of key component
costs to total system costs should be considered in future studies focusing on realistic cost
reduction potentials.
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