PHILOSOPHY OF

MAN
COPY RIGHT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
Introduction to Hinduism
“There is only one God, but endless are his aspects and endless are his names”Hinduism is the world’s
oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years.
Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and
Islam. Roughly 95 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific
founder, it’s difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single religion
but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies.

IN THE VIEW OF HINDUS:

Man is seen as consisting of five sheaths:

A. The self , dependent on food annamayatman.

B. The self as vital breath , Pranamayatman--- the biological layer

C. the other self- consisting of will Manamayatman --- the psychological layer

D. The self or conciousness Vijnamayatman--- itellectual layer

E. the final essence of the self or pure bliss Annandamyatman, approximate the brahman which is pure
bliss. (which is the highest universal principle)

Five sheaths are considered dark coverings of ignorance that lie underneath the whole created world.

Reincarnation

According to the Vedas, a collection of revered Hindu texts, all beings are souls and thus spiritual in
nature. Though the body is temporary and eventually dies, the soul is eternal. After death, the soul is
reincarnated, taking birth in another physical body or form. Passing from one life to the next, each soul is
on a journey of spiritual development facilitated in part by karma, the concept that every thought and
action has a corresponding reaction. One experiences the results of both good and bad deeds over a
series of lives. The soul is uplifted through every good action performed and degraded with every bad
action.

Karma

Hindus believe that the soul is immortal and on the death of the body it transmigrates to a new life on
earth. Whether this life is better or worse than the previous one depends on the amount of good or evil
done in the previous life. This is the law of Karma.
INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM
Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religion and originated 2,500 years ago in india. Buddhists believe
that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good
behavior are the ways to achieve enlightment , or nirvana.

MAN IN BUDDHISM

According to the view man is subject to the law to that all things rise , decay and fall.

THERE IS NO SOUL. THERE IS NO PERMANENT .--

--------- this is the highlights of their beliefs

Like the art of civilization , there is rise and fall.

EVERYTHING IS TEMPORARY AND HAS END.

NIRVANA

- the state to which all bhuddists aspire,

- is the cessation of desire and hence the end of suffering .

- Nirvana in sanskrit means “ the blowing out”

it is understood as the extinguishment ( cancel) of the flame of personal desire, the quenching ( satisfy)
of the fire of life.

FIVE AGGREGATES THAT COMPOSED THE INDIVIDUAL

- MATTER

-SENSATION

- PERCEPTION

- MENTAL CONSTRUCTS

- CONCIOUSNESS

- Each of the aggregates taken seperately is not man.

MAIN GOAL

THE FINAL GOAL OF MAN IS TO ATTAIN ENLIGHTENMENT, TO FREE HIMSELF FROM THE BONDS OF
IGNORANCE.

TO DO THIS , MAN MUST REALIZE THE IMPERMANENCE OF THINGS AND THAT MAN IS NOT THE FIVE
SHEATHS.

MAN SHOULD SEE BEYOND WHAT EYES CAN SEE . TO FREE HIMSELF FROM THE TEMPTATIONS OF THE
WORLD.
WITH THIS , MAN IS FREED ( LIBERATED) FROM IGNORANCE , AND HE REACHES NIRVANA, THE
EXTINCTION OF THE DESIRES THROUGH YOGA OR DEEP MEDITATION.

THIS TIME MAN RECOGNIZES HIMSELF GENUINELY .

Confucianism
• is humanism, a philosophy or attitude that is concerned with human beings, their achievements
and interests, rather than with the abstract beings and problems of theology. In Confucianism
man is the center of the universe: man cannot live alone, but with other human beings. For
human beings, the ultimate goal is individual happiness. The necessary condition to achieve
happiness is through peace.

The Human beings are supposed to love one another in the name of God, but they are killing one
another in the name of God.

• Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the important of personal
ethics and morality.

• Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China which laid foundation for
much of Chinese Culture.

• Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the important of personal
ethics and morality.

• Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China which laid foundation for
much of Chinese Culture.

FOUNDER OF CONFUCIANISM

• Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to 479 BCE.

IS CONFUCIANISM IS A RELIGION?

• Though closer to a philosophy than a true religion, Confucianism was a way of life for ancient
Chinese people and it continues to influence Chinese culture today.

• This is why CONFUCIANISM is considered a philosophy rather than a religion even though it is
often lumped in with other major religions.

MAN IN CONFUCIANISM

• Man is regarded as a moral being and as a social being.

• For Confucius, a true man is a noble man

• CHUN TZU - “gentlemen” , denoting “the man with a cultivated moral character” a superior man
and such a man is said to be a man of jen (human-heartedness). a man of all around virtue:
MAN IS EXPECTED TO POSSESS FOUR VIRTUES:

• human-heartedness(jen)- consideration for others

• righteousness(yi)- doing what one ought to do; doing obligatory acts without utilitarian end in
view; to do right and proper thing in relation to circumstances without regard to personal profit;
No thinking of benefits, advantages, or any form of personal returns. Remember that there is a
greater reward for being kind to people.

• ritual or propreity(li)- humbling oneself to pay respect to others, or putting others first and
oneself

• wisdom(chic)- understanding of the other three virtues;

INTRODUCTION OF TAOISM

• Taoism is a nature based philosophy which flourished in China.

• Taoism is a chinese philosophy attributed to Lao Tzu (500 BCE) which contributed to the folk religion of
the people primarily in the rural areas of china and became the official religion of the country under the
Tang Dynasty. Taoism is therefore both a philosophy and religion. It emphasizes doing what is natural
and " going with the flow" in accordance with the "Tao", a cosmic force which flows through all things
and binds and releases them

• The focal idea of Taoism is the relationship of human beings and the nature.
• Daoists believe that everything comes from the "Tao" (the way).
• Human nature should be aligned with the rest of the nature to achieve harmony and balance. Self-
cultivation should be encouraged for Taoist to return to the natural mode of existence.
• Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death.

SACRED BOOKS OF TAOISM

TAO TE CHING
•It is a book of poetry presenting the simple way of following the Tao and living life at peace with one's
self, others and the world of changes.

Taoists regard the Tao Te Ching as the essential guide to living a full spiritual and ethical life.

CONCEPTS IN TAOISM

1. THE TAO- it is the essential concept and creative principle in taoism. It is the foundation of all being,
and the way in which nature and the universe exist.

2. Deity/God (Tao as the origin of all beings) - Taoism does not have a god unlike other religions in the
world. Daoists believe that the universe originated from the Tao, which created and control the universe
and dynasty guides things on their way.

3. YIN-YANG signs, which symbolizes the Taoists belief in matched opposites; such as light and dark,
action and in action, hot and cold, male and female and so on.

• YIN is the color black and represent the earth, femaleness, darkness and passivity.
• YANG is the color white and represent as heaven, maleness, light and activity.

4.WU WEI

-Method of following the Tao

It means living by or going along with the true nature of the world or at least without obstructing the
Tao –letting things take their natural course.

-So Taoist live lives of balance and harmony.

5. Qi/ Chi- a primal substance that animates the universe in Taoism. Chi is the force that sets the world
and everything in it into motion. The Qi refers to the natural energy or life force that sustains living
beings. Qi literally means "air" or "vapor".

THE TAOISM VIEW OF MAN

• Taoism, as a philosophy advocates what is natural and spontaneous, simple and necessary.

• According to this Philosophy, that by which anything and everything comes to be, is the "Tao".

• TAO is a chinese word signifying the "way" or " path" or sometimes more loosely "doctrine, principle
or holistic beliefs".

• In Lao-Tzu book, it is said that from "Tao" there comes one, from one theres come two, from two
theres come three, from three comes all things.

• The "Tao" is generally understood as the power or principle behind all things. It is often times called
the non-being.

• According to this Philosophy, everything that exists in the universe, needs the whole universe as a
necessary condition for existence.

• When a man is born he has the properties that he should necessarily have.

• In this lifetime, we should achieve quality life.

• A man is gifted in unique way that he can use in surviving life.

• Things are ever changeable but the law governing this change of thing are not themselves changeable.

• According to Taoism, there are two levels of knowledge:

1. IN LOWER LEVEL
- the finite point of view when man sees distinctions like those between right and wrong.

2. THE HIGHER LEVEL

- the higher point of view, what man sees things in the light of heaven, that is from the point of view of
the "Tao", that things though different are united and become one.

• Taoism states that every man can be a sage ( distinguished for wisdom), one with the "Tao", the
perfect man and the happy man.

MARTIN BUBER

• Martin Buber was a prominent twentieth century philosopher, religious thinker, political activist
and educator.

• He is best known for his 1923 book, Ich und Du (I and Thou), which distinguishes between “I-
Thou” and “I-It” modes of existence. Often characterized as an existentialist philosopher.

• Buber introduced his thesis on human existence. He explains this philosophy using the word
pairs ICH - DU and ICH - CHES

to categorize the modes of interaction, consciousness and being and all reality in general.

ICH - DU

• Ich - Du (‘I - Thou’ or ‘I - You’) is a relationship that stresses the mutual, hollistic existence of two
beings. it is concrete encounter, because these beings meet one another in their authentic
existence , without any qualification or objections of one another.

• Ich - Du relationship Buber identified was that which can exist between a human being and
God.

ICH-ES

• The Ich-Es ("I-It") relationship is nearly the opposite of Ich-Du. Whereas in Ich-Du the two beings
encounter one another, in an Ich-Es

• relationship the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the "I" confronts and qualifies an idea, or
conceptualization, of the being in its presence and treats that being as an object.

• All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and sustained by the
individual mind in that these objects reside in the cognitive agent's mind, existing only as
thoughts. Therefore, the Ich-Es relationship is in fact a relationship with oneself; it is not a
dialogue, but a monologue.

MARTIN BUBER CONCEPT OF MAN

The study of man which was reffered to as philosophical anthropology by Martin Buber is
conssidered a unique area of study since it takes a man as the subject as well as the object of
knowledge.

PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Is the discipline within the philosophy that seeks to unify theseveral emperical investigations of
human nature in an effort to understand individuals.

EMPERICAL INVESTIGATIONS

The view that all concepts originate from experience.

2 DEFINITION OF MAN BY MARTIN BUBER

1). ‘’ MAN IS THE CENTER OF EVERYTHING ‘’

The existence of man has double purpose, we could be the subject

and the object of knowledge.

2). ‘’NO ONE CAN COMPREHEND PERFECTLY THE HUMAN NATURE’’

No one has to enter, to completely and in reality, in order to become aware of human nature
and wholeness. There are things that we cant fathom.

‘’MAN BORN FROM OTHER ANIMALS;QUICKLY FIND NOURISH

MENT’’ (THALES OF MILETUS)

Man alone needs a lengthy period of sucking (TO SIP), so that had he

been originally as he is now, he could never have survived.

‘’MAN’S BODY COMES FROM HIS WORLD OF MATTER’’

(SOCRATES)

But his reason comes from the universal reason of the world. He is more concerned of man as a
moral being.

‘’MAN IS A KNOWER AND A POSSESOR OF AN IMMORTA

SOUL’’ (PLATO)

The body is mortal and the soul is immortal.

‘’MAN AS A RATIONAL AND SOCIAL ANIMAL’’

(ARISTOTLE)

Man is a RATIONAL BEING , he could be able to think is right and

what is wrong.

Man is a SOCIAL ANIMAL because no man is an island, we need socialization, interaction and to
miingle with others.

‘’MAN AS A GREAT MYSTERY’’

 (ST. AUGUSTINE)

Even when we try our best to know ourselves,

we also would know that we can never know ourselves enough : completely.

ST. AUGUSTINE
• Augustine was perhaps the greatest Christian philosopher of Antiquity and certainly the one
who exerted the deepest and most lasting influence.

• Philosophers keep however being fascinated by his often innovative ideas on language, on
skepticism and knowledge, on will and the emotions, on freedom and determinism and on the
structure of the human mind and, last but not least, by his way of doing philosophy, which is—
though of course committed to the truth of biblical revelation—surprisingly undogmatic and
marked by a spirit of relentless inquiry.

He is convinced that the true philosopher is a lover of God because true wisdom is, in the last
resort, identical with God, a point on which he feels in agreement with both Paul an Plato.

• thinks that Christianity is “the true philosophy” he view is common among ancient, especially
Greek, Christian thinkers) and that true philosophy and true (cultic) religion are identical .

Theory of Knowledge: Skepticism and Certainty

• , Augustine’s refutation of skepticism does not aim at justifying our ordinary practices and
beliefs. To refute the Academic claim that, since the wise person can never be sure whether she
has grasped the truth, she will consistently withhold assent in order not to succumb to empty
opinion, he thinks it sufficient to demonstrate the existence of some kind of knowledge that is
immune to skeptical doubt. His strategy therefore consists in pointing out the certainty of self-
referential knowledge (the wise person “knows wisdom”; the Academic skeptic “knows” the
Stoic criterion of truth the certainty of private or subjective knowledge (I am certain that
something appears white to me even if I am ignorant whether it is really white,

The Human Mind as an Image of God

that the mind always already knows itself because it is always present to and hence aware of
itself. This pre-reflexive self-awareness is presupposed by every act of conscious cognition. If so,
however, the Delphic command “Know thyself” cannot mean that the mind is to become
acquainted with itself as if it had been unknown to itself before, but rather that it must become
conscious of what it knew about itself all along and distinguish it from what it does not know
about itself. As the mind in its fallen state is deeply immersed in sensible reality, it tends to
forget what it really is and what it knows it is and confounds itself with the things it attaches the
greatest importance to, i.e., sensible objects that give it pleasure.

Anthropology: God and the Soul; Soul and Body

Soul as a Created Being

 Like most ancient philosophers, Augustine thinks that the human being is a compound of body
and soul and that, within this compound, the soul—conceived as both the life-giving element
and the center of consciousness, perception and thought—is, or ought to be, the ruling part. The
rational soul should control the sensual desires and passions; it can become wise if it turns to
God, who is at the same time the Supreme Being and the Supreme Good. In his Manichean
phase, he conceived of both God and the soul as material entities, the soul being in fact a
portion of God that had fallen into the corporeal world where it remained a foreigner, even to
its own body

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

He was a philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of
the age of enlightenment through out Europe, as well as aspects of the French revolution and the
development of modern political, economic, and educational thought.

1712: Born in city of Geneva Son of a watchmaker Mother dies at his birth: raised by father No
formal education Apprenticed to an engraver, but escaped; Wandering life his 30’s 1750-62:
goes into exile to escaped prosecution for ideas on religion and politics 1767: returns to france
incognito 1778: dies near in paris
WHY IS JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU FAMOUS?

He is famous for reconceiving the social contract as a compact between the individual and a
collective “ general will” aimed at the common good and reflected in the laws of an ideal state
and for maintaining that existing society rests on a false social contract that perpetuates
inequality and rule by rich.
WHAT ARE THE THREE MAIN POINTS OF ROUSSEAU’S SOCIAL CONTRACT?
1. The state of nature, where nab is free and independent
2. Society, in which man is oppressed and dependent on others
3. The state under the Social Contract, in which, ironically, man becomes free obligation.
WHAT IS ROUSSEAU’S DEFINITION OF FREEDOM?
“ Defined moral freedom as autonomy, or ‘obedience to the law that one has prescribed to
oneself”
WHAT WAS ROUSSEAU’S MOST FAMOUS WORK?
The discourse on the Origin of Inequality remains one of the rousseau’s most famous works, and
lays the foundation for much of his political thought as it is expressed in the discourse on
political Economy and Social Contract.
WHAT IS THE THEORY OF JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU?
As believer in the plasticity of human nature, Rousseau holds that good laws make for good
citizens. However, he also believes both that good laws can only be willed by good citizens and
that, in order to be legitimate, they must be agreed upon by the assembly.
FRANCIS BACON
Also known as Lord Verulam, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as
Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England.
Born: January 22, 1561, London
Died: April 9, 1626, London British statesman and philosopher
Father of modern scientific method
Master of the English tongue
WHAT WAS FRANCIS BACON BEST KNOWN FOR?
To the present day bacon is well known for his treatises on empiricist natural philosophy ( the
advancement of learning, novum organum scientiarum) and for his doctrine of the idols, which
he put forward in his early writings, as well as for the idea of a modern research institute, which
he described in Nova Atlantis.
WHAT IS THE FRANCIS BACON THEORY?
Bacon has been called the father of empiricism, which is the idea that knowledge comes from the
senses. His theory was that scientific knowledge must come from the careful observation of
nature filtered through inductive reasoning
WHAT 3 INVENTIONS DID FRANCIS BACON SAY CHANGED THE WORLD?
1.GUNPOWDER
2. MAGNETIC
3. COMPASS PRINTING
WHY BACON IS CALLED THE FATHER OF ENGLISH ESSAY?
it was he who imported this genre from Montaigne of France and planted it into English
Language and Literature. His personal contribution towards the enrichment and development of
this form is no less significant than the pioneering act of importing it.
WHAT DID FRANCIS BACON SAY ABOUT HUMAN NATURE?
“ MAN IS THE CENTER OF THE WORLD”
WHAT IS BACONIAN IDEOLOGY?
Methodical observation of facts as a means of studying and interpreting natural phenomena.

SAINT THOMAS
•Saint Thomas Aquinas was a Catholic Priest in the Dominican Order and one of
the most important Medieval philosophers and theologians.
•He was immensely influenced by scholasticism and Aristotle and known for his
synthesis of the two aforementioned traditions.
•Although he wrote many works of philosophy and theology throughout his life,
his two monumental works are Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles.
But his most influential work is the Summa Theologica that extensively discusses
man which consists of three parts; God, Ethics and Christ.
IN THOMISTIC PHILOSOPHY
•Man is substantially body and soul.
•The soul is united with the human body because it is the substantial form of the
human body.
•It is the principle of action in the human body and the principle of life of the
body.
•But the soul however, requires the body as the material
•medium for its operation particularly perception.
•Soul has operative functions which do not need a material medium; they are the
man's intellect and will.
•Thus at death, intellection and will remain in the soul which is immortal, simple
and incorruptible.
•Body and soul before death are essentially united because the two exist in a
correlative manner.
WORKS

•No single work of St. Thomas can be said fully to reveal his philosophy.
His works may be classified according to their form and purpose.
•The principal ones are:
• Commentary in the Sentences (a series of public lectures; 1254-56), his earliest great work; seven
quaestiones disputatae (public debates; 1256-72);

• philosophical commentaries on Aristotle's Physics, Metaphysics, De anima, Ethics, part of the De

interpretatione, and the Posterior Analytics;

• treatises on many subjects, including the Summa contra Gentiles (1258-60); and, most important of all,
Summa theologica (1267-73), an incomplete but systematic exposition of theology on philosophical
principles. St. Thomas's philosophy is avowedly Aristotelian;

• the methods and distinctions of Aristotle are adapted to revelation.

According to St. Aquinas...

"...all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law: since each one's reason naturally dictates to him
to act virtuously. But if we speak of virtuous acts, considered in themselves, i.e. in their proper species,
thus not all virtuous acts are prescribed by the natural law: for many things are done virtuously, to
which nature does not incline at first; but which, through the inquiry of reason, have been found by men
to be conductive to well living."

According to St. Aquinas...

•Man is the point of convergence between the corporeal (means things pertaining to the human body)
and spiritual substances.

•In other words, Man is "one substance body and soul".

•In Thomistic physics, man is a substantial unity of body and soul.

•Man is an embodied soul not a soul using a body. (as Plato claimed).

•Man is substantially body and soul. And definitely, only the soul is the substance while the body is
actual.

According to St. Aquinas...

•Thomas Aquinas wrote "Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns
things eternal for the sake of temporal things."

•Thomas believed "that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs divine help, that the
intellect may be moved by God to its act."

According to St. Aquinas...

•For St. Thomas Aquinas, the goal of human existence is union and eternal fellowship with God. For
those who have experienced salvation and redemption through Christ while living on earth, a beatific
vision will be granted after death in which a person experiences perfect, unending happiness through
comprehending the very essence of God. During life, an individual's will must be ordered toward right
things (such as charity, peace and holiness), which requires morality in everyday human choices, a kind
of Virtue Ethics. Aquinas was the first to identify the Principle of Double Effect in ethical decisions, when
an otherwise legitimate act (e.g. self-defence) may also cause an effect one would normally be obliged
to avoid (e.g. the death of another).

Thomas distinguished four kinds of law:

•Eternal law is the decree of God that governs all creation. It is, "That Law which is the

Supreme Reason cannot be understood to be otherwise than unchangeable and eternal."

•Natural law is the human "participation" in the eternal law and is discovered by reason. Natural law is
based on "first principles":

this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All
other precepts of the natural law are based on this .
•Human law (the natural law applied by governments to societies)

• Divine law (the specially revealed law in the scriptures).

Five rational proofs for the existence

of God, the "quinquae viae" (or the
"Five Ways")

•The argument of the unmoved mover (ex motu): everything that is moved is moved by a mover,
therefore there is an unmoved mover from whom all motion proceeds, which is God.

•The argument of the first cause (ex causa): everything that is caused is caused by something else,
therefore there must be an uncaused cause of all caused things, which is God.

•The argument from contingency (ex contingentia): there are contingent beings in the universe which
may either exist or not exist and, as it is impossible for everything in the universe to be contingent (as
something cannot come of nothing), so there must be a necessary being whose existence is not
contingent on any other being, which is God.

•The argument from degree (ex gradu): there are various degrees of perfection which may be found
throughout the universe, so there must be a pinnacle of perfection from which lesser degrees of
perfection derive, which is God.

•The teleological argument or argument from design (ex fine): all natural bodies in the world (which
are in themselves unintelligent) act towards ends (which is characteristic of intelligence), therefore
there must be an intelligent being that guides all natural bodies towards their ends, which is God.

•Aquinas believed that Jesus Christ was truly divine and not simply a human being or God merely
inhabiting the body of Christ. However, he held that Christ had a truly rational human soul as well,
producing a duality of natures that persisted even after the Incarnation, and that these two natures
existed simultaneously yet distinguishab ly in one real human body.
MARTIN HEIDEGGER
Brief Biography of Martin
Heidegger

Born in Baden, Germany in September 1889 Worked at Marburg University then Freiburg University
Main influences- Edmund Husserl, Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Soren Kierkegaard His major work is
Being and Time and it is often considered one of the greatest philosophical texts in the 20th century (if
not all time) Influenced thinkers like Jean Paul Satre, Emmanuel Levinas, Jacques Derrida, Bernard
Stiegler, Michel Foucault and many more Major influence on the movements of Phenomenology and
Existentialism Died in May of 1976 in Baden

The Philosophy of Martin Heidegger

Heidegger's Philosophy
•Heidegger's great opening was to take Plato seriously again, and at the same time to undermine the
entire Platonic worldview by reversing the core of Platonism; treating Being not as timeless and
transcendent (an Idea), but as embedded in time and history.

Dasein (Being There)

■ We are unique not simply because only we can question Being, but also in that, in questioning Being,
we put our own Being in question.

Dasein (Being There)

■ Awareness of our death changes the quality of how we would live. It changes the way we would treat
others and the decisions we would make.
■ Heidegger worries that modern humans will get lost in inauthenticity and lose their beingness in
technology.

Overcoming Metaphysics
■ We can only experience Being as it manifests itself, and that manifestation is always changing. That is
its wonder, and also the place of our freedom.

Summary
The human being is the unique being whose being has the character of openness toward Being.

IMMANUEL KANT

Biography
•An enlightenment philosopher
•Born 1724, Died 1804
•Argued that we are not entitled to make claims based on human reason about what is not
phenomenally accessible (composed to or relating to things that occupy space or can be
perceived by the senses), since they were unknowable.
•Kant was the philosopher of human autonomy, the view that by the use of our own reason in
its broadest sense human beings can discover and live up to the basic principles of knowledge
and action without outside assistance, above all without divine support or intervention.
•Famous works... Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
(1785) and the Critique of Practical Reason (1788)

His beliefs
Born a Lutheran (extremely pious upbringing) but...

He believed only because he concluded he MUST. He himself proved that there was no proof of
God, and no NEED of God except as part of a "system" that he thought was necessary to the
workings of the human mind

Copernican revolution
Just as Copernicus had found that his observations made sense once he has realised that the
earth moved around the sun rather than the other way round Kant argued that we experience
the world as we do because that is the way our senses function. We do not know things as they
are in themselves but only as they appear to us.

•Kant was influenced by science and by the gathering and assessment ofempirical evidence
•The impetus behind his Copernican revolution was the attempt to reconcile the ambiguity in
empirical evidence that he found in Hume with the laws of nature, as framed by Newton.

A sense of moral obligation

•For Kant, the key issue is how to discover a rational basis for one's sense of duty and, from
that, to devise a principle by which one could distinguish between right and wrong
•Like Aristotle, Kant believed that knowledge begins with EXPERIENCE, with PRACTICAL
REASON

Kant and Moral Choice...

Aquinas's sense of Natural Law and the Utilitarian's weighing of the consequences both
attempted to establish some objective basis for moral claims.

Kant started from a totally different position. He argued that we all know what it is to have a
sense of moral obligation - to believe that there is something we ought to do, irrespective of
the consequences it may have for us. Starting from the experience of morality, he believed that
it should be possible to give a systematic account of moral duties and of the principles upon
which they are founded, which would be based on pure reason and would therefore be
universal.

Reason
•Kant, along with other philosophers of the 'enlightenment', attaches great importance to
man's ability to reason
• A human being is essentially, a rational being, and it is this that constitutes his intrinsic
dignity.
•Reason, says Kant, is an innate, intellectual power existing more or less equally in all men, it
enables the individual to resolve problems in a way, more or less acceptable to everyone.
•If reason is universal, the moral commands generated by reason will be universal and
applicable to all men.
CAUSALITY
•If you feel pain and are sent sprawling then your natural reaction will be to look for the cause
i.e. the person who thumped you!
•Kant says that you experience the world in this way because CAUSALITY is part of the structure
of your mind i.e. it is a category which actively shapes sensations so that you will always
experience the world in this particular way.
•The law of causality is therefore not a law 'out there' instead it is a priori (knowledge not
based on experienced) law of the mind which shapes the way you experience the world
•Kant says that we can never know the world as it is - it is a PHENOMENON or appearance and
it may be verydifferent from the world as it is in itself.

JOHN LOCKE

Philosopher (1632-1704)
John Locke, born on August 29, 1632, in Wrington,Somerset, England, went to Westminster
school and then Christ Church, University of Oxford. AtOxford he studied medicine, which
would play a central role in his life. He became a highly influential philosopher, writing about
such topics as political philosophy, epistemology, and education.Locke's writings helped found
modern Western philosophy.
•His theories concerning the separation of Church and State, religious freedom, and liberty, not
only influenced European thinkers such as the French Enlightenment writer, Voltaire, but
shaped the thinking of America's founders, from Alexander Hamilton to Thomas Jefferson.

Pedagogical theory
•EDUCATION MAKES THE MAN
Locke posits an "empty" mind-a tabula rasa that is "filled" by experience.
•THEORY OF THE SELF.
That is, the "associations of ideas" made when young are more significant than those made
when mature because they are the foundation of the self.

Locke's emphasis on the role of experience in the formation of the mind and his concern with
false associations of ideas has led many to characterise his theory of mind as passive rather
than active
Body and mind
Locke advises parents to carefully nurture their children's physical "habits" before pursuing
their academic education. this seemingly simple generic innovation has proven to be one of
Locke's most enduring legacies-Western child-rearing manuals are still dominated by the topics
of food and sleep.

Virtue and reason

He defines virtue as a combination of self-denial and rationality: "that a man is able to deny
himself his own desires, cross his own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as
best, though the appetite lean the other way" Locke was convinced that children could reason
early in life and that parents should address them as reasoning beings.

Academic curriculum

Education is about instilling virtue and what Western educators would now call critical-thinking
skills. Locke maintains that parents or teachers must first teach children how to learn and to
enjoy learning Locke's curricular recommendations reflect the break from scholastic humanism
and the emergence of a new kind of education-one emphasising not only science but also
practical professional training.

Philosophy
Locke examines the nature of the human mind and the process by which it knows the world.
Repudiating the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank,
a tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses.
DAVID HUME

WHO IS EDMUND HUSSERL?

 Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was born on April 8, 1859 in Prostejov Czechia  and died on April
27,1938 in Freiburg im Breisgau,Germany . Edmund Husserl was an Austrian-German philosopher who
established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and
psychologism in logic based on  analyses of intentionality. 

WHAT DID EDMUND HUSSERL CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY?

 Edmund Husserl was the principle founder of phenomenology and thus one of the most
th
influential philosopher of the 20 century. He has made important contribution to almost all
areas of philosophy and anticipated central ideas of it’s neighbouring disciplines such as
linguistic, siociology and cognitive psychology.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH HELP US UNDERSTAND WHAT IT IS LIKE TO

EXPERIENCE A SPECIFIC SITUATION OR LIFE EVENT .BY DESCRIBING THE STORIES OF
PEOPLE WHO ACTUALLY LIVED THROUGH A  PARTICULAR EXPERIENCE  AND THEIR
PERCEPTION OF IT, YOUR RESEARCH CAN CUT  TO THE HEART OF WHAT IT WAS TRULY
LIKE.
WHO IS SOREN KIERKEGAARD?

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard.he was born in May 5, 1813, Copenhagen, Den and died on  Nov. 11,
1855, Copenhagen He is Danish philosopher, theologian, and cultural critic who was a major
influence on existentialism and Protestant theology in the 20th century. 

WHAT IS SOREN KIEKEGAARD CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY?

For his emphasis on individual existence particularly religious existence as a constant process of
becoming and for his invocation of the associated concepts of authenticity, commitment, responsibility,
anxiety, and dread, Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered the father of existentialism.

WHERE DID EXISTENTIALISM CAME FROM?

 The roots of existentialism as a philosophy began with the Danish philosopher Soren
Kiekegaard(1813-1855). Kiekegaard was intensely interested in man’s relationship with
God,and it’s ultimate impossibility. Man is finite and individual ,whereas God is infinite and
absolute,so two can never truly meet.
 WHY SHOULD WE LEARN ABOUT EXISTENTIALISM?

 Existentialists believe that every individual is unique and education must cater to the individual
differences. Therefore, the objective of education is to enable every individual to develop his
unique qualities, to harness his potentialities and cultivate his individualities
 5 PROFOUND LIFE LESSON WE CAN LEARN FROM EXISTENTIALISM 

 1)WE DO NOT FIND MEANING, WE CREATE IT.

 2).YOUR EXPERIENCE ARE UNIQUE TO YOU.
 3). YOUR MORALITY IS UP TO YOU.
 4).THE REPONSIBILITIES IS 100% YOURS.
 5). NOTHING IS UP TO YOU.

RENE DESCARTES
 SIGMUND FREUD

Personality

An individual’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Personality theory

Attempt to describe and explain how people are similar, how they are different, and why every
individual is unique.

Personality perspectives

Psychoanalytic- importance of unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

Humanistic- importance of self and fulfillment of potential.

Social cognitive- importance of beliefs about self

Trait- description and measurement of personality differences.

• Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist born in 1856, is often referred to as the "father of
modern psychology." 
• Founder of psychoanalysis
• Proposed the first complete theory of personality
• A person’s thoughts and behaviors emerge from tension and generated by unconscious
motives and unresolved childhood conflicts.
• Freud revolutionized how we think about and treat mental health conditions. 
• Freud founded psychoanalysis as a way of listening to patients and better understanding how their
minds work.

Methods of studying the unconscious

Free association

• Freudian technique of exploring the unconscious mind by having the person relax and say
whatever comes to mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Projective tests

• Tests where a patient is asked to say whatever comes to mind as they view an ambiguous picture
or inkblot.

Dreams & slip of the tongue

• Freud said dreams were the ”Road to the Unconsciousness”

- you let down your guard when sleeping and unconscious wishes and desires come forth.

• Slips of the Tongue – accidentally say something.

- example: “one, two, three, four, five, SEX, I mean six!”

- These are the wishes and desires of your unconscious ID.

The psychodynamic perspective: freud’s view of the mind

Psychoanalytic approach

• Conscious – all things we are aware of at any given moment

Psychoanalytic approach

• Preconscious- everything that can, with a little effort, be brought into consciousness

Psychoanalytic approach

• Unconscious- inaccessible warehouse of anxiety producing thoughts and drives

The psychodynamic perspective: the id, ego, and the superego

Psychoanalytic divisions of the mind

ID- satisfy desire and avoid pain

• Does not distinguish between reality and fantasy

• This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes all the instinctive and primitive
behaviors.
• Driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants,
and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension.

EGO- policy of satisfying desires only if there is a socially acceptable outlet

• Understands reality principle and logic

• Mediator between id and superego
• It is your personality and the way you portray yourself to the world.
 • According to Freud, the ego develops from the Id and ensures that the impulses of the Id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.

SUPEREGO- applies moral restrictions

• It is the “should” of human beings

• Operating on the morality principle at all level of consciousness.
• The superego acts to prefect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all
unacceptable urges of the Id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards
rather that upon realistic principles.

The personality

Id: “I want”

Ego: “I will”

Superego: “I should”

THE PYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

• In Freudian theory, the childhood stages of development during which the id’s pleasure
seeking energies are focused on different parts of the body.
• The stages include: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
 • A person can become “fixated” or stuck at a stage and as an adult attempt to achieve
pleasure as in ways that are equivalent to how it was achieved in these stages.

Oral stage (birth-1 year)

• Mouth is associated with sexual pleasure

• Pleasure comes from chewing, biting, and sucking
• Weaning a child can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
• Fixation can lead to oral activities in adulthood

Anal stage (1-3 years)

• Gratification comes from bowel and bladders functions

• Toilet training can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
• Fixation can lead to anal retentive or expulsive behaviors in adulthood

Phallic stages (3-5 years)

• Focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals

• Sexual attraction for opposite sex parent
• Boys cope with incestuous feelings towards their mother and rival feelings toward their dad
(Oedipus conflict). For girls it is called the Electra Complex.
• Child identifies with and tries to mimic the same sex parent to learn gender identity.
Oedipus complex

• Boys feel hostility and jealousy towards their fathers but knows their father is more
powerful. This lead to…
• Castration Anxiety results in boys who feel their father will punish them by castrating
them.
• Resolve this through Identification- imitating and internalizing one’s father’s values, attitudes
and mannerisms.

Electra complex

• Girls also have incestuous feelings for their dad and compete with their mother.
• Penis Envy- little girl suffer from deprivation and loss and blames her mother for “sending
her into the world insufficiently equipped” causing to resent her mother
• In an attempt to take her mother’s place she eventually identifies with her mother
• Fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males and the need for attention or domination
in females

Latency stage (5-PUberty)

• Sexuality is repressed due to intense anxiety caused by Oedipus complex

• Children participate in hobbies, school, and same-sex friendships that strengthen their
sexual identity

GENITAL STAGE (PUBERTY ON)

• Incestuous sexual feelings re-emerge but being prohibited by the superego are redirected
toward others who resemble the person’s opposite sex parent.
• Healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adults have their energy tied up in
earlier stages

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

• Unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to reduce anxiety by unconsciously

distorting reality.

Repression

• Puts anxiety- producing thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind.
• The most basic defense mechanism.
Example: three years after being hospitalized for back surgery, the person can remember only
vague details about the event.
Denial

• Let an anxious person refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happening.

Example: An alcoholic fails to acknowledge that he is addicted to a drug.

Regression

• Allows an anxious person to retreat to a more comfortable, infantile stage of life.

Example: After her parents’ bitter divorce, a 10- year-old girl refuses to sleep alone in her room,
crawling into bed with her mother.

Reaction formation

• Replacing an unacceptable wish with its opposite.

• Thinking and behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or
impulses.
Example: Threatened by their awakening sexual attraction to girls, adolescent boys often go out of
their way to tease and torment adolescent girls.

Projection

• Reducing anxiety by attributing unacceptable impulses or problems about yourself to

someone else.
Example: A married woman who is sexually attracted to a co-worker accuses him of flirting with
her.

Rationalization

• Displaces real feelings, anxiety-provoking explanations with more comforting justifications

for one’s actions.
Example: After being rejected by a prestigious university, a student explains that he is glad,
because he would be happier at a smaller, less competitive college.

Displacement

• Emotional impulses are redirected toward a substitute person or object, usually one less
threatening or dangerous than the original source of conflict.
Example: Angered by a neighbor’s hateful comment, a mother spanks her daughter for
accidentally spilling her milk.

Sublimation

• A form of displacement in which sexual urges are rechanneled into productive, nonsexual
activities.
Example: A graduate student works on her thesis 14 hours a day while her husband is on an
extended business trip.

Undoing

• A form of unconscious repentance that involves neutralizing or atoning for an unacceptable

action or thought with a second action or thought.
Example: A woman who gets a tax refund by cheating on her taxes makes a larger than usual
donation to the church collection on the following Sunday.

GILBERT RYLE

-A BRITISH PHILOSOPHER, PRINCIPALLY KNOW FOR HIS CRITIQE OF CARTESIAN

DUALISM, FOR W/C HE COINED THE PHASE “GHOST IN THE MACHINE.”
-RYLES IDEAS IN PHILOSOPHY OF MIND HAVE BEEN CALLED BEHAVIORIST, IN HIS
BEST KNOWN BOOK, THE CONCEPT OF MIND (1949).
-IN W/C THE AUTHOR ARGUES THAT MIND IS A PHILOSOPHICAL ILLUSION HAILING
CHEIFLY FROM RENE DECARTES AND SUSTAINED LOGICAL ERRORS AND
CATEGORY OF MISTAKES W/C HAVE BECOME HABITUAL.

 CARTESIAN DUALISM

-DENOTES EITHER THE VIEW THAT MENTAL PHENOMENA ARE NPN-

PHYSICAL, OR THAT THE MIND AND BODY ARE DISTINCT AND SEPERABLE.

ATTACT IN CARTESIAN DUALISM

 GHOST IN THE MACHINE

 CATEGORY MISTAKES
  DOUBLE CAUSATION

 CATEGORY MISTAKES

- THE REPRESENTATION OF FACTS OF A CERTAIN SORT AS IF THEY

WERE OF ONE LOGICAL TYPE WHEN THEY REALLY OF ANOTHER.

 LOGICAL BEHAVIORISM

- MIND REFERS SIMPLY TO A WAY OF SPEAKING ABOUT BEHAVIORS.

 ANALYTICAL BEHAVIORISM

-MENTALLY IS NOTHING OTHER THAN BEHAVIOR. THERE ARE NO

IMMATERIAL IDEAS OR MIND: THEY ARE MERELY “GHOST IN THE MACHINE”.

-HE ALSO BELIEVE THAT IN HUMAN MIND THERE’S A GHOST ENTITY OCCUPYING A
PHISICAL BODY.
-HE ALSO BELIEVE THAT PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS ARE PROBLEMS OF A
CERTAIN SORT; THEY ARE NOT PROBLEMS OF AN ORDINARY SORT ABOUT SPECIAL
ENTITIES.

KARL MARX

SUMMARY
 HINDUISM

In the view of Hindus man is seen as consisting of five sheaths, first the self dependent on food
(annamayatman). Second the self as vital breath (pranamayatman) the biological layer. Third, the other
self, consisting of will (manamayatman) the psychological layer. Fourth, the self or consciousness
(vijnamayatman) intellectual layer. And lastly the final essence of the self or pure blis
(annandamyatman) approximate the brahman which is pure bliss. These five sheaths are considered
dark covering of ignorance thay lie underneath the whole created world. Hindus also believe in
reincarnation, though the body is temporary and eventually dies, the soul is eternal. After death, the
soul is reincarnated, taking birth in another physical body or form. Passing from one life to the next,
each soul is on a journey of spiritual development facilitated in part of karma, the concept that every
thought and action has a corresponding reaction. Hindus believe that the soul is immortal and on the
death of the body it transmigrates to a new life on earth. Wether this life is better or worse than the
previous one depends on the amount of good or evil done in the previous life. This is the law of karma.

BUDDHISM

Buddhists believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical
labor, and good behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana. According to the view of
Buddhist man is subject to the law to that all things rise, decay and fall. THERE IS NO SOUL.THERE IS NO
PERMANENT. this is the highlight of their beliefs. Like the art of civilization, there is rise and fall. EVERY
IS TEMPORARY AND HAS END. Buddhist also believe in NIRVANA, the state to which all Buddhists aspire.
Nirvana in Sanskrit means "the blowing out" it is understood as the extinguishment (cancel) of the flame
of personal desire, the quenching (satisfy) of the fire of life. There are five aggregates that composed the
individual according to Buddhism which is matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs, and
consciousness. Each of the aggregates taken separately is not man. The final goal of man is to attain
enlightenment, to free himself from the bonds of ignorance. To do this, man must realize the
impermanence of things and the man is not the five sheaths. Man should see beyond what eyes can see.
To free himself from the temptations of the world. With this, man is freed ( liberated) from ignorance,
and he reaches nirvana, the extinction of the desires through yoga, or deep meditation. This time man
recognizes himself genuinely.

CONFUCIANISM

In confucianism man is the center of the universe man cannot live alone, but with other human beings.
For human beings, the ultimate goal is individual happiness. The necessary condition to achieve
happiness is through piece. The human beings are supposed to love one another in the name of God,
but they are killing one another in the name of God. Man in confucianism is regarded as a moral being
and as a social being. For Confucius, a true man is a noble man. CHUN TZU is a "gentleman" denoting
"the man with a cultivized moral character " a superior man and such a man is said to be a man of Jen
(human-hearted) , a man of all around virtue. Man is expected to possess for virtues, first is human
heartedness (Jen) that is consideration for others. Second, righteousness (yi) that is doing what one
ougth to do; doing obligatory acts without utilitarian end in view; to do right and proper thing in
relation to circumstances without regard to personal profit; no thinking of benefits, advantages, or any
form of personal returns. Remember that there is a greater reward for being kind to people. Third, ritual
or property (li) that is humbling oneself to pay respect to others or putting others first and oneself.
Lastly, wisdom(chic) that is understanding of the other three virtues.

TAOISM

The focal idea of Taoism is the relationship of human beings and the nature. Daoists believe that
everything comes from the "Tao" (the way). Human nature should be aligned with the rest of the nature
to achieve harmony and balance. Self-cultivation should be encouraged for Taoist to return to the
natural mode of existence. Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the
universe after death. Toism, as a philosophy advocates what is natural and spontaneous, simple and
necessary. According to this Philosophy, that by which anything and everything comes to be, is the
"Tao". Tao is a chinese word signifying the "way" or " path" or sometimes more loosely "doctrine,
principle or holistic beliefs".• When a man is born he has the properties that he should necessarily have.
In this lifetime, we should achieve quality life. A man is gifted in unique way that he can use in surviving
life. Things are ever changeable but the law governing this change of thing are not themselves
changeable. According to Taoism, there are two levels of knowledge. In lower level, the finite point of
view when man sees distinctions like those between right and wrong. The higher level, the higher point
of view, what man sees things in light of heaven, that is from the point of view of "Tao" that thing
though different are united and become one. Taoism states that every man can be a sage, one with the
Tao, the perfect man and the happy man.

MARTIN BUBER

Buber introduced his thesis on human existence using the word pairs ICH-DU and ICH-CHES. To
categorize the modes of interaction, consciousness and being and all are reality in general. ICH-DU ( 'l-
Thou' or 'l-You) relationship to Buber identified was that whichcan exist between a human being and
God. ICH-ES ("l-It") All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and
sustained by the individual mind in that these objects reside in the cognitive agents mind, existing only
as thoughts. Therefore, relationship is in fact relationship with oneself, it is not a dialogue but a
monologue.There are two definition of man according to Buber. First, ‘’ MAN IS THE CENTER OF
EVERYTHING ‘’. The existence of man has double purpose, we could be the subject and the object of
knowledge. Second, ‘’NO ONE CAN COMPREHEND PERFECTLY THE HUMAN NATURE’’. No one has to
enter, to completely and in reality, in order to become aware of human nature and wholeness. There
are things that we cant fathom. "MAN BORN FROM OTHER ANIMALS, QUICKLY FIND NOURISHMENT"
(THALES OF MILETUS) Man alone needs a lengthy period of sucking (to sip), so that had he been
originally as he is now, he could never have survival. "MANS BODY COMES FROM HIS WORLD OF
MATTER" (SOCRATES) But his reason comes from the universal reason of the world. He is more
concerned of man as moral being. "MAN IS A KNOWER AND A POSSESSOR OF AN IMMORTASOUL"
(PLATO) The body is mortal and the soul is immortal. "MAN AS A RATIONAL AND SOCIAL ANIMAL "
(ARISTOTLE) Man is a national being, he could be able to think is right and what is wrong. Man is a social
animal, because no man is an island, we need socialization, interaction and to mingle with others.
 ST. AUGUSTINE

, Augustine’s refutation of skepticism does not aim at justifying our ordinary practices and beliefs. To
refute the Academic claim that, since the wise person can never be sure whether she has grasped the
truth, she will consistently withhold assent in order not to succumb to empty opinion, he thinks it
sufficient to demonstrate the existence of some kind of knowledge that is immune to skeptical doubt.
The mind always already knows itself because it is always present to and hence aware of itself. This pre-
reflexive self-awareness is presupposed by every act of conscious cognition. Like most ancient
philosophers, Augustine thinks that the human being is a compound of body and soul and that, within
this compound, the soul—conceived as both the life-giving element and the center of consciousness,
perception and thought—is, or ought to be, the ruling part. The rational soul should control the sensual
desires and passions; it can become wise if it turns to God, who is at the same time the Supreme Being
and the Supreme Good. In his Manichean phase, he conceived of both God and the soul as material
entities, the soul being in fact a portion of God that had fallen into the corporeal world where it
remained a foreigner, even to its own body

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

According to St. Aquinas man is substantially body and soul. Body and soul before death are essentially
unuted because the two exist in a correlative manner. All acts of virtue re prescribed by the natural
law, since each ones reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously. But nit all virtuous acts are
prescribed by the natural law for many things are dine virtuously, to which nature does not incline at
first, but which through the inquiry of reason, have been found by men to be conductive to well living.
Man is "one substance body and soul". Man is an embodied soul not a soul using a body. Only the soul is
the subtance while the body is actual. Thomas Aquinas wrote "greed is a sin against God, just as all
mortal sins" in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things. Thomqs
believed that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs divine help, that the intellect may
be moved by the God to its act. The goal of human existence is union and eternal fellowship with God.
Thomas distinguished 4 law's, first the eternal law, the degree of God that governs all creation. Second
Natural law, the human participation in the eternal law and is discovered by reason. Third Human law,
the naturak law applied by the governments to societies. And lastly Divine law, the specially revealed
law in the scriptures. Aquinas believed that Jesus Christ was truly divine and not simply a human being
or God merely inhabiting the body of christ. However, he held that Christ had a truly rational human
soul as well, producing a duality of natures that persisted even after the incarnation and that these twi
natures existed simultaneously yet distinguishably in one real human body.

MARTIN HEIDEGGERG

Heidegger's great opening was to take Plato seriously again,and at the same time to undermine the
entire platonic worldview by reversing the core of Platonism, treating being not as timeless and
trancendent but as embedded in time and history. According to Martin Heidegger we are unique not
simply because only we can question being, but also in that, in questioning being, we put our own being
in question. Awareness of our death changes the quality of how we would live it. It changes the way we
would treat others and the decisions we would make. Heidegger worries that modern humans will get
lost in unauthenticity amd lose their beingness in technology. We can only experience being as it
manifests itself, and that manifestation is always changing. That is its wonder and also the place of our
freedom. The human being is the unique being whose being has the character of openness toward
Being.

IMMANUEL KANT

For Kant, the key issue is how to discover a rational basis for one's sense of duty and, from that, to
devise a principle by which one could distinguish between right and wrong. Like Aristotle, Kant believed
that knowledge begins with EXPERIENCE with PRACTICAL REASON. He believed only because he
concluded he MUST. He himself proves that these was no proof of God, and no NEED of God except as
part of a "system" that he thought was necessary to the workings of human kind. A human being is
essentially, a rational being, and it is this that constitutes his intrinsic dignity. Reason, says Kant, is an
innate, intellectual power existing more or less eually in all men, it enables the individual to resolve
problems in a way, more or less acceptable to everyone. Kant says that you experience the world in this
way because CASUALITY is part of the structure of your mind i.e. it is a category which actively shapes
sensations so that you will always experience the world in this particular way. The law of casuality is
therefore not a law 'aut there, instead it is a priori (knowledge not based on experienced) law of the
mind which shapes the way you experience the world. Kant also says that we can never know the world
as it is- it is a PHENOMENON or appearance and it may be very different from the world as it is in itself.

JOHN LOCKE

EDUCATION MAKES THE MAN. Locke posits an "empty" mind -a trabula resa- that is "filled" by
experience. THEORY OF THE SELF is the "association of ideas" made when young are more significant
that those made when nature because they are the foundation of the self. Locke's emphasis on the role
of experience in the formation of the mind and his concern with false associations of ideas has led many
to characteristics his theory of mind as passive rather than active. Locke advises parents to carefully
nurture their children's physical "habits" before pursuing their academic education. Locke defined virtue
as a combination of self denial and rationally "that man is able to deny himself his own desires, cross his
own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as best, thought the appetite lean the other
way. Education is about instilling virtue and what Western educators would now call critical- thinking
skills. In philosophy, Locke examines the nature of the human mind and the process by which it knows
the world. Repudiating the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, believed that the mind id born blank, a
tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses. Locke
believe that the original state of nature was happy and characterize by reason and tolerance. Locke
based his ethical theories upom belief in the natural goodness of humanity.
 DAVID HUME (April 26, 1711 – August 25, 1776)
David Hume is a Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist. His father died when he was 2,
so his eldest brother raised him. He studied law for 3 years. His family thought he would be well
suited in a law career, but David preferred reading classical authors. Hume attended the Jesuit
College in France where Decartes also studied. David Hume was influence by John Locke,
George Berkeley, Isaac Newton, and Samuel Clarke. On the other hand, Hume influenced
Immanuel Kant, Willian James, and Adam Smith.
David Hume is a Positive Law supporter. Positive Laws are laws that are enacted and adopted
by the government. It is used to describe man-made laws which allow specific privileges upon,
or remove them from, an individual or group. Hume’s thoughts contained elements that could
be conservative and liberal. He is less concern about the form of government that administers
these laws, as long as it does so fairly. There are four characteristics of Hume’s Law, these are;
1) They apply to everyone; 2) Rigid in their execution; 3) Must be clear in their application and;
4) Laws will be made known to public. Relating to current law, David Hume would agree with
the law of ‘you are innocent until proven guilty’, everyone has a right to a fair trial. Laws apply
to everyone.

EDMUND HUSSERL (April 8, 1859 – April 27, 1938)

Edmund Husserl was an Austrian-German philosopher who established the school of
phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and psychologism in
logic based on analyses of intentionality.
Edmund Husserl was the principal founder of phenomenology and thus one of the most
influential philosophers of the 20th century. He has made important contribution to almost all
areas of philosophy and anticipated central ideas of its neighboring disciplines such as linguistic,
sociology and cognitive psychology. Phenomenology is the investigation of the essence or the
nature of material or things that appear to us.

SOREN KIERKEGAARD (May 5, 1813 - November 11, 1855)

Soren Aabye Kierkegaard is Danish philosopher, theologian, and cultural critic who was a major
influence on existentialism and Protestant theology in the 20th century.
For his emphasis on individual existence particularly religious existence as a constant process of
becoming and for his invocation of the associated concepts of authenticity, commitment,
responsibility, anxiety, and dread, Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered the father of
existentialism.
The roots of existentialism as a philosophy began with the Danish philosopher Soren
Kiekegaard(1813-1855). Kiekegaard was intensely interested in man’s relationship with
God,and it’s ultimate impossibility. Man is finite and individual ,whereas God is infinite and
absolute,so two can never truly meet.
Existentialists believe that every individual is unique and education must cater to the individual
differences. Therefore, the objective of education is to enable every individual to develop his
unique qualities, to harness his potentialities and cultivate his individualities.
5 PROFOUND LIFE LESSON WE CAN LEARN FROM EXISTENTIALISM:
1. We do not find meaning, we create it.
2. Your experience are unique to you.
3. Your morality is up to you.
4. The reponsibilities is 100% yours.
5. Nothing is up to you.

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (June 28, 1712 – July 2, 1778)

He was a philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of
the age of enlightenment through out Europe, as well as aspects of the French revolution and
the development of modern political, economic, and educational thought.
He is famous for reconceiving the social contract as a compact between the individual and a
collective “ general will” aimed at the common good and reflected in the laws of an ideal state
and for maintaining that existing society rests on a false social contract that perpetuates
inequality and rule by rich.
HIS THREE MAIN POINTS OF SOCIAL CONTRACT:
1. The state of nature > where nab is free and independent
2. Society > in which man is oppressed and dependent on others
3. The state under the Social Contract > in which, ironically, man becomes free obligation.
ROUSSEAU’S DEFINITION OF FREEDOM:
 “ Defined moral freedom as autonomy, or ‘obedience to the law that one has prescribed to
oneself”
 The discourse on the Origin of Inequality
 remains one of the rousseau’s most famous works, and lays the foundation for much of his
political thought as it is expressed in the discourse on political Economy and Social
Contract.

THEORY OF JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU

As believer in the plasticity of human nature, He holds that good laws make for good citizens.
However, he also believes both that good laws can only be willed by good citizens and that, in
order to be legitimate, they must be agreed upon by the assembly.

FRANCIS BACON (January 22, 1561 – April 9, 1626)

Francis Bacon, also known as Lord Verulam, was an English philosopher and statesman who
served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Well known for his treatises on
empiricist natural philosophy ( the advancement of learning, novum organum scientiarum) and
for his doctrine of the idols, which he put forward in his early writings, as well as for the idea of
a modern research institute, which he described in Nova Atlantis.
THE FRANCIS BACON THEORY
He has been called the father of empiricism, which is the idea that knowledge comes from the
senses. His theory was that scientific knowledge must come from the careful observation of
nature filtered through inductive reasoning.
WHAT WAS FRANCIS BACON BEST KNOWN FOR?
To the present day bacon is well known for his treatises on empiricist natural philosophy ( the
advancement of learning, novum organum scientiarum) and for his doctrine of the idols, which
he put forward in his early writings, as well as for the idea of a modern research institute, which
he described in Nova Atlantis.

RENE DESCARTES (1596–1650)

Rene Descartes was born in Descartes formerly known as La Haye in Tourraine. He is a son of a
minor noble man. He was considered the father of modern philosophy. He is also is also a well
known mathematician and scientist.
In 1604 to 1612, he studied at Jesuit College of La Fleche. However he later claimed that
education, except for mathematics, gave him " little of substance". Only mathematics , he said.
He was taught about scholastic philosophy in his school. Descartes was greatly influenced by
the Roman Catholicism. Rene, joined the army of Prince Maurice of Nassau, the leader of
United province of Netherlands. in 1964 Queen Christina of Sweden in stockholm invited him to
give instructions in philosophy.
Pneumonia was his caused of death and he got it in rigor of the northern winter. (encarta,
2004)

His works: *ESSAIS PLILOSOPHIQUES (philosophical essays)

- it was published in 1637. it contains four parts Geometry, Optics, Meteors, and Discours de la
methode ( discourse on method) *MEDITATIONES De PRIMA philosophia
( meditations on first philosophy) in 1641.
*PRINCIPIA PHILOSOPHIAE ( the principles of philosophy) in 1664.

On science:

*Rene made theory, the theory of vorticles, he stated that space consist of matter in various
states that whirls around the sun.
*He also touched physioogy, Decartes believed that a part of blood was fluid which he called
animal spirits. *A law in physics was discovered by Decartes during his study of
optics. he law staes that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

On mathematics:
*The systematization of analytic geometry was Decartes' mos notable contibution in
mathematics.
*In the theory of equations, Decartes was the first one to use the last letters of alphabetto
stand the unknowns.
*He formulated the rule, which is known as Descartes rule of signs.

In philosophy:
Descartes attemted to apply the rational inductive methods of science, in particular of
mathematics. , but he rejected the method used, he satetd " in our search for the direct road to
truth, we should busy ourselves with no object about wchich we cannot attain a certitude equal
to that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry. he was determined to does not
believe in anything to be true unless proven. " the single sure fact from which his investigations
begans was expressed by him in the famous words Cogito, ergo sum, i think, therefore i am"
meaning a clear consciousness of his thinking proves his existence. according to Descartes'
philosophy, created two classes of substance that make up the whole of reality, one class was
thinking substances, or minds, and the other was extended substances, of bodies. (encarta,
2004)

SIGMUND FREUD (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939)

An austrian neurologist born in 1856. Proposed the first theory of personality. Fruit
revolutionized how we think about and treat mental health conditions. He is also the founder of
psychoanalysis.
THREE METHODS OF STUDYING THE UNCONSCIOUS ACCORDING TO FREUD:
1) FREE ASSOCIATION - it is his technique in exploring the conscious mind.
2) PROJECTIVE TESTS - a test where a patient is asked to sing whatever comes to his/her mind.
3) DREAMS AND SLIP OF THE TONGUE - accidentally say something.

FREUD'S PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:

*PSYCHO ANALYTIC APPROACH
1) CONSCIOUS - ALL THE THINGS WE ARE AWARE OF AT ANY GIVEN MOMENT.
2) PRECONSCIOUS - EVERYTHING THAT CAN WITH A LITTLE EFFORT, BE BROUGHT INTO
CONSCIOUSNESS.
3) UNCONSCIOUS - INACCESSIBLE warehouse OF ANXIETY PRODUCING THOUGHT AND DRIVES.
* THE ID, EGO AND THE SUPER EGO.
1.) ID - satisfy desire and avoid pain.
- driven by the pleasure principle.
2.) Ego - policy of satisfying desire only if there is a socially acceptable outlet.
- understand reality principle and logic.
3.) Superego - applies moral restrictions.
- operating on the morality principle at all level of consciousness.
* FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES.
1.) ORAL STAGE (birth-1 yr) - mouth is associated with sexual pleasure.
2.) ANAL STAGE (1-3) - gratification comes from bowel and bladder function.
3.) PHALLIC STAGE (3-5yrs) - focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals.
- sexual attraction for opposite sex parent.
4.) LATENCY STAGE (5- puberty) - children participate in hobbies, school, and same-sex
friendship that strengthen their sexual identity.
5.) GENITAL STAGE (puberty on) - healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adults
have energy tied up in earlier stages.
DEFENSE MECHANISM - unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to reduce anxiety
by unconsciously distorting reality.

FREUD'S DEFENSE MECHANISM.

*REPRESSION - producing thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind.
*DENIAL - it refused to admit something bad is happening.
*REGRESSION - allows an anxious person to pull back to a more comfortable stages of life.
* REACTION FORMATION - thinking and acting in a way that is opposite of intolerable desire.
* PROJECTION - reducing anxiety by attributing unacceptable problems about yourself to
others.
* RATIONALIZATION - this place real feeling, provoking explanations with more comforting
justifications for one's action.
* DISPLACEMENT - emotional impulses are redirected to wards substitute person or object.
* SUBLIMATION - a form of displacement in which sexual urges rechanneled into productive
and sexual activities.
*UNDOING - involves neutralizing an unacceptable action with a second action.

GILBERT RYLE (August 19, 1900 – October 6, 1976)

Gilbert Ryle is a British philosopher, principally know for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for
w/c he coined the phase "Ghost in the machine." His ideas in philosophy of mind have been
called behaviorist, in his best known book, The Concept of Mind(1949). He believe that in
human mind there's a ghost entity occupying a physical body. He also believe that philosophical
problems are problems of a certain sort, they are not problems of an ordinary sort about
special entities.

KARL MARX ( May 5, 1818 – March 14, 1883)

Karl Marx was born on 5th May 1818, is widely referred to as a Philosopher, Political-
Economist and a Journalist. He was married to Jenny von Westphalen, Friedrich Engels is a close
friend and his fellow scholar. The message carved on his symmetry was written as "WORKERS
OF ALL LANDS, UNITE'' he died on 14th March, 1883. Some detailed information to Marx on
how could is that he believed in capitalism, class produces, thrive exploitation, Alienation,
common communally and socialism. Specifically his theory of social change based on
antagonisms between classes. The idea that power originates primarily in economic production.
Concern with the social origins of alienation, Understanding of modern capitalism and in
Welfare state. According to him, Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature the heart of a
heartless world and the spul of soulless conditions it is THE OPIUM OF THE PEOPLE. It's
ideologies is are capitalized society divided into two classes which is the Bourgeoisie (wealthier
ones) and the Proletariat (poor ones). The richer ones exploit and make the poor more weaker
to gain wealth and power. He argued that the ruling classes used their control of social
institutions to gain ideological dominance. The end result of ideological control is false
consciousness.