SINEWS OF ACHELOIOS A COMPREHENSIVE CATALOG OF THE BRONZE COINAGE OF THE MAN-FACED BULL, WITH ESSAYS ON ORIGIN AND IDENTITY Written and edited by Nicholas J. Molinari and Nicola Sisci ARCHAEOPRESS ARCHAEOLOGYARCHAEOPRESS PUBLISHING LTD Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED www.archaeopress.com ISBN 978 178491 409 7 (Hardback) © Archaeopress and the authors 2016 Cover illustration: Bronze lta of Herbessos, c. 338 to 336 BC, depicting Acheloios Herbessos as a man-faced bull (Image courtesy of Ciassical Nurnismatic Group, nc, Lancaster, PA and London, England; Background image features a segment of the Black Sea, courtesy of NASA), Al rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners. Printed in England by Short Run Press, Exeter ‘This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.comContents Preface, Introduction: Why the Man-Faced Bull?. Part I: Concerning the Origin and Identity of the Man-Faced Bull Seaton One: On the On of Mam Fae ul onogrphy. Chapter I: Paleolithic Art-ron Age. Paleolithic Art Cattle Cults, Neolithic Art... ‘The Near East and Levant. - Preliminary Conclusions: Near East Egypt. India . Cape I The Westward Migrations of Ma Faced Bull Ismay Introduction... Fe esr Cypnss. Iron Age Seer-Healers Mercenaries... Conclusions. Chapter I: The eonography and Related Traditions in Early Westem Mediterranean Cultures Introduction. Sicilian Traditions in Rel Traditions of Sardi Early Italic Traditions ter IV: The Etruscan and Greek Worlds. Etruscan Man-Faced Bulls. ‘The Greek Man-Faced Bull. Conclusions. Chapter V: Distribution ofthe Ieonography on Greek Coinage Eastem Mediterranean Man-Faced Bull Types. Mainland Greece Man-Faced Bull Types Western Mediterranean Man-Faced Bull Types. Section Two: On the Identity of the Man-Faced Bul. ‘Chapter VI Past Arguments for the Identity of the Man-Faced Bull The Minotaur een * The Agricultura Allegory Neptune nesses Jupiter. Dionysos Local River Gods... Acheloios Intermediary Conelusions Chapter VIl: The Identity of the Greek Man-Faced Bull (On Greek Epithets ‘The Greek Man-Faced Bulls, Epithets of Acheloios.. Notes on Ancestry and Etymology i Conclusions. Concluding Reflections on the Man-Faced Bull. Plates... to Water Cults and the Man-Faced Bull Part Il: Catalog of the Bronze Coinage of the Man-Faced Bull.Section Three: SICILY ABAKAINON AGYRION.. ALAISA ARCHONIDEA (unconfirmed). ALAISA KATANE ALONTION.... ASSOROS. GELA... HALYKIAI (ALICIE). HERBESSOS. IAITAS, KATANE, KERSINI MAMAR. MYLAI (2). PANORMOS. SERGETAIANS, SILERAIANS UNCERTAIN: SILERAIANS?, TAUROMENION, Four: ITALY pet ‘AESERNIA, ‘THE BRETTIL CALES. ‘COMPULTERIA. IRNTHI LARINUM MALIES, METAPONTION, NEAPOLIS NOLA, ROME”, SUESSA AURUNCA, TEANUM SIDICINUM .. ‘TIATI APULORUM VENAFRUM Section Five: AKARNANIA.. AKARNANIAN FEDERATION LEUKAS. THE OINIADAL STRATOS THYRREION Section Six: REMAINING MINTS.. AMBRAKIA ISTROS (Black Sea) METHYLION? (Thessaly) METROPOLIS (Thessaly). TARSOS. ALKHANOUM? (Seleukid Kings) 2 IONIA: UNCERTAIN MINT ON THE MEANDER RIVER Appendix. i Joseph Eckhel, “De tauro cum facie humane,’ in Doctrina Numorum Veterum, Vol. 1 (Wien: Ignatius Alberti, 1792), Translated by Curtis Clay, 2013, Appendix 2... : ne “ ee) “The Oxus RiBibliography Index...APPENDIX Appendix 2 ‘The Oxus River God: a man-faced Indian humped bull’ Dr. Lloyd W, This remarkable coin type is known from a single example, first documented by Houghton and Lorber in Seleucid Coins.” Apparently it was acquired from 1 source in Pakistan shortly before the publication of Seleucid Coins. For the reasons detailed below the coin is attributed to the Baktrian Mint at Ai Khanour, uring the co-regency of Seleukos I Nikator and his son Antioehos I Soter in the period 292-281 BC. The co- regency dating is unequivocally indicated by the legend in the names of both kings. Within the man-faced bull typology the coin is notable for three reasons. Firstly, it is the sole example of the ‘man faced bull iconography bearing the body of the Indian humped bull, a reflection of its association with ‘one of the easternmost river systems known to the Greeks, the mighty Oxus River (the present day Anu Darya). Secondly, despite its essentially Greek nature, the coin bears a mint control in the leftfield that appears to be in local Indian script, possibly a local variation of the Brahmi letter pa. This is the earliest known ‘occurrence of an Indian script mint control accompanied bby what appears to be a Greek control, a circled 4, on ‘an essentially Greek coin. A final notable point is that not only is this the easternmost example of the man- faced bull typology on a Greek coin, its the only known ‘example on a Seleukid coin. To the west, the closest ‘occurrence of the man-faced bull typology is on some rare civie issues in Asia Minor, some 3,200 kilometres, stant from Ai Khanoum. This unique coin (SC 283A) appears to be amongst the first and the largest denomination in a series of co- regency bronze issues from Ai Khanoum, The others (SC 284-SC 288) all carry a right charging Indian humped bull, but for the smallest denomination (SC 288), which ‘bears a standing humped bull. No man-faced bull is present on the smaller denominations, although within the iconographic association it might be that the Indian ‘humped bull is to be considered yet anather portrayal of the Oxus river god. Associated with this coin is an anepigraphic issue (SC 284) ofthe same large denomination, bearing a charging Indian humped bull. This associated anepigraphic coin suggests that the coinage was inaugurated in the earliest ® A. Houghton and C. Lobes, Seleucid Cams (New York, ANS, 2002), EDITOR'S NOTE: There are actualy three known examples that were discovered by Dr Taylor alr this essay was writen. See CChaper2, p29, note 198 299 H. Taylor period of the co-regency, perhaps as early as 290 BC, when there was some uncertainty as to the appropriate legend to accompany the co-regency, atthe time a novel experiment for a Macedonian ruler. Antiochos I took up his role as viceroy in the east and was resident in Ai Khanoum from around 293/2 BC.” Amongst his works was the development of Ai Khanoum into a Seleukid administrative centre, plus the establishment of an associated mint. A remarkable aspect of this coin series is that it marked the first appearance of the Indian humped bull in Greek nnumismatic iconography. The Ai Khanoum charging Indian bull series of bronze coins may have provided the inspiration for the transfer of the Indian humped bull typology to the west. The Indian humped bull appears on the reverse of some of the bronze coinage of Seleukos T that was a standard through Seleukos" realm from the late 280°s i.e, post-dating the inauguration of the Ai Khanoum co-regency issues. On this bronze coinage of Seleukos I, the humped bull typology is offen co- ‘mingled with the European bull typology that existed in the Greek world before knowledge of the existence of the humped bull of the Indus Valley returned with the army of Alexander III the Great. Nowell attributed the charging bull motifon the coinage of Seleukos 1 Nikstor to propaganda making by the latter. Tis interpretation was based on Appian’s history whereby Seleukos personally restrained a sacrificial bull that had broken free before Alexander III the Great This event purportedly occurred while Alexander was in the east. With little doubt it was part of the personal myth making of Seleukos 1 Nikator, but the typology of the exotic Indian humped bull added to the myth and the heroic status of Scleukos, who through his own eastem anabasis (307-303 BC) ranked with Dionysos and Alexander in the mythology of the day, another validation of his right to kingship. In this coin and the related co-regency issues from Ai Khanoum we appear to have the first numismatic evidence of the Seleukos* bull myth making and propaganda that surrounded the king. It is noteworthy that the co-ineident appearance of the Indian humped bull and the Brahmi mint control on 7D. Grainger, Sefeutor Nitator Constructing Hellenic ‘Kingdom (Abingdon: Routledge, 1950) 2 'ET. Newel, The Coinage ofthe Eastern Seleucid Mons From Selec Io Antioch IT (New York: ANS, 1938).TIOTAMIKON: SINEWS OF ACHELOIOS this coin is one of the earliest numismatic examples of Graeco-Bactrian cultural fusion, a process that began with Antiochos 1, who himself was the product of a marriage between Seleuikos, a Macedonian officer in the army of Alexander II the Great and Apama, the daughter of Spitamenes, the greatest Baktrian warrior to confront ‘Alexander the Great. The representation of the Greek man-faced bull river god amongst the co-regency issues appears to be another aspect of this process of cultural fusion, overlaying as it does Greck religious belief and iconography on local history as detailed below. Some influential scholars remain steadfast inthe opinion that this and associated coins originated from the Bakirian mint at Baktra/Balkh. Yet the evidence for an Ai Khanoum origin is persuasive, as detailed by Kitt in Seleucid Coins of Bactria.* The circled delta mint control and the thick, beveled edge fabric of this coin place itas a product ofthe mint at Ai Khanoum. The find locations of associated bronze issues, dominated as they are by Ai Khanoum and the immediately adjacent plain, further substantiate this attribution, as does the analysis, of the diffusion of Seleukid bronze issues detailed by Kritt in Dynastic Transitions inthe Coinage of Bactria.”* ‘Additonal support for the Ai Khanoum origin of this coin isto be found in this coin’s iconography of a river god, or man-faced bull, bearing the body of an Indian humped bull. Ai Khanoum sit directly atthe confluence of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) and Kokcha Rivers (Figures 1 & 2), Respectively these rivers form the immediate westem and southem boundaries of the ancient city, Baktra/Balkh on the other hand sits about 75 km to the south of the Oxus (Amu Darya), located ‘oma drainage outwash fan delta adjacent to the northern foothills of the Hindu Kush, on the edge of the desert ‘which separates it from the Oxus. The outwash fan is fed by the seasonal melt water of Balkh River, the course of ‘hich is located 12 km west of the location of ancient Bactra/Balkh, This seasonal river feeds irrigation canals in the ares around BaktraBalkh before it disappears into the desert sands that loop around the outwash fan, 25 km north of the ancient city. In contrast, Ai Khanoum sits at the confluence of two major permanent rivers that are both subject to major flood each spring, due to melt water influx from the eastern Himalayas (Oxus River/Amu Darya) and the Hindu Kush (Kokcha River) respectively Why should the charging man-faced Indian humped bull, or Oxus River God, be placed on an inaugural issue of bronze co-regency coinage issued by Antiochos T from his newly established mint at Ai Khanoum? The most plausible answer is to be found in the setting of the ancient city B. Kat, Seleucid Coin of Baeia (Lancaster, PA: CNG, 1996) "BK, Dynastic Tramsion in dhe Coinage of Bocria: Amcchos- Diodes Ent demos (Lancaster: CNG, 2001) 300 ‘The city is adjacent to an extensive fertile plain that was a site of irrigation based agriculture from the Bronze Age”. One and a half kilometres to the north of Ai Khanoum is the site of the circular Achaemenid citadel and fortress of ancient Kohna Qala” (Figure 1 & 3) that was partially destroyed by a massive Oxus River flood some time in the centuries preceding Greek occupation of the area ‘The remaining site of ancient Kohna Qala hhas a double encircling rampart to the south and east with a high citadel on its NW quadrant, The northern most portions of the ancient citadel and fortified city appear to have been washed away by the Oxus in pre-history, leaving a prominent erosional escarpment transecting the citadel and outlying ramparts, below and to the north of which now extend an abandoned river channel. The remains and physical relationship of this ancient city to the later foundation of Ai Khanoum and the Oxus river course are clearly visible on satellite imagery (Figures 13) From Kohna Qala, south to Ai Kahnoum over a distance of 3.5 km, the course of the Oxus River is at its most tightly constricted, the river flowing along a geological fault Tine, bounded by a mountains range on the right bank and the elevated plain of Ai Khanoum on the left bank, The abrupt constriction of the Oxus River valley at Kohna Qala makes this location amongst the most exposed to the effects of elevated river levels in times of extreme flood and the northem extent of ancient Kohna Qala was eroded by the changing ex arse of the Oxus. A catastrophic ancient re-alignment ofthe river is evident in the geometries of the riverbank, flood plain and archaeological remains at this point. Unfortunately our knowledge of this site remains largely based fon the interpretation satellite imagery. The French Archacological Mission in Afghanistan surveyed, but did not excavate the ancient site at Koha Qala prior to the Soviet invasion in 1979, so that its origins, history and significance remain underappreciated, if not almost completely unknown, ‘The river flood which partially destroyed ancient Kohna Qala was possibly associated with a major glacial melt dam burst at the upstream river source that caused the (Oxus to excavate a new broader channel through the northern portion of the citadel as the river channel expanded toward the east, Later reduced flow and sedimentation saw the river channel migrate back to the west, leaving exposed an extensive riverine plain extending to the north east of Kohna Qala. The remains of ancient Kohna Qala were occupied in Achaemenid times. This small fortress and with its strategic location 5B Mair, The Founder’ Shrine ond the Foundation of Mi Khanoum in Foundation Myths in Ancien Socteles Dialogue and Discourses, ‘died by N’Mae Sweeney (Philadelphia: University of Pennsyvanis Press, 201), ®L, Matineze-Sove, “The Spatial Organiation of Ai Khanoumy, a ‘Greek City im Aiphanstan" in Ald 118 2018), 267-283,may have provided the inspiration for the foundation of the much larger Ai Khanoum, initially as a garrison site by Alexander the Great, then to be greatly expanded to become the Seleukid satrapal capital of Baktria by Antiochos [ between 292-281 in his role as viceroy of the east. In the geographical setting of Ai Khanoum there is more than ample archaeological and historical context for the presence of a sometimes angry and enraged Oxus river god, Thus the portrayal on this coin of a vigorously charging Indian humped man-faced bull, or river god. It is possible that at the time of the Greeks in Baktria the oral tradition of the region included reference to the partial destruction of ancient Kohna Qala by the Oxus. Even if not the ease, the physical evidence remained for the Grecks to see, less than a couple of kilometres from the Ai Khanoum city gate, across the fertile irrigated fields ofthe elevated plain adjacent to the mighty Oxus Any wonder then that when Antiochos I arrived to take up his role as viceroy in the east he paid attention to the mood of the river god and chose to pay homage to that ‘god on his inaugural coinage in the city?.” ce the above was writen Brian Kit’ book New Discoveries in Bacirian NumiomatiesLaneaser, PA: CNG) was published in June 2015, His work, pareuary Chapters 6 and 7 shed aditional insights on this enizmaic ean, is iconography, epigraphy and namismatic ‘gnficanee, The ingiring reader Felere to ths publication fora ‘more expansive numismati analysis 301 ApPENDIXTOTAMIKON: SINEWs OF ACHELOIOs FIGURE 1: THE ANCIENT GRAECO-BAKTRIAN CITY OF Ai KHANOUM AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE AMU Daava (OXUS) AND KOKCHA RIVERS, |WIT THE REMAINS OF THE SEMI-CIRCULAR CITADEL AND FORTIFICATION OF ANCIENT KOHNA QALA 1.5 KILOMETRES TO THE NORTH OF THE [AL KHANOUM. THE FERTILE IRRIGATED PLAIN, A SITE OF AGRICUCTURE FROW THE BRONZE AGE, EXTENDS FROM THE OXUS BETWEEN AND TO ‘THE EAST OF THE TWO CITIES, IN THIS IMAGE THE OxUS (AMU DARYA) RIVER FLOWS FROM TOP CENTRE OF THE IMAGE, WHILE THE KOKCHA IVER FLOWS FROM THE LOWER LEFT OF CENTRE, TO CONVERGE WITH THE OXUS, INiMEDIATELY TO THE LEFT (EAST) OF THE CONFLUENCE (OF THE TWO RIVERS IS AI KHANOUM, OUTUNED BY THE UNCUITVATED TRIANGULAR AREA. KOHNA CALA 15 OUTUNED BY THE REMNANT SEMI-CIRCULAR WAUS IMMEDIATELY TO THE LEFT OF THE OXUS, JUST ABOVE THE MIDDLE OF THE IMAGE. FIGURE 2: Ai KHANOUM BOUNDED BY THE OxUS (AU DARA) TO THE WEST AND THE KOKCHA RIVER TO THE SOUTH. PART OF THE IRRIGATED FERTILE PLAIN THAT SUPPORTED THE CITY ADUTS THE CITY WALLS AND THE ELEVATED ACROPOUS THAT JOINTLY 302qe APPENDIX FIGURE 3: KoHNA QALA DEFINED 6Y TWIN SEI-CIRCULAR RAMPARTS WITH THE NORTHERNMOST PORTION OF THE CITADEL TRUNCATED BY ‘THE EROSIONAL VALLE OF THE Oxus, 303