Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Geoelectrical resistivity imaging of shallow oil sands in the Eastern

Dahomey Basin (SW Nigeria): Implication for heavy oil exploration
and production
Ovie Emmanuel Eruteya a, *, Muhedeen Ajibola Lawal b, Kamaldeen Olakunle Omosanya c,
Adeoye Oshomoji c, Usman Kaigama d, Ayokunle Adewale Akinlalu e,
Geraldine Chibuzor Anukwu f, Adamu Suleiman g, Olateju Olatunji Bayewu h,
Phillips Reuben Ikhane h, Andrea Moscariello a
a
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
b
Dr Moses Strauss Department of Marine Geosciences, University of Haifa, Israel
c
Oasis Geoconsulting Limited, Nigeria
d
Department of Geology, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria
e
Department of Applied Geophysics, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
f
Department of Geosciences, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria
g
Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), Abuja, Nigeria
h
Department of Earth Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Eastern Dahomey Basin hosts an extensive reserve of oil sands, a significant portion of which is unexplored
Oil sands and located within the southwestern part of Nigeria. Here, we use detailed outcrop mapping and Electrical
Bitumen Resistivity Tomography (ERT) to investigate the physical and geological characteristics of the oil sands and
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
surrounding lithological units within the Eastern Dahomey Basin in SW Nigeria. The oil sands in the studied
Open-pit mining
Dahomey basin
outcrop belong to the Turonian to Maastrichtian sandstones of the Afowo Formation which is characterized by
active bitumen seepage along the length of the outcrop. The ERT results reveal lateral and vertical variability of
the overburden and oil sands units in the study area. The oil sands are characterised by two unique geoelectric
anomalies. Each of these anomalies has higher resistivity values (>3713 Ωm) compared to the low resistivity
values of the topsoil/laterite overburden (160–2790 Ωm) and the underlying clay dominated interval (160–1576
Ωm). Importantly, the oil sands have variable thicknesses of up to 20 m and are located at shallow depths (~1–5
m below ground level). Hence, the oil sands can be exploited using surface mining techniques. This study pro­
vides a detailed assessment into the application of a non-invasive geophysical techniques for characterising oil
sands near an active seep system, with implications for drawing up exploitation strategies.

1. Introduction
Oil sands often referred to as “tar sands”, are bitumen-rich sands that
are primarily composed of sand, heavy oil (bitumen) and clays (Kellett
and Bauman, 1999; Chopra et al., 2010). In the raw state, bitumen ap­
pears as semi-solid, sticky, viscous and black substance. The heavy oil is
generated from substantial degradation involving biological, chemical
and physical processes during migration and after entrapment of the oil
(Hunt, 1979; Chopra and Lines, 2008). The presence of an ineffective
caprock above the hydrocarbon deposits usually permits the escape of
lighter hydrocarbon components leaving behind the heavier compo­
nents (Chopra and Lines, 2008). In southwestern Nigeria, oil sands occur
across a 120 km long and 4 - 6 km-wide belt that cuts across Ogun, Ondo
and Edo States (Enu, 1985) (Fig. 1a). About 38–42 billion barrels of
extra-heavy oil and bitumen reserves are estimated to be hosted in the
oil sands, roughly equal to the existing conventional petroleum reserves
of Nigeria (Milos, 2017; Ministry of Mines and Steel Development,
2018).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ovie.Eruteya@unige.ch (O.E. Eruteya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104122
Received 2 October 2019; Received in revised form 6 January 2021; Accepted 21 January 2021
Available online 27 January 2021
1464-343X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O.E. Eruteya et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

In the Dahomey Basin, bitumen seepages are common within the oil
sands belt and have been mapped in farmlands, along road cut exposures
and riverbanks (Enu, 1985; Olayinka et al., 2016). These oil seeps pro­
vide an excellent opportunity to characterise the deposits, albeit within
a limited spatial extent. Previous studies (Table 1), centred around the
Ondo State axis oil sands belt used geoelectrical techniques (e.g., Ako
et al., 1983; Eruteya, 2008; Odunaike et al., 2009; 2010; Akinmosin
et al., 2011; 2013; Olayinka et al., 2016) and magnetic techniques
(Amigun et al., 2012). However, a major challenge is ground-truthing
for correlating and calibrating the geophysical measurements with
outcrop exposures or borehole data. Despite, outcrop sampling and
drilling providing only localised sampling of discrete locations, which
may be insufficient for an extensive understanding of the nature and
manifestation of the oil sands deposit, a non-invasive geophysical

Fig. 1. (a) Location of the study area within the southwestern part of Nigeria (b) Study area showing the location of the ERT profiles and the two outcrops (Outcrop 1
and Outcrop 2) under investigation (c) Location of ERT-3 (d) Location of ERT-1 and ERT-2. (e) Location of ERT-4. Map derived from Google Map and Google
Earth Pro.

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O.E. Eruteya et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

Table 1
Geoelectric measurements compiled from previous studies for oil sand deposits.
Location Geophysical Method Resistivity (Ω m) Thickness (m) References

Non-invasive Invasive

Electrical Magnetic Gravity Seismic

VES ERT IP Outcrop Borehole

1 Nigeria x x less 100 3–26 Ako et al. (1983)

2 Canada x x x >300 Up to 50 Bauman (2005)
3 Nigeria x x x 1074–4000 2.1–18.8 Eruteya (2008)
4 Nigeria x x x – 38 Odunaike et al. (2009)
5 Nigeria x 165–725 ~40 Odunaike et al. (2010)
6 Iran x x x x – – Rashidi and Ebrahimzadeh (2010)
7 Nigeria x x 2206–4398 14.49 Akinmosin et al. (2011)
8 Nigeria x x 385–13012 22.2–73.7 Amigun et al. (2012)
9 Nigeria x x 1515–5773 17–72 Akinmosin et al. (2012a)
10 Nigeria x x x >4219 11 Akinmosin et al. (2012b)
11 Nigeria x x x 900–1480 ~30 Akinmosin et al. (2013)
12 Nigeria x x >3000 50 Anukwu et al. (2014)
13 Iran x >50 >1 Salimi et al. (2014)
14 Nigeria x x 40–100 – Olayinka et al. (2016)
15 Iran x x ~200 – Mashhadi et al. (2018)
16 Nigeria x x >3713 Ωm Up to 20 m This study

Fig. 2. Location of the Dahomeyian embayment in the context of African geologic setting and cratons. The study area is part of the Eastern Dahomey Basin and its
bounded to the north by the Dahomeyide shield, which consists primarily of metamorphosed rocks of Pan-African age. Inset shows the location of the Nigeria on the map
of Africa. (The map is modified after Omosanya et al., 2014).

3
O.E. Eruteya et al.
exploration technique such as electrical resistivity tomography (ERT),
can be used and integrated with outcrop or borehole information. This
will enable a reliable estimate of the lateral, vertical and volumetric
distributions of subsurface geometry of the oil sands.
In this paper, we focus on the oil sand deposits located in the Ogun
State axis of the oil sands belt in southwest Nigeria. The presence of two
critical outcrops, one characterised by a bitumen-rich interval (Outcrop
1) and the other barren of bitumen (Outcrop 2), provides access for
validating the geophysical responses from the ERT imaging of the two
outcrops (Fig. 1). This study aims to obtain high-resolution imagery of
the lithologic characteristics and geometry of the oil sands horizons in
the study area. To achieve this, four ERT surveys and detailed mapping
of outcrops was carried out. Consequently, we characterise the oil sand
interval(s) by estimating the thickness of the overburden, the thickness
of the oil sand deposits, and their lithological composition. A strategy
suitable for exploring mining oil sands in southwest Nigeria is developed
and discussed.
2. Geological setting
The study area is located in the Eastern Dahomey Basin, covering an
area of about 17 km2, in Ogun State, southwest Nigeria (Fig. 1) within a
part of the eastern Dahomeyian Embayment. (Figs. 1 and 2). The
Dahomey Basin evolved in the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous as a result
of the separation of the Africa and South America plates which led to the
opening of South Atlantic Ocean (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981; Eagles
and Konig, 2008; Moulin et al., 2010). The stratigraphic fill of the
Dahomey Basin varies greatly between onshore and offshore areas
(D’Almeida et al., 2016) and composed of four main sedimentary se­
quences (Fig. 3), which are the pre-rift (Late Jurassic), rift (Neo­
comian-Lower Cretaceous), transitional (Cenomanian-Santonian) and
Fig. 3. Location of the Dahomey (Benin) Coastal Basin within the “Dahomey Embayment” showing the stratigraphy of the area from Togo to Western Nigeria
(Modified after Hessouh et al., 1994). Stratigraphic nomenclature is adopted from the Geological survey of Nigeria maps.
4
Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122
post-rift (Maastrichtian-Holocene) sequences (Billman, 1976; Hessouh
et al., 1994; Kaki et al., 2001; D’Almeida et al., 2016).
Stratigraphically, the Eastern Dahomey Basin is infilled with over
2500 m of Cretaceous and younger sedimentary rocks that non­
conformably overlie the metamorphic basement complex in tilted gra­
bens and half grabens (Kaki et al., 2001). An important
lithostratigraphic unit is this study is the Cretaceous Abeokuta Group,
which lies within the Eastern part of the Dahomey Basin (Fig. 3).
Omatsola and Adegoke (1981) recognised three formations that make
up the Abeokuta Group. Sedimentary rocks in this group are the thickest
within the Eastern Dahomey Basin and comprise from oldest to youn­
gest: the Ise, Afowo and Araromi formations (Fig. 4). The Ise Formation
nonconformably overlies the basement complex of Southwestern
Nigeria (Omosanya et al., 2014). It consists of conglomerates and coarse
sand at the base which are in turn overlain by coarse to medium-grained
sands with interbedded kaolinite. The conglomerates are imbricated,
and at some locations, ironstones occur (Nton, 2001). An age range of
Neocomian-Albian is assigned to this formation based on paleontolog­
ical assemblages (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981).
The Afowo Formation overlies the Ise Formation and is composed of
coarse to medium-grained sandstone with variable thick interbedded
shale, siltstone and claystone (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981; Ogala
et al., 2019; Mohammed et al., 2019, 2020). The sandy facies in this
formation are bitumen-bearing. The shale facies of the Afowo Formation
are organic-rich (Enu, 1985). Based on palynological assemblages, a
Turonian age is assigned to the Lower part of this formation, while the
upper part ranges from Turonian to Maastrichtian (Omatsola and Ade­
goke, 1981). The youngest unit in the Abeokuta Group is the Araromi
Formation, which conformably overlies the Afowo Formation (Fig. 4). It
is composed of fine-medium grained sandstone at the base, overlain by
shales, silt-stone with interbedded limestones, marl and lignite of
O.E. Eruteya et al.
Fig. 4. Chrono-stratigraphic chart showing the dominant rock types of the stratigraphic units across the Eastern Dahomey Basin. Also shown in the chart are the main
source and reservoir rocks. The lithostratigraphic and well names are adopted from D’Almeida et al. (2016) while the chronologic chart is adopted from Walker
et al. (2018).
Maastrichtian to Palaeocene age (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981).
3. Methodology
3.1. Fieldwork – outcrop studies
Two outcrops referred herein as Outcrop 1 (oil sand outcrop – Afowo
Formation) and Outcrop 2 (lateritic sands – Ise Formation) were the
focus of investigation in this study (Figs. 1b, 6 and 8). During the field
mapping exercise, the outcrops were photographed from a location
perpendicular to the outcrop surfaces in order to remove distortion ef­
fects and provide a clearer overview of the outcrops. Although, outcrop
2 (Fig. 6b) is less vegetated relative to outcrop 1, mapping it entailed
repeating the same field procedures as carried out on outcrop 1. Sub­
sequently, the outcrops were logged using a measuring tape by consid­
ering the vertical and lateral heterogeneities in the lithological units.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122
3.2. Geophysical survey – electrical resistivity tomography
To have a clear understanding of the subsurface geometry of the oil
sands deposits in the study area, we carried out an electrical resistivity
tomography (ERT) survey (see Koefoed, 1979 and Loke et al., 2013,
Fig. 5). We acquired four ERT profiles here referred to as ERT 1 (350 m),
ERT 2 (250 m), ERT 3 (250 m) and ERT 4 (70 m) as shown in Fig. 1b–e.
ERT 1 and ERT 4 were acquired over Outcrop 1 and Outcrop 2 while ERT
2 and ERT 3 were acquired as an offset from the Ilusin-Araromi-Obu
Road (Fig. 1b–e). The ERT measurements were conducted using the
OHMEGAΩ resistivity meter (Fig. 5b).
The ERT measurements were conducted using four electrodes, two
current electrodes and two potential electrodes using the Wenner elec­
trode configuration. This configuration involves less cumbersome field
procedures. It is sensitive to abrupt vertical changes in subsurface re­
sistivity, has a moderate depth of penetration and good signal strength
(Neyamadpour et al., 2010; Okpoli, 2013; Omosanya et al., 2014). The
electrodes have fixed spacing (a) and were progressively moved along
the traverse during the survey. The electrode spacing was increased
O.E. Eruteya et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

Fig. 5. (a) ERT acquisition design for the study area (b) ERT instrumentation setup in the field (c) General electrode configuration C denote the current electrode
while P is the potential electrode (d) ERT acquisition using the Wenner Array across 3 hypothetical imaging level n 1 -n 3 for deeper imaging.

sequentially to achieve a 2-D measurement. For ERT 1, 2 and 3, the
minimum and maximum electrode spacing (amax and amin) were 10 m
and 50 m while ERT 4 has an amax and amin of 2 m and 10 m, respec­
tively. Five data levels (n) were acquired for all the profiles. The data
was acquired in September–October 2018 during the rainy season. To
account and correct for topographic variation in the measurements, the
GARMIN 76S GPS was used to measure the elevation and location of
each electrode on the ERT profile.
The data obtained were used to generate the resistivity models for
the subsurface using the RES2DINV software (Loke, 2003). The software
utilises a forward modelling subroutine to determine the apparent re­
sistivity values, with the inversion scheme performed using the
least-squares optimisation routine (Loke, 2003). The 2-D model is made
up of a series of rectangular cells whose size and position are fixed,
although the resistivity can vary in the vertical or horizontal directions
(Loke, 2011). In the analysis, the model width of the cells was set to half
the unit electrode spacing (Dahlin et al., 2002) for profiles that showed
considerable resistivity variation close to the surface (Loke, 2003). Also,
each data set was assessed for bad data points, which are usually char­
acterised by relatively very high or low values of resistivity compared to
surrounding data set (Loke, 2003). These points were excluded during
the forward modelling. Subsequently, the finite element method (Dey
and Morrison, 1979) was adopted for forward modelling to calculate the
apparent resistivity. The inversion was performed with at least 6 itera­
tions using a robust data and model inversion method, as this option
gives a better model for subsurface with sharp boundaries (Neya­
madpour et al., 2010; Omosanya et al., 2012). The inversion process
aims to minimise the error between the observed and calculated

6
O.E. Eruteya et al.
apparent resistivity, which can be assessed by the root mean square
(RMS) value.
4. Results
4.1. Outcrop description
The two exposures named Outcrop 1 and Outcrop 2 were charac­
terised in this study (Figs. 1c and 6 a-b). Outcrop 1 is a road cut section
that reveals the bitumen-bearing Afowo Formation (Fig. 6a). This con­
trasts with outcrop 2, which is a low-lying exposed section of the Ise
Formation (Fig. 6b).
4.1.1. Outcrop 1
This outcrop has a vertical extent of ~3.5 m (Fig. 6a) and a length of
~10 m. Outcrop 1 consists of ~1.6 m thick lateritic topsoil, ~0.7 m thick
bitumen impregnated coarse sandstones with clay intercalations occu­
pying the middle of the exposure, and up to 1 m thick clay-dominated
lowermost section (Figs. 6a and 8d-f). Furthermore, field observations
reveal this outcrop is generally devoid of sedimentary structures.
Outcrop 1 is further subdivided into three key litho-sections based on the
temporal variation in lithofacies (Fig. 6a).
Afowo I - Lower clay-dominated interval (2.5–3.5 m bgl [metres
below ground level])
This interval is the lowermost layer of the exposed section, it is clay-
dominated, and grain size is predominantly fine. This interval is dark-
grey in colour, except at certain spots where bitumen-characterising
black stains are observed (Figs. 6a, 7 and 8). Such stains are observed
to result as bitumen drips from the overlying bitumen-bearing interval.
Afowo II- Intermediate bitumen-bearing sandstones (1.8–2.6 m bgl).
This unit is the oil sands interval characterised by sandstone and
bitumen impregnations (Figs. 6a, 7 and 8). The lower part of the unit is
characterised by grey-coloured clay intercalations, presumably kaolinite
(Fig. 8f). This interval is sticky and presents a striking black colour
Fig. 6. (a) Outcrop 1 showing bitumen seepage within the Afowo Formation.
Inset is the location of bitumen seepage shown in Fig. 8e (b) Outcrop 2 where
the Ise Formation is exposed.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122
owing to the occurrence of bitumen, which seeps out of the exposure
(Figs. 5a and 6b). The clay-bearing zones also exhibit black stains from
the seeping bitumen (Fig. 6c). Importantly, the thickness of this unit is
variable along the exposure ranging between 0.7 and 1 m and with
predominantly fine to coarse grained sediments (Fig. 7). More so, this
interval is water-bearing with visible water droplets observed along the
outcrop face of the interval.
Afowo III - Upper lateritic soil (0–1.8 m bgl).
This uppermost section of the exposure is overlain by ~ 0.2 m thick,
brown to dark-grey coloured, slightly loamy soil (Figs. 6a, 7 and 8). The
upper loamy soils are in turn underlain by conspicuous, lithified lateritic
soil, accommodating sparsely observed gravels with a size of up to 0.03
m (Figs. 6a, 7 and 8a). A reddish-brown colour, clayey feel and fine to
coarse-grained sediments characterise the upper 0.2–0.8 m (Figs. 6a and
7). At the lower section of the interval, the red-coloured lateritic soils
show a slight increase in sand content, unlike in the overlying interval
where sand content is reduced. Relative to the underlying bitumen-
bearing unit, Afowo III contains less sand.
4.1.2. Outcrop 2
Outcrop 2 is stratigraphically below Outcrop 1 and has a vertical
extent of ~2 m and a length of ~15 m (Figs. 1c and 6b). It is predom­
inantly composed of lithified sandstones with evident quartz crystals
and conglomerates (Fig. 8a–c) observed atop the weathered basement
rocks (Fig. 6f). Locally, two unconformities are observed within the Ise
Formation: a non-conformity on the weathered basement rock and a
disconformity below the conglomerates (Figs. 6b and 7 and 8a-c). Using
palynological fossil distribution within outcrop 2, Akinmosin et al.
(2012a) assigned Maastrichtian to Palaeocene age to this outcrop. The
two intervals (Ise Formation and the top of the basement) are further
described below in terms of their depth of occurrence and lithofacies
variation.
Top of the weathered basement (0.6–1.4 m bgl).
This interval marks the top of the weathered basement (Figs. 6b and
8). Grain size is generally fine as the interval is dominated by red and
grey-coloured patches of weathered k-feldspar crystals, presumably
signifying a granitic protolith for the basement rock (Fig. 6f). In addi­
tion, borings are locally observed within the uppermost ~0.5–0.6 m
section of this interval.
Ise Formation (0–0.6 m bgl).
This section is composed of lithified sandstone with intercalations of
quartz and sparsely distributed kaolinite (Figs. 6b and 8). Based on the
presence of palynomorphs such as Longapertites sp, Laevigatosporites
sp, Monocolpites sp and Verrucatosporites sp, Akinmosin et al. (2012c)
assigned an Early Maastrichtian age and classified this unit as part of the
Ise Formation. Indurated lateritic sands occupy the topmost interval of
the section and it is here referred to as Ise III unit (Fig. 6b). Sand grain
size is generally medium to coarse and is brown to red in colour
(Fig. 6b). Below these sediments, a stretch of laterally aligned coarse and
rounded to angular conglomerates are observed within the Ise Forma­
tion where it is disconformable with the lowermost deposits of the in­
terval (Fig. 6d and e). The conglomerates have an estimated individual
diameter of up to 0.04 m and are mappable within Ise II (Fig. 8a).
Moreover, they are aligned as a thin lineation of conglomerate pebbles
that separate the red from brown conglomeratic argillaceous sand/­
sandstone. This lineation dips approximately <20 E (Akinmosin et al.,
2012a). Below Ise II is an underlying Ise I which is underlain by the top
of the weathered basement (Fig. 5b). Here, a non-conformity marks the
boundary of the Ise formation from the underlying weathered basement
(Figs. 6b and 8c). Furthermore, estimated thickness of the Ise Formation
varies laterally, ranging between 0.71 m and 0.30 m in the southwest, to
0.59 m in the central portion and 0.24 m in the north-eastern axis of the
exposure, showing a southwestern thickening of this unit (Fig. 8b). In
parallel, grain size and coarseness of sediments are observed to increase
towards the base of the exposure (Fig. 8a).
O.E. Eruteya et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

Fig. 7. (a) Lithology log along the Afowo Formation (Outcrop 1). (b) Lithology log along the Ise Formation (Outcrop 2). The location of the lithology logs are shown
in Fig. 6.

Fig. 8. Field photographs showing (a) coarse and

rounded to angular conglomerate within the Ise II
Formation (b) The non-conformity at the base of the
Ise Formation, which separates it from the underlying
weathered granitic rock (c) The weathered basement
is dominated by patches of weathered K-feldspar
crystals signifying a granitic protolith for the base­
ment rock (d) Lateritic top soil at the north-eastern
part of outcrop 1 (e) Seepage of the bitumen as
observed from the Afowo II Formation and (f) clay in
the lower part of Afowo II Formation. Scale for the
pictures include the clinometer, pen and claw hammer.

8
O.E. Eruteya et al.
4.2. Electrical resistivity tomography
4.2.1. ERT 1- at outcrop 1
This 350 m long ERT-1 profile was acquired directly above the oil
sands outcrop of the Afowo Formation (Fig. 1e). It reveals two unique
anomalies comprising of high resistivity bodies sandwiched between
low resistivity geoelectric intervals (Fig. 9). These resistivity anomalies
are termed A1 and A2 (Fig. 9). While A1 vertically extends down to a
depth of ~30 m with resistivity ranging from 4941 to about 116451 Ωm,
A2 is restricted to the uppermost 1 m till ~17 m and it has a resistivity of
3713–6575 Ωm (Fig. 9). The two anomalies are linked along a 110 m
long zone where the resistivity varied from 1576 to 2790 Ωm (Fig. 9).
The resistivity signature within the top 5 m varies significantly across
the profile, with the resistivity values of the materials above both
anomalies ranging from about 160 to 2790 Ωm. Also, below anomaly A-
2 (at about 20 m), the resistivity of the layers is observed to decrease
with depth from about 1576 Ωm to 160 Ωm at the northeastern side of
the outcrop (Fig. 9). Based on the geological mapping and lithology logs,
the top 0–2 m bgl is interpreted as the overburden consisting of the
topsoil and laterites (Figs. 6a and 8d-f). The highly resistive unit, which
corresponds to the anomalies are inferred to be the shallow oil sand units
while the final layer (below the anomaly A-2) with a relatively lower
resistivity corresponds to a clay-dominated layer.
4.2.2. ERT 2- opposite outcrop 1/ERT 1
In order to determine the lateral extent of the oil sands observed in
outcrop 1 in ERT 1, ERT 2 was acquired along the eastern side of the
Ilusin-Araromi-Obu road, just opposite ERT1 (Fig. 1b and 10). The dis­
tance between ERT 1 and ERT 2 is ~145 m. ERT 2 is 250 m long, with an
imaging depth of up to ~30 m and shows resistivity values ranging from
about 2000 Ωm to over 8000 Ω m (Fig. 10). No oil sands unit was
interpreted on ERT 2, instead, the profile shows lithologies that match
with the lower section of ERT 1, signifying they are both parts of the
Afowo Formation (Fig. 10). Three dominant layers identified on this
profile are sandy units with a resistivity of >1500 Ωm, clay-rich sand
layers with resistivity value of ~650–1500 Ωm and clay-rich layers with
a resistivity of ~168–520 Ωm (Fig. 10). On the southwestern part of the
profile, a third anomaly, A3 is observed and interpreted as a clay-
dominated sequence. A3 extends from about 10m bgl to the base of
the profile (Fig. 10). This anomaly is interpreted as a water saturated
clay layer because of its low resistivity of ~380 Ωm (Fig. 10).
4.2.3. ERT 3
ERT 3 is 250 m long and images up to a depth of 35 m bgl (Figs. 1 and
11). The subsurface resistivity distribution on this profile includes three
principal geoelectric layers (Fig. 11). These are sandy layers (3800 Ωm
to 18800 Ωm), clay-rich sandy layers (1800 Ωm to 3800 Ωm), clay-rich
layers (<1400 Ωm). A low resistivity anomalous zone (A4) is interpreted
in the middle of the profile (Fig. 11). This anomalous zone has a
Fig. 9. ERT-1 resistivity model for profile acquired along outcrop 1. Two resistivity anomalies (A1 and A2) are interpreted as oil sands deposits. See Fig. 1b for
location of profile.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122
resistivity of <780 Ωm and is sandwiched within otherwise clay-rich
layers with relatively higher resistivity values of about 1300 Ωm.
Geometrically, the resistivity anomaly is plume shaped with lateral
extent of ~35 m and an average height of 35 m (Fig. 10). This anomaly
may represent low resistivity bitumen-bearing clay-rich layers or water
saturated interval.
4.2.4. ERT 4- above the Ise Formation
ERT 4 was acquired directly above the Ise Formation at outcrop 2
(Figs. 1e and 12). The 70 m long profile reveals four principal geoelectric
facies (Fig. 12). The topmost geoelectric unit at the northeastern part of
the profile is a highly conductive layer having a resistivity value greater
than ~1800 Ω m and thickness of about 1.5 m (Fig. 12). This geoelectric
layer changes laterally into sandy conglomeratic layers with resistivity
of about ~1400 Ω m while the southwestern part of the profile is
dominated by low resistivity clay-rich layers and weathered basement
rocks with a resistivity of <1000 Ω m: No anomalous layer or zone of
bitumen rich layers is observed from this profile.
5. Discussions
5.1. Geoelectric properties of oil sand deposits in the study area
The ERT profile acquired over the Afowo oil sands outcrop shows
geoelectric facies characterised by anomalously higher resistivity values
than the overlying and underlying layers (Fig. 9). We attribute these
geoelectric anomalies to the bitumen seepage from the same outcrop
(Figs. 6a and 8e). The remaining ERT profiles acquired as control over
the non-oil sand-bearing Ise Formation show no such resistivity anom­
alies (Figs. 10–12).
The ERT system adopted here is not different from those used in
many studies elsewhere, especially in the well known Canadian oil sands
province (See Table 1 and references therein). Previous studies focusing
on the characterisation of oil sands deposits worldwide reveal oil sands
have a wide range of resistivity values ranging between 10-104 Ω m (see
Table 1). The resistivity values from the ERT measurement above the oil
sands outcrop in this study portray higher resistivity values than those
documented in Canada (Bauman, 2005), Iran (Salimi et al., 2014) and
even in some localities along the oil sands belt in Southwestern Nigeria
(Ako et al., 1983; Odunaike et al., 2010; Olayinka et al., 2016; Akin­
mosin et al., 2013, Table 1). Yet, the resistivity values for oil sands in the
study area fall in the range of those documented in some studies within
the oil sands belt of southwestern Nigeria (Eruteya, 2008; Akinmosin
et al., 2011; Amigun et al., 2012; Akinmosin et al., 2012a,b; Anukwu
et al., 2014).
The variation in the resistivity values in a sedimentary basin can be
attributed to several factors. For example, the resistivity of a sedimen­
tary formation is primarily controlled by its mineralogy. An increase in
the volume of clays in a formation will usually result in lower resistivity
O.E. Eruteya et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122

Fig. 10. ERT-2 resistivity model for profile acquired ~140 m opposite ERT-1. Note the geoelectric anomaly A3 interpreted as water bearing clay interval. See Fig. 1b
for location of profile.

Fig. 11. ERT-3 resistivity model. Note the geoelectric anomaly A4 interpreted as water bearing clay interval. See Fig. 1b for location of profile.

Fig. 12. ERT-4 resistivity model for profile acquired along outcrop 2 or Ise Formation The outcrop is dominated by conglomeratic to lateritic sands with the
weathered basement at the lowermost section of the profile. See Fig. 1b for location of profile. Note high values here (in orange and red) are nevertheless much lower
than the value for orange and red in Fig. 9.

values. Water saturation, which is also related to mineralogy, can also
result in an increase in resistivity when its value is low (Archie, 1942;
Telford et al., 1990). Elsewhere in the Dahomey Basin, the low resistivity
values documented for some oil sands deposits have been attributed to
the water-wet nature of the oil sands (Adegoke et al., 1981; Adegoke and
Ibe 1982; Enu, 1985). Moreover, Akinmosin et al. (2012b) has shown
that the Nigerian oil sands can be divided into two domains based on
their resistivity anomalies. These authors show that the high resistivity
bitumen-bearing sands are restricted to areas in Ogun State (including
the study area). In contrast, low resistivity bitumen-bearing sands are
typical in Ondo State (Fig. 1a).
The range of resistivity values for the topsoil and lateritic overburden
are consistent with those documented by Usifo et al. (2018) for laterites
(200–1500 Ω m) in the Dahomey Basin. The lateritic overburden here is
a residual sedimentary deposit typically developed along the tropical
belt. Like in many other parts of Nigeria, the lateritic deposits cover the
Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments (Kahl, 1976). Moreover, this
lateritic interval may be water-saturated (Olufemi, 1988), which ex­
plains its low resistivity value for the present study area. This is
particularly likely as the survey was acquired during the rainy season.
Hence, the presence of sands and oil-bearing sands below the lateritic
layer will result in sharp resistivity contrast and anomalies across the
laterite-oil sand boundary.

10
O.E. Eruteya et al.
5.2. Limitations
The interpretation of ERT-1 over outcrop 1 provides a basis for
correlating the geoelectric layers with lithologies (Figs. 6a, 7a and 9).
This study demonstrates the applicability and usefulness of ERT as an
technique for characterising the subsurface lithology and bitumen-
impregnated intervals. Notably, the outcrop face characterised by
bitumen seepage is limited and does not present a perfect delineation of
the vertical and horizontal extent of the subsurface occurrence of
bitumen in the study area. Moreover, the limited size of the exposure,
the vegetation cover and the lack of exposed and preserved sections
further limited this study.
While the upper limit of the oil sands from the outcrop was estab­
lished with a high degree of accuracy both by the geological logging and
the ERT, uncertainty arises in delineating the base of the oil sands unit
accurately based-on oil seepage across the outcrop face. Therefore, a
future shallow borehole 30–50 m offset from the outcrop face westward
and located on either resistivity anomaly A1 or A2 along ERT-1 will
achieve a robust ground-truthing of the geoelectric measurement
(Figs. 1 and 8). Similar investigation is required also along ERT-2 to
provide an understanding for anomaly A-3. Although only a single ERT
line atop the Afowo Formation has been presented in this study to image
the oil sands, in an attempt to develop a more comprehensive under­
standing of the nature and subsurface distribution of this bitumen
impregnated intervals a 3D ERT survey will be necessary for better
spatio-temporal resolution. Also, a much wider area coverage can be
achieved by acquiring several 2D profiles. If the 2D survey is carefully
planned, they can be combined to create a quasi 3D image of the study
area (see Dahlin and Loke, 1997; Aizebeokhai et al., 2010).
The non-intrusive geoelectric survey implemented here provided a
fast and cost-efficient means of exploring and estimating oil sand re­
serves relative to other geophysical prospecting techniques, especially
seismic methods (see Table 1). Geoelectric imaging is fundamentally
non-unique as measurements derived from sampling subsurface points
can be explained by an infinite number of physical models that equally
fit the observed data (Olayinka and Yaramanci, 2000; Loke et al., 2013).
Therefore, the geoelectric method needs to be combined with outcrop
analyses as performed in this study, or even better well log analyses and
drill core analyses where boreholes are available.
5.3. Implications on possible oil sand production in the study area
Factors influencing the choice of a suitable method for producing oil
sands are the thickness of: (1) the overburden unit and (2) the oil sands
units. The overburden in the present study area is relatively thin with
variable thickness estimated from the ERT survey and outcrop log to
range between ~1 and 5 m, while the thickness of the oil sands is up to
20 m. This makes the oil sands in the study area an unfavourable
candidate for in-situ thermal production, especially for steam-assisted
gravity drainage (SAGD), amongst other techniques. SAGD requires
overburden thickness in excess of 75 m (Natural Resources Canada,
2016) and thickness of oil sand reservoir >20 m (Chopra and Lines,
2008). When present, such configurations permit a horizontal injector
and producer configuration separated by at least 4–6 m vertical spacing
to efficiently produce a reservoir (Natural Resources Canada, 2016).
Furthermore, the thin nature of the overburden in the present study area
may translate into an unreliable caprock. Although, the nature of the
overburden in terms of its sedimentological, petrophysical and geo­
mechanical properties have not been characterised in this study other
than to describe them as topsoil and laterites. An incompetent over­
burden could result in caprock failure resulting in a surface steam
release that would likely have catastrophic consequences, as it occurred
for the Joslyn Creek SAGD project steam release incident in Canada on
May 18, 2006 (cf. Hein and Fairgrieve, 2013).
Therefore, open pit mining remains a fast and economically viable
option for producing the oil sand deposit delineated in the study area
11
Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104122
based on its thin overburden. A small-scale open pit operation can easily
strip the overburden to extract the oil sands. Mining oil sands is carbon-
intensive, producing more carbon pollution when compared to con­
ventional hydrocarbon production (Biello, 2013). A major concern
about the open pit mining of oil sands is the strong environmental
impact arising from landscape transformation (and degradation), loss of
biodiversity, pollution of local water sources and its impact on health
(Finkel, 2018). Importantly, destruction of forest (during mining),
which are potential sinks for greenhouse gases, have implications for
climate change and should be taken into account with appropriate and
effective land reclamation and reforestation programs.
6. Conclusions
The possibility and usefulness of employing a small-scale electrical
resistivity survey in imaging shallow oil sands deposits and the near
surface sedimentary sucession in the Dahomey Basin has been estab­
lished. The occurrence of oil sands in the study area is associated with
localised geophysical anomalies characterized by a high-resistivity
constrast compared to other basin fill deposits. This has afforded an
estimate of the overburden thickness and thickness of the oil sands unit,
which are parts of important parameters necessary for resource quan­
tification. Additionally, the integration of outcrop information has
further reduced the uncertainties associated with the interpretation of
the electrical resistivity survey acquired within the study area. Future
research involving a 3D ERT survey coupled with drilling, laboratory-
scale ERT measurements and other petrophysical measurements will
further enhance characterising the oil sands deposits in the study area.
In particular, 3D ERT is necessary for understanding the spatial extent of
each oil sand-related anomaly identified in this study. In all, the rapid
and relatively cheap exploration method (compared to other geophys­
ical exploration methods e.g., seismics exploration) presented in this
study is important for the successful characterisation of oil sands. This
will allow an assessment as to whether the development of this uncon­
ventional resource makes economic sense in the face of the looming
decline in the exploitation of conventional hydrocarbon resources in
Nigeria.
Disclaimer
The views expressed in this publication are entirely those of the
authors and do not represent those of the government parastatal or
universities they work for.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to their colleagues and students at Olabisi
Onabanjo University, Ogun State, Nigeria, that assisted with ERT
acquisition campaign. Members of TARCID are thanked for generously
contributing towards the cost of fieldwork and equipment rental. Sam
Carmalt and Gerald Raymond at the University of Geneva are thanked
for fruitful discussions. Two anonymous reviewers and the editor (Prof
Read Mapeo) are thanked for their review that enhanced the quality of
this paper.
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