Course: Mechanics of Fluids

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

Lecture :

Presented by:
SHIVA PRASAD U
(Ph.D.) (VelTech)
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, student should be able to,
CLO 1: derive the path lines and the streamlines in Cartesian and polar form from a velocity field
CLO 2 derive the stream function from a velocity field
CLO 3 model different flows from a combination of uniform flows, sources, sinks and doublets
CLO 4 use the continuity equation to determine whether an inviscid flow is incompressible
CLO 5 understand how Euler’s equation is derived, what it represents, and use it to find the pressure
distribution from a velocity.
 UNIT- III

Fluid Dynamics

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 Syllabus
Fluid Dynamics: Surface & body forces, substantive derivative, local derivative and
convective derivative, momentum equation, Euler equation, Bernoulli’s equation
Similarity parameters: Reynolds number, Froude number, Concepts of geometric, kinematic
and dynamic similarity, Viscous Force
Flow measurements: pressure, velocity and mass flow rate, viscosity, Pitot-static tube,
venturi meter and orifice meters, viscometers. Reynolds experiment, Darcy’s equation,
major and minor losses in pipes and numerical problems.

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Fluid Dynamics

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Convective and Local Acceleration

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Euler's Equation

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Bernoulli's Equation

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 Euler and Bernoulli

u
Euler’s equation is independent of time, so for =0
t
1 dp dz du
+g +u =0 Euler’s equation
ρ ds ds ds

For an incompressible fluid, integrating along the streamline,

p u2
+ + z = const Bernoulli’s equation
ρg 2g

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 Navier-Stokes equations
• So far we have separately considered flow
• in one dimension affected by pressure and gravity
• in one dimension affected by pressure and viscosity
• Need three dimensions and all forces in order to
provide a full solution for any general flow problem
• The following is not rigorous- see Batchelor for a
rigorous derivation

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Euler’s equation (reminder)

1 dp dz du
+g + =0
ρ ds ds dt

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 Navier-Stokes equations

Looking back to Euler’s equation with unsteadiness, the

gravity term is simply the component of gravity, gs.
Introducing viscosity as well gives 3 similar equations:
p   2u  2u  2u  du
ρg x − + μ 2 + 2 + 2  = ρ
x  x y z  dt

p  2v 2v 2v  dv

ρg y − + μ 2 + 2 + 2  = ρ
y  x y z  dt

p  2w 2w 2w  dw

ρg z − + μ 2 + 2 + 2  = ρ
z  x y z  dt

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 Navier-Stokes equations
• There is no general solution to the N-S equations
• Some analytical solutions may be obtained by simplification
• The equations may be written in vector (div/grad) notation:

du
ρg − p + μ u = ρ 2

dt
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Experimental Methods: Dimensionless Groups

A useful physical interpretation can often be given to dimensionless groups:

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 Experimental Methods: Dimensionless Groups
“Re-number”:
Reynolds Number:

Osborne Reynolds, a British Engineer demonstrated that the Reynolds Number could be
used as a criterion to distinguish laminar and turbulent flow.

Re << 1, Viscous forces dominate, we neglect inertial effects, creeping flows.

Osborne Reynolds (1842Re large, inertial effects dominate and we neglect viscosity (not turbulent though).
– 1912)

Froude Number:
William Froude, a British civil engineer, mathematician, and naval architect who
pioneered the use of towing tanks to study ship design.

The Froude number is the only dimensionless group that contains acceleration of gravity,
thus indicating the weight of the fluid is important in these flows.

Important to flows that include waves around ships, flows through river or open
William Froude conduits.
(1810 – 1879)

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 Experimental Methods: Dimensionless Groups
Euler Number:
Leonhard Euler was a Swiss mathematician who pioneered the work between pressure and
flow.
Ratio of pressure forces to inertial forces. Sometime called the pressure coefficient.

Leonhard Euler Euler number is used in flows where pressure differences may play a crucial role.
(1707 – 1783)

Mach Number: c is the speed of sound

Ernst Mach as Austrian physicist and a philosopher.

The number is important in flows in which

there is compressibility.

Ernst Mach
(1838 – 1916)

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 Experimental Methods: Dimensionless Groups
Strouhal Number:
Vincenz Strouhal studied “singing wires” which result from vortex shedding.

This dimensionless group is important in unsteady, oscillating flow problems

with some frequency of oscillation w.
Vincenz Strouhal
(1850 – 1922) Measure of unsteady inertial forces to steady inertial forces.

In certain Reynolds number ranges, a periodic flow will develop downstream

from a cylinder placed in a moving fluid due to a regular pattern of vortices
that are shed from the body.
This series of trailing vortices are known as Karman vortex trail named after
Theodor von Karman, a famous fluid mechanician.

The oscillating flow is created a discrete frequency such that Strouhaul

numbers can closely be correlated to Reynolds numbers.
Theodor von Karman
(1881 – 1963) “Vortex
Shedding”:

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 Similitude and Model Studies

For a study on a model to relate to that on a prototype

it is required that there be

Geometrical Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity

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 Geometrical Similarity

Physical dimensions of model and prototype be similar

Hp Hm

Lm

Lp Lp Lm
=
Hp Hm

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 Kinematic Similarity

Velocity vectors at corresponding locations on

the model and prototype are similar

um
vm
up
vp
up um
=
v p vm

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 Dynamic Similarity
Forces at corresponding locations on
model and prototype are similar

Ftm
Ftp Fnm
Fnp
Ft p Ftm
=
Fn p Fnm

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 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY
• Consider automobile experiment
• Drag force is F = f (V, , µ, L)
• Through dimensional analysis, we
can reduce the problem to

• where

= CD

and
=Re
The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful dimensionless
parameter in all of fluid mechanics.

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 Problem 1: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars
• The aerodynamic drag of a new
sports car is to be predicted at a
speed of 50.0 mi/h at an air
temperature of 25°C. Automotive
engineers build a one-fifth scale
model of the car to test in a wind
tunnel. It is winter and the wind
tunnel is located in an unheated
building; the temperature of the
wind tunnel air is only about 5°C.
Determine how fast the engineers
should run the wind tunnel in order
to achieve similarity between the
model and the prototype.

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Solution

Discussion This speed is quite high (about 100 m/s), and the wind tunnel
may not be able to run at that speed. Furthermore, the incompressible
approximation may come into question at this high speed.

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 Problem 2: Prediction of Aerodynamic Drag Force on the
Prototype Car
• This problem is a follow-up to
problem 1. Suppose the
engineers run the wind tunnel at
221 mi/h to achieve similarity
between the model and the
prototype. The aerodynamic drag
force on the model car is
measured with a drag balance.
Several drag readings are
recorded, and the average drag
force on the model is 21.2 lbf.
Predict the aerodynamic drag
force on the prototype (at 50
mi/h and 25°C).

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Solution

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 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

• In Problem 1 and 2 use a water tunnel instead of a wind tunnel

to test their one-fifth scale model. Using the properties of
water at room temperature (20°C is assumed), the water
tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is easily calculated
as

• The required water tunnel speed is much lower than that

required for a wind tunnel using the same size model.

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 Pitot Tube

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Venturi meter

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• CASEIII: inclined venturi with differential U-Tube Manometer

• CASEIV: inclined venturi with differential U-Tube Manometer

• If ρm<ρf

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Orifice Meter

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Viscometers

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Reynolds experiment

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 Energy Losses in Pipes

Energy Losses

Major Energy Losses Minor Energy Losses

1. Due to Friction 1. Sudden Expansion of Pipe

2. Sudden Contraction of Pipe
3. Bend of pipe
4. Pipe Fittings
5. An Obstruction in Pipe

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Derivation of Darcy’s equation

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Contd…

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Contd…

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Minor Losses
Enlargement Contraction

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• Head loss at Inlet

• Head loss at Outlet

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Head loss due to obstacle in pipe

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Numerical

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• A horizontal venturi meter with inlet and throat diameters 30cm and 15cm
respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to the inlet and the throat is 20cm mercury. Determine the
rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.

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 Numerical
• A lawn sprinkler shown in fig has 0.8 cm diameter nozzle at the end of a rotating
arm and discharges water at the rate of 10 m/s velocity. Determine the torque
required to hold the rotating arm stationary also determine the constant speed of
rotation of the arm, if free to rotate.

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