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METHODOLOGIES
TASK - BASED LEARNING

It focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do

meaningful tasks using the target language. The primary focus of classroom
activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to
complete it. The task is an activity in which students use language to achieve
a specific outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on
meaning, they are free to use any language they want. Playing a game,
solving a problem or sharing information or experiences, can all be considered
as relevant and authentic tasks. Oral communication is essential for doing a
specific task. Task based learning has the advantage of getting the student
to use her skills at her current level. To help develop language through its
use. It has the advantage of getting the focus of the student toward achieving
a goal where language becomes a tool.

“TASKS are activities where the target language is used by the learner for a
communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome” As defined by
Willis. That means a task can be anything from doing a puzzle to making an
airline reservation. A Task-Based approach to Language • allows for a needs
analysis to be matched to identified student needs. Tasks can be real-life
situations or have a pedagogical purpose. In both cases, a task should:

- provide opportunities for students to exchange information with a focus on

meaning, not a specific form or pattern/structure;

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- have a clear purpose: learners should know the outcome they are expected
to produce when they finish performing the task. The outcome may vary. It
might be making a YouTube video tutorial, finding a solution for a problem or
writing an email requesting information;
- Result in an outcome that can be shared with more people;
- Relate to real world activities.

Task Cycle Working with and using the target language: Activities like pair
work, group work Exercises like information gap activities Gradual increase in
the importance of Planning, Report, Presentation
Pre Task Raise consciousness Introduction to subject and task. Thorough
introduction to topic by teacher Use of pictures, posters and demonstrations
Post Task Selecting, identifying and classifying common words and phrases.
Practice of language and phrases in classroom. Building personal dictionaries.

Phases of a TBL lesson

The framework of a TBL lesson may vary. It is usually composed of the
following phases:

Pre-task:

The pre-task phase of a TBL lesson is the moment when the teacher sets the
task, contextualises the topic of the lesson, raises students’ interest and
prepares learners to perform the task. When preparing students to perform a
task, teachers might need to help students with both content and language.

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This can be done by activating students’ general knowledge on a certain topic
and by helping students anticipate the type of language they will need to
perform the task proposed. It is extremely important that students understand
the objectives of the task during this phase.
Task:
In this stage of the TBL lesson, learners perform the task proposed. They are
supposed to perform the task in small groups or pairs, and use their existing
knowledge of language to express themselves in a spontaneous way. As the
focus is communication, the teacher is not supposed to carry out extensive
error correction at this stage, but should monitor and provide support.
When students finish performing the task, they need to plan how they are
going to report it to the rest of the class or to other groups. They may
rehearse and research the language necessary in order to share the outcome
of what they had done.

Finally, students report the outcome of the task to other students.

Post-task:
The post-task stage is when students evaluate their performance. This might
be done by comparing the outcome of their task to that of a proficient user
of the language. It can also involve feedback provided by the teacher and
subsequent practice of language items that emerged from the task. It is
important to stress that form-focused language work should be in response
to students’ production. That means that the teacher will not teach a grammar
lesson and expect that learners use that specific structure while performing
the task, neither should the teacher work on a pre-selected language item in

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this phase of the lesson. This makes the role of the teacher as a monitor
extremely important in TBL.

EXAMPLES

PRE-TASK
In the pre-task stage, students learned about the task and were asked to talk
about popular places tourists could visit in their city, São Paulo. In order to
generate interest and prepare students for the upcoming task, and depending
on your group profile, you may give suggestions, use prompts to provide
support to learners, ask students to carry out research, or even provide an
input task to help students generate ideas. However, in the pre-task stage,
the teacher is not supposed to pre-teach vocabulary or structures to students.
In order to help students carry out this task, you may ask them to:
- Create a mind map containing interesting places to be visited
- Suggest places and ask learners to share what they know about them / carry
out research
TASK

In this phase of the lesson, students carry out the task. In this lesson, learners
worked in groups of three during this stage. In order for the task to be
completed successfully, it is the teacher’s role to break down the task and
help learners get organised.

In this lesson, the task was delivered in three different phases:

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Assessing: students were asked to go back to the list of places they had
brainstormed and discuss how appealing they were. They were asked to list
characteristics of these places and share why they might be appealing (or
not) to tourists. Students were allowed to search online to gather as much
information as possible.

Selecting: students were asked to compare the places and select the ones not
to be missed by someone visiting São Paulo for the first time. They were
expected to come up with a list of three places.

Recording the audio message: Students were asked to plan, rehearse and
record an audio message suggesting places in the city.

Reporting: Students shared their audio messages with other groups and
compare their recommendations.

POST-TASK

Apart from giving instructions for the completion of the task, an important
role the teacher should play during the task is to monitor learners’ production.
In the post-task phase, I gave feedback on content and language that
emerged during the task. Some aspects dealt with during feedback were:

- adjectives to describe places

- language to make comparisons
- language to make recommendations

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In the post-task phase, it is important to provide students with the chance to
practice the language that had emerged from the task.

KEY WORDS

✓ In BTL is important the process.

✓ In BTL isn’t important the product.
✓ Students reflect on how they developed the activity.
✓ Students analyze and evaluate the kind of language
✓ BTL Focuses on students.

EXAMPLE:
To continue working on her lesson, Karina has planned the following
sequence:
✓ First, the teacher tells the students that they are going to write their
own survey taking into account the survey presented in the previous
activity.
✓ Then she forms groups of four students and gives the following
instructions: “Each group has to write one survey. The survey has to
include five questions that help you know the free time activities your
classmates enjoy doing.”

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✓ The students work in their groups to decide what questions to include
in the survey while the teacher monitors and provides help when
necessary.
✓ Next, the students use the survey they elaborated to interview peers
from other groups and then report their findings to the class.
✓ Finally, the teacher asks the students to analyze the kind of language
used in their surveys (Wh-questions/Yes-no questions, adverbs of
frequency, etc.). She also asks them in which other situations they can
use that language.
Which of the following teaching methods has Karina applied in the
sequence presented?
a) Task – Based Learning Content
b) Based Learning Presentation
c) Practice – Production

BLENDED LEARNING
Virtual class-based learning does not require the instructor and students to
be present in the classroom. E-learning is necessarily virtual class-based.

Blended Learning is an approach that provides innovative educational

solutions through an effective mix of traditional classroom teaching with
mobile learning and online activities for teachers, trainers and students. It is
the technology enabled to extend beyond the classroom walls and facilities
better acces to learning sources, actually BL is not a new concept in the
teaching learning process - tele classes is one form of this type where students

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wach a lectura on closed – circuit televition and the same can be said self -
paced learning.

Advantages/Merits

• Blended instruction and methods are high levels of student achievement

and more effective than purely face-to-face or purely online classes
• Students can work on their own with new concepts free from teachers,
using a
combination of digital instruction and one-on-one face time

ADVANTAGES

• Blended instruction and methods are high levels of students

achievement and more effective tan purely face to face or purely
online clases.

• Teachers can now steamline their instruction to help all students

reach their full potential, as they were in a traditional classroom.

Students gain advantage of online learning and CAI without losing

social interaction element and human touch of traditional teaching’
It provides more scope for communication.

Online assessment- immediate feedback is a key factor in learning

as it motivates the learner and is based on principles of readiness.
Online assessment helps to make evaluation system more

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formative, transparent and more fast. It becomes more reliable and
objective.

KEY WORDS

✓ BL focuses on flipped classroom.

✓ BL focuses on technological tools.

✓ BL focuses on online classes.

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Collaborative learning (CL) is an educational approach to teaching and
learning that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem,
complete a task, or create a product. The term CL refers to an instruction
method in which learners at various performance levels work together in small
groups toward a common goal. Five fundamental elements involved in CL,
are: Positive interdependence, Individual and group accountability,
Interpersonal and small group skills, Face to face promotive interaction, and
Group processing

CL occurs when small groups of students help each other to learn

Students learn to work with all types of people. During small-group

interactions, they find many opportunities to reflect upon and reply to the
diverse responses fellow learners bring to the questions raised. Small groups
also allow students to add their perspectives to an issue based on their cultural

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differences. This exchange inevitably helps students to better understand
other cultures and points of view.

KEY WORDS

✓ All ss participate to solve the problem.

✓ All ss give their ideas to get a good solution for any problems.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative Learning is students learning together in groups, which are
structured so that group members have to cooperate to succeed.
Students work together to learn and are responsible for their team-mates'
learning as well as their own

During cooperative learning activities, each member of a team is responsible

not only for learning what is taught but also for helping team-mates learn,
thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the
assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.

Cooperative learning is instruction that involves students working in teams to

accomplish a common goal, under conditions that include the following
elements

Team members are obliged to rely on one another to achieve the goal. If any
team members fail to do their part, everyone suffers consequences. 2.
Individual accountability. All students in a group are held accountable for

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doing their share of the work and for mastery of all of the material to be
learned. 3. Face-to-face promotive interaction. Although some of the group
work may be parcelled out and done individually, some must be done
interactively, with group members providing one another with feedback,
challenging reasoning and conclusions, and perhaps most importantly,
teaching and encouraging one another. 4. Appropriate use of collaborative
skills. Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust-
building, leadership, decision-making, communication, and conflict
management skills.

KEY WORDS

✓ CL focuses on transfer of learning.

✓ Teacher provide knowledge his or her students

✓ Teacher – students

✓ Students use “mini teacher” (jigsaw)

CONTENT BASED LEARNING

(CBL) is “an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is
organized around the content or information that students will acquire.CBI
involves integrating the learning of language with the learning of content
simultaneously; here, content typically means academic subject matter such

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as math, science, or social studies. In CBI, the language is utilized as the
medium for teaching subject content (Mohan, 1986). The language learning
objectives are achieved through content learning.

Learners’ motivation seems to increase when students learn about something

that interests them. CBI becomes a useful approach when developing
communicative competence in learners, basically because it focuses on using
the language on specific culturally determined situations and paraphrasing as
well. It also works on the development of the language skills within a real
context and meaningful purpose.

Content-based Instruction (CBI) is increasingly used in education and second

language (L2) teaching and learning. In CBI, there is a focus on content and
what that might do for the appropriation of the subject and to aid the learning

The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject matter. During the lesson
students are focused on learning about something. This could be anything
that interests them from a serious science subject to their favourite pop star
or even a topical news story or film. They learn about this subject using the
language they are trying to learn, rather than their native language, as a tool
for developing knowledge and so they develop their linguistic ability in the
target language. This is thought to be a more natural way of developing
language ability and one that corresponds more to the way we originally learn
our first language.

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• Preparation

o Choose a subject of interest to students.

o Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the
subject. These could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures
or even real people.

• During the lesson

o Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task
and a source of information to use to help them fulfil the task.

o Then once they have done their research they form new groups with students
that used other information sources and share and compare their information.

o There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of
information which could take the form of a group report or presentation of
some kind

What are the advantages of content-based instruction?

• It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students

can use the language to fulfil a real purpose, which can make students both
more independent and confident.

• Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through CBI
which can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational
needs.

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• CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as
it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking,
summarising and extracting key information from texts.

• Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring

that information can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that
can then be transferred to other subjects.

• The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can
also help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great
social value.

What is content-based learning?

The focus of a CBL lesson is on the topic or subject matter such as global
warming,the Civil War, science, math, or social studies. During the lesson,
students are madeto focus on learning about something. This could be
anything that interests them, from a serious science subject to their
favourite pop star, or even a topical newsstory or film.

What does a content-based learning lesson look like?

The r e a r e ma n y w ay s t o ap p r o ac h c r e at i ng a C B L l e sso n.
L i s t e d b e l o w i s o ne possible way.

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Preparation:
1. Choose a subject of interest to students.
2. Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the
subject.
B e aw ar e t h a t t he se c o ul d b e w e b s i t e s, r e f e r e nc e b o o k s,
o r a ud i o o r vi d e o o f lectures or even real people.
During the lesson:
1. Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small
research taskand a source of information to use to help them fulfil the task.
2. Then once they have done their research they form new groups
with studentsthat used other information sources and share and compare
their information.
3. There should then be some product as the end re
s u l t o f t h i s s h a r i n g o f information which could take the form
of a group report or presentation of somekind.
Teachers' perspectives
Teachers in content-based learning may be content specialists who use the
targetlanguage for instruction, or language specialists who are using content
for languageinstruction. To be effective in their roles, they will need
the knowledge, skills and
c o nc e p t s r e q ui r e d fo r c o nt e nt d e l i ve r y i n t he t a r g e t l ang uag e .

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KEY WORDS

✓ CBL focuses on different areas.

✓ CBL focuses on information or content
manipulation.
✓ Contents have to be students’ interest.
EXAMPLES:
Renzo’s students watched a video about the pollution of the main river in their
city and got really interested in the topic. He wants to take advantage of that
context to help his students develop their reading skills. He has planned the
following sequence.
The teacher brings a four -paragraph article about the pollution of the rivers.
Each paragraph of the article makes reference to a specific aspect of the topic,
as follows:
- Paragraph 1: Description of the problema
- Paragraph 2: Causes
- Paragraph 3: Effects
- Paragraph 4: Solutions
• The teacher divides the class into four groups and gives a different
paragraph of the article to each group.
• The teacher tells the students to read the paragraph they got and discuss
what they understood about it. He tells them to write down the ideas they
find the most important.
• After the students finish the discussion, the teacher picks up all the
paragraphs he gave them at the beginning of the sequence.
• He tells the students to stand up to form new groups. The new groups have
to include one member of each of the previous groups.

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• Next, the students use their notes to share with their new group the
information they gathered during the reading.
• Finally, the teacher asks the groups to write their own version of the full
article using the information shared by each of their members.
Which teaching method to reading is developed in the sequence
above?
a) Project-Based Learning.
b) Content-Based Learning.
c) Problem-Based Learning

PRESENTATION – PRACTICE AND PRODUCTION

It is a method for teaching structures (e.g. grammar or vocabulary) in a
foreign language. As its name suggests, PPP is divided into three phases,
moving from tight teacher control towards greater learner freedom. Note that
some writers1 use the name to refer to a specific method that focuses on oral
skills.

The PPP phase is really one of good strategies. It contains some activities
which lead students to express their ideas, work cooperatively, and speak
fluently and confidently. Although they are considered as “intelligent and
creative”, teachers‟ guide or control is still needed to anticipate any errors
made by the students.

THE PRESENTATION PHASE. A presentation phase is controlled by the

teacher. The teacher might use a text, an audio tape or visual aids to
demonstrate a situation. From this, she will extract the required language
forms. For example, the teacher may show the class the following picture and

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model the following sentences: Mr Smith is feeding the baby. Mr Smith IS
feedING the baby. Mr Smith …IS feed…ING the baby. Mrs Smith is looking at
her laptop. Mrs Smith IS lookING at the laptop. and so on. She might then
write the sentences on the board and perhaps describe the grammar rule.
Alternatively, the teacher might present the grammar rule without reference
to a situation, e.g. through description supplemented with

The Present Continuous BE VERB+ING e.g. I am reading BUT: I am sitting, I

am comeing I am playing now at the moment today You are working He is
sitting She is coming

THE PRACTICE PHASE. During the (controlled) practice phase, learners

practice saying or writing the language structure correctly. Typical practice
activities include drills, multiple-choice exercises, gap-and-cue exercises,
transformations etc. In this phase, the teacher’s role is to direct the activities,
to provide positive feedback to students, correct mistakes and model the
correct forms. examples or through substitution tables.

Read! S1: I am reading. T: Play! S2: I am playing. Tom _______ (play) tennis.
We ________ (do) our homework. Susan and Mary ______ (have) sex. I
_______ (cook) spaghetti. I drive to work every day. Today…. Mary watches
TV every afternoon. Now… A DRILL A GAP-AND-CUE

THE PRODUCTION PHASE. When the learners have completely mastered the
form and have learnt how to produce it without mistakes in controlled
exercises, they can move on to the (free) production phase. In this phase,
they use the newly learnt language structure to produce oral or written texts.
Typical production activities include dialogues, oral presentations, and the

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production of sentences, paragraphs or longer texts. The teacher does not
generally intervene or correct in this phase: after all, the students should not
make mistakes by now. If mistakes are made, they are pointed out after the
exercise has finished.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRACTICE AND PRODUCTION

ACTIVITIES? Practice activities typically will have only one correct answer,
whereas in free production several answers will be acceptable. Furthermore,
in the practice phase emphasis is on accuracy (the ability to produce the
correct form), whereas the production phase is supposed to develop fluency
(the ability to speak naturally).

KEY WORDS

PPP focuses on final product.

PPP Follows a model
PPP focuses on teacher
Ppp focuses on teaching grammar structure and
vocabulary
EXAMPLES:

Ronnie’s students have been practicing describing physical appearances. In

order for his students to develop their writing skills, he will ask them to
compare two famous singers. He has designed the following activity:

Show the students pictures of two famous singers and invite the students to
describe them. Write their ideas on the board.

• Write a couple of sentences in comparative form using the ideas from the
board: “Zendaya is taller than Selena Gomez”, “Selena Gomez is more
beautiful than Zendaya.”

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• Paste pictures of other famous singers on the board and have the students
write some comparisons following the teacher´s model.

• Next, tell the students to write a short paragraph comparing two of their
favorite singers.

• Collect the papers once the students finish.

In the sequence above, what teaching method is Ronnie using?

a) Task-Based Learning.
b) Total-Physical-Response.
c) Presentation-Practice-Production.

PROBLEM BASED LEARNING

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method in which students
learn through facilitated problem solving. In PBL, student learning centers on
a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer. Students work
in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a
problem. They engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their
new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned and the
effectiveness of the strategies employed. The teacher acts to facilitate the
learning process rather than to provide knowledge. The goals of PBL include
helping students develop 1) flexible knowledge, 2) effective problem-solving
skills, 3) SDL skills, 4) effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation

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Problem based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach where students
learn by solving challenging, open-ended problems. The problems are
authentic tasks and are solved in socially and contextually based teams of
students. The students rely on their current knowledge of the problem,
identify “information they need to know to solve the problem, and the
strategies they use to solve the problem”

In problem-based learning, the problem is presented first after which students

work in small teams to solve the problem. Figure 1 represents the problem-
based learning process showing how each of the steps inter-connect and
relate to one another and are iterative.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges

students to "learn to learn," working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions
to real world problems. These problems are used to engage students' curiosity
and initiate learning the subject matter. PBL prepares students to think
critically and analytically, and to find and use appropriate learning resources

Through problem-based learning students learn to become partners in the

teaching/learning process where they accept responsibility for much of their
learning, work successfully as a team member, deal with new and changing
situations and develop lifelong learning skills. Problem-based learning then,
can help students think critically, analyze and solve real world problems that
will better prepare them for careers outside the classroom.

Instructor’s Role in Problem-Based Learning The instructor identifies a

problem that is purposely complex and vague yet intriguing enough to excite
students to inquire about it, do research on it and draw reasonable multiple

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solutions or conclusions on the problem. The problem should be linked to
course content; however, although the problem should not be familiar to
students it should be relevant to potential future use in work environments.

• Identify a problem that is appropriate for the course and student population.
The problem should help teach students new skills they will use for a problem
that would be too difficult for them to complete on their own. State the
problem in a narrative format that includes details about its background but
do not provide too much information that the students could find on their own
as they search for a solution.

• Organize students in groups that represent different skill levels and diversity
in an effort to achieve more successful team dynamics and outcomes. Find
ways to engage students collaboratively in teams. This can be achieved by
having students identify their strengths and weaknesses which will assist
them as they assume different roles during the problem-solving process.

• Provide instructional support to assist the students in building their

understanding of new content and the problem-solving process. Support
should be provided from the time you present the problem to when the teams
present their solutions. Key here is support – your role will be facilitator, coach
and mentor to guide and move students from what they already know to a
deep understanding of new materia

Students’ Role in Problem-Based Learning During problem-based learning,

students collaborate in small teams to explore the presented problem
situation. “Through this exploration students are expected to examine gaps

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in their own knowledge and skills in order to decide what information they
need to acquire in order to resolve or manage”

KEY WORDS

✓ The problem is about student´s context.

✓ PL focuses on solving challenging problems
✓ The final product is important
✓ Ss solve problems of their reality.
✓ Ss work in collaborative groups to solve complex
problems

EXAMPLES:
Roberta’s fifth graders have been working on different kinds of writing
products during the past few months. She has planned the following sequence
to reinforce her students’ writing skills:

The teacher writes the following questions on the board: “How do you recycle
things at school?” and “How could you promote recycling in your school
community?” She gives the students some time to reflect on their answers
individually.
• Next, the teacher asks the students to get in groups to share their ideas on
the proposed topic. Then some volunteers comment their points of view to
the rest of the class.

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• The teacher reminds the students of the different writing products they have
been working on: brochures, posters and flyers. She asks the groups to select
one of these formats to promote recycling. They are given some time to write
their products.
• Finally, the students display their products in the school premises to create
awareness on the importance of recycling in the school community.
Based on the sequence above, which of the following methods to
teaching writing has Roberta adopted?
a) Task-Based Learning.
b) Problem-Based Learning.
c) Presentation-Practice-Production

PROJECT BASED LEARNING

Project Based Learning, or PBL, is an instructional approach built upon

learning activities and real tasks that have brought challenges for students to
solve. These activities generally reflect the types of learning and work people
do in the everyday world outside the classroom. PBL is generally done by
groups of students working together toward a common goal PBL teaches
students not just content, but also important skills in ways students have to
be able to function like adults in our society. These skills include
communication and presentation skills, organization and time management
skills, research and inquiry skills, self-assessment and reflection skills, group
participation and leadership skills, and critical thinking. Performance is
assessed on an individual basis, and takes into account the quality of the

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product produced, the depth of content understanding demonstrated, and the
contributions made to the ongoing process of project realization. PBL allows
students to reflect upon their own ideas and opinions, and make decisions
that affect project outcomes and the learning process in general. The final
product results in highquality, authentic products and presentations.

The outcome for a project is never a test. It is a student-created product or

performance (poster, presentation, paper, roleplay, story, script, video, digital
story, brochure, book, etc.). While technology can be very useful in PBL, it is
not a requirement! The only requirement is your imagination.

KEY WORDS

✓ Students need long time to solve the problem.

✓ The problem focuses on student’s reality.
✓ PL focuses on projects.
✓ PL focuses on learning experiences.
✓ The final product is important (it’s not never a test)
✓ It’s important meanindful situation.
✓ Ss reflect on their own ideas and opinions.

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