Module-1 Introduction To Sensor-Based Measurement Systems: Structure

18EC652_SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING
MODULE-1
INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR-BASED MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE:
➢ General concepts and terminology

➢ sensor classification, primary sensors
➢ material for sensors
➢ microsensor technology
➢ magneto resistors
➢ light dependent resistors
➢ resistive hygrometers
➢ resistive gas sensors
➢ liquid conductivity sensors
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ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 1

INTRODUCTION
Sensors enable measurements because they yield electric signals with embedded information
about the measurand. Electronic circuits process those signals in order to extract that
information. Hence, sensors are the basis of measurement systems.
the basics of sensors, their static and dynamic characteristics, primary sensors for common
quantities, and sensor materials and technology.
1.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
Measurement Systems
A system is a combination of two or more elements, subsystems, and parts necessary to carry
out one or more functions.
The function of a measurement system is the objective and empirical assignment of a number
to a property or quality of an object or event in order to describe it. That is, the result of a
measurement must be independent of the observer (objective) and experimentally based
(empirical).
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For example, if a given object has a property larger than the same property in another object,
the numerical result when measuring the first object must exceed that when measuring the
second object. One objective of a measurement can be process monitoring: for example,
ambient temperature measurement, gas and water volume measurement, and clinical
monitoring.
Another objective can be process control: for example, for temperature or level control in a
tank. Another objective could be to assist experimental engineering: for example, to study
temperature distribution inside an irregularly shaped object or to determine force distribution
on a dummy driver in a car crash.
Figure 1.1 shows the functions and dataflow of a measurement and control system. In
general, in addition to the acquisition of information carried out by a sensor, a measurement
requires the processing of that information and the presentation of the result in order to make
it perceptible to human senses. Any of these functions can be local or remote, but remote
functions require information transmission. Modern measurement systems are not physically
arranged according to the dataflow in Figure 1.1 but are instead arranged according to their
connection to the digital bus communicating deferent subsystems

Figure 1.1 Functions and data ¯ow in a measurement and control system. Sensors and
actuators are transducers at the physical interface between electronic systems and processes
or experiments.
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1.2 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION
A great number of sensors are available for different physical quantities. In order to study
them, the sensors are classified according three primary criterion as follows.
In considering the need for a power supply, sensors are classified as modulating or self
generating.
➢ In modulating (or active) sensors, most of the output signal power comes from an
auxiliary power source. The input only controls the output. Conversely, in self
generating (or passive) sensors, output power comes from the input.
➢ Modulating sensors usually require more wires than self-generating sensors, because
wires different from the signal wires supply power.
➢ The presence of an auxiliary power source can increase the danger of explosion in
explosive atmospheres.

➢ Modulating sensors have the advantage that the power supply voltage can modify
their overall sensitivity. Some authors use the terms active for self-generating and
passive for modulating.
In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital.
➢ In analog sensors the output changes in a continuous way at a macroscopic level. The
information is usually obtained from the amplitude, although sensors with output in
the time domain are usually considered as analog.
➢ The output of digital sensors takes the form of discrete steps or states. Digital sensors
do not require an Analog to Digital Converter, and their output is easier to transmit
than that of analog sensors.
➢ Digital output is also more repeatable and reliable and often more accurate. But
regrettably, digital sensors cannot measure many physical quantities.
In considering the operating mode, sensors are classified in terms of their function in a
deflection or a null mode.
➢ In deflection sensors the measured quantity produces a physical effect that generates
in some part of the instrument a similar but opposing effect that is related to some
useful variable.
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➢ Null-type sensors attempt to prevent deflection from the null point by applying a
known effect that opposes that produced by the quantity being measured. There is an
imbalance detector and some means to restore balance
1.3 PRIMARY SENSORS
The primary transducer or sensor is the element that is in contact with the pressure pulse, and
generally is a displacement transducer, which transduces the pressure wave into a mechanical
displacement.
Primary sensors convert measurands from physical quantities to other forms. We classify
primary sensors here according to the measurand. Devices that have direct electric output are
plain sensors.
Types of Primary sensors:
1. Temperature sensors: Bimetals
2. Pressure sensors
3. Flow velocity and flow-rate sensors,
4. Level sensors,
5. Force and torque sensors,
6. Acceleration and inclination sensors,
7. Velocity sensors,
1.3.1 Temperature sensors: Bimetals
Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of

solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples,

thermistors are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting,
molding, metal cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the
temperature sensors are discussed in following sections.
Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips
with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure.1.3.1
shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips
bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then
the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to
protect the desired application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.
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Figure 1.3.1 A bimetal consists of two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients,
which deforms when temperature changes.
If the metals have similar moduli of elasticity and thicknesses, the radius of curvature r, when
changing from temperature T1 to T2,
where t is the total thickness of the piece and where αA and αB

are the respective thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore, the radius of curvature is
inversely proportional to the temperature difference.
Bimetal strips are also used as actuators to directly open or close contacts (thermostats, on-off
controls, starters fluorescent lamps) and for overcurrent protection in electric circuits: The
current along the bimetal heats it by Joule effect until reaching a temperature high enough to
exert a mechanical force on a trigger device that opens the circuit and interrupts the current.
1.3.2 Pressure Sensors
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms

of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a
function of the pressure imposed.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications.
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and
manometers, among other names.
Blood pressure measurement is very common for patient diagnosis and monitoring..
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two measurement points. Gage
pressure is measured relative to ambient temperature. Absolute pressure is measured relative
to a perfect vacuum. To measure a pressure, it is either compared with a known force or its
effect on an elastic element is measured.
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Liquid-column U-tube manometer
The simplest form of manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube containing liquid. It is
used to measure gauge pressure and are the primary instruments used in the workshop for
calibration.

The principle of the manometer is that the pressure to be measured is applied to one side of
the tube producing a movement of liquid, as shown in figure above. It can be seen that the
level of the filling liquid in the leg where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left leg of the tube,
has dropped, while that in the right hand leg as risen. A scale is fitted between the tubes to
enable us to measure this displacement.
Let us assume that the pressure we are measuring and have applied to the left hand side of the
manometer is of constant value. The liquid will only stop moving when the pressure exerted
by the column of liquid, h is sufficient to balance the pressure applied to the left side of the
manometer, i.e. when the head pressure produced by column” h” is equal to the pressure to be
measured.
Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H, and density of the filling liquid, we can
calculate the value of the applied pressure.
Figure 1.3.2 a compares the pressure to be measured with a

reference pressure and yields a difference h of liquid level.
where ρ is the density of the liquid and

g is the acceleration of gravity. A
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level sensor (photoelectric, float, etc.) yields an electric output
signal.
Typical filling liquids commonly used in manometers and their densities.
1. Water ( ρ = 1000 kg m-3 )
2. Oil ( ρ can be between 800 and 950 kg m-3 )
3. Mercury ( ρ = 13560 kg m-3 )
C-shaped Bourdon tube.
Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The pressure of the
measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces a motion in the non-clamped
end of the tube. This motion is the measure of the pressure and is indicated via the
movement.
It is basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to
the pressure tapping, the other end free, as shown in fig. The
cross section of the tube is elliptical.
When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (Bourdon tube)

tries to acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is
developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus the free end
of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A
deflecting and indicating mechanism is attached to the free
end that rotates the pointer and indicates the Pressure reading.
The materials used are commonly Phosphor Bronze, Brass and
Beryllium Copper. For a 2″ overall diameter of the C-tube the
useful travel of the free end is approximately 1/8″ . Though the C-type tubes are most
common, other shapes of tubes, such as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use.
The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide operating (depending on the
tube material). This type of pressure measurement can be used for positive or negative
pressure ranges, although the accuracy is impaired when in a vacuum.
Twisted Bourdon tube.
Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It

allows the tip movement to be converted to a circular
motion.
By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its

axis and connecting it to the tip, the tip movement
become a circular motion of the shaft.
Diaphragm
Diaphragm pressure gauges are used to measure gases and liquids. They cover measuring
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spans from 10 mbar to 40 bar. The measuring element consists of one circular diaphragm
clamped between a pair of flanges. The positive or negative pressure acting on these
diaphragms causes deformation of the measuring element. The magnitude of the deformation
is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is coupled to the pointer mechanism.
A diaphragm is a flexible circular plate consisting

of a taut membrane or a clamped sheet that strains
under the action of the pressure difference to be
measured (Figure 1.3.4). The sensor detects the
deflection of the center of the diaphragm, its global
deformation, or the local strain. Some metals used
are beryllium-copper, stainless steel, and nickel-
copper alloys.
A micromachined diaphragm is an etched silicon wafer with diffused or implanted gages that
sense local strain (Figure). Cars and hospitals use
silicon pressure sensors by the millions. The
diaphragm and elements bonded on it must be
compatible with the medium and withstand the
required temperature. Stainless steel diaphragms can
protect sensing diaphragms from corrosive media, but
in order to couple both diaphragms we need to
interpose a fluid, which increases the sensor
compliance and thermal sensitivity.

For a thin plate with thickness t and radius R experiencing a pressure difference ∆p across it,
if the center deflection is z < t=3
where E is Young's modulus and ν the Poisson's ratio for the plate material. Large, flexible
diaphragms undergo large deflection but have large compliance. Thin plates yield large
deflections but are fragile.
Pressure sensing capsules
The pressure-sensing capsule adapts the diaphragm sensing principle to allow measurement
of low pressures that would otherwise require an impractically large and thin diaphragm. The
capsule comprises two diaphragms, welded at the edge, to allow the pressure media to act on
both simultaneously. The resulting structure displays twice the displacement, relative to the
pressure applied, compared to a single-diaphragm.
Pressure sensing can be done using a single capsule, as shown in the first diagram below, or
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using a stack of capsules as shown in the second diagram. Some capsules also feature
profiling (such as the corrugations shown below, right) to optimise linearity and mechanical
strength.
Advantages and disadvantages
Stability, simplicity and its small-size are the main

advantages of the pressure-sensing capsule - as well as
its ability to measure lower pressures, compared with a
diaphragm sensor of a similar size. However, the
capsule does not self-drain so it is not suitable for
measuring pressure in liquid media.
Bellows sensing elements
The bellows sensing element is a container that expands in response to the force applied by
the pressure medium within. The bellows is typically made from a metal such as phosphor
bronze, brass, beryllium copper, or stainless steel. It can be machined from solid stock, rolled
from tube, or fabricated with a series of welded annular rings.
An internally mounted - or external - spring enhances the bellows’ response to positive- and
negative-going pressure changes. As a result, the deflection characteristics are a combination
of the mechanical properties of the bellows, and those of the spring.
An attached mechanical movement converts the expansion and contraction of the bellows due
to changing media pressure into a proportional deflection of the pointer to indicate the
pressure on a calibrated scale (see diagram to the right). In this sense the bellows is quite

similar to the Bourdon tube. Alternatively, the movement may be attached to a potentiometer
to provide an electrical analogue of the applied pressure.
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Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of the bellows sensor include simplicity, low cost, and the ability to connect
directly to a pointer. The movement and pointer can be designed to give a large change in
indication relative to the change in unit pressure, resulting in high resolution.
The bellows must operate within the elastic limit defined by the material and construction.
And the mechanism can fatigue over time. As with capsules, drainage can be a challenge that
may complicate use with liquid media. However, the bellows can be filled with an inert
liquid, such as oil, and the open end sealed with a diaphragm to create an element suitable for
monitoring liquid pressure.
Flow Velocity and Flow-Rate Sensors
A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that
measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes. ... The
differences in pressure (i.e. the vortices) generated by the latch are measured to determine
the flow rate.
Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow through
a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.
The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of
the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

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Orifice plate:
Figure shows a
schematic of Orifice
plate device. It has a
disc with a hole at its
center, through
which the fluid
flows. The pressure
difference is
measured between a
point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter
downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It
exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
Flow Nozzle
When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the
flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Description of Flow Nozzle
The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement

used to measure flow rate are as follows:
A flow nozzle which is held between

flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose
flow rate is being measured. The flow
nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.
Openings are provided at two places 1 and

2 for attaching a differential pressure
sensor (u-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the
diagram.
Operation of flow Nozzle
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called
throat where the area is minimum.
Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters the nozzle,
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the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the
minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the
nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small length after being discharged in the down stream
also.
The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure
difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of
the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
• It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
• It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.
• Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
Basics of Venturi Flow Meter
A venturi tube contains a throat which is smaller in a diameter to the pipeline, into which it
fits. The restriction diameter should
not be less than 0.224 D, and not
more than 0.742 D where D is the
nominal bore diameter of the pipe.
When the fluid flows through it, the

pressure at the throat is lower than
the upstream pressure (because of
increased kinetic energy due to increased velocity, ½ mv2) and the consequent reduction in
flow energy (Ef = P • . v).
The flow rate is proportional to the pressure difference, P1 -– P2.
where, k is dependent on the pipeline and throat diameter, density and discharge coefficient
The venturi flow meter should always be used for turbulent flow. Its accuracy for a wide
range of instruments is about 0.5%. ideal for use in Heat Ventilation Air Cond. (HVAC)
applications, or air to furnaces and boilers and for liquids containing particles and slurries.
What is Venturi effect?
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista
Venturi (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.
In fluid dynamics, a fluid’s velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction in

accord with the principle of mass continuity, while its static pressure must decrease in accord
with the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Thus any gain in kinetic energy a
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fluid may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in
pressure.
By measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow
measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice plates.
The rotameter in Figure 1.17 applies this method. It consists of a uniform conic section tube
and a grooved float inside it that is dragged by the fluid to a height determined by its weight
and the flow. The fluid gas or liquid flows upward. When the flow increases, the float rises,
thus allowing an increased annular pass section and keeping the pressure difference between
both ends constant. The displacement of the float indicates the fluid flow rate. For pressures
lower than 3.5 kPa and nonopaque liquids, the tube can be of glass and include the scale to
read the float position. For higher pressures and flows the tube must be of metal, and the
position of the float is detected magnetically. There are also inexpensive plastic tubes for
low-pressure, high flow rates. Adding a solenoid outside the tube enables us to apply the null-
measurement method. A photoelectric detector measures the float position. The flow is
determined from the amplitude of the current supplied to the solenoid in order to reposition
the float at zero.
Figure 1.17 A rotameter is a variable area

flowmeter in which the position of a float
indicates the flow rate.

Figure 1.18 Pitot tube for point velocity flow measurement. (a) In an open conduit the
velocity is indicated by the emerging fluid height. (b) In a closed conduit the velocity is
calculated from the difference between total pressure and static pressure
1.3.4 Level Sensors
Dipsticks are simple level sensors, but cannot easily provide an electric signal. Floats, based
on Archimedes' buoyancy principle, convert liquid level to force or displacement (Figures a
and b).
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Float level sensors are continuous level sensors featuring a magnetic float that rises and falls
as liquid levels change. The movement of the float creates a magnetic field that actuates a
hermetically sealed reed switch located in the stem of the level sensor, triggering the switch
to open or close.
In sealed or high-pressure containers, the position of the float can be detected magnetically.
Build-up and deposits on the float surface limit performance
Principle of Operation: A liquid level control system by using a float sensor works on the
principle of buoyancy, which states, “A float immersed in a liquid is buoyed towards upward
direction by an applied equal force to the weight of the displaced liquid”. As a result, the
body drives partially and gets submerged upon the liquid surface and covers the same
distance the liquid level moves.
Working: Level detection of liquids is often done with a float-type liquid level switch. The
float transfers on a mechanical arm or sliding pole and activates a switch when the level
moves towards upward direction. Sometimes the float itself contains a small magnet that
varies the state of a switch when the liquid level gets moving up and moves into the original
position. This type of level sensor comes with many advantages like it is very simple, highly
accurate, and best suitable for various products.
The
pressure of liquid or solid is proportional to level according to
(1.56).
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where ρ is density and g is the acceleration of gravity. This method is suitable for both
pressurized and open containers. Temperature interferes because it varies density
The bubble tube in Figure d overcomes the need for a pressure port near he container bottom,
which is a potential leak source. The dip tube has an open end close to the bottom of the tank.
An inert gas flows through the dip tube and when gas bubbles escape from the open end, the
gas pressure in the tube equals the hydraulic pressure from the liquid. The level can be
calculated from (1.56).
1.3.5 Force and Torque Sensors
A method to measure force (or torque) is to compare it with a well-known force, as is done
on scales. Another method measures the effect of the force on an elastic element, called a
load cell. In electric load cells, that effect is a deformation or a displacement. In hydraulic
and pneumatic load cells it is an increase in the pressure of, respectively, a liquid or a gas.
Each October issue of Measurements & Control lists the manufacturers and types of
mass/force sensors and load cells.
When a mechanical force is applied to a fixed elastic element, it strains until the strain-
generated stresses balance those due to the applied force. The result is a change in the
dimensions of the element that is proportional to the applied force, if the shape is appropriate.
Figure shows three suitable arrangements.

Figure: (a) A cantilever, (b) a helical spring, and (c) a torsion bar de¯ect in response to an
applied force or torque
Deflection x or y and Maximal Stress SM or τ M for the Elastic Elements Shown in Figure.
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1.3.6 Acceleration and Inclination Sensors
Acceleration Sensors:
They are frequently used to determine the speed and the position of various vehicles, such as
planes, ships, cars, robots, etc.
They can be classified according to the physical principle they use:
➢ Direct measurement of a force (piezoelectric sensor, sensor with force balance).

➢ Indirect measurement, by means of displacement or deformation of a sensing element.
The inertial force can be measured either through strain (if deformation is minimum) or
through the deformation of elastic element.
Inclinometer Sensors:
Inclinometers, also called tilt sensor, clinometers or slope sensors, are designed to measure
the angle of an object with respect to the force of gravity. These tilt or level meters determine
the pitch and/or roll angle and output these values via the appropriate electrical interface.
An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of the inclination angle or

deformation of any structure. The bent is either depicted in percentage or degrees concerning
gravity.

Inclinometer sensors are used to measure the slope gradient during activities like tunnelling,
excavation and de-watering. Such activities affect the ground that supports the structure.
The inclinometer installation procedure depends on the application field. It can be installed
vertically to monitor the cut slope or any movement in the shoring wall and embankment. To
monitor the settlement of the soil above the spot of tunnelling, inclinometers are installed
horizontally.
Inclinometer sensors are of different types. Each inclinometer system requires a combination
of equipment and sensors to measure and collect data.
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Inclination sensors. (a) The bubble inside a partially filled vial displaces when the vial tilts.
(b) A mass suspended within a case rotates when the case rotates
1.3.7 Velocity Sensors
Velocity sensors or velocimeters measure absolute casing vibration and – in combination

with a trigger measurement – magnitude and phase.
Velocity sensors are mounted to the measured object. They usually have a rugged design, are
highly sensitive at low frequencies, are simple to mount and don’t need an external power
supply.
Measurement principle:
The magnet of the velocity sensor is suspended on a membrane (spring) which moves
through a coil of wire. Due to the vibration, the coil of wire moves through the magnetic field
of the permanent magnet and generates (induces) a voltage signal which is proportional to the
vibration (velocity).
The measurement direction is important: Some types are mounted vertically, others
horizontally.

1.4 MATERIALS FOR SENSORS
Sensors rely on physical or chemical phenomena and materials where those phenomena
appear usefully-that is, with high sensitivity, repeatability and specificity. Those phenomena
may concern the material itself or its geometry, and most of them have been known for a long
time. Major changes in sensors come from new materials, new fabrication techniques, or
both.
Solids, liquids, and gases consist of atoms, molecules, or ions-atoms or group of atoms that
have lost or gained one or more electrons. Atoms consist of a positive nucleus and electrons
orbiting around it in shells. If the outer electron shell is not full, atoms try to gain extra
electrons and become bonded in the process, forming molecules or agglomerates. There are
four main bond types: ionic, metallic, covalent, and van der Waals
Conductors, Semiconductors and Dielectrics
Physical properties of solids, and their electric properties, are determined by the degree of
filling of the energy bands rather than by their formation. From this point of view all
crystalline bodies can be divided into two different groups.
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Conductors
The first group includes substances having a partially filled band in their energy spectrum
above the completely filled energy bands. As was mentioned above a partially filled band is
observed in alkali metals whose upper band is formed by unfilled atomic levels, and in alkali-
earth crystals. All substances belonging to this group are conductors.
Semiconductors and Dielectrics
The second group comprises of substances with absolutely empty bands above completely
filled bands. This group also includes crystals with diamond shaped structures such as
Silicon, Germanium, gray tin, and Diamond itself. This second group includes
semiconductors and dielectrics. The uppermost filled band in these crystals is called valence
band and the first empty band above it the conduction band. The upper level of the valence
band is called the top of the valence band and is denoted by Wv. The lowest level of the
conduction band is called the bottom of conduction band and denoted by Wc.

The division into semiconductors and Dielectrics is quite arbitrary and is determined by the
width Wg of the forbidden energy gap separating the completely filled band from the empty
band. Substances with a forbidden gap of Wg <2 eV belong to the semiconductor sub-group.
Germanium (Wg » 0.7 eV), silicon (Wg» 1.2 eV), gallium arsenide (Wg » 1.5eV), and
indium antimonide (Wg » 0.2 eV) are typical semiconductors. Substances for which Wg >
3eV belong to dielectrics. Well known dielectrics include corundum(Wg » 7 eV), diamond
(Wg » 5eV). Boron nitride (Wg » 4, 5 eV) and others.
Applications
Conductors like Copper and Aluminum are used to carry electrical current of varying
capacities. They are selected on the basis of affordable voltage drop across the ends of the
conductor at the specified current.
Semiconductors are used in the manufacture of many electronic devices like Diodes, Bipolar
transistors, Field effect transistors, CMOS IC’s etc. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped to
make n-type and p-type semiconductors, which are used in the manufacture of these devices.
Dielectrics and Insulators are used where no conductivity is permitted. They are used as
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Insulating supports for current carrying conductors. Room-temperature superconductor is a
material yet to be discovered which would be capable of exhibiting superconducting
properties at temperatures above 0° C (273.15 K). This is of course not strictly speaking
“room temperature” (20–25° C), however it can be reached very cheaply.
Magnetic materials
Magnetic materials are materials studied and used mainly for their magnetic properties. The
magnetic response of a materials is largely determined by the magnetic dipole moment
associated with the intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, of its electrons. A material’s
response to an applied magnetic field can be characterized as diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic.
The magnetic ¯ux in vacuum is proportional to the applied magnetic ®eld

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1.5 MICROSENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Microsensor materials are prepared according to their nature, the desired sensing principle,
and the intended application. There is an increasing interest in applying integrated circuit (IC)
technology and micromachining, because they yield small, reliable sensors produced in large
amounts leading to low cost.
Thick-Film Technology
In the 1970s thick film started to gain popularity. Today, these are by far the most used
resistors in electrical and electronic devices. They come usually as chip resistor (SMD), and
have the lowest cost compared to any other technology.
The resistive material is a special paste with a mixture of a binder, a carrier, and the metal
oxides to be deposited. The binder is a glassy frit and the carrier exists of organic solvent
systems and plasticizers. Modern resistor pastes are based on oxides of ruthenium, iridium
and rhenium. This is also referred to as a cermet (Ceramic – Metallic). The resistive layer is
printed onto a substrate at 850°C. The substrate is often 95% alumina ceramic. After the
firing of the paste on the carrier, the film becomes glasslike, which makes it well protected
against moisture. The complete firing process is schematically depicted in the graph below.
The thickness is in the order of 100 micrometer. This is approximately 1000 times more than
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thin film. Unlike thin film, this process is additive. This means that the resistive layers are
added sequentially to the substrate to create the conducting patterns and resistance values.
Thin Film Technology
The resistive layer is sputtered (vacuum deposition) onto a ceramic base. This creates a
uniform metallic film of around 0.1 micrometre thick. Often an alloy of Nickel and
Chromium is used (Nichrome). They are produced with different layer thicknesses to
accommodate a range of resistance values. The layer is dense and uniform, which makes is
suitable to trim the resistance value by a subtractive process. With photo etching or by laser
trimming patterns are created to increase the resistive path and to calibrate the resistance
value. The base is often alumina ceramic, silicon or glass. Usually thin film is produced as a
chip or smd resistor, but the film can also be applied onto a cylindrical base with axial leads.
In this case, more often the term metal film resistor is used.
Thin film is usually used for precision applications. They feature relatively high tolerances,
low temperature coefficients and low noise. Also for high frequency applications thin film
performs better than thick film. Inductance and capacitance are generally lower. The parasitic
inductance of thin film can be higher if it is executed as a cylindrical helix (metal film
resistor). This higher performance comes with a cost, which can be factors higher than the
price of thick film resistors. Typical examples where thin film is used are medical equipment,
audio installations, precision controls and measurement devices.

1.6 MAGNETORESISTOR
Definition: The resistance of some of the metal and the semiconductor material varies in the
presence of the magnetic field, this effect is called the magnetoresistance. The element which
has these effects is known as the magnetoresistor. In other words, the magnetoresistor is a
type of resistor whose resistance varies with the magnetic field.
The magnetoresistor is used for determining the presence of a magnetic field their strength
and the direction of the force. It is made of the indium antimonide or indium
arsenide semiconductor material.
The resistance of the magneto resistor is directly proportional to the magnetic field, i.e., their
resistance raises with the increase of the magnetic field. The variation in resistance occurs
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because of the magneto effect.
The magnetoresistor operates without physical contacts which is their major advantage. The
magnetoresistor has various applications like it is used in the hard disk of the computer, an
electronic compass, for measuring the current etc.
Working Principle of Magnetoresistor
It works on the principle of electrodynamics, which states that the force acting on the current
place in the magnetic field changes their direction. In the unavailability of the magnetic field,
the charge carriers of the magneto resistor move in the straight path
In the presence of the magnetic field, the direction of the current becomes changes, and it
flows in the opposite direction. The indirect path of the current increases the mobility of their
charge carrier which causes the collision.
The collision increases the loss of energy in the form of heat. This heat increases the
resistance of the magneto resistor. The current of very small magnitude flows in the
magnetoresistor because of few free electrons.
The deflection of the magnetoresistor electrons depends on their mobility. It is more in the
semiconductor material as compared to the metals. The mobility of the indium arsenides or
indium antimonides is approximately 2.4m 2/Vs.

Characteristic of Magnetoresistor
The sensitivity of the magnetoresistor depends on the strength of the magnetic field. The
characteristic curve of the magneto resistor is shown in the figure below.
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In the absence of the magnetic field, the magnetization of the element becomes zero. When
the magnetic field slightly increases the resistance of the material reaches near to b. The
magnetoresistor element moves by an angle of 45º because of the presence of a magnetic
field.
The further increases in the magnetic field make the curve saturates, which is represented by
the point C. The magnetoresistive element either operates at O or at b. It gives linear
characteristic when operates at b.
Principle of the AMR sensor
The AMR sensor consists of the Si or glass board,

and the thin film of alloy formed on the board. The
principal ingredient of alloy is ferromagnetic metals,
such as Ni and Fe. The resistance of the formed
ferromagnetic thin film metal varies according to
the strength of the applied magnetic filed with the
specific direction. A sensor utilizing this effect is
the AMR sensor. Since its resistance varies
according to the specific direction of the magnetic filed, the sensor is called AMR
(Anisotropic Magnet Resistance) sensor. As shown in the figure 1, when applying the current
to the ferromagnetic thin film metal, and applying the magnetic field H to the direction X,
which is vertical to the current direction Y, the resistance decreases according to the strength
of the magnetic field.
1.7 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is also called a photoresistor or a cadmium sulfide (CdS)
cell. It is also called a photoconductor. It is basically a photocell that works on the principle
of photoconductivity. The passive component is basically a resistor whose resistance value
decreases when the intensity of light decreases. This optoelectronic device is mostly used in
light varying sensor circuit, and light and dark activated switching circuits. Some of its
applications include camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, light beam alarms,
reflective smoke alarms, and outdoor clocks.
LDR Structure and Working
The basic structure of an LDR is shown below.
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The snake like track shown below is the Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film which also passes
through the sides. On the top and bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal
leads. It is designed in such a way as to provide maximum possible contact area with the two
metal films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to
external light. As explained above, the main component for the construction of LDR is
cadmium sulphide (CdS), which is used as the photoconductor and contains no or very few
electrons when not illuminated. In the absence of light it is designed to have a high resistance
inthe range of megaohms. As soon as light falls on the sensor, the electrons are liberated and
the conductivity of the material increases. When the light intensity exceeds a certain
frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band electrons the energy
required to jump into the conduction band. This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct
electricity and thus dropping the resistance dramatically (< 1 Kiloohm).
The equation to show the relation between resistance and illumination can be written as
R = A.Eâ
where E – Illumination (lux)

R – Resistance (Ohms)
A,a – constants
The value of ‘a’ depends on the CdS used and on the manufacturing process. Values usually
range betwee 0.7 and 0.9.
1.8 RESISTIVE HYGROMETERS
Hygrometer
Definition: Hygrometer uses for measuring the humidity present in the surrounding
environment. The term humidity means the amount of water vapour present in the gas. The
physical properties of the material changes by the effect of the humidity and this principle use
in hygrometer for measurement.
The humidity is classified into two types.
➢ Absolute Humidity
➢ Relative Humidity
The absolute humidity shows the amount of water vapour presents per unit volume. And the
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relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure to the maximum water
vapour pressure reaches in the substance at the particular temperature. The relative humidity
depends on the temperature.
How Do Humidity Sensors Work?
➢ Capacitive. Capacitive humidity sensors are linear and measure relative humidity
from 0% humidity to 100% humidity. They do this by placing a small metal oxide
strip between two electrodes. As the level of humidity changes, the oxide's electrical
capacity changes along with it.
➢ Resistive. Resistive humidity sensors measure humidity through the use of ionized
salts between two electrodes. The ions in the salts measure the electrical impedance of
atoms. As humidity levels change, so does the resistance of the electrodes.
➢ Thermal. A thermal sensor utilizes a dual sensor system to measure humidity. One
thermal sensor is housed in a layer of dry nitrogen; the other freely measures ambient
air. The resulting difference between the two measurements represents the level of
moisture in the air.
Classifications of Hygrometer
The following are the classification of hygrometer by the material used for measuring the
humidity.
Resistive Hygrometer

The conducting film of the resistive hygrometer is made by the lithium chloride and the
carbon. The conducting film places between the metal electrodes. The resistance of the
conducting film varies with the change in the value of humidity present in the surrounding
air.
The moisture absorbs by the lithium chloride will depend on the relative humidity. If the
relative humidity is high, the lithium chloride will absorb more moisture and their resistance
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decreases.
The change in the value of resistance is measured by applying the alternating current to the
bridge. The direct current is not used in the bridge as they breakdowns the layer of lithium
chloride. The obstructions occur in the flows of current shows the value of resistance or the
value of relative humidity.
➢ This hygrometer type utilizes resistivity change with respect to humidity for relative
humidity measurement. The figure-1 depicts Resistive Hygrometer.
➢ It uses hygrometric salt material such as LiCl (Lithium Chloride) for this purpose.
➢ Resistance of this material changes to wide range from 104 to 109 Ohms with
humidity change from 100% to 0% respectively.
➢ Higher relative humidity will result into more moisture absorbtion by LiCl material.
This will lower the resistance of the material and vice versa.
Capacitive Hygrometer
The change in capacitance of the capacitor shows the surrounding humidity. The capacitive
hygrometer gives the very accurate result. It is made
by placing the hygroscopic material between the
metal electrodes.
The hygroscopic material can quickly absorb the

water. The material absorbs water because of which
the capacitance of the capacitor decreases. The

electronic circuit measures the change in capacitance.
This hygrometer type utilizes change in dielectric constant with respect to humidity for
relative humidity measurement. The figure-2 depicts Capacitive Hygrometer.
• Some of the hygroscopic materials exhibit this property.
• This hygroscopic material is placed between two parallel plates of a capacitor in the
Capacitive Hygrometer.
• The change in dielectric constant can be detected by capacitive transducer.
Microwave Refractometer
The microwave refractometer measures the refractive index of the moist air when their
humidity is change. The refractive index means the ratio of the velocity of air in one medium
to that of another medium. The refractive index of humid air is measured either by measuring
the dielectric constant using the capacitor or by measuring the change in frequency.
Aluminium Oxide Hygrometer
In this hygrometer, the aluminium oxide is coated with the anodised aluminium. The
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dielectric constant and the resistance of the aluminium changes by the effects of the humidity.
The aluminium oxide hygrometer uses the aluminium as their one electrode and the gold
layer as the second electrode.
The second electrode is porous for absorbing the air vapour mixture. The changes occur in
the capacitance and resistance of the material because of the humidity. The change in
properties changes the impedances of the material. The impedance measures with the help of
the bridge. This hygrometer is the essential component of the electronic system.

Crystal Hygrometer
The figure below shows the crystal hygrometer using quartz.
In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic

crystal or the crystal having the coating of
hygroscopic material is used. When the
crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the
mass of the crystal changes. The change in
mass is proportional to the total water
absorbed by the crystals.
1.9 RESISTIVE GAS SENSORS
Resistive gas sensors are electronic devices whose electrical resistance is a function of the
surrounding gas ambient. This article presents sensor parameters, including selectivity and
sensitivity, sensing materials, and fundamentals of the sensing mechanism. Particular focus is
placed on sensors based on metal oxide semiconductors (MOS) and conducting polymers,
since these sensors are the most widely studied and used in applications. In addition, practical
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aspects as well as current and future applications of resistive gas sensors are also discussed.
Polycrystalline semiconductor metal oxides interact with oxygen to form active oxygen
species that alter the electrical charge at the grain surface. By reaction with combustible
gases, oxygen active species are depleted, which results in an alteration of the resistance of
the device.
Gas sensors based on semiconductor metal oxides are widely used for monitoring flammable
gases (such as hydrocarbons) in industrial environment and also for detecting hazardous
gases (such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides) in ambient air
The Taguchi gas sensor (TGS) is a sintered n-type semiconductor bulk device. Early models
consisted of a porous SnO2 paste over gold electrodes around the outside of a small
insulating ceramic tube. For specific gas detection, platinum and palladium were added as
catalysts.
Figure: Tin dioxide gas sensor. (a) Tubular design. (b) Thick-film design

Metal-oxide gas sensors are sensitive to temperature and environmental factors such as
humidity. Microporous membranes can protect sensors exposed to moisture or dirty
environments because they seal out liquids and heavy particulate substances while allowing
unrestricted flow of air and gases. Resistive gas sensors lack selectivity (i.e., they are cross-
sensitive), which improves with filters.
Figure : MGS1100 carbon monoxide sensor. (a) Cross-sectional schematic (from Motorola).
(b) Package (from Motorola).
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2.0 LIQUID CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS
Conductivity basics
A fluid’s ability to conduct electrical current is a result of positively and negatively charged
particles present in and moving within the fluid, resulting in electrical conductance. Just as
electrons move through a solid wire to conduct electrical current, current flow in a fluid is
transported by ions in solution. The more free ions present, the higher the conductivity.
Fewer free ions lower fluid conductivity, or inversely increase resistivity.
Four-electrode conductivity
sensors address a broader range
of measurement. A four-
electrode conductivity probe
uses the same principles of a
conductive probe but adds two
additional electrodes to the
sensor (see Figure 3).
The outer two electrodes operate

on the same principle as a
conductive sensor in which an alternating voltage is applied to these electrodes, and the
resulting current is measured. As the conductivity of the fluid increases and polarization

effects begin to occur, the two additional inner electrodes measure the voltage and
compensate the current measurement for any polarization effects.
This design allows a four-electrode sensor to operate across a broader measurement range
than a traditional, two-electrode or toroidal sensor. The typical range of a four-electrode
sensor is 1 µS/cm to 500 mS/cm. Four-pole conductivity probes can be manufactured in very
compact designs. Sensors are typically available in a PG13.5, 120-mm-length geometry,
similar in size to a standard pH probe.
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Module-1 Introduction To Sensor-Based Measurement Systems: Structure

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18EC652_SENSORS & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR-BASED MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

➢ General concepts and terminology

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 1

1.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 2

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 3

In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital.

1.3 PRIMARY SENSORS

1.3.1 Temperature sensors: Bimetals

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of

thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples,

where t is the total thickness of the piece and where αA and αB

1.3.2 Pressure Sensors

A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 5

Liquid-column U-tube manometer

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 6

Figure 1.3.2 a compares the pressure to be measured with a

where ρ is the density of the liquid and

C-shaped Bourdon tube.

When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (Bourdon tube)

Twisted Bourdon tube.

Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It

By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its

A diaphragm is a flexible circular plate consisting

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 8

Pressure sensing capsules

Advantages and disadvantages

Stability, simplicity and its small-size are the main

Bellows sensing elements

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 9

Flow Velocity and Flow-Rate Sensors

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 10

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 11

Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement

A flow nozzle which is held between

Openings are provided at two places 1 and

Operation of flow Nozzle

Applications of Flow Nozzle

Basics of Venturi Flow Meter

When the fluid flows through it, the

The flow rate is proportional to the pressure difference, P1 -– P2.

What is Venturi effect?

In fluid dynamics, a fluid’s velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction in

Figure 1.17 A rotameter is a variable area

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 13

1.3.4 Level Sensors

pressure of liquid or solid is proportional to level according to

1.3.5 Force and Torque Sensors

Figure shows three suitable arrangements.

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 15

They can be classified according to the physical principle they use:

➢ Direct measurement of a force (piezoelectric sensor, sensor with force balance).

An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of the inclination angle or

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 16

1.3.7 Velocity Sensors

Velocity sensors or velocimeters measure absolute casing vibration and – in combination

ATME COLLEGE OF ENGG., MYSURU 17

1.4 MATERIALS FOR SENSORS

Conductors, Semiconductors and Dielectrics

Semiconductors and Dielectrics