BIOL1262 tutorial 1

1. Viridiplantae (green plants) are a clade of photosynthetic organisms that contain chlorophylls a
and b, produce and store their photosynthetic products inside a double-membrane-bounded
chloroplast, and have cell walls that typically contain cellulose, have the same alteration of
generation life cycle.
2. a) Haplontic life cycle where the haploid gametophytic stage is prominent amongst the two
phases. eg. Chlamydomonas. b) Diplontic Life cycle where diploid sporophytic phase is
prominent amongst the two phases. eg. Sargasum and fucus. c) Haplo-diplontic life cycle
both the gametophytic and sporophytic phases are equally prominent. eg. Ulva and
laminaria. d) Haplobiontic life cycle - where there are three phases of development one
diploid and two haploid. eg- Batrachospermum and e) Haplo-diplobiontic life cycle- again
three phases but here two diploid and one haploid phase eg- Polysiphonia.

4. Outline five requirements for the colonization of the terrestrial habitat as seen in the bryophytes.
- Rhizoids for anchoring into the ground, development of more complex reproductive and transferral
of gamete systems, Epidermal layer to reduce water loss, Greater structural support in their bodies
order to support themselves in a less dense medium(air).

5. List ten descriptive features of the Bryophytes and tabulate similarities and differences with the green
algae.

Bryophytes Green algae (Chlorophyta)

Mostly terrestrial Mostly aquatic
Always multicellular Multicellular and unicellular
More chloroplast than algae 1 chloroplast per cell
Presence of stomata and pores Stomata and pores absent
Apical reproductive cells Every cell reproduces
Has rhizoids Absent rhizoids
Oogamous reproduction Oogamous, anisogamous, isogamous
reproduction
Zygote forms embryo Zygote does not form embryo
Heteromorphic alteration of generation Isomorphic alteration of generation
Archegonia is female organ Oogonia is female organ
Differences
both A-O-G, lack true roots, same chlorophyll, water-dependent for reproduction, Gametophytic
generation is the prominent life cycle , poor cuticle development

6. Discuss the trends in the bryophytes that show a gradual increase in complexity towards a greater
similarity to flowering plants

-they are terrestrial like higher plants, they have a greater level of development such as rhizoids for
anchoring and support, has a epidermal protective layer, tissues produced to meristem activity as in
higher plants, greater structural support of their bodies, their spores are dispersed by the wind just the
same and they have many chloroplast per cell, leptoids and hydroids
7. Using diagrams, illustrate the reproductive strategies employed by the bryophytes.

Bryophytes have haplontic life cycles with dominant gametophytes. Gametophytes either posses’
antheridia or archegonia which both produce haploid (n) gametes that combine in fertilization to form a
zygote(2n), this then develops into either a male gametophyte or a female gametophyte which in turn
produces haploid sexual gamete through meiosis to continue their life cycle. The haploid gametes are
spread by water.

8. Explain why the Bryophytes are limited to life within habitats with appreciable amounts of free

water.

- Bryophytes are dependent or wet and moist environment because they have simple thalloid
bodies with little or no protective cuticle, they do not possess proper vascular transport systems to
transfer nutrients throughout their bodies therefore requiring a source of readily available nutrients that
can be absorbed. They also require water to aid in reproduction due to their flagellated reproductive
gametes.

9. Briefly distinguish between the Pteridophytes and the Bryophytes. Outline five contrasting features
that enable Pteridophytes to be more successfully adapted to terrestrial habitat.

- Bryophytes are referred to as lower plants and are the simplest form of terrestrial plants, they possess
a simple thalloid body with no vascular development. They inhabit wet/moist environment as they
depend on water for nutrient and mineral absorption. Their life cycle are haplontic with the haploid
gametophyte being dominant. Pteridophytes are terrestrial plants which are differentiated into roots,
stem and leaves, they are herbaceous and may be annual or perennial. They grow in moist, shaded and
cool places with haplo-diplontic life cycles showing heteromorphic alteration of generation, the
saprophyte is the dominant plant body and are adopted to be more successful to the terrestrial habitat
by having:

- adventitious roots for anchorage and mineral/nutrient absorption,

- herbaceous stems with megaphyllous or microphillous which allows for greater energy
generation through photosynthesis.
- They have vascular tissue which allows for water/nutrient transfer across their bodies
- They have stems and leaves covered by scaley ramenta to protect from droughts
- Developed cuticle for protection
- Spores spread along the wind

Tutorial 2 for week 3-4

1.Explain the similarities and differences of life cycle and reproduction between Coniferophyta and
Pteridophyta.

-conifers are similar to pteridophytes in aspects such as their life cycle has the sporophyte being the
dominant part with smaller and reduced gametopytes.

-they both exabit heterospory with the production of megaspores and microspores that are produced in
strobili/cones

-both these types of plants possess a developed vascular system with tracheid’s in the xylem and sieve
tubes in the phloem

-in some species they both ave pinnately compound leaves

In comparison Coniferophyta and Pteridophyta differ in areas such as

-the sporophyte in conifers are better adapted for a terrestrial habitat by possessing a tap root system
for better anchorage and nutrient/water absorption, thick cuticle to prevent water loss and having an
upright and thickened stem with cambium that allows for secondary growth.

- conifers have more advanced cone structures where they have ovules protected by integuments and
offering greater protection to the megaspore.

- conifers do not rely on the availability of water for the dispersal of gametes used in reproduction.

-the female megaspores and megagametophytes are retained on the sporophyte throughout their
development and the gametophyte is also fertilized on the parent sporophyte plant.

- the most important difference between them is the development of a true seed that contains a
fertilized embryo of the new sporophyte generation, this seed has nutritive tissue to and a protective
coating to keep the new plant safe. a true seed is also more resilient in harsh environments and more
likely to survive

2.Discuss the features that make gymnosperms well adapted to terrestrial habitats.

Gymnosperms are more suited for a terrestrial habitat due to:

-the development of a true seed that contains a fertilized embryo of the new sporophyte generation,
this seed has nutritive tissue to and a protective coating to keep the new plant safe. a true seed is also
more resilient in harsh environments and more likely to survive.

-Gymnosperms do not rely on the availability of water for the dispersal of gametes used in reproduction.
- the female megaspores and megagametophytes are retained on the sporophyte throughout their
development and the gametophyte is also fertilized on the parent sporophyte plant.

- possessing a tap root system for better anchorage and nutrient/water absorption, thick cuticle to
prevent water loss and having an upright and thickened stem with cambium that allows for secondary
growth.

3.Outline the vegetative and reproductive features of a member of the phylum Coniferophyta. How is it

different from Cycadophyta?

Vegetative differences Pine

- pine stems- thick bark with resin, monopodial, Tall Stem with Long shoots and short shoots grows
laterally

-pine leaves- long needle-like leaves, Thick cuticle,Cylindrical shape, scale leaves

-pine roots- Tap root system

Cycad vegetative-

Stems- Stout Short Stem,swollen and tuberous, branched

Leaves- Crown of pinnately compound leaves,leaves arranged in a spiral, lower leaves form spines

Roots- have coralloid roots, smalls lateral roots with cyanobacteria symbionts

Reproductive differences

Pine- Female-Woody scale like cones, inches in length, protective bracts, spirally arranged around axis,
male cone- small, microsporophylls arranged spirally around an un-branched axis

Cycas- male cone are Large Cones, sometimes several feet in length, female cone arranged in rosettes,
whorls loosely organized

4. Give a detailed description of the life cycle of a member of the phylum Coniferophyta

Ovule-Reproduction starts with the ovule that appears as a megasporangium with covering, and ends
with a megagametophyte. The megasporangium contains a megagaspore mother cell (megasporocyte)
plus the nucellus ( nutritive tissue) and is surrounded by the integument with a small opening called the
micropyle. The megasporocyte undergoes meiosis producing 4 haploid megaspores but only 1 survives
so the young ovule is the megasporangium that contains 1 haploid megaspore.

The megaspore remains in the cone attached to the sporophyte, it divides to form a small
megagametophyte that forms 2/3 archegonia embedded into the nucellus each with an egg and this is
the mature ovule. The archegonium consists of a short neck and swollen venter region which surrounds
the large egg cell. The seed cone occurs solitary or in whorls, it is a compound cone with a main axis and
spirally arranged modified lateral branches that produce megasporophylls. The megasporophylls are
comprised of a ovuliferous scale that is large and woody, it is triangular in shape and produce a pair of
ovules. It is subtended by a bract scale (sterile bract) it is thin dry and brown, the pair of ovules lie on the
upper surface at the base of ovuliferous scale. The ovules are downward facing towards the axis of the
cones.

Pollen- pollen exist in the microsporangia pollen sacks that are housed in the microsporophyll, the
microsporophyll has a short stalk and the end tip bent upwards. The microspores/pollen grains are
formed by meiosis of the microspore mother cells (microsporocytes) in the microsporangia. The pollen
grain has 2 coats, the inner coat called the intine layer and the outer coat known as the exine layer, the
exine layer forms a wing like air sac on either side of the pollen grain. Mitotic division occurs in the
pollen grain while it is still in the sporangium which forms 2-3 prothallus cells at one end and a
antheridial cell. The aantheridial cell further divides to form a generative cell and a tube nucleus and this
is the form of the immature microgametophyte. At this stage the young microgametophyte is shed and
carried by the wind to pollenate a megagametophyte.

Fertilization- for fertilization to take place the pollen grains pass between two slightly open scales and
stick to fluid drop on the micropyle of the ovule (pollen usually arrive before the egg is developed), there
is normally a 1+ year between pollination and fertilization. Pollen tubes slowly form growing into the
ovule through the micropyle. The generative cell of pollen divides forming a sterile stalk cell and a body
cell, the body cell further divides to form 2 non-flagellated male gametes (this is the mature
microgametophyte). The pollen tube bursts at the apex and both male sperms enters the ovule, 1 sperm
cell fuses with the egg nucleus and goes on to form the zygote and the other one disorganize. There is
considerable delay in formation of embryo from zygote. The seed is formed after fertilization, the ovule
is surrounded by integument and develops into a seed, the female cone becomes dry brown and woody,
the seed coat (develops from the integument) extends into wings and is dispersed on the wind.

The seed contains nutritive tissue (remains of the gametophyte) and a embryo consisting of the radicle,
young shoot (plumule) and 2-15 cotyledon.

5. Describe the general features of the life cycle of angiosperms; explain how three of these features
have contributed to the success of the angiosperms as a plant group.

Some general features in the life cycle of a angiosperm are:

Flowers- The flower acts as a means of ensuring pollination making it easier for a plant to become
fertilized, the flower allows this by means of self-pollination which takes place by pollination within the
same flower or between flowers on the same plant (abiotically by wind or water) or cross pollination
between different plants aided by insects or birds (biotic agents entomophily and ornithophily). The
flower also offers protection for the ovule and developing embryo inside the receptacle.

Ovules and seed enclosed in a fruit- seeds are developed from fertilized mature ovules and enclosed in a
fruit in angiosperms. The fruit provide a nutrient rich environment for the seed contained within and
contain various nutrients that are attractive to animals that eat them and intern dispersed by them
therefore making them ideal dispersal methods for the seeds This lessen the dependence on wind and
water for dispersal allowing the plant to have a more.
Double fertilization- double fertilization allow for the development of an endosperm that provides
nourishment for the developing embryo making the young plant more likely to survive in a terrestrial
environment.

6. For a typical angiosperm, concisely describe:

(a) production of spores; spores are produced on the structures of the flowers known as stamen which
consists of anthers, which tissues are made up of microsporocytes which are diploid and undergo
meiosis to produce a tetrad of haploid microspores that develop into pollen.

(b) production of gametes; gamete production for angiosperms take place within the flow where the
stamen containing anthers are responsible for producing pollen (microspores) and the carpel which is
the female gametophyte containing the style the stigma and the ovary, the ovary produces the ovule
which is the female gamete. then it divides into 8 nuclei, 1 egg, 2 synergids, 2 polar nuclei and 3
antipodals.

(c) pollination and fertilization; pollination takes place when a pollen grain reaches the stigma and
germinates then going down the style and into the ovule. Fertilization occurs when the 1 sperm cell
fuses with the egg forming a diploid zygote and the other sperm cell fuses with the polar nuclei forming
the endosperm nucleus.

7. (a) Describe the whorls that exist within a flower and modifications that have arisen;

The parts of a flower are said to occur in whorls which are comprised of different parts, flowers normally
possess 4 whorls in their flowers. the first whorl is generally made up of sepals collectively called the
Caylx and these may be modified to be connate (joining together) of adnate (joining together with
another whorl. The second whorl is consisted of the petals collectively known as the corolla and these
are modified to have bright attractive colours to attract pollinators, petals my also be connate or adnate,
petals may also be modified in different whorls as some located below and some above. The stamen is
the 3 whorl of the flower which consists of the anthers and the filaments that supports the anthers and
the last whorl of the flower is the carpel which consists of the stigma, style and ovaries. This whorl is
often modified into a fused structure referred to as the pistil and is in the center.

(b) Explain how the seed and fruit develop in a typical angiosperm.

The seed of an angiosperm is developed from a fertilized ovule, it contains an egg and 2 polar nuclei
which develop into the endosperm which is a triploid nutritive of the seed while the egg develops into
the embryo. The embryo produces a central axis with a radicle and cotyledons, the integument which
acted as protection for the ovule will then be developed to form the seed coat.

The fruit of an angiosperm is developed from the ovary walls (true fruit) made up of the pericarp
consisting of the epicarp which is the fruit skin, the mesocarp which is the fleshy, dry hard or succulent
layer and the endocarp which forms a outer layer around the seed.and sometimes the receptacle and
the ovary walls (accessory fruit), when a seed matures it simulates the wall of the ovary to develop into
a fruit. At the end of maturation of the seed it goes in a period of dormancy and looses water 10-15%
this phase is known as the Quiescence phase and the embryo ceases in activity until it is dispersed and
deposited in a proper medium for germination.
8. (a) Briefly describe the anatomy of the stem and root for a typical eudicotyledonous plant.

The stem of a eudicot contains vascular tissue that is formed in its centre in a circular pattern with the
xylem on the inside toward the centre and the pith on the outer side it is not surrounded by a
endodermis, the ground tissue is made up of the cortex and pith and contains mane sclerenchyma tissue
for structural support these plants also undergo secondary growth in their stems forming branches at
nodes along the stem the stem is also characterized by vascular cambium and cork cambium . The roots
of eudicots are tap roots that undergo secondary growth with the presence of cork cambium similarly
too the stems, these secondary roots extends horizontally while the main root extends vertically. Its
made up of the epidermis, cortex and vascular tissue and the end it covered by a root cap. The
epidermis is a single layer of cell with thin cuticle wit a cortex that is very wide and makes up most of the
root and is mostly made up of parenchymal cells. The innermost layer of the cortex has a casparian strip
that helps with the movement of water in and out of the vascular tissue.

(b) Explain the general differences in the stem anatomy of a typical eudicotyledonous and
monocotyledonous plant.

The differences include

Monocot stems contain many vascular bundles scattered throughout the stem while eudicots have
cantered vascular bundles of 4-8 in a ring formation in the centre.

Monocot stems does not contain a definite cortex while this is present in dicot stems.

Monocots has endodermis while eudicots does not.

Eudicots have cambium allowing secondary thickening and growth whole monocots does not.

9. Compare the anatomy of leaves between an angiosperm species that conducts C3 photosynthesis
with one that conducts C4 photosynthesis.

C3 plants does not have a layer of bundle sheath cells as c4 plants do

C3 plants have a uniform mesophyll layer