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Contents
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
1. Indian Physical Features
2. Important Locations and Features
3. Islands
4. Deserts
5. River System In India
6. Lakes
7. Indian Soil Types
8. Major Vegetation Types
9. National Parks
10. Population of India
11. Key Highlights
12. Question Bank

INDIAN HISTORY

1. Indian Vedic Period

2. Gupta Period
3. Maurya Period
4. Delhi Sultanate
5. Mughal Ruling
6. Vijaya Nagara Empire
7. Sikhs and Marathas
8. Indian Modern History
 ECONOMICS
1. Indian Economy
2. Planning In India
3. Industrial Economy
4. Agricultural Economy
5. Five Years Plan

INDIAN POLITY
1. Indian Constitution
2. Indian Judiciary
3. Center and State Relation
4. Local government
Indian Geography

Physical Features
" The mainland comprises four regions, namely, the great
mountain zone, plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert
region and the southern peninsula.
" The mountain wall extends over a distance of about 2,400
km with a varying depth of 240 to 320 km.
" In the east, between India and Myanmar and India and Bangladesh,
hill ranges are much lower.
"
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Naga Hills, running almost east-west, join
the chain to Mizo and Rakhine Hills running north-south.
" The plains of the Ganga and the Indus, about 2,400 km long
and 240 to 320 km broad, are formed by basins of three distinct
river systems— the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
" The desert region can be divided into two parts— the ‘great
desert’ and the ‘ little desert’.
" The great desert extends from the edge of the Rann of Kutch
beyond the Luni river northward. The whole of the Rajasthan-
Sind frontier runs through this.
" The little desert extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and
Jodhpur up to the northern west.
" The Peninsular Plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and
the Indus by a mass of mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to
1,220 metres in height. Prominent among these are the Aravali,
Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and Ajanta .
" The southern point of the plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills
where the Eastern and the Western Ghats meet.
" The Cardamom Hills lying beyond may be regarded as a
continuation of the Western Ghats.

Geological Structure

" The geological regions broadly follow the physical features

and may be grouped into three regions:
the Himalayas and their associated group of mountains, the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Peninsular Shield.
" The Himalayan mountain belt to the north and the Naga-Lushai
mountain in the east, are the regions of mountain-building movement (
by compression of sendiment and basement rocks)
" The Indo-Ganga plains are a great alluvial tract that separates the
Himalayas in the north from the Peninsula in the south.
" The Peninsula is a region of relative stability and occasional seismic
disturbances ( igneous, metamorph and Deccan Trap formation).

Dimensions
Distance from north to south 3214 km
Distance from east to west 2933 km
Length of coastline Length 7516.6 km 15
of land frontier Total ,200 km 32,87,
geographic land area 263 km2
Percentage of earth’s surface covered by India 2.4%
Percentage of world’s population living in India 17.5%

Key Facts
• Territorial Sea—12 nm (nautical miles)
• Contiguous Zone—24 nm (nautical miles)
• Exclusive Economic Zone—200 nm (nautical miles)
• Longest River—Ganga
• Largest Lake (Saline water)—Chilka Lake
• Largest Lake—Wulcar Lake
• Highest Point—Mt. K2 (8611 m)
• Highest Point of Himalayas—Kanchan Junga (8598 m)
• Lowest Point—Kuttanad (–2.2 m)
• Northernmost Point—Siachen Glacier near Karakoram
• Southernmost Point —Indira Point , Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
• Westernmost Point—West of Ghur Mota, Gujarat
• Easternmost Point—Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh
• Highest Altitude—Kangchenjunga, Sikkim
• Lowest Altitude—Kuttanad, Kerala
Frontiers
1. North: The Himalayan range, China (border length: 4057 km), Bhutan (border length: 699 km)
and Nepal (border length : 1751 km) separate India from Tibet . The Siliguri Corridor ,
sandwiched between the borders of Bhutan , Nepal and Bangladesh , connects mainland India
with the north- eastern states. The boundary line between India and China is called the
McMahon Line.
2. East: The Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountains, separate India from
Myanmar or Burma to the far north-east. Bangladesh is separated from India (border length: 4096
km) by watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic plan, the Khasi hills and the Mizo Hills.
3. West: Pakistan, lies in the Punjab Plain and the Thar desert (border length: 3323 km).
Afghanistan lies on the north-west (border length: 106 km).
4. South: Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Straits separates India from
Sri Lanka.

International Boundaries Touching Indian States

Afghanistan 1 state [Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan occupied area)]
Bangladesh 5 states [West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam]
Bhutan 4 states [West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam]
China 5 states [Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,Arunachal
Pradesh]
Nepal 5 states [Bihar, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal]
Myanmar 4 states [Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram]
Pakistan 4 states [Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat]

Geographhical Boundaries
• India stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off by mountains and the sea,
which give her distinct geographical entity.
• Bounded by the great Himalayas in the north, it stretches southwards and at the Tropic
of Cancer (23°30 ′ N) tapers off into the Indian Ocean between Bay of Ben- gal on the
east and the Arabian Sea on the west.
• India lies in South Asia that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion
of the Indo-Australian Plate.
• India ’s extreme southern tip is located in the Great Nicobar Island and is known as ‘
Indira Point ’ (formally known as ‘Pygmalion Point or ‘Parsons Point ’.) Indira Point is
about 150 km be sea from Sumatra, Indonesia.
• During 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake the southern mount tip subsided by 4.25 meters
due to tsunami, and as a result of this the coast retreated and the sea permanently came
inward. However, the sea has slowly starting to retreat back to its original position.
Important Locations and Features

1. The Himalayan Range: The Himalayas, amongst the youngest fold mountains in the
world, surround India on the north, north-west and north-east forming an arc. It is also
known as ‘Northern Mountains’ and it begins at ‘Pamir Knot’ in the west and extends up
to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. It is part of the Great Mountains of the north which
run along the northern border of lndia has two parts—the Karakoram and the
Himalayas. The Karakoram has a number of ranges like Zaskar, Ladakh and Pir Panjal
with mainly river Jhelum flows in this region. The Himalayas has three important ranges
—Himadri, Himachal and Siwalik, about 2400 km in length and varying in width from
240 to 320 km.
(i) The Greater Himalayas (northern range , average approx . 6000 m in height and contain
three highest mountains on earth —Mount Everest (8848 m), K2 or Mount Godwin
Austin (8611 m) and Kanchenjunga (8598 m). Such high altitudes admit travel to a few
passes only, notably Shipki La [in Satluj valley —north-east of Kalpa (Kinnaur )] and
Jelep La and Nathu La [on the main Indo- Tibet trade route through the Chumbi valley,
north -east of Darjeeling ]. There are many such small and big passes which not only
provide transport facilities but are also excellent tourist attractions such as Kashmir
Burzil , Zojila , Barala -Cha of Himachal Pradesh . Greater Himalayas or Himadri ,
under perpetual snow, contains several glaciers which are sources of rivers like Ganges
and Yamuna. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.

(ii) The Lesser Himalayas (averaging 1500 to 5000 m in height ) or Himachal (averaging
1500 to 5000 m in height), are situated south of the Greater Himalayas , the average width
is of 50 km. While the Pir Panjal Range forms the longest and the most important range
, the Dhauladhar , Mahabharat Ranges , the Nagtiba , and Mussoorie Range are also
prominent ones . Between the Pir Panjal and a westerly range of the Himadri lies
Kashmir Valley , through which Jhelum river flows . The Kangra Valley , a strike
valley in Himachal Pradesh , extends from the foot of the Dhauladhar range to the
south of the Beas River. Kullu Valley , a transverse valley in Himachal Pradesh , is in the
upper course of Ravi River. Many health resorts are situated on the southern sole of the
mountain range. These ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered
rocks. The lesser Himalayas are composed of metamorphic rocks and un-fossiliferous
sedimentary rocks . The southern slopes are bare and rugged , whereas the northern
slopes have dense forests . (Famous tourist destinations — Shimla , Chail , Chakrata ,
Mussoorie , Nainital , Ranikhet , Almora , Darjeeling etc.—are situated in these ranges.)
2. The Northern Plains or the Indo-Gangetic Plains: One formed by the valleys of the rivers
Ganges and Brahmaputra, with a length of about 2400 km and width ranging between 240 km
to 320 km. These plains occupy one-third of India ’s land surface and form the most fertile
region.
According to terrain characteristics, this plain consists of two parts:
(i) Upland plains, which lies above the flood level is made up of alluvial soil. It is one of
the most fertile areas in the world.
(ii) Low lands, which are liable to inundation during floods.
The entire plain is formed by the deposition of alluvial soils brought by the rivers which rise
in the Himalayas. When the Himalayan rivers enter the plains, they deposit rocks there and
it is called ‘Bhabar’. The areas with loamy soil deposited of the ancient times is called ‘
Bhangar’. The loamy soil formed in recent times is known as ‘Khadar’. The Great plains
comprises of levelled land to the south of the Great Mountains of the North made up of
fertile allvium soil. It consists of the lndus Basin, Ganga Basin and Brahmaputra Basin.
•  Indus River and its tributaries—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rise beyond the
Himalayas.
•   Ganga River and its tributaries—either they rise in the Himalayas (Yamuna,
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Tista); or, in the Peninsular Plateau (Chambal, Sindh, Betwa,
Son, Ken and Damodar)
•  Br   ahmaputra River—it rises beyond the Himalayas.

3. The Peninsular Plateau: Lying south of the northern plains, the plateau is flanked by
mountain ranges called the Eastern and Western Ghats. It is geographically the oldest
region of India, with rocks which are 3000 to 5000 million years old. It is the most ancient,
and is a part of the Gondwana landmass which existed in the early stages of the Earth. It
is also known as ‘Peninsular Plateau’ and is the largest of all physiographic division of
India. This peninsular plateau is formed in triangular shape being broad in the north and
narrow towards the south. It is bounded by Arabian sea in west, Bay of Bengal in the east
and the Indian Ocean in the South. The higher Deccan peaks reach over 2500 m which
include the Nilgiri Hills.
It is bounded by the Aravallis upto Delhi Ridge (in the northwest ) and Bundelkhand
Plateau , Kaimur Hills (on the north and northeast ); the Rajmahal Hills (in the east ) and
the Cardamon Hills (in the south).
A series of patland plateaus* (lava-capped plateaus) such as Hazaribagh plateau, the
Palamu plateau, the Ranchi Plateau, the Coimbatore Plateau, and the Karnataka Plateau
constitute the Peninsular Block.
The Vindhyan Range and the fault valleys of the Narmada and the Tapti
between 21°–24° N latitudes divide the Peninsula plateau into two unequal parts i.e
.,
(a) the Central Uplands, and
(b) the Deccan Plateau.
In fact, the Vindhyan Ranges and the Satpura Hills form a natural barrier between the
Northern India where the Aryan culture flourished and the Southern India with a pre–
existing Dravadian culture.
Peninsular Plateau constitute of three major groups—(a) The Central Uplands;
(b) the Deccan Plateau, and (c) the Northeastern Plateau.
(a) The Central Uplands —The central uplands comprise the Aravalli Ranges , East
Rajasthan Uplands , the Malwa Plateau , the Bundelkhad Plateau , the
Baghelkhand Plateau , the Vindhyan Uplands , the Chhotanagpur Plateau , the
Meghalaya Plateau, the Vindhya Uplands, the Satpura Ranges, the Thar Desert, and
the Kathiawar and Kutch Peninsula. Malwa Plateau in the north which slopes towards
north and Deccan Plateau in the south . To the north west of the Malwa Plateau lies
the Great Indian Desert , a region of inland made up of rocks and sand. The southern
tributaries of the Yamuna and the Ganga drain the plateau.
(b) The Deccan Plateau —This triangular plateau , formed by volcanic activity (
elevation between 500 m to 1000 m), lies between the Eastern and the Western Ghats
and the Satpuras Hills , Maikal Hills and Rajmahal Hills . It stretches over Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The Deccan Plateau is located to the
South of River Narmada . It is enclosed by Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. They are
old mountains . Western Ghats are formed by four major hills which run parallel to the
Arabian Coast. The Eastern Ghats are low and discontinuous and are near to the Bay of
Bengal Coast. There are many rivers in the Plateau which flow either into Arabian Sea or
Bay of Bengal.
(c) The Northeastern Plateau—The Rajmahal Hills and Meghalaya plateau constitute the
Northeastern Plateau. The Meghalaya Plateau constitute of Garo Hills, Khasi Hills and
the Jainta Hills.

Key Features of Deccan Plateau

Deccan Plateau abounds in un-fossiliferous granites , basalt , sandstone , quartz and
limestone . Coal, Manganese , Iron ore, Mica, Magnetite , Bauxite , Diamonds are found in
abundance here. The fertile lava soils are very useful for growing cotton and sugarcane .
The plateau slopes towards the east. The part of the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra is
formed of basalt . Weathering of these rocks has produced rolling plains and shallow
valleys. Flat topped, steep sided hills flank the Godavari, Bhima and Krishana valleys.
•   The Andhra Plateau, (or the Telangana Plateau), is characterized by rounded hills,
rolling plains, broad open valleys, etc.
•   The Karnataka Plateau , with an average elevation of 600 m is divided into ‘
Malnad’ and ‘Maidan’, the former being hilly, dissected and densely forested, while
the latter has rolling plains and low granitic hills.
 •   The higher Deccan peaks reach over 2500 m which include the Nilgiri Hills.
Southwestwards the Deccan plateau rises and merges into the Nilgiri hills. The
Nilgiri hills join Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
•   The Annaimalai Hills stretch south of the Nigiris and branch off into the Palni Hills
and the Cardamom Hills.

The Aravallis and the Deccan Mountains

(a) The Aravallis: The oldest mountain range in India. The highest peak in this range is
Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722 m, lying near the border with Gujarat.
(b) The Vindhya Range: Separate the southern part of India from the northern part.
Extending 1050 km, the average elevation of these hills is 3000 m.
(c) The Satpura Range: Lies between the rivers Narmada and Tapti. It extends to 900 
km with many peaks rising above 1000 m. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range,
which lies to the north and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic
plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.
(d) Western Ghats (the Sahyadris)—Run along the western edge of India’s Deccan
Plateau (from Khan-desh in Maharashtra to Kanyakumari in the south) and separate
it from a narrow coastal plain along the western coast (Arabian Sea) for about
1600 km. The range runs approximately 1600 km and average elevation is about
915 m–1220 m.
•  Anaimudi (2695 m) is the highest peak of Western Ghat, and other noteworthy
peaks are Doda Betta (2630 m), Makurti (2550 m) Wambadi shoal (2470 m). Thal,
Bhor and the Palghat are the important passes of Western Ghat. The Ghats
present a stair like topography due to denudation. [In geology, denudation 
involves the processes that cause the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by
moving water, by ice, by wind and by waves, leading to a reduction in elevation
and in relief of landforms and of landscapes.]
•  The Godavari, Bhima and Krishna flow eastern while the Tapti flows westward.
•  Satmala Hills extend between the Tapti and the Godavari and the Mahadev Hills
are situated between the Bhima and the Krishna rivers.
•   Mahabaleshwar situates near the source of the Krishna is a famous hill station.
•  TheGhats are crossed by three gaps known as Thalghat (583 m), Bhorghat (630 m)
and Palghat (305 m). Swift flowing small streams flow into the Arabian sea.
•  Shivasamudram falls (100 m) on the Kaveri, Gersoppa or Jog falls (250 m) on the
Sharavati, Gokak falls (50 m) and Dena falls (183 m) are highly useful for
generating hydroelectricity.
(e) Eastern Ghats: Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over
1000 m in height. Average elevation is about 610 m. Unlike the Western Ghats, the Eastern
Ghats form a discontinuous and low belt, lying parallel to the east coast, stretching from
the south of the Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiri hills, for a distance of about 800 km. The
Eastern Ghats are dissected by many rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal. Mahedgragiri
(1500 m) is the highest peak of Eastern Ghat.
•  In the Odisha, these Ghats are 200 km wide and narrow down to 100 km
southwards. Their average elevation is 760 m.
•  In Odisha, however, the Nimaigiri Hills of Koraput and the Mahendragiri Hills of
Ganjam district attain a height of over 150 m. These hills are thickly forested.
•  Southwards in Andhra Pradesh, the Nallmallai Hills has 900 m–1100 m elevation
appears as the prominent hills. The southern part of these hills is known as the
Palkonda Hills.
•  Farther south in TamilNadu, the system of hills become more confused. They are
known as Javadi Hills in North Arcort district, Gingee Hills in South Acort district,
Kollaimalai and Pachaimalai in Tiruchirapalli district, Shevaroys and Gondumalai
in Salem district; and, Biligiri Hills and Rangan Hills in Coimbatore district. All these
hills of Ghats are flat topped and highly eroded. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri rivers have fertile deltas.

4. Coastal Plains: The northern portion of the western coastal plain is called the Konkan
and the southern portion is called the Malabar coast. The eastern coastal strip is known
as the Coromandel Coast.
(i) The West Coast: It spreads from Kutch in Gujarat in north between the Arabian sea
and the Westren Ghats; upto to the Cape of Kanyakumari in south. It is 1500 km long
and is further divided into Malabar Coast, Karnataka Coast, Konkan Coast in Goa
and Maharashtra Coast and Gujarat Coast . (Major ports : Mumbai , Marmugoa ,
Cochin , Kandla , Karwar and Mangalore ). The Western Coastal plains which is a
narrow strip and has estuaris and lagoons. These are several estuaries the major ones
being those of the Narmada and Tapi in Gujarat . It is blessed with deep natural
harbours like Mumbai and Marmagao . In the south , the coast has many salt water
lakes called lagoons with sand bars or spits at their mouths. The coast is known for its
placid backwaters.
(ii) The Eastern Coast : The eastern coastal plains is wider and is divided into Northern
Circas and Coromandal Coast, and it spreads from from Kanyakumari in south to the
Gangetic river in north . The East coast is located between the Bay of Bengal and the
Eastern Ghats; and has a wide and flat coast time. It has deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Cauvery rivers. It is divided into Utkal Coast in north and Coromandel
Coast in the south. (Major ports: Tuticorn, Chennai, Paradip, Vishakhapatnam, Haldia
etc.)
ISLANDS

There are two groups of Islands:

1. Andaman and Nicobar Group: The northern cluster of 204 small islands comprises the
Andamans and the southern cluster of 19 small islands is the Nicobar Islands. They are
of the strategic importance to Indian mainland. They are located on a submerged hilly range
in the Bay of Bengal with some of them having volcanic origin. The only active volcano of
India is located on the Barren Island of this group.
2. Lakshadweep : A group of 27 coral islands scattered in the Arabian Sea 300 km west of
Kerala . They are the product of carol polyps —a short -lived microscopic species that
flourish only in a shallow, warm and mud-free waters. Many islands are generally ring or
horse-shoe shaped and is called Attols.

Is l a n d s Li s t s
1. NEW MOORE ISLAND:
· Also called as “Purbasha”and “South Talpatty Island”
· In front of the Sundarban Delta near the Indo- Bangladesh border.
· Formed in 1970 due to Bhola cyclone.
· Has mangrove vegetation and fragile ecosystem · Disputed
between India and Bangladesh
· It may be disappeared due to of sea level change.
2.SAGAR ISLAND :
· One of the largest islands of the Sundarban Delta at the mouth of the Hugli River
· Has Sagar Marine Park, Kapil Muni Temple, rich mangrove forests
· Pilgrimage place, especially for the holy dip during the Makar
Sakranti
3.WHEELER ISLAND :
· Off the coast of Orissa, north –east of Paradeep
· Just 10 km. away from the coast
· 2 km. long and area is 390 acres
· Missile test facility for the most of Indian missiles
· Nearest port is Dhamra Port
4. HOPE ISLAND :
· A small tadpole shaped island situated off the coast of Kakinada in the Bay of
Bengal
· Young island is formed in the last 200 years from the sands carried by the waters of
the Godavari
· Protects the port of Kakinada from strong cyclones, tidal waves and tsunamis
· It makes the Kakinada port one of the safest ports in the eastern coast of India
5.SRIHARIKOTA :
· At the sea margin of the Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh
· Has the rocket launching station of ISRO (SHAR)
· Barrier island that separates the Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal
· Connected to Chennai by expressways

6. NARCONDAM :
· In the Andaman Sea, east of the North Andaman
· A dormant volcano with conical shape but no remains of a crater at the top (710
m above sea lavel)- second tallest point after the Saddle Peak
· Proximity to Myanmar lends it great strategic and geopolitical significance
· Easternmost point of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
7.BARREN ISLAND :
· In the Andaman Sea, south of the Narcondam Island
· Only active volcano of India and South Asia
· Most recent eruption – January, 2011
· Part of the volcanic arc formed at the margin of the tectonic plates
· No human population true to its name
· 2 km. wide caldera at the top
8.LANDFALL ISLAND :
· North of the North Andaman
· Separated from the Coco Island of Myanmar by the Coco Channel
· Northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
· Tourism does exist here but exposure to the public is limited
9.NORTH ANDAMAN :
· Northernmost of the important islands of the Andaman Group
· Hosts the Saddle Peak – the highest peak of the Andaman and
Nicobar (737 m)
· Its northern tip is called Cape Price
· Geologically part of the ArakanYoma
· Main town is Diglipur
· Main economic activities – rice and orange production
10. MIDDLE ANDAMAN :
· Largest island of India
· Between North Andaman and South Andaman
· Jarawa people live here
· Geologically part of the Arakan Yoma
· Fishing and agriculture
· Towns: Rangat, Billiground and Mayabunder
11. SOUTH ANDAMAN :
· Southernmost of the great Andaman Group (third largest after Middle and
North)
· Port Blair is located in the south-eastern part of the island (less mountainous
than others )
· Home to the majority of the population of Andaman and Nicobar
12. RUTLAND :
· Between South Andaman and Little Andaman
· North of the Duncan Passage
· Rich in marine life having a good representation of fish and corals
· Formerly home to the Jangil
· Presently without any permanent indigenous settlement
13. LITTLE ANDAMAN :
· Southernmost of the Andaman Group : Fourth largest of the Andaman Group
· Between Duncan Passage and Ten Degree Channel
· Home of Onge people
· Picturesque location, sea water crocodiles
· Widespread rainforests and several rare species of marine turtle
14. INTERVIEW ISLAND :
· On the west of Andaman Islands
· Area- 99 sq km.
· West of Austen Strait which separates the North Andaman from the Middle Andaman
· Largest island of the Richie’s Archipelago, a chain of islands to the east of the great
Andamans
· 57 km. North-East of Port Blair
· Named after Henry Havelock, a British general
· Main settlers are Bengalis (5,354 people)
· It has Radhanagar Beach which was named “Best Beach in Asia” by Time in 2004
16. CAR NICOBAR :
· Southernmost of the Nicobar Islands
· South of the Ten Degree Channel
· Flat fertile island covered with clusters of coconut plants and
enchanting beaches with a roaring sea all around · Major crops: coconut and
arecanut
· Home to more than half of the total Nicobar population
17. CAMORTA :
· An island of the Nicobar group
· North of the Nancowry Island
· Affected by the tsunami of December 2004
18 NANCOWRY :
· Refers both to a single island and to the group of adjoining islands
· At the central part of the Nicobar group
· Part of theTribal Reserve Area
· Has magnificient land – locked Nancowry Harbour described as one of the
safest natural harbours in the world
19. KATCHAL ISLAND :
· Part of the Nicobar Island
· In the central part of the island group, east of the Nancowry Island.
· Devasted by Tsunamis in 2004 at least 1500 people died due to it.
20. LITTLE NICOBAR :
· Part of the Nicobar Islands
· Separated from the Great Nicobar Island by the St. George’s Channel
· In recent time it has suffered tsunami and earthquake
21. GREAT NICOBAR :
· Largest island of the Nicobar group
· Southernmost tip- Indira Point (Pygmalion Point)
· Separated from the Sumatra Island by the Great Channel
· Mt.Thuillier –highest point in the Nicobar (642m)
· Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
22. PAMBAN ISLAND :
· Also known as Rameswaram Island
· Separated from the mainland India by the Pamban Channel
· Most of the island is covered with white sands
· Coconut and palm trees are found in abundance
· Main towns – Rameshwaram, Dhanushkodi
23. ADAM’S BRIDGE :
· Also known as Ram’s Bridge or Rama Setu
· Between Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar
· A chain of limestone shoals Between Pamban and Mannar Island of Sri
Lanka
· Geologically link b/w India and Sri Lanka
· 30 km. long
· There is a plan of Sethusamudram Project which is strongly
opposed by hardcore Hindus.
24. HARE ISLAND :
· Lies adjoining the Tuticorin Port
· Very good picnic spot for holiday seekers and the domestic tourists
· Many people visit there during the Pongal
25. VAN TIVU :
· It is one of the 21 islands of the Gulf of Mannar located at 8º50' N and 70º E
· The islands are situated at an average distance of about 8 km from the coastline
26. DHARMADAM (GREEN ISLAND) :
· A small 2 hectares private island in the Kannur district of Kerala
· 4 km from the town of Thalassery
·Covered with coconut palms and dense bush in a beautiful sight from the Muzhappilangad
Beach . During low tide one can walk out to it from the beach
·Earlier known as Dharmapattanam, was a Buddhist stronghold

27. GUNDU ISLAND :

· Smallest of all the islands those constitute together the city of Kochi
· Spreaded over 5 acres of land
· Originally the home of a coir factory, it is now a resort owned by the Taj Malabar
Hotel
28. EZHUMANTHURUTHU :
· 8 km. west of Kaduthuruthy town in the district of Kottayam, Kerala
· Area is about 2 sq km.
· Densely populated (3500)
· It is a twin island along with another small island called Pulithuruthu
29. KURUVADWEEP :
· Situated 17 km. from Mananthavady which is in Wayanad district , Kerala
· It is a group of islands forming 950 acres of evergreen forests
· Popular tourist place, famous for its scenic beauty, picturesque water bodies and
exotic wildlife sanctuary
· It is uninhabited
· A series of seven islands on the tributaries of Kabani River
30. MUNROE ISLAND :
· Formed at the confluence of Asthamudi Kayal and Kallada River in Kerala
· 25 km. from Kollam
· Tourism, coir, fishing, coconut farming
31. NEDUNGAD :
· A small island located in Ernakulam district of Kerala
32. PULIN CUNNU :
· An island village in Alappuzha district of Kerala
· Near the Pampa River
· Part of the Kerala backwaters
· The famous Rajiv Gandhi Trophy boat race is held here during the months of
October–November every year

33. RAMANTHURUTHU :
· One of the smallest islands that make up the city of Kochi
· It was the smallest polling booth in central Kerala during the 2006 state
elections
· It has untrekkable terrain and is sparsely populated
34. VALIYAPARAMBA ISLAND :
· Perhaps the most scenic backwater stretch in Kerala
· Fed by four rivers and dotted with numerous little islands
· Located near Kasargod
· Lush green groves of coconut and emerald green backwaters make the tour
of the island a perfect treat
· Just 50 km. from Mengaluru
35. VALLARPADAM :
· A small idyllic island in the Vembanand Lake , 1 km north of the mainland
Kochi
· About 3.9 km. long 1.5 km. wide
· Between Mulavukad Island and Vypin Island
· A proposed container terminal project could make this small island one of the
best hub ports in the world
· A major pilgrim centre for Christmas :Church of Our Lady of Ransom
36. VENDURUTHY :
· A small island in Kochi
· Now a part of greater Willingdom Island
· Approachable only from the Ernakulam backwater channel
· It boasted of two edifices, the Roman Catholic Church of Saint Peter and
Saint Paul
· INS Venduruthy
· 2 defense schools: Gunnery School and the Navigation and Direction School
37. WILLINGDON :
· Named after Lord Willingdon, the erstwhile governor of Punjab
· An artificial island created from the materials dredged while deepening
the Kochi Port
· Home of the modern port of Kochi
· It has airport, shipbuilding yard, Southern Naval Command
Headquarters, custom house etc
· Also known as Wellington Island
38. VYPIN :
· One of the islands that makes up the urban agglomeration of Kochi
· About 27 km long island was formed in the year 1347 after a heavy
flood
· One of the heaviest dense islands in the world
· Connected to Kochi by a bridge from Kalamuku
· Goshree Bridge also connects Mulavukadu and Vallarpadam
· Narakkal is the business capital of Vypin
39. NETRANI :
· Also known as Murudeshwar and Pigeon Island – A tiny island
· 10 nautical miles away from the temple town of Murudeshwara · Some of the best
sites for scuba – diving
· A coral island suitable for snorkeling and diving
· Comes in North Kanara district of Karnataka near Karwar
· Used by the Indian Navy for target practice
40. KAVERI NISARGADHAMA :
· An island formed by river Kaveri in the district of Kodagu
· It is a famous picnic spot
· This 25 acre island has lush foliage of thick bamboo grooves, sandalwood
and teak trees
· Just 30 km from Madikeri
41. ST. MARY’S :
· Also known as Coconut Island
· A set of four small islands off the coast of Udupi in Karnataka
· Formed of columnar basaltic lava
· Formed when Madagascar was attached to India (88 million years ago)
· Uninhabited islands
· According to legend it was first seen by Vasco da Gama, on his way to Kozhikode
42. UPPINAKUDRU : ·
Known as Salt Island
· Located at 6 km. towards north of Kundapura in Uduppi district of
Karnatka
· A small island village, once famous for trading of salts (uppu) and for
sea food
· 3 temples and 8 mutts
· Lord Gopalalakrishna, Lord Vasudeva and Siddi Vinayak temples
· Economy – agriculture (paddy, pulse)
43. ANJADIP :
· Island off the coast of South Goa district
· Legally it is part of Goa, although there is a widespread
misconception that it is a part of Karnataka off whose coast its lies
· 1.5 km long and 25 km wide
· Known for its annual Feast of Our Lady of Springs on 2nd February and
Feast of Chapel of St. Francisco D’ Assissi on 4 October
44. CACULO :
· A riverine island located in the St. Inez Creek in Panaji, Goa
45. CHORAO :
· An island along the river Mandovi near Panaji, Goa
· Earlier known as ‘Chudamani’
· Home of the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary
· Hindu and Christian shrines are found
46. TISWADI :
· Tiswadi is an island with the Mandovi River forming its northern
boundary
· Panaji is located on this island
· It was here that the city of Old Goa was established where a
magnificient Church of Bom Jones lies
47. DIVAR :
· An island on the river Mandovi in Goa
· Located about 10 km upstream from Panaji, to which it is connected
· Konkan Railway passes through it
· Scenic beauty, paddy,birds and barren lands
48. SALSETTE :
· Site of Mumbai and Thane
· 3rd most densely populated island in the world after Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong
and Male I, Maldives,
· Highest Point – 450m in the Borivali National Park, which is the world’s
biggest park within city limits
· Surrounded by Vasai Creek from the north and Thane Creek from east
· Island city of Bombay was separated from it by Mahim Creek

49. SEVEN ISLANDS OF BOMBAY :

· Isle of Bombay
· Colaba
· Mazagaon
· Parel
· Old Woman’s Island ( Little Colaba)
· Mahim
50. TROMBAY :
· NE suburb of Mumbai
· West of Thane Creek
· North of Elephanta and Butcher islands
· Site of BARC
· Along with Seven Islands of Bombay and Salsette it forms Greater Mumbai
51. KAWAYI :
· Kannur district, Kerala
· Ruled by family based organisation
52. AMBU :
· An isle off the coast of Mumbai near Madh Island in the Arabian Sea
· Accessible during low tide across a rocky isthmus
· A mosque was built on the island
· Malad is the closest railhead to the island, 15 km away
53. BUTCHER ( JAWAHAR DWEEP) :
· An island off the coast of Mumbai, west of the Elephanta Island
· It has an oil terminal where the crude oil is stored and later on piped to
Wadala for refining
· It is a restricted area and most of the island is covered with dense
vegetation

54. ELEPHANTA :
· Also called as Gharapuri or place of caves. It is one of a number of
islands in the Mumbai Harbour
· A popular tourist destination because of the island’s cave temples that
have been carved out of rock
· It has an area 10 sq km and comes under the Raigarh district of
Maharashtra
55. CROSS :
· Uninhabited island in the Mumbai Harbour between the coast at
Dockyard Road and Elephanta Island
· It hosts an oil refinery and several large gas holders. ·
It has the ruins of an old fort
· Locally known as Chinal Tekdi
56. HOG :
· Named ‘Nhave’ in Marathi
· An island in the Mumbai Harbour about ten miles east of the Appolo pier
· It gets its English name because it was here that ships used to be
hogged
57. MIDDLE GROUND :
· An island in the Mumbai Harbour
· It has a fortified naval base known as the Middle Ground Coastal Battery
58. OYSTER ROCK :
· An island in the Mumbai Harbour
· Fortified and owned by the Indian Navy
· For a short while, it was used as a naval museum
· The Maharashtra government had thought of anchoring the
decommissioned INS Vikrant (now a naval museum) on the island

59. PANJU :

· An esturine island in the Vasai Creek just north of Mumbai

· Used by the Western Railway to connect the island of Salsette with the mainland at
Vasai
· Its maximum elevation is 1 m
60. AGATTI :
· A small 7 km long island
· Surrounded from all sides by coral
· Total population -5667
· Part of Lakshdweep
· Agatti Aerodrome is the only airport of Lakshadweep
· One can enter it only if one has confirmed place to stay
· There is only one hotel in Agatti, called Agatti Island Beach Resort
61. ANDROTH :
· Nearest island to the mainland
· First island of Lakshdweep to embrance Islam ·
Biggest island of Lakshdweep
· Cradle of many civilisation, splendid architectural monuments,
lighthouse etc.
· Fishing forms its economic backbone
62. BINGARAM :
· An island of the Lakshadweep Archipelago ·
A popular tourist resort
· Population is only around 60, mostly tourists
63. BITRA :
· An island atoll of Lakshadweep
· There is a small shrine dedicated to an old Arab saint by the name of Malik
Mulla, who was burried in the island. The shrine has become a site of pilgrimage
· About 300 people live here
64. CHETLAT :
· An island of Lakshadweep
· It is a part of Amindivi subgroup
· This beautiful island attracts many tourists who are thrilled with its
bewitching beauty and varied and diverse acquatic life in large number
65. KADMAT :
· 8 km long north and south and 0.5 km wide island of Lakshadweep
· Surrounded on the eastern and western sides by a lagoon, and has
corals
· Best attractions are long sandy beaches
· A ideal place for solitude
66. KALPENI :
· An island of Lakshadweep
· An atoll with coral debris which was the result of a violent storm that hit
the area in 1847
· It was the first island in Lakshadweep where woman were allowed to
go to school and get education
67. MALIKU ATOLL :
· Southernmost atoll of the UT of Lakshdweep
· Upto 16th century it was part of Maldives
· 10 km long and maximum width of 6 km
· Only two islands in this atoll – Minicoy and Viringili
68. MINICOY :
· Only inhabited island of Maliku Atoll Second largest and the
southernmost of the islands of Lakshadweep
· Long islands (10 km ) completely covered with coconut trees
· Tall lighthouse
· Separated from the rest of Lakshadweep by the Nine
Degree Channel
69. GHORAMARA :
· An island located 150 km south of Kolkata in the Sundarban Delta
complex
· Small island roughly five square kilometers in area
· It is fast disappearing due to erosion and sea level rise

70. HENRY :
· An island near Bakkhali in South 24 Paraganas, West Bengal
· Dense mangrove forests parted by numerous canals
· Wildlife: Tiger, deer, wild pig, crocodile and snake
71. LOHACHARA :
· Was permanently flooded in 1980s.
· Was located in the Hoogly River, a part of the Sundarban Delta
· Was an inhabited island where more than 6000 people used to live
· Thousands of refugees in the area who were forced to move to the
mainland
72. NAYACHAR :
· An island in the Hoogly River off Haldia in Purba Medinipur, West
Bengal
· Inhabited by few fishermen
· Has flashed in the larger public view as the site of a major chemical hub
initiated by the West Bengal Govt. The hub was earlier proposed at Nandigram
73. PIROTAN :
· An island in the Marine National Park,Jamnagar district
· 12 nautical miles away from the coast
· Consists of mangroves and low tide beaches
· Area – 3 sq km
· Of the 42 islands in the park , it is the most popular and is one of the
two islands where visitors are normally permitted
74. DIU :
· A small island covering on area of 38.8 km near Junagarh
· Connected to Gujarat only by road
· Site of the famous Battle of Diu in 1509 between Portugal and
others, and the Sultan of Gujarat, Mahmud Begada
· Population – 52,074
75. SHORTT'S :
· An island off the coast of Orissa, near the Wheeler Island
· Located in the Bay of Bengal in the northeastern coast off the
Mahanadi delta
76. PARIKUDA :
· A island inside the Chilka Lake
· It is a populous island
· Picturesque island, a popular tourist destination
77. TEENCHINAR :
· Dal Lake
78. ALIABET :
· An island at the mouth of the Narmada River in the Gulf of
Khambhat
· Good place for entertainment and tourism
· Area has mangroves and rehabilitation of the vegetation is required as the
industries are polluting them
79. KHALIABET :
· An island in the Gulf of Khambhat
· Has mangroves and corals
· Affected by the industrial pollution
· A Tidal energy potential region
80. KHANDERI :
· A fortified island 20 km off the coast of Mumbai
· Fort was built by Shivaji in 1660 is still in tact, the most prominant structure is
a lighthouse built in 1837
· It can only be accessed with the permission from the Bombay Port Trust
81. ROSS :
·About 2 km east of Port Blair
·Controlled by the Indian Navy
· It was the administrative headquarter of the Andaman and Nicobar Island,
before an earthquake rocked it in 1943
· With its treasure of ruins, it has become hot tourist spot

82. AMINDIVI :
· They are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep group
· 5 islands: Amini, Kiltan, Chetlat, Kadmat and Bitra
· Each of these islands is exquisitely beautiful
· Among them Kadmat is very popular
83. CANNANORE :
· South of Amindivi group of islands in the Lakshdweep Islands
· Islands: Suheli Par, Pitti, Kalpeni, Andrott, Agatti, Kavaratti
· Harmonious blend of traditional culture, nature and modernity
84. PACHHAM :
· Westernmost of the islands formed of marshy lands in the Kachchh region of
Gujarat
· Khavda is the main town here
85. KHADIR :
·Central island of the Kachchh region
·Part of the Great Rann of Kachchh
·Marsy landforms
· Luni River drains here
86. BELA :
· Easternmost of the islands of the Kachchh region
· Part of the Great Rann of Kachch
· Marsy landforms
· Luni River drains here
87. MAJULI :
· Largest riverine island of the world Between the Brahmaputra and Subansiri
rivers
·Formed due to course changes by the rivers
·Adobe of Assamese neo-Vaishnavite culture
· India is trying to include it under the World Heritage Sites
· It is facing ecological problems
88. PIGEON-COCK :
· West of the Mangalore seaport
· Elongated island extending north to south
· Helped in the development of the Mangalore seaport
· Surrounding water is polluted
89. SRIRANGAPATNAM:
· Riverine island mere 19 km from Mysore, but lies in Mandya district
· The main Kaveri River flows along the eastern coast
· It was a de facto capital of Hyder Ali and Tipu
· Site of the last (fourth ) Mysore War, 1799
90. KACHCHA TIVU :
· Uninhabited island of Sri Lanka, northeast of the Adam’s Bridge
· A Catholic shrine is located there
· India ceded to Sri Lanka in 1974
· Under the treaty, Indian fishermen have rights to catch fish in the
region
91. ABUNDA ISLAND : ·In
the Gulf of Mannar ·Coral
island
· Inhabited by Tamil fishermen
· Thin soil cover supports coconut and vegetables
· Petro- refinery of Tuticorin is polluting it
92. NALLA TANNI TIVU :
· It is situated in the gulf of Mannar about 4 km from the coast of
Tamil nadu.
· It is one of the three inhabited islands in the gulf, the other being
Kruadai and Musal tivu
· It forms part of the Ramnathapuram district.
93. QUIBBLE ISLAND :
· It is a riverine island located in Tamil Nadu, fromed by Asayar river and
one of its tributaries.
· During the British time, an European cemetary was built here.
94. SRIRANGAM ISLAND :
· It is a riverine island located in Tiruchirapalli city. It is formed
between the Cauvery and the Kollidam rivers.
· The grand anicut is located to the east of the island.
· Srirangam is important Hindu vaishnavite pilgrimage center.
95. BHIVANI ISLAND :
· It is a riverine island located 4 km upstream from Vijaywada in the
Krishna river.
· Total area : 133 acres
· The island is grate tourist attraction.
96. EKKAULA ISLAND :
· It is located in Odisha within the Gahirmatha marine sanctuary.
· It is a prominent neasting site of Olive Ridley sea turtles.
· The serene and tranquil Ekkaula beach attracts lots of tourists.
DESERTS
The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, arid region in the north-
western part of the Indian subcontinent and forms a natural boundary running along the
border between India and Pakistan. It extends from the Sutlej River and has the Indus River on
the west. The Aravalli forms the main landmark to the south-east of Thar Desert with Rann of
Kutch, the salt march, sometimes included in Thar is on its south. It lies mostly in the Indian
State of Rajasthan (touches the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab and northern Gujarat).
The Cholistan Desert adjoins the Thar Desert spreading into Pakistani Punjab province.

River Systems
" The river systems of India can be classifi ed into four groups viz.,
y Himalayan rivers,
y Deccan rivers,
y Coastal rivers and
y Rivers of the inland drainage basin.
" The Himalayan Rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers
and therefore, continuously flow throughout the year. The main
Himalayan river systems are those of the Indus and the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna system.
" The Deccan Rivers on the other hand are rain-fed and therefore
fl uctuate in volume. Many of these are non perennial. In the
Deccan region, most of the major river systems fl owing generally in
the east fall into Bay of Bengal.

" The major east fl owing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and
Mahanadi. Narmada and Tapti are major west fl owing rivers. The
Godavari in the southern Peninsula has the second largest river
basin covering 10 per cent of the area of India.
" The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in
length and have limited catchment areas. Most of them are non-
perennial.
" The streams of inland drainage basin of western Rajasthan few
rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. These are Luni,
Machhu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, Ghaggar and others.
"The entire country has been divided into 20 river basins/group of
river basins comprising 12 major basins and eight composite
river basins . The 12 major river basins are : (1) Indus , (2) Ganga -
Brahmaputra -Meghna , (3) Godavari , (4) Krishna , (5) Cauvery , (6)
Mahanadi , (7) Pennar , (8) Brahmani - Baitarani , (9) Sabarmati , (10)
Mahi , (11 ) Narmada and (12 ) Tapti . Each of these basins has a
drainage area exceeding 20,000 sq. km.
" The eight composite river basins combining suitably together all
the other remaining medium (drainage area of 2,000 to 20,000 sq.
km) and small river systems (drainage area less than 2000 sq. km
) for the purpose of planning and management.
LAkES
The Himalaya region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of
less than 5000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude.
The largest lake is the Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and
Tibet. It is situated at an altitude of 4600 m and is 8 km wide and nearly 134 km long. The
highest lake is the Gurudongmar in North Sikkim, 5370 m.
Lakes of India have their different kinds of origins like:
(i) Tectonic Lakes: Old Pleistocene Lakes of Kashmir and Kumaon Himalayas
(ii) Crater Lakes: They are due to volcanicity
(iii) Glacial Lakes: They are in big mountains
(iv) Alluvial Lakes: Oxbow lakes in the Ganga plains
(v) Aeolian Lakes: Caused due to small depressions of hollows
(vi) Lagoons: These are formed due to depositions of sand bars along the sea coasts. The
best examples are Chilka Lake (Orissa), Pulicat Lake* (Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
) and several Kayals of the Malabar Coast of Kerala
* Pulicat Lake (formerly known as Pralaya Kaveri ) is straddled across the states of
Tamil Nadu (has around 60% of it) and Andhra Pradesh (has around 40% of it). The lake
encloses the Pulicat Lake Bird century . Between the Pulicat Lake and the Bay of
Bengal lies the ‘Barrier Island of Sriharikota ’ that is home to ISRO Satish Dhawan
Space Centre.

Important Lakes of India

•  Lakes of Kashmir—Dal, Wular, Shesh Nag, Verinag, Manasbal, Nagin, etc.
•  Lakes of Kumaon—Nainital, Bhimtal, Khurpatal, Sattal, Punatal, etc.
•  Lakes of Rajasthan—Udaisagar, Fatehsagar, Jai Samand, Pichol, Sambhar Salt
Lakes.
•  Other Important Lakes—Lake Lonar in Maharashtra, Chilka in Orissa, Lake Kolleru (
Andhra Pradesh), Nakkital (Mount Abu).
Soil Types In India

1. Alluvial Soil: Areas of the Indo-Gangetic plain covering almost a quarter of Indian soil
and are very fertile. Found in Punjab, Haryana, UP, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand and
West Bengal.
2. Black Soil: It is a rich mineral soil formed by deposition of lava ejected by volcanoes
and is suitable for cotton cultivation . Found in Maharashtra , Gujarat , western Madhya
Pradesh , Chattisgarh , Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu . It is also known as regur
soils.
3. Red Soil: Formed by the weathering of ancient metamorphic and crystalline rocks and
having a high iron content. It is good for cultivation of pulses and coarse grains. Found in
Madhya Pradesh , Chattisgarh , Orissa , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu ,
Karnataka and the north-eastern hill states.
4. Laterite Soil: Formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. Found in areas occupied by
the Deccan , Andhra Pradesh , Parts of Telangana , Eastern Ghats , Karnataka , Tamil
Nadu, Coast of Orissa, Meghalaya and Assam.

5. Arid or Desert Soil: It is sandy to gravelly soil with very poor organic matter, low
moisture, low humus contents due to infrequent rainfall and long draught season.
Found in desert and semi-desertic conditions, it occurs in Rajasthan, Saurashtra,
Kutchchh, western Haryana and southern Punjab.
6. Mountain Soil: A complex and extremely varied soil, as it is spread across slopes of
highly immature residual gravelly on higher altitudes to the deep alluvium in the river
basins , so no large areas of homogeneous soil groups are found for mountain soil. So,
crops types on such soils also differ e.g. orchards on slopes, rice in valleys , potato crop
are many places. Areas of steep relief are mostly devoid of soil.
Other types of soil found in India are Saline soil and Alkaline soils, Peat and Marshy
soils, and Forest soil.
In d i a n Ve g e t a t i o n Ty p e s

Natural vegetation is the assemblage of plant species living in association with one
another in a given environment. Variations in temperature and rainfall conditions have a
clear impact on vegetation of different regions. The major vegetation belts include the
moist tropical evergreen, the moist tropical deciduous, dry deciduous, the tidal and the
mountain vegetation. Mountain vegetation spans almost from the tropical to Alpine types.
Natural vegetation cover in India is generally divided under the five heads:
1. Moist Tropical Evergreen and Semi–evergreen Vegetation includes the tropical rain
forests
•   The Wet Tropical Evergreen Vegetation occur in regions with very high annual
rainfall of above 300 cm ; and , resembles the equatorial vegetation type ; covers
southern Western Ghats of Kerala and Karnataka , and also the northeastern hills
region. (Trees: Mahogony, cinchona, bamboos and palms etc.).
•  Moist Tropical Semi-evergreen Vegetation   occurs in regions with high rainfall of
250 –300 cm ; and , wet evergreen vegetation and moist temperate deciduous
vegetation ; covers Meghalayan plateau , Sahyadris and Andaman & Nicobar Islands . (
Trees : In Sahyadris — Rosewood , Aini and Telsur ; in Assam and Meghalaya —
Champa, Joon and Gurjan; and, in other regions—Ironwood, Ebony and Laurel etc.).
2. Moist Tropical Deciduous Vegetation most frequent and widespread vegetal cover of
India ; occurs in regions with annual rainfall of 100 –200 cm ; and , found in the
Sahyadris , the northeastern plateau of the peninsula , the Himalayan foot hills in the
Siwaliks , the Bhabars and the Terai regions . (Trees : Teak , Sal, Sandalwood , Shisham ,
Cane and Bamboo etc.).
3. Dry Tropical Vegetation found in regions with annual rainfall below 100 cm.
•  Dry Tropical Deciduous Vegetation   occurs in regions with annual rainfall between 70
–100 cm where rainfall is limited to 3–4 months with long dry season; regions include
parts of Uttar Pradesh , northern and western Madhya Pradesh , parts of Gujarat ,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. (Trees: majorly Teak).
•  Dry Tropical Thorny Vegetation   occur in areas with annual rainfall below 70 cm;
regions are spread across north and northwestern parts of India and leeward side of
Sahyadris . Vegetation type is vast and coarse grasslands with widely spaced trees and
bushed. (Trees: Acacia, euphorbias, cactus; and wild palms and spiny and thorny varieties
etc.).
4. Tidal Vegetation occurs in areas that are flooded by tides and high sea waves .
Mangrove is the representative of this type of vegetation. Vegetation grows mainly in the
deltaic regions of the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna which are flooded by tides
and high sea waves . (Trees: majorly Sundari —a typical tidal forest tree found in Ganga
delta of West Bengal known for hard and durable timber. This tree is also the reason why
forests in Ganga delta are popularly known as Sunderban).
5. Mountain Vegetation occurs in high altitudes and lower temperature regions of
northern and peninsular mountain ranges. The two groups of mountain ranges have
different mountain vegetation described below:
•  Mountain Vegetation of Himalayan Ranges  
vegetation types differ as pre increasing altitudes.
(i) MoistTropical Deciduous forests occur at altitudes upto 1000 m; found mostly in
foothills of Siwalik Hills);
(ii) Wet Temperate Evergreen forests occur at altitudes of 1000 m–3000 m. (Trees:
Eastern Himalayas —Oak, Chestnut, lower altitudes—Sal; and, higher altitudes—
Deodar, Silver Fir and Spruce etc.).
(iii) Dry Temperate Vegetation occurs on higher slopes of mountain regions with
moderate temperatures and rainfall between 70 cm–100 cm. Coarse and thick
Savanna grass is an important vegetation . (Trees : Wild olives , Acacia , Oak and
Deodar etc.).
(iv) Alpine Vegetation found at very high altitudes of 3000 m–4000 m; Alpine pastures are
important feature of the region and the tree cap get stunted as they approach the
snow line. (Trees: Silver ir, Juniper, Birch, Pine and Rhododendron etc.)
•  Mountain Vegetation of Ranges in Peninsular Plateau   occur at the high altitude
regions of plateau region include Nilgiri, Annamalai and Palni hills, Mahabaleshwar in
Western Ghats , Satpura and Maikal hills . Rolling grass pains and underdeveloped
forest or bushes are important feature of the region . Forests have thick undergrowth ,
epiphytes, mosses and ferns. (Trees: Magnolia, Laurel, Elm, Cinchona and Euca
lyptus etc.).
Mangroves are the most productive and biologically important forest having complex
ecosystems . Rich in biodiversity and providing a number of ecological services ,
Mangroves also play a major role in protecting coastal areas from erosion, tidal storms
and tsunamis. There are highly specialized plants exhibiting a variety of adaptations in
morphology , anatomy and physiology . Prominent among these adaptations are
presence of pneumatophores , buttress , stilt roots , vivipary etc. Mangroves also
provide breeding and nursing grounds for marine and pelagic species, food, medicine ,
fuel and building materials for local communities . Their protective role from natural
calamities in coastal areas has been widely recognized. Mangroves occupy an area of 4,
740 sq. km in India accounting for nearly 3% of the world ’s mangrove vegetation . In
India, Mangroves are generally found in coastal plains which are generally submerged ,
particularly on river deltas on the east coast (Ganges , Mahanadi , Godavari ). The
forests on the Gangetic delta in Bengal are called Sunderbans after the Sundari trees
found in these forests . The mangrove cover in India is 4,921 km 2 (0.14% of India’s
geographic areas) spread across 12 States and UTs. [1. Andhra Pradesh; 2. Goa; 3.
Gujarat ; 4. Karanataka ; 5. Kerala ; 6. Maharashtra ; 7. Odisha ; 8. Tamil Nadu ; 9. West
Bengal ; 10. Andaman & Nicobar Islands ; 11. Daman & Diu, and 12. Puducherry ]. e-
Green Watch It is a web-application that depicts Compensatory Afforestation,
Diverted Land, Plantations, and other assets categories on the ‘Google Earth Imagery
’ for the 28 States and UTs linked to e-Green Watch Portal.
Water bodies inside forests Forests play a vital role in water conservation and
improve the water regime in the area. State Forest Departments besides plantation
and protection also undertake steps to improve water conservation through different
interventions such as building Check dams, vegetation barriers, percolation ponds,
contour trenches etc. under various Central & State Government schemes . As per
SFR 2017, the water bodies inside forest cover have increased by 2,647 sq. kms during
the last decade. Maharashtra (432 sq. kms), Gujarat (428 sq. kms), Madhya Pradesh (
389 sq. kms) are top three states showing increase in water bodies within forest areas.
Overall, almost all the states have shown a positive change in water bodies.

Na t i o n a l Pa r ks

National Parks
There are around 103 national parks in India, covering an area of approximately 40,
500 km 2 or about 1.23% of India’s total area.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
There are around 531 sanctuaries in India covering an area of about 117,602.72 km2 or
about 3.58% of total land area.
Important Sanctuaries and Parks
Name Location Reserve for Area
Achanakmar Bilaspur, Chhatisgarh Tiger, bear, chital, sambar, bison, 557.35 km2
Sanctuary hyena, jackal, wild boar, black buck
Bandipur Border of Karnataka Elephant, tigers, panther, sambar, deer, 874.20 km2
Sanctuary and Tamil Nadu birds
Corbett Nainital, Uttaranchal Tiger, leopards, elephants, sambar 1318.54 km2
National Park
Dachigam Srinagar/Pulwama, Kashmiri stag or Hangul, Himalayan 141 km2
Sanctuary Kashmir bear, musk deer, exotic Himalayan birds
Hemis Leh, J&K Snow leopard, Speical variety of Sheep 4400 km2
National Park (Argali, Shapu, Asiatic Ibex), Tibetan
Wolf, Eurasian Brown bear and Red fox
Gandhi Sagar Mandsaur and Chital, sambar, chinkara, barking deer, 368.62 km2
Sanctuary Neemuch, Madhya wild birds
Pradesh
Gobind Sagar Bilaspur, Himachal Birds, Wild Boar, Deer, Singhara 170 km2
Wildlife Pradesh
Sanctuary
Ghana Bird Bharatpur, Rajasthan Water birds, black-buck, chital, sambar 29 km2
Sanctuary
Gir Forest Junagarh, Gujarat India’s biggest wildlife sanctuary 1412.13
famous for Gir lions km2
Kaziranga Jorhat, Assam Rhinoceros, wild buffalo, swan, deer, 430 km2
National Park hog, elephant, leopard, langoor, python
Name Location Reserve for Area
Pakhal Warangal, Telangana Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, 860 km2
Sanctuary spotted deer, wild boar, black buck,
mountain gazzle
Periyar Idukki, Kerala Elephant, tiger, panther, gaur, nilgai, 305 km2
Sanctuary sambar, Nilgiri tahr
Rajaji National Haridwar, Dehradun Tiger 820 km2
Park and Pauri Garhwal
distt of Uttrakhand
Ranthambore Sawai Madhopur, Tiger, leopard, sloth bear, crocodile 400 km2
Tiger Project Rajasthan
Sariska Alwar, Rajasthan Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, 765 km2
Sanctuary chinkara
Sharaswathy Shimoga, Karnataka Elephant, tiger, panther, sambar, gaur, 44 km2
Sanctuary chital
Shikari Devi Mandi, Himachal Black bear, musk deer, leopard, 72 km2
Sanctuary Pradesh partridge
Sunderban South 24 Parganas Tiger, deer, wild boar, leopard 4264 km2
Tiger Reserve
Sonai-Rupai Sonitpur, Assam Elephant, sambar, wild boar, one- 175 km2
Sanctuary horned rhinoceros
Tungabhadra Bellary, Karnataka Panther, chital, sloth bear, four-horned 492.46 km2
Sanctuary antelope
Vedanthangal Tamil Nadu Pelican, spoon bills, species of birds 72 acres
Bird Sanctuary from Canada, herons, egret
Wild Ass Little Rann of Kutch, Wild ass, wolf, nilgai, chinkara 4953 km2
Sanctuary Gujarat

POPULATION OF INDIA

Conducted by the Census Organization of India, Census of India 2011 is the 15th Census and the 7th Census
after independence of India. The first census was conducted in year 1872 and since then Indian census has been
taken every ten years. Census 2011 was the most comprehensive one as it covered all the 640 districts, 487 cities
, 5767 Tehsils and over 6 lakh villages across India, and after this the National Population Register (NPR) was
prepared. Census in India is carried under Census Act 1948.
It is interesting to note that:
•   One out of six persons in the world is an India, and three most populous countries (China, India and USA)
together account to 40% of the world’s population.
•   Top—10 nations of the world are: 1st—China, 2nd—India, 3rd—USA, 4th—Indonesia, 5th—Brazil, 6th—Pakistan, 7
th—Bangladesh, 8th—Nigeria, 9th—Russian Fed., and 10th—Japan).
•   These 10 nations host close to 58.8% of the world population.
•   The Top-5 most populated metros are—Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Bengaluru.
•   The Top-5 most literate States/UTs are—Kerala, Lakshadweep, Mizoram, Goa and Tripura
•   The Top-5 States/UTs with best Sex ratio are—Kerala, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh
•   The Top—5 States/UTs with highest population growth rate are—Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh.
•   India’s eastern region has the highest density (625 persons/km2) and the north-eastern
region has the lowest density of (176 persons/km2.)
As a first, data of Transgender in India was recorded in Census 2011.
•   India has 4.88 lakh and this data was clubbed inside ‘Males’ data in the primary
release by census department.
•   As per the All India Religion Census Data 2011 , India as 79.80% Hindu population
followed by Muslims (14.23%, Christians 2.3%, Sikh 1.72%, Buddhist 0.70%, Jain 0.37
%, Other Religions 0.66% and 0.24% people did not state their religion).
Indian Geography Question Bank

1. Which one of the following ocean currents is different from others?

(a) Gulf stream
(b) Kuroshivo
(c) North Atlantic Drift
(d) Labrador
2. Which one of the following sea is the largest in area?
(a) Sea of Okhotsk (b) Sea of Japan (c) Sea of China (d) Bering Sea

3. Which one of the following is not a metamorphic rock?

(a) Geneiss (b) Conglomerate (c) Quartzite (d) Schist

4. In which of the following eras the earth was nearly covered with snow and ice?
(a) Cretaceous Era (b) Pliocene Era (c) Pleistocene Era (d) Tertiary Era

5 . Which one of the following is not a tropical desert?

(a) Atacama (b) Arabia
(c) Gobi (d) Kalahari

6. Ox-bow lake is a feature formed by

(a) River erosion in youthful stage
(b) Transportation action of the river
(c) River erosion in mature stage
(d) Deposition in old stage of a river

7. Which one of the following is a temperate desert?

(a) Arabian desert (b) Atacama desert (c) Kalahari desert (d) Patagonian desert

8. The terms longitude and latitude were first used by

(a) Herodotus (b) Eratosthenese
(c) Posidonius (d) Ptolemy
9 . Which one of the following currents has a warming influence on the
neighbouring coast?(a) Benguela (b) Agulhas
(c) Canaries (d) Oyasio

10. Which one of the following local winds is different from the other three?
(a) Khamsin (b) Foehn (c) Sirocco (d) Mistral

11. The biggest island of the Indian Ocean is

(a) Maldives (b) Madagascar
(c) Lakshadweep (d) Sumatra

12. Which one of the following seas is the shallowest?

(a) Baltic (b) Black
(c) Yellow (d) North

1 3 . Which one of the following is a warm ocean current?

(a) East Australian current
(b) West Australian current
(c) Benguela current
(d) Peru current

1 4 . Which one of the following is different from others?

(a) Canary current
(b) Mozambique current
(c) Oyashio current
(d) Falkland current

15. Bhabar is an example of

(a) Panplane (b) Piedmont plain
(c) Till plain (d) Deltaic plain
16. During volcanic eruption deposition of lava in anticlines and synclines of folded
mountains accounts for formation of
(a) Phacolith (b) Lopolith
(c) Batholith (d) Lacolith

17. Gulf stream is

(a) A river in the Gulf
(b) An ocean current
(c) A second name of jet stream
(d) A local wind

18. Which one of the following is a warm ocean current?

(a) East Australian current
(b) West Australian current
(c) Benguela current
(d) Peru current

19. Where is the Blind valley found?

(a) River valley region
(b) Arid region
(c) Karst region
(d) Glacier region

20. When following fissures in the rocks, its both parts slide in front and one part
slides over the other, the resulting feature is
(a) Lateral fault (b) Step fault
(c) Reverse fault (d) Normal fault
Answer Book

1. (d) Labrador is different from other ocean currents. It is cold in nature. The
Labrador Current is a cold current in the North Atlantic Ocean which flows from the
Arctic Ocean south along the coast of Labrador and passes around Newfoundland,
continuing south along the east coast of Nova Scotia.

2. (a) Bering sea is the largest in area. The Bering Sea is a marginal sea of the Pacific
Ocean. It comprises a deep water basin, which then rises through a narrow slope into the
shallower water above the continental shelves.

3. (b) Conglomerate is not a metamorphic rock. Conglomerate is a rock

consisting of individual clasts within a finer-grained matrix that have become
cemented together. Conglomerates are sedimentary rocks consisting of rounded
fragments and are thus differentiated from breccias, which consist of angular clasts.

4. (c) The earth was nearly covered with snow and ice in pleistocene Era. The
Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years
ago, spanning the world’s recent period of repeated glaciations.

5. (c) Gobi is not a tropical desert. It is a temperate desert partly located in northern China and
partly in Mongolia.

6 . (c) Ox-bow lake is a feature formed by River erosion in mature stage. An ox-bow is
a crescent- shaped lake lying alongside a winding river. The ox-bow lake is created over
time as erosion and deposits of soil change the river’s course.
7. (d) Patagonian desert is a temperature desert. The Patagonian Desert, also known as
the Patagonia Desert or the Patagonian Steppe, is the largest desert in Argentina and is
the 7th largest desert in the world by area, occupying 673,000 square kilometers.

8. (b) The terms longitude and latitude were first used by Eratosthenese.
Eratosthenes of Cyrene was a Greek mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer,
and music theorist. He was a man of learning, becoming the chief librarian at the Library
of Alexandria.

9. (b) Agulhas currents has a warming influence on the neighbouring coast. The Agulhas
Current is the western boundary current of the southwest Indian Ocean. It flows down the
east coast of Africa from 27°S to 40°S. It is narrow, swift and strong.

1 0 . (d) Mistral the local wind is different from the others. The mistral is a strong, cold
and usually dry regional wind in France, coming from the north or northwest, which
accelerates when it passes through the valleys of the Rhone and the Durance Rivers to
the coast of the Mediterranean around the Camargue region.

11. (b) The biggest Island of the Indian ocean is Madagascar. Madagascar, officially the
Republic of Madagascar and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in
the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa.

12. (c) Yellow sea is the shallowest about 44 meter

13. (a) East Australian current is a warm ocean current that moves warm water from the
tropical Coral Sea, where it splits from the South Equatorial Current, down the east coast of
Australia.
1 4 . (b) Mozambique current is different from the others. The Mozambique Current is
an ocean current in the Indian Ocean, usually defined as warm surface waters flowing south
along the African east coast in the Mozambique Channel, between Mozambique and the
island of Madagascar.

15. (b) Bhabar is an example of piedmont plain.

1 6 . (a) During volcanic eruption deposition of lava in anticlines and synclines of folded
mountains accounts for formation of phacolith. A phacolith is a pluton parallel to the bedding
plane or foliation of folded country rock. More specifically, it is a typically lens-shaped
pluton that occupies either the crest of an anticline or the trough of a syncline.

17. (b) Gulf stream is a warm ocean current originated from the eastern coast of North
America. The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension towards Europe, the North
Atlantic Drift, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates at the
tip of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland
before crossing the Atlantic Ocean

18. (a) East Australian current is a warm ocean current that moves warm water from the
tropical Coral Sea, where it splits from the South Equatorial Current, down the east coast of
Australia.

19. (c) The Blind valley is found in the karst region. Karst topography is a geological
formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually
carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, but also in gypsum.

20. (c) When the following fissures in the rocks it’s both parts slide in front and one part
slides over the other, the resulting feature is Reverse fault. Reverse faults are exactly the
opposite of normal faults. If the hanging wall rises relative to the footwall, you have a
reverse fault.
 Indian History

Indian Vedic Period

After the decline or destruction of the Indus Civilization a new civilization

came into existence, but between these two major events there must have
been a gap of period and about which we know nothing. The indus civilization
was declined between 1750 B.C. to 1500 B.C. and so the Aryans are supposed
to have migrated from Central Asia into the Indian Subcontinent in several
stages during 2000 B.C. - 1500 B.C. Moreover the Aryans were the founder of
vedic culture.

The Vedic Age

Coming of Various Theories Original Important Advent and Vedic Early Later Vedic
the Aryans regarding the Home of Vedic Facts Expansion Rivers Vedic Age Age
ancestry of the Aryans of Aryans
Aryans in India Vedic Tribes Kingship
Vedic Gods Assemblies
Vedic Polity The gram
Vedic Kula The visha
Law and Justic The Jana
Economy The Rashtra
Royal Officers
and Ministers
Pastoralism Agriculture Craft Trade Ratnin
Industry The Platoon

Geographical Political Kingdoms Economy Social Religious

Expansion Organisation Life Scene

Rise of Big States Patriarchal System

Growth of Royal Power Varna Concept
Origin of Kingship Marriage System
Five state Systems Sixteen sans Karas
Administrative Machinery Women’s Position
RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
Brahmans and Vedic literary Source
The Vedas
The word ‘veda’ originated from the root ‘vidi’, i.e. to know, signifying knowledge. It is
also known as Shruti (to hear). There are four vedas - the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda
and Atharvaveda.
Rigveda
The Rigveda is the oldest one, and therefore , is also known as ‘the first testament of
mankind ’. It must have been composed around 1700 B.C. The first three vedas are
known as ‘Trayi’. It has 1017 hymns (Sukta) and is divided into ten mandalas. After the
addition of the eleven Bal Khilya Sutra the total no. of hymns becomes 1028. The tenth
mandala, said to have added later as its language differs from the other nine mandalas
, contains the famous Purushasukta explaining the four varnas (Brahmana , Kshatriya ,
Vaishya and Shudra) born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator. Thus,
the Rigveda has 10 Mandalas, 1028 Suktas and 10,580 Richas.
The 7th and 2nd Mandalas were the very first composition , later on the other mandalas
were composed. The 7th and 2nd Mandalas are called ‘Vansha Mandal’; the handwritten
script of 8th mandal is called ‘Khila’ and the 1st and 10th are known as ‘Kshepak’.
Yajurveda
It has 40 chapters and 2000 hymns . It is a ritual veda and has two main texts: Krishna
Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. It is also called the book of sacrificial prayers. Krishna
Yajurveda contains mantras (hymns ) and the Shukla has commentary in prose .
Kasthak , Kapishthal , Maitrayani , Taittiriya and Vajasneyi are the five branches of
Yajurveda in which the first four are related to the Krishna Yajurveda and the last one is
to Shukla Yajurveda . Yajurveda is a good collection of hymns composed in both prose
and poetry . Ishopanishad , the last chapter of Yajurveda , is philosophical and
metaphysical whereas the rest of all parts of Yajurveda ’s subject matter is the law and
legislation of various yajanas.
Samaveda
The Samaveda is a collection of melodies. It has 1549 Shlokas (richas) but except
78 all the rest of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rigveda. These were meant
to be sung at the time of soma sacrifice . Samaveda has two parts: Purvarchika (having
six subdivisions called ‘Apathaka ) and Uttrarchika (having nine subdivisions called ‘
Prapathaka). To the historical point of view the Samaveda has less importance.
Atharvaveda
It is the latest of the four . It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the
humble folk. It is divided into 20 books volumes. It contains 731 hymns and 5,987
mantras.
About 1200 Mantras have been taken from the Rigveda. The hymns of Atharvaveda tell how
to over come the evil spirit. Shaunk and Pippalad are the two available branches of this
veda. The Atharvaveda is also known as Brahmaveda or Atharvagirasveda. For a very
long time it was not considered in the category of the Vedas. It is a book of magical formulae.

Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 bc)

The Aryans were semi-nomadic, pastoral people who originally inhabited the area around the
Caspian Sea in Central Asia and entered the country in around 1500 bc in search of pastures
through the passes in the Hindu Kush mountains . They first settled down in Punjab and
later moved eastwards and spread all over the Gangetic plains. Being lovers of nature, Aryans
worshipped the sun, the water, the fire, etc. They are said to have been the originators of the
Hindu civilization . There were six religious books of the Aryans which reveal their beliefs,
customs and culture.
1. The Vedas: There were four Vedas, viz.,
(i) Rig Veda: It is oldest among the Vedas and contains 1017 hymns in the form of prayers
to gods; Rig Veda is claimed to be the oldest book in the world.
(ii) Sama Veda: Deals with music.
(iii) Yajur Veda: Deals with sacrifices, rituals and formulae.
(iv) Atharva Veda: Deals with medicine.
2. The Upanishads: The main source of Indian philosophy and theology; there are about 108
known Upanishads.
3. The Brahamanas: Throw light on the socio-political life of the Aryans and form the basis
of their religion.
4. The Aranyakas: Forest books, are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and are
essentially treatises on mysticism and philosophy.
5. Manu Smriti: Manu was the great law giver in the Aryan period and his book Manu Smriti
deals with the laws of inheritance, duties of the kings and his subjects.
6. The Puranas: They give religious and historical details of the Aryan civilization and
contain discourses on legends, rituals, traditions and moral codes. They are 18 in number.

Concepts of Vedic Philosophy

• Atma (Soul)—An atom of life, it is also called jeevatma or living soul. It is a part of
Paramatma or the supreme soul (God). It is invisible and is liberated from the body after
death.
• Karma (Deeds)—These are good and bad actions a human commits during his life
period.
• Pap and Punya (Sins and Merits )—Pap is result of bad deeds and Punya is result of good
ones . A human being is happy and satisfied if he earns more merits (punyas ) and is full
of sorrows if he commits more sins (pap) during his lifetime.
• Punarjanma (Rebirth)—The soul never dies but is reborn after each life period is over.
The soul enjoys the fruits of punya or pap of the previous life in the present life period.
Later Vedic Period (1000–600 bc)
More developed than the early Vedic period , the tiny tribal settlements were
replaced by strong kingdoms . There was a growth of big cities like Ayodhya ,
Indraprastha and Mathura. This was also called the Brahmanical age and came very
close to the modern form of Hinduism . The society was divided into four castes ,
initially based on occupation, but which later became hereditary.
1. Brahmins (priestly class)
2. Kshatriyas (military class)
3. Vaishyas (business or trading class)
4. Shudras (labour class)

Gupta Period

The Gupta dynasty is called the Golden Age or the Classical Age of ancient India (320
AD -550AD). During this period foreign rule was completely reversed and peace and
prosperity prevailed . Kalidasa — poet and dramatist , Aryabhatta , Varahmihira and
Brahmagupta —the great mathematician and astronomer , Dhanvantari —the great
physician, all lived during this period.

The following were the important rulers of Gupta Dynasty:

1. Chandragupta I: (ad 319–335/336)
2. Samudragupta: (ad 350–370)
3. Chandragupta II: (ad 376–413/415) (also described as Vikramaditya) During his
rule, India was visited by Chinese traveller Fahien (ad 399–411)

Information about the Gupta period is available from both archaeological and literary
sources. The most important archaeological source is in the Allahabad Pillar
inscription. Temples, Paintings and Coins are some other archaeological sources.
The main literary sources include the works of Kalidasa and these accounts of Fa-
Hien and It-sing.
 The Gupta Dynasty is called the Golden Age of Sanskrit language and the
Classical Age of ancient India because of the following:
• There was political unity: foreign rule was completely removed and peace and
prosperity prevailed;
• The enlightened character of government, that is, taxes were light, punishment
was mild, etc;
• The revival of Hinduism, while there was tolerance of all other religions;
• Use of Sanskrit developed and art and literature flourished during the period;
• The great personages who lived during this period including: Kalidasa, poet and
drama- tist known as the Shakespeare of India—Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and
Brahmagupta, the great mathematicians and astronomers—Kumarila Bhatta and
Shankaracharya, the great preachers of Hinduism and Dhanwantri, the great
physician;
• Fa-hien, a Chinese pilgrim who visited India (ad 399 to 414) during Vikramaditya’s
reign and gave an excellent account of the Gupta Dynasty and prosperity of the
country.

RULERS OF GUPTA EMPIRE

Chandragupta I (A.D. 320-335)

Chandragupta I, grand son of Sri Gupta and son of Ghototkacha was the most powerful ruler
of the line. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a great extent by matrimonial
alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi , the Lichhavi princess. His empire extended
from Magadh, modern Bihar, Oudh, Prayag (Allahabad ), Tirhent, in addition to Magatha he
adopted the title if Maharajadhiraj.
Samudragutpa (A.D. 335-375)
Samudragupta , son of Chandragupta I ascended the throne in A.D. 335 He was the greatest
ruler of Gupta dynasty . An inscription engraved on a pillar at Allahabad popularly called
Allahabad Pillar inscription or the Prayag Prashasti is the main source of information on his
reign . The Prashasti was composed by Samudragupta ’s court poet Harisena which gives a
detailed account of the conquests of Samudragupta . This account contains a long list of states
king and tribes which were conquered and brought under various degrees of subjugations .
Harisensa also described Samudragupta as the ‘Hero of a Hundred Battles’.
Chandragupta II (380-414 A.D.)
Samundragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta . He was also known as
Vikramaditya. Chandragupta married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka prince who
belonged to the Brahmana caste and ruled in central India . The prince died and was
succeeded by his young son, So, Prabhavati became the ritual ruler. Chandragupta exercised
indirect control over the Vakataka Kingdom in central India. This offered a great advantage
to him. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa
and Gujarat , which had been under the rule of the Saka Kshatrapas for about four
centuries by that time. The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern sea coast, famous for
trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain
. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.

Kumaragupta I Maheraditya (415-455 A.D.)

Kumaragupta , son of Chandragupta I ascended the throne in 415. Nothing is known
about his political career , but numismatic and epigraphic evidence indicate that the
strength , unity, and prestige of the empire remained unshaken in his reign. Towards the
end of his reign , the Gupta power was seriously menaced by the hostility of the
Pushyamitra, a tribe of uncertain identity.

Skandagupta Vikramaditya (455-467 A.D.)

Skandagupta, the last powerful king of the Gupta dynasty came to the throne when the war
with Pushyamitra was still going on. His victory saved the Gupta empire ; but it was
invaded by the Hunas . He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the
integrity of his ancestral empire . Success in repelling the Hunas seems to have been
celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya . The decline of the empire began
soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab and Kashmir.
Development of Science during Gupta Period
There was a great progress in the field of astronomy, astrology, mathematics and medicine
. Aryabhatta , a mathematician and astronomer , wrote a book named ‘Aryabhatiya ’ in 499
AD which deals with mathematics and astronomy . Varahmihira composed ‘Pancha
Siddhantika ,’ the five astronomical systems . Varahmihira ’s Brihadsamhita is a great
work in Sanskrit literature which deals with a variety of subjects like astonomy ,
astrology , geography , architecture , animals , weather , marriage and omens. He wrote a
book on astrology named Brihadjataka. Vagbhatta, a great medicine scholar, lived during
the Gupta age. He wrote a book named ‘Ashtangasamgraha’ which was a summary of the
eight branches of medicine.

Fahien’s Visit
Fahien , the most famous Chinese pilgrim , visited India during the reign of
Chandragupta II.
He spent six out of nine years stay in India in the Gupta empire . He reached
India through land route via Khotan , Kashgar , Gandhara and Punjab . He visited
many places like Peshawar Matura , Kanauj , Svavasti , Kapilavastu , Kusinagara ,
Pataliputra , kasi and Bodh Gaya . The main purpose of his visit was to see the
land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts from India. Fahien threw
a light on the religious , social and economic condition of the Gupta empire .
According to his accounts , Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the
northwestern India but in a state of neglect in the Gangetic valley . He refered to
the Gangetic Valley as the “land of Bradhmanism ”. His accounts mentioned that
the economic condition of the empire was prosperous . He never mentioned the
name of Chandragupta II as he was not interested in Political affairs . As his
interest was primarily religion, he assessed everything from the Buddhist angle.
Decline of the Gupta Empire
Though their rule lasted till the middle of the sixth century A.D. the imperial
glory had ended a century earlier.
The reasons were:
(i) invasion by the Hunas,
(ii) rise in feudalism,
(iii) weak successors,
(iv) financial difficulties,
(v) decline of foreign trade, and
(vi) absence of large professional army to maintain vast empire.

The Mauryan Period

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya when he overthrew the Nandas .Ruled

from 321BC to 289BC. His son Bindusara (298–273 bc) succeeded him and
annexed the south up to Mysore . He was the first Indian King who could be
called a national ruler and who set up an administration with an autocratic and
central-based system. Kautilya (Chanakya) a minister of Chandragupta, wrote the
Arthashastra , a treatise on statecraft . Megasthenes was a Greek Ambassador to
Chandragupta’s court who wrote the Indica detailing the Mauryan dynasty.

There are two important sources of Mauryan history. One is the ‘Arthashastra’,
written by Kautilya also known as Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta
Maurya, which describes how a good government should be organized. The other
source is ‘Indica’ written in Greek by Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus
Necator at the court of Chandragupta. Megasthenes wrote not only about the
capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya Empire as a whole and about
the society. The history of Ashoka’s reign can be framed on the basis of his edicts
.
Other source is the ‘Mudrarakshasa’ written by Vishakhadatta in 5th century A.D.
gives an interesting account of how Chandragupta with the help of Kautilya and a
Paurava prince defeated the Nandas. Jain and Buddhist traditions also throw light on the
history of the Mauryas. Jain scriptures refer to Chandragupta’s death and the Buddhist
work, ‘Mahavamsa’, relates an account of the life and work of the king Ashoka.
Malvikagnimitram written by Kalidasa throws enough light on the last years of the
Mauryan rule and the ascendance of Pushyamitra Sunga.
Apart from the above sources, inscription of Junagarh and other inscriptions of Ashoka
on rocks and pillars help us much in building the story of this age. The monuments
belonging to the Mauryan period speak of the culture and civilization of this period. The
stupas, viharas , and caves tell us about the development of art and architecture of this
period. Let’s sec a glimpse of mauryan empire in the chart.

Ashoka, the Great (273–231 bc)

Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta and son of Bindusara and is regarded as one
of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with the
people and he ruled for over 40 years. He acceded to the throne in 273 bc but the formal
consecration took place 4 years later in 268 bc. Therefore, there is a controversy regarding
the first four years of his rule. During his first 13 years, he carried on the traditional policy
of expansion within India and friendly relations with foreign powers. In the 13th year of
his reign, he conquered Kalinga.
The Kalinga War: In 265 bc Ashoka invaded Kalinga (Orissa ) and occupied it after
widespread destruction and bloodshed . This lead to the conversion of Ashoka and he
became a Buddhist. His occupation with Buddhism weakened and his administration led
to the decline of the Mauryan empire.

Mauryan Empire Provinces

Five Provinces comprising the Mauryan Empire with their
respective capitals were:
• Uttarapatha: (North): Taxila.
• Dakshinapatha: (South): Suvarnagiri.
• Avantipatha: (West): Ujjain.
• Prachyapatha: (East): Toshali (Kalinga).
• Central Province: (Magadh): Pataliputra.
Sultanate of Delhi

Delhi Sultanate was founded by Turkish ‘Mamluks’ employed by rulers of Afghanistan

. Early rulers had to defend north from attempted Mongol invasions . Their power
derived from military , highways , trade routes and the ability to control provincial
governors . They introduced copper and silver coins . In their reign , many refugees
arrived from Persia after the Mongol invasions bringing many skills . Delhi was the
capital of the Delhi Sultanate in the beginning of the thirteen century.

This period can be divided into five distinct periods, they are:
1. The Slave Dynasty (1206–90)
2. The Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)
3. The Tughlak Dynasty (1320–1414)
4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414–51)
5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526)

Slave Dynasty
Founded by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206–10), it included the following famous
rulers:
1. Shamas-ud-din Iltutmish (1210–36)
2. Razia Sultan (1236–39), the first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled
India
3. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–66)
4. Balban (1266–87)

Khilji Dynasty
Founded by Sultan Jalal -ud-din Khilji (1290 –96) who brought under his
sway all the Rajput kingdoms . Alaud -din Khilji (1296 –1316 ) was the
nephew of Sultan Jalal -ud - din , whom he killed and succeeded in 1296 .
Khusro Khan in 1320, killed Qutub -ud-din Mubarak Shah, the successor of
Ala-ud-din Khilji and ended the Khilji dynasty.
Tughlak Dynasty
Founded by Ghiasuddin Tughlak (1320–25). Other important rulers of the Tughlak
Dynasty were: (1) Mohammed -bin Tughlaq (1325–51) who introduced token coins
of brass and copper and (2) Firoz Shah Tughlak (1351 –88). Ibn Batuta was an
African traveller who visted India in 1333. He was appointed as the Chief Qazi of 
Delhi by the Sultan . Timur , a Turk , invaded India in 1398 and ended the Tughlak
Dynasty.

Sayyid Dynasty
Timur’s nominee Khizr Khan (1414–21) captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new
Sultan who ruled for about 7 years. The last Sayyid King Alam Shah (1443–1451)
abdicated in favour of Bahlol Lodhi.

Lodhi Dynasty
Founded by Bahlol Lodhi (1451–88), one of the Afghan Sardars who established himself
in Punjab after the invasion of Timur. Sikander Lodhi (1489–1517) and Ibrahim Lodhi (
1517–26) were the famous rulers of the Lodhi Dynasty.
Highlights of the Delhi Sultanate:
• Taxes were not standardized and widely fluctuated.
• Peasants paid 1/3 -1/2 of produce in taxes plus other types of taxes.
• Canals and irrigation facilities were developed to expand agriculture.
• Ibn Battuta was sent by the Sultan as a representative to China.
• Sufi and Bhakti movements which believed in fundamental unity of all religions
became popular.
• Facilitated trade in the Indian Ocean, exports flourished
q Cotton & silk textiles
q Paper industry
q Leather making
q Metal crafts
q Carpet weaving
• Protected India from being ravaged by the Mongols.
• Introduced new art and architectural styles into India.
• Ultimately failed due to constant rebellions of Muslim nobles and Hindu peasants.

After the decline of Sultanate, many other kingdoms arose. Music was patronised, regional languages were stimulated
and provincial style of architecture developed. Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan came into power. The Muslim rulers
became friendly with the Rajputs. Gujarat style of architecture was extraordinary. Tomb of Shaikh Farid, Tanka
mosque, Jama Mosque of Khambhat, Mosque of Muhafiz Khan, Sidi Saiyyad were built in early 16th century. Bengal,
Kashmir, Mewar, Bahmani state’s rulers were the patrons of art, science and education.
Points to remember

• Delhi became important under the Delhi Sultanate.

• The important dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were the Slave Dynasty, Khilji
Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty and Lodhi Dynasty.
• The foundation of the Salve Dynasty was laid down by Qutab-ud-din Aibak. Dynasty
introduced the market control and administrative measures in order to maintain a
large standing army.
• Among the Tughlaqs, Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq introduced three projects - shifting of
capital from Delhi to Daulatabad , introduction of token currency, raising of land tax
in the Doab region to fifty percent - all of which failed and weakened his position.
• After the Tughlaq dynasty, the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate set in, though the
Sayyids and Lodhis continued to rule till 1526.
• In the medieval period two new religious movements gained popularity: (i) Sufism (
ii) Bhakti
• Sufism was Islamic mystic tradition while Bhakti was the devotion towards a God or
his various forms.
• Sufism introduced many popular orders or Silsilahs of which the most widespread
were the Suhrawardi and Chisthti silsilahs.

Mughal Dynasty

Period 1526–40 and 1555–1857 Famous Rulers

1. Babur (1526 –30): Is said to have founded the Mughal empire . He defeated Ibrahim
Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and became the emperor of Delhi in 1527
after defeating Afghans in the Battle of Gorge.
2. Humayun (1530–40): Was the son of Babur and ascended the throne in 1530.
3. Sher Shah Suri (1540–45): An Afghan , who ruled the country for a brief period after
defeating Humayun . He introduced a brilliant administration , land revenue policy and
several other measures to improve the economy . He issued the coin called ‘Rupia ’ and
built the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) linking Peshawar to Calcutta.
4. Akbar (1556–1605): The eldest son of Humayun who is said to be the real founder of
Mughal empire because Babur and Humayun could not consolidate the empire as Akbar
successfully did . He was the first ruler who divorced religion from politics and his
attitude towards Hindus was very conciliatory.
5. Jahangir (1605–27): Salim, son of Akbar ascended the throne after Akbar’s death in
1605. He is known for his strict administration of justice. He married Mehr-un-nisa in
1611, who later on was given the title of ‘Nur Jahan’.
6. Shahjahan (1628–58): Son of Jahangir, ascended the throne after his father's death.
Three years after his accession, his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 and to
perpetuate her memory he built the Taj Mahal at Agra. He is known for the promotion of art,
culture and architechure. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid are some of the magnificent
structures built by him. Shahjahan’s failing health set off the war of succession among
his four sons. His third son, Aurangzeb, crowned himself emperor in 1658 and Shahjahan
was imprisoned by him till he died in captivity in 1666.
7. Aurangzeb (1659–1707): The son of Shahjahan who ruled for 50 years. He was a Muslim
fanatic who demolished several Hindu Temples and banned all religious festivals . He
executed Guru Teg Bahadur (the 9th Guru of Sikhs) when he refused to embrace Islam.

Important Battles of Mughal Period

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
The second battle of Panipat fought between Hemu, the Hindu leader and Akbar’
s regent Bairam Khan. Hemu was defeated on 5 November 1556, captured and slain
by Bairam  Khan . This ended the Mughal -Afghan contest for the throne of Delhi in
favour of the Mughals and enabled Akbar to reoccupy Delhi and Agra.
Battle of Haldighati (1576)
This battle was fought in 1576 near Gogundo (Haldighati ) between Rana Pratap
Singh of Mewar and the Mughal Army led by Man Singh of Amber . Rana Pratap
Singh was defeated but he continued the struggle and did not submit.
Decline of Mughal Empire
In 1739, during the reign of Mohammed Shah, a Persian king, Nadir Shah, invaded
India and broke up the Mughal empire. He plundered Delhi and took the Kohinoor
diamond with him to Afghanistan.
MAJOR EVENTS DURING MUGHAL
PERIOD (1526 - 1858)
1526, May 27 Babur founds the empire of Hind.

1540, May 17 Mughal rulers are expelled and

suppressed by the Afghan Suri
Dynasty.

1555, July 23 Empire of Hind under the Mughal

rulers restored.

1600, Dec 31 East India Company was given

monopoly privileges on all trades
with the East.

1608 The Companies ships arrived at

the port of Surat.

1615 Jahangir granted the EIC the right

to establish a factory at Surat.

1717 EEIC received a firman exempting

the company from the payment of
custom duties in Bengal.

1757 The forces of the Nawab of Bengal,

Siraj-ud-daulah, was defeated at
the Battle of Plassey.

1773 Lord North’s India Bill, known

as the Regulating Act of 1773,
provided for greater Parliamentary
control over the affairs of the
company and placed India under
the rule of a Governor General.

1858, Mar 29 The last mughal ruler is deposed.

1858, Aug 2 U.K. Act of Parliament annexed

the Empire, creating British India.
Points to Remember
1. In the medieval periods rulers built private and public buildings like
forts, palaces, tombs, temples, mosques, tanks etc.
2. The purpose of such buildings was to show the concern for the welfare of
the people and at the same time display the power and wealth of their
patrons.
3. During the Sultanate period , new features were introduced like arches
and decorative features like calligraphy, geometry and arabesque.
4. Under the Mughals , a distinct style of architecture developed which
was marked by the usage of red sandstone and marble and double - domed
structure.
5. The most notable buildings during the Mughal period were built at Agra,
Fatehpur Sikri and Delhi , Gardens were laid out in Delhi , Kashmir and
Lahore.
6. The most prolific builder amongst the Mughal was Shahjahan , who built a
number of buildings including the Lal Qila and the Jama Masjid in Delhi
and the Taj Mahal in Agra.
7. Babur was the first Mughal king followed by Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir
, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
8. Stability was achieved only under Akbar who expanded his empire
over the Indian subcontinent.
9. Akbar introduced new administrative measures like Mansabdari system
and Jagirdari system.
10. Jahangir married Mehrunnisa in 1611 and bestowed her with the title ‘Nur
Jahan’.
11. Under Aurangzeb the Mughal empire expanded its territorial limits.
12 . The process of decline of the Mughal empire set in at the time of
Aurangzeb and new regional powers arose.
Vijayanagar Empire

One of the important kingdoms in the medieval Indian history, Vijayanagara is in

today’s Bellary District of northern Karnataka. The historic kingdom was extended
over South India and included the territories of Mysore, Trichinopally, Kanara,
Pondicherry, Chingalpet and Kanchivaram. Two brothers (also known as Sangama
brothers) Harihara (Hakka) I and Bukka Raya, in A.D. 1336, laid the foundation of the
Vijaynagar city, which was on the South bank of Tungabhadra River near Anegudi
Fortress. This empire consolidated under Harihara I and began to expand under
Bukka Raya. It is said that a sage Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana were the
inspirational source for this empire. The rulers were strict worshipers of the Hindu
Gods and Goddess, but also tolerant towards the other religions. The emperors were
great patrons of art and culture. The region influenced development in the streams of
music, literature and architecture. Many temples built in the south represent the
Vijaynagar architecture. The economy of the region flourished and several coins were
introduced during the reign of the rulers of the Vijaynagar Empire.

Genealogically the Vijayanagar empire is classified as:

1. Sangam Dynasty: (1336–1485 ad) [Harihara I (1336–56), Bukka I (1356–77), Harihara II (
1377–1404), Bukka II (1404–06), Devaraya I (1406–22), Vira Vijaya (1422), Devaraya II (
1422–46), Mallikarjuna (1446–65), Virupaksha (1465–85), Prauda Deva (1485)].
2. Saluva Dynasty: (1485–1505 ad) [Saluva Narasimha (1485–90), Timmaraya (1490–91),
Immadi Narasimha (1491–1505)].
3. Tuluva Dynasty: (1505–70) [Vir Narasimha (1505–09), Krishnadeva Raya (1509–29),
Achyta Raya (1529–42), Venkta I (1542–43), Sadasiva (1543–70).
4. Aravidu Dynasty: (1570–1652) [Tirumala (1570–72), Sri Ranga (1572–85), Venkata II (
1585–1614), Sri ranga II (1614), Ramadeva (1614–30), Ventata III (1630–42), Sri Ranga
III (1642–52).
Vijayanagar-Bahamni conflict is one of the most important struggles for the Vijayanagar
rulers. It started on a large scale in 1367, during the reign of Bukka-I. The clash of interest
had mainly three points: (i) the Tungabhadra doab; (ii) Krishna-Godavari delta; and (
iii) the Marathwada country.
Empire of Vijayanagar (named after its capital Vijayanagar , ‘City of Victory ’, in
Karnataka ) expanded rapidly towards Madurai in the south and Goa in the west and
exerted intermittent control over the east coast and the extreme south-west.Vijayanagar
rulers closely followed Chola precedents, especially in collecting agricultural and trade
revenues, in giving encouragement to commercial guilds and in honouring temples with
lavish endowments.
The city of Vijayanagar itself contained numerous temples with rich ornamentation,
especially the gateways, and a cluster of shrines for the deities. Most prominent among
the temples was the one dedicated to Virupaksha, a manifestation of Shiva, the patron
deity of the Vijayanagar rulers. (The first Vijayanagar ruler, Harihara I, was a Hindu who
converted to Islam and then reconverted back to Hinduism for political expediency). The
important temples of Vijaynagar style are Vithalswami and Hazara temples at Hampi. It
was the Vijaynagar rulers who initiated the practice of inscribing the stories of Ramayana
and Mahabharata on the walls of these temples.

Sikhs and Marathas

The Sikhs
In the 15th century, the Sikhs grew into a strong community.
Aurangzeb captured Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th guru of Sikhs in 1675 and executed him
when he refused to embrace Islam . The Sikhs resented the Mughals for their religious
intolerance . Guru Gobind Singh, son of Guru Teg Bahadur , organized his followers into a
military force called Khalsa to avenge the murder of his father . Guru Gobind Singh ,
however , was murdered in 1708 by an Afghan in the Deccan . Banda Bahadur , the militant
successor of Guru Gobind Singh , continued the war against Mughals but he too was
murdered . The Afghan defeat of the Maratha armies accelerated the breakaway of Punjab
from Delhi and helped in founding the Sikh overlordship in the north-west.
The Sikh Khalsa (army of the pure ) rose up against the economic and political
repressions in Punjab towards the end of Aurangzeb ’s rule. The Sikh Khalsa (army of the
pure) rose up against the economic and political repressions in Punjab towards the end of
Aurangzeb’s rule. Guerrilla fighters took advantage of the political instability created by the
Persian and Afghan onslaught against Delhi , enriching themselves and expanding the
territorial control.
By the 1770s, Sikh hegemony extended from the Indus in the west to the Yamuna in the
east, from Multan in the south to Jammu in the north. But the Sikhs, like the Marathas, were a
loose, disunited and quarrelsome conglomerate of 12 kin-groups.
Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708)
The most militarily efficient of the Sikh Gurus was the tenth and the last Guru Gobind
Singh. During the reign of Aurangzeb , who fanatically tried to subdue non-Muslim
practices, the Sikhs were ill-treated viciously. The Mughals and the Muslim historians
considered Gobind Singh no more than a warlord having no religious credentials .
He was a powerful military general who had a vision of transforming the Sikh
society into a war like society . Gobind Singh created the fourth doctrine , the last
and most important one of Sikhism, the doctrine of Khalsa or the ‘brotherhood ’ of
Sikhs.
Each Sikh male wore symbolic clothing and accoutrements to make manifest his
membership in the community; these include uncut hair and a steel dagger. Following
the creation of the khalsa, the political and military might of the Sikhs increased greatly
. The Sikh military brotherhood was the most powerful combating unit that the
British depended on against the Mughal Empire in its final days . Gobind Singh
announced himself to be the last Guru.
After his death, religious authority has rested in the scriptures known as Guru Granth
Sahib. Akbar considered the Sikhs a religious community which deserved royal support
. Jahangir believed they were a rising political unit that may threaten his empire .
Aurangzeb thought that the Sikhs were dangerous heretics who had to be routed out at
any cost . The successors of Aurangzeb regarded the Sikhs a major military force
tearing the Mughal Empire apart.

The Marathas (1649–1748)

Marathas became powerful after the departure of Nadir Shah. Shivaji played a pivotal
role in liberating India from Muslim rule.
It was he who initiated the strategy of guerilla warfare. The first major threat to
Mughal imperial power came from a confederacy known as the Marathas. Located in
the mountainous regions of the Deccan, the Marathas were mainly drawn from the
lowest caste of society, but they became a powerfully militant community under their
ruler, King Shivaji, who died in 1680. Under his leadership, the Marathas managed to
carve out their own kingdom in 1646.
 Aurangzeb , the last great conqueror of the Mughal rulers , defeated the Marathas and
annexed their territories , but the Marathas never put down their arms. They could never be
defeated by the Mughals because they adopted guerrilla warfare tactics and took to hiding
and living in the forests. By 1740, the Marathas controlled more territory than the Mughals.
In the late eighteenth century, the kingdom of Mysore and the Maratha confederacy were
the major obstacles in the British attempt to control the economy of India.
The British , under General Wellesley , defeated the Maratha chieftains , Scindia and
Holkar, but the Maratha chieftains continued to rebel all throughout the early decades of
the nineteenth century . The British , under General Wellesley , defeated the Maratha
chieftains , Scindia and Holkar, but the Maratha chieftains continued to rebel all throughout
the early decades of the nineteenth century . Shivaji was the most powerful among the
Maratha rulers . He conquered the forts of Torna , Rajgarh , Purandhar , etc. and became an
independent ruler.
Shivaji Bhonsle (1627–1680)
Shivaji was a resolute and ferocious fighter and is regarded as the founder of the Maratha nation. He took advantage of
the deteriorating condition of the Mughal rule and established his own principality near Pune, which was later made the
Maratha capital. Using guerrilla war technique , he was able to sustain and expand his army. He soon had money, arms
and horses.
Shivaji conducted a series of successful campaigns in the 1660s against the Mughals. In 1674, he adopted the title of
Chhatrapati, ‘Lord of the Universe’.
Shivaji’s war cries were swaraj and goraksha. Aurangzeb persistently chased Shivaji’s successors between 1681 and
1705, but finally he had to retreat to the north as his treasury was being depleted. In 1717, a Mughal envoy entered into
a treaty with the Marathas authenticating their claim to rule the Deccan. The Marathas soon annexed Malwa from Mughal
control and thereafter moved into Orissa and Bengal.
Later South India also came under their control . Though the Marathas had great military prowess and leadership ,
they were not efficient enough to administer the state or to bring socio-economic reform.
Following a policy of plunders and indiscriminate raids, they annoyed the peasant class . They were respected for
stirring the Maharashtrian pride rather than for attracting loyalty to an all-India confederacy
They were left alone prior to the attacks of Afghan forces led by Ahmad Shah Abdali. Abdali defeated them on the
battlefield at Panipat, in1761.
The Marathas became powerful after the departure of Nadir Shah, under the leadership of the Peshwas—Balaji
Vishwanath, Bajirao I and Balaji.
They conquered the Deccan kingdoms and aspired to bring Delhi and Punjab under their control. They entered
into an alliance with the Delhi court against Najib- ud-daulah.
In 1757, they captured Delhi and in 1758 conquered Punjab by defeating Timar Shah (Abdali’s son). The Third Battle
of Panipat, fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas in 1761, ended the Maratha power.
Indian Modern History

Europeans

Portuguese traders were the first to discover a sea-route to India free from Turkish threat in
1498. They were followed by the Dutch in 1595 and the English in 1600 and finally the
French in 1664 who also came to India for trade. Europeans had a great demand for Indian
products such as Indian spices like pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger and such other
things which provoked them to start trading in India. At that time the commercial activities
of Asia was being controlled by the Arabs. In 1400 AD trade was proved to be immensely
profitable and Italy was treated as a distribution centre for the spices obtained from India.
The sea voyage of Europeans had started in India much before the establishment of Moghul
Empire as they were well aware of India’s prosperity.

Portuguese

In 1498, it was Vasco-da Gama a Portuguese sailor who first discovered a sea-route to
India via the Cape of Good Hope. He arrived at Calicut on 27 May 1498. The Portuguese
soon established political power along the west coast of India. He was succeeded by
Captain General Alfonso de Albuquerque who conquered Goa in 1510.

Objective of Portuguese Advent:

• The maritime empire of Portuguese was named as Estado da India , which were
primarily confined to the control of Indian export to Europe but in later age they
monopolised the port-to-port trade on the Malabar Coast and trade from Indian to
Persian Coast.
• Initially their trade was restricted only to export spices from India but later on they
had shifted their focus to other valuable items such as wheat , rice , silk and
precious stone.
• The growth of European trade was hampered by sending fleet annually so the
term was extended on three year basis by the Portuguese Governors.
Causes for Decline of Portuguese:
1. After Albuquerque the Portuguese administration in India became inefficient
because his successor were weak & inefficient.
2. The Portuguese officials were neglected by the home government. Their salaries
were low. Thus they indulged in corruption and malpractice.
3. The Portuguese adopted forced inter-marriage & conversion to the Christian
faith which made the natives hostile.
4. In 1580 Portugal was merged with Spain which neglected the Portuguese
interest in India.
5. The Portuguese has to face the stiff competition of the Dutch in India.
6. Portuguese discovered Brazil which diverted their attention from India.

Dutch
The first fleet of the Dutch reached India in 1595 and Dutch East India Company
was formed in 1602 , but their influence soon vanished . In 1605 they established
their first factory in Masulipattam , followed by more factories in Pulicat (1610),
Surat (1616), Bimilpatam (1641), Karikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar (
1658), Baranagore (1658), Patna and Balasore (both 1658) and Cochin (1663). Till
1690, Pulicat was their chief trade centre and afterwards it shifted to Negapatnam .
The Anglo-Dutch rivalry was at its peak during late 17th and early 18th century till the
Dutch collapsed with their defeat by the English in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

M ain D utch Events:

1. Dutch occupied the Indian subcontinent from 1605 to 1825 with an aim of trade
of various items.
2. Merchants of the Dutch East India Company first established themselves in
Dutch Coromandel , notably Pulicat , as they were looking for textiles to
exchange with the spices they traded in the East Indies.
3. Apart from textiles, the items traded in Dutch India include precious stones, indigo
, and silk across the Indian Peninsula , saltpeter and opium in Dutch Bengal, and
pepper in Dutch Malabar.
4. The excellent business techniques of Dutch can be illustrated from the fact that
they started trading without the interference of middle man to earn maximum
profit.
5. They became commercially active in India and they introduced coins to be used
in trading with local importance.
French
The French came to India in 1664 and set up centres near Madras and Chandernagore on
the Hooghly, West Bengal, to trade with India. They also established naval bases in the
islands of Bourbon and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. They flourished initially till
1706 , but afterwards decline occurred till 1720 . It was under governors Le Noir and
Dumas that the French regrouped in India . However , during 1742 the French governor
Joseph François Dupleix started repulsing the English power which resulted in ‘Carnatic
Wars’ and finally resulting in French defeat.

• French were the last European community which came to India during 1664 AD. The
French East India Company was established by Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of Louis
XIV, the Bourban king of France. They were authorized to carry on commerce and
establish colonies in the East Indies.
• The first French Factory had established in Surat in 1667 under the state patronage of
Gujarat. In 1669 the second French factory was established at Masulipatnam by
securing patent from the Sultan of Golconda.
• The well-known French Viceroy in India is Franco Martin. He extended the
French commercial activities in India by establishing French settlements at Balasore,
Chinsurah Masulipatnaam, and Pondicherry. Among which Pondicherry was
considered to be the most important settlement of French and hence designated as
the Headquarters of French in India.

English
The English East India Company was formed in 1600 through a Charter signed by Queen
Elizabeth I granting permission to trade with India . Captain Hawkins paid a visit to the
court of Jahangir in 1608 but failed to secure trading rights . However , in 1613 , on Sir
Thomas Roe’s visit they were permitted to establish their first factory at Surat. Gradually the
Company established its trading centres at Bombay , Calcutta and Madras . The English
established their settlements /factories in Masulipattam (1611 ), Agra , Ahmedabad ,
Baroda, Broach (all 1619), Armagaon near Pulicat (1626), Hariharpur and Balasore (1633
), Patna, Dacca, Kasimbazar in Bengal and Bihar (1835), Madras (1639) to establish Fort St
George, Hugli (1651), a network of settlements in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa (1658), Bombay (
1668), Sutanuti (1690), Kalikota and Govindpur (1698). Sutanuti , Kalikota and Govindpur
were later joined together in to a new city ‘Calcutta’ and the factory at Sutanati was fortified
in 1700 and named ‘Fort William ’. During 1686, the English declared war against Mugal
Emperor Aurangzeb in which the English lost all control of its settlement and factories in
India to Mughals in 1688–89. In 1690, the surrendering British were pardoned by Mughal
Emperor . In 1691 , the English were granted ‘farman ’ by Aurangzeb which exempted the
British Company from payment of customs duties in Bengal . Faruk Siyar granted British
another ‘farman’ in 1717, thus extended the privilege to British in Gujarat and Deccan.
Indian Freedom Time

The national movement in India started in the second half of the nineteenth century. As
we already know that the English had come to India to trade and make profits. So the
East India Company came to enhance the profit of Indian possessions as well as to
maintain and strengthen its powers. However, sporadic uprisings with a motive of
driving British out of India had started a century earlier. The cumulative effect of
British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative innovations over
the years had adversely affected the position of all rulers of Indian states, sepoys,
zamindars, peasants, traders, etc. excepting of course, the western educated class who
owned their ‘position’ to the company’s government. The Indian rulers were not
united. They were selfish and guided by self-interest. There was no feeling of
nationalism. The British had superior weapons and military tactics. Thus the British
were successful in subjugating the whole of India.
Such a feeling of growing discontent , got its manifestation in several civil rebellions ,
tribal uprisings and sepoy mutinies during the colonical rule. There were also violent
religio-political uprisings and disturbances, which were anti-British. Of all uprisings in
the 19 th century , the Revolt of 1857 was the most important as it was the first major
challenge to the British domination. It was a watershed in the history of British rule in
India , shook the very foundation of the British empire in India . It also changed the
character of British rule, marking the end of the rule of the East India Company and
bringing British India directly under the British Crown.

First War of Independence

Also called the Sepoy Mutiny or the Revolt of 1857. On 29 March 1857, during the vice
- royalty of Lord Canning, an Indian sepoy of the 34th regiment, Mangal Pandey,
killed two British officers on parade at Barrackpore. The Indian soldiers present on
parade refused to obey orders to arrest Mangal Pandey. However, he was later
arrested, tried and hanged. The news spread like wild fire to all cantonments in the
country and very soon a countrywide sepoy revolt broke out from Lucknow, Ambala
, Burhanpur and Meerut.
 Indian Freedom Struggle

Introduction Revolts The 1857 National Indian Major movements, Famous

Revolt Movement National acts, commissions Personalities of
Congress and parties Indian Freedom
Indigo Revolt or struggle
Blue Revolution The Swadeshi movement
Causes of Revolt Rise of Nationalist
Adivasis Movement Morley Minto Reforms
Spread of Revolt Movement Formation
Khasi Uprising Communalism
Timeline Aims and
Pagal Panthi Timeline and Gadar movement
leaders Factors behind Objectives
Uprising The Home rule movement
National Movement The moderates
Ahom Revolt Effects of Revolt Rise of the Govt. of India Act, 1919
Rise of Political
Santhal Revolt Impact of Revolt Extremism Rowlatt Act, 1919
Ideas and political Khilafat and Non-co-operation movements
Pabna Uprising associations
Simon Commission
Munda Rebellion Nehru Report
Civil and Tribal
uprisings Civil Disobediance Movement
Bangbhasha British Bengal East Poona Poona Pact
Mopla Revolt Sarvjanik
Prakasika India British India Peasants’ and Workers’ Movement
The Trade Union Sabha
Society India Association Government of India Act, 1935
Movement
Society Tebhaga Movement, 1939
The Wahabi Movement The August Offer, 1940
Modras Mahajan
Sepoy Mutinies Cripps Mission, 1942
Sabha Quit India Resolution
Quit India Movement
CR formula
Wavell Plan
Simla Conference
Cabinet Mission, 1946
Mount batten Plan
Fourteen points of Jinnah
Constitution of India and Pakistan
Indian Independence Act, 1947
 Popular Movements and Revolts Up to 1857
Year Movement/Mutiny

1828 Ahoms Revolt against the Company for non-fulfilment of pledges after the
Burmese War
1829 1st Kol Rising against dismantling of forts of independent Kol tribes
1831 Kol Rising of Chhotanagpur against the transfer of land from heads of kol
tribesmen to outsiders
1833 Khasi Rising in the hilly region of Jaintia and Garo Hills. The revolt was lead by
Tirath Singh, the ruler of Nunklow and resented by Khasis in the region
1838 Farazi Movement under the leadership of Titu Mir—it later merged into the
Wahabi Movement
1839 2nd Kol rising
1844 3rd Kol rising
1844 Surat Salt Agitation against raised salt duty
1844 Mutiny of the 34th Native Infantry
1844 Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts
1849 Mutiny of the 22nd Native Infantry
1850 Mutiny of the 66th Native Infantry
1852 Mutiny of the 37th Native Infantry
1855 Santhal rebellion in the Rajmahal hills region of Bihar
1857 Revolt of sepoys of 3rd Cavalry at Meerut and later mutinies in Punjab, Mathura,
Lucknow, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Kanpur, Banaras, Jhansi, Allahabad and many other places in North India

On 10 May 1857, soldiers at Meerut refused to touch the new Enfield rifle cartridges
which were said to have a greased cover made of animal fat. The soldiers along with
other groups of civilians, went on a rampage, broke open jails, murdered Europeans
and marched to Delhi. The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning in Delhi
was a signal to the local soldiers, who in turn, also revolted, beseiged the city and
proclaimed the 80 year old Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of India.

Na t i o n a l Mo ve m e n t

Rise of Nationalist Movement

The foundation of the nationalist movement had been laid by the end of the 19 th century .
The main target of this movement was to face the challenge of foreign supremacy . Its
effects were the socio -religion reform movement , the spread of modern western
education , the emergence of the middle class and the economic consequences of the
British rule . The politicial awareness that these trends gave birth to the concept of ‘
nationhood’ and ‘nationalist aspirations’. In the wake of
this political consciousness various political association were founded, particularly
in the Presidency towns, to organise the English-educated classes to plead for a
more or less common programme of political progress. The culmination of this trend
was the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, which marks the formal
beginning of the organised nationalist movement, to drive out the foreigners from
the country. All classes of people in India joined at one stage and played their part in
the freedom struggle.
Timeline of Indian Independence Movement
1. 1857 - The Revolt of 1857
2. 1870 - Poona Sarvajanik Sabha founded
3. 1876 - Indian National Association founded
4. 1878 - Vernacular Press Act passed
5. 1885 - Indian National Congress was founded
6. 1892 - Gandhiji left for Africa
7. 1905 - Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement
8. 1906 - Muslim League founded
9. 1915 - Gandhiji came to India
10. 1918 - Satyagrah at Champaran
11. 1919 - Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre
12. 1920 - Khilafat and Non-Co-operation Movement
13. 1924 - Poorna swaraj
14. 1932 - Civil Disobedience Movement
15. 1940 - Demand of two different nations by Muslim League
16. 1942 - Quit India Movement
17. 1947 - Partition and Freedom of India.
Freedom Struggle
1. First phase (1885 - 1905)
2. Second phase (1905 - 1919)
Some of the high points of this struggle were:
(1) Foundation of the Indian National Congress and its first twenty years (1885 -
1905) - the moderate phase.
(2) The rise of neo-nationalism or Extremism, the Swadeshi movement and the first
phase of Revolutionary Terrorism (1905-15)
(3) The beginning of the Gandhian phase-commencing with the anti-Rowlatt Bills
agitation to the Non-Co- operation Movement (1916-22)
(4) The council entry programme and the rise of the Swarajist party, the second
phase of the Revolutionary Terrorism and the anti-Simon Commission Agitation
(1922-28)
(5) The Nehru Report , the Lahore Session of the Congress , the Poorna
Swarajya resolution and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1928-34).
(6) The Government of India Act 1935 , the so-called provincial autonomy in
action, and the outbreak of the Second World War (1935-39)
(7) The Second World War, beginning of radical and communal movements and the
Quit India Movement (1939-44) and
(8) India towards freedom and partition (1945 - 47)
Economics

Indian Economy

A policy of mixed economy is followed in the country. In a mixed economy, the public
sector enterprises (government owned) exist alongside the private sector to achieve a
socialist pattern of society in a welfare state. In a mixed economy, a public sector works to
achieve certain priorities and goals, both social and economic, with an economic plan to
guide it. A mixed economy is always a planned economy and Indian economy is as a good
example of mixed economy. The public and private sectors are viewed as complimentary.

Different Features of Indian Economy

As an Underdeveloped Economy—Heavy population pressure; Predominance of ag
- riculture in occupational pattern ; Chronic unemployment and underemployment ;
Low levels of capital formation, HDI (Human Development Index), technology usage,
stan- dard of Living and socio-economic indicators of consumption ; evils of black
money, maldistribution of weatlh etc.
As Developing Economy —Rise in NNP (Net National Product); Consistent GDP
growth rate for many years and increasing per capita income; Progress in banking
and financial sector and overall increase in services sector; Growth of basic capital
goods industries and expanstion in social overhead capital.
As a Dualistic Economy —Modern economy existing side -by-side with traditional
primitive economy ; Clear evidence of technological dualism in Indian society ;
existence of financial dualism (i.e., coexistence of different interest rates existing in
organized and unorganized money markets in India).
 Indian Industrial Economy

India’s Industrial Policy

Meaning
Government action to influence the ownership & structure of the industry and its
performance. It takes the form of pay­ing subsidies or providing finance in other
ways, or of regulation.
It includes procedures, principles (i.e., the philosophy of a given economy), policies,
rules and regulations, in­centives and punishments, the tariff policy, the labour
policy, government’s attitude towards foreign capital, etc.
Objectives
The main objectives of the Industrial Policy of the Government in India are:
to maintain a sustained growth in productivity;
to enhance gainful employment;
to achieve optimal utilisation of human resources;
to attain international competitiveness; and
to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena.
Industrial Policies in India since Independence

Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948­ It defined the broad contours of the policy
delineating the role of the State in industrial development both as an entrepreneur and
authority.
It made clear that India is going to have a Mixed Economic Model.
It classified industries into four broad areas:
Strategic Industries (Public Sector): It included three industries in which Central
Government had monopoly. These included Arms and ammunition, Atomic energy
and Rail transport.
Basic/Key Industries (Public­cum­Private Sector): 6 industries viz. coal, iron & steel,
aircraft manufacturing, ship­building, manufacture of telephone, telegraph & wireless
apparatus, and mineral oil were designated as “Key Industries” or “Basic Industries”.
These industries were to be set­up by the Central Government.
However, the existing private sector enterprises were allowed to continue.
Important Industries (Controlled Private Sector): It included 18 industries including
heavy chemicals, sugar, cotton textile & woollen industry, cement, paper, salt,
machine tools, fertiliser, rubber, air and sea transport, motor, tractor, electricity etc.
These industries continue to remain under private sector however, the central
government, in consultation with the state government, had general control over
them.
Other Industries (Private and Cooperative Sector): All other industries which were
not included in the above mentioned three categories were left open for the private
sector.
The Industries (Development and Regula­tion) Act was passed in 1951 to implement
the Industrial Policy Resolution, 1948.
Industrial Policy Statement of 1956 : Government revised its first Industrial Policy (i.e.the
policy of 1948) through the Industrial Policy of 1956.
It was regarded as the “Economic Constitution of India” or “The Bible of State Capitalism
”.
The 1956 Policy empha­sised the need to expand the public sector, to build up a large
and growing coop­erative sector and to encourage the separation of ownership and
management in private in­dustries and, above all, prevent the rise of pri­vate monopolies
.
It provided the basic framework for the government’s policy in regard to in­dustries till
June 1991.
IPR, 1956 classified industries into three categories
Schedule A consisting of 17 industries was the exclusive responsibility of the State. Out
of these 17 industries, four industries, namely arms and ammunition, atomic en­ergy,
railways and air transport had Central Government monopolies; new units in the
remaining industries were developed by the State Governments.
Schedule B, consisting of 12 industries, was open to both the private and public sectors;
however, such industries were progressively State­owned.
Schedule C­ All the other industries not included in these two Schedules constituted the
third category which was left open to the pri­vate sector. However, the State reserved
the right to undertake any type of indus­trial production.

The IPR 1956, stressed the importance of cottage and small scale industries for expand­
ing employment opportunities and for wider decentralisation of economic power and
activity
The Resolution also called for efforts to maintain industrial peace; a fair share of the
proceeds of production was to be given to the toiling mass in keeping with the avowed
objectives of democratic socialism.
Criticism: The IPR 1956 came in for sharp criticism from the private sector since this
Resolution reduced the scope for the expan­sion of the private sector significantly.
The sector was kept under state control through a system of licenses.
Indian Agricultural Economy

Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 70 per cent of the rural
households depend on agriculture. Agriculture is an important sector of Indian
economy as it contributes about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to
around 58% of the population. Indian agriculture has registered impressive growth
over last few decades. The foodgrains production has increased from 51 million
tonnes (MT) in 1950­51 to 250MT during 2011­12 highest ever since
independence

The share of agriculture in GDP increased to 19.9 per cent in 2020­21 from 17.8 per
cent in 2019­20. The last time the contribution of the agriculture sector in GDP was at
20 per cent was in 2003­04.

Basic Facts about agriculture

India is the biggest exporter of cotton in the world.

India is the largest producer of ginger, okra, potatoes, onions, brinjal, etc., amongst
vegetables.
Sikkim is the first state in the world that claimed 100% organic farming.
India ranks 2nd in the world in agriculture production.
India’s world rank in services and industry sector is 9th and 5th respectively.
Indian agricultural production has increased from 87 USD bn to 459 USD bn in the
past 15 years (12% annual growth).
Globally India ranks 9th for the agricultural exports.
Significance of Agriculture in Economy

Agricultural influence on national income:

The contribution of agriculture during the first two decades towards the gross
domestic product ranged between 48 and 60%. In the year 2001­2002, this
contribution declined to only about 26%.

Agriculture plays vital role in generating employment:

In India at least two­thirds of the working population earn their living through
agricultural works. In India other sectors have failed generate much of employment
opportunity the growing working populations.
Agriculture makes provision for food for the ever increasing population:
Due to the excessive pressure of population labour surplus economies like India
and rapid increase in the demand for food, food production increases at a fast rate.
The existing levels of food consumption in these countries are very low and with a
little increase in the capita income, the demand for food rise steeply (in other
words it can be stated that the income elasticity of demand for food is very high in
developing countries).
Therefore, unless agriculture is able to continuously increase it marketed surplus
of food grains, a crisis is like to emerge. Many developing countries are passing
through this phase and in a bid to ma the increasing food requirements agriculture
has been developed.
Contribution to capital formation:
There is general agreement on the necessity capital formation. Since agriculture
happens be the largest industry in developing country like India, it can and must
play an important role in pushing up the rate of capital formation. If it fails to do so,
the whole process economic development will suffer a setback.
Supply of raw material to agro­based industries:
Agriculture supplies raw materials to various agro­based industries like sugar, jute,
cotton textile and Vanaspati industries. Food processing industries are similarly
dependent on agriculture. Therefore, the development of these industries entirely
is dependent on agriculture.
Market for industrial products:
Increase in rural purchasing power is very necessary for industrial development as
two­ thirds of Indian population live in villages. After green revolution the purchasing
power of the large farmers increased due to their enhanced income and negligible
tax burden.

Influence on internal and external trade and commerce:

Indian agriculture plays a vital role in internal and external trade of the country.
Internal trade in food­grains and other agricultural products helps in the expansion
of service sector.

Contribution in government budget:

Right from the First Five Year Plan agriculture is considered as the prime revenue
collecting sector for the both central and state budgets. However, the governments
earn huge revenue from agriculture and its allied activities like cattle rearing, animal
husbandry, poultry farming, fishing etc. Indian railway along with the state transport
system also earn a handsome revenue as freight charges for agricultural products,
both­semi finished and finished ones.

Need of labour force:

A large number of skilled and unskilled labourers are required for the construction
works and in other fields. This labour is supplied by Indian agriculture.

Greater competitive advantages:

Indian agriculture has a cost advantage in several agricultural commodities in the
export sector because of low labour costs and self­ sufficiency in input supply.
 Recent contribution of Agriculture to Indian Economy

In 2019­20 total production of horticultural products in India was about 310 million
tonnes.
In 2019­20, India produced about 24 million tonnes of onion and exported about 2
million tonnes from it.
The potato production in 2019­20 was about 51 million tonnes and tomato
production stood at about 19 million tonnes.
As per estimates, total fresh vegetables production was about 97 million tonnes and
about 16 lakh tonnes of it was exported.
Grape’s production in 2019­20 was about 1.9 lakh million tonnes, mangoes stood at
about 49 thousand million tonnes (besides processed mango pulp adding another
85 thousand tonnes).
As of 2019, India’s livestock population rose to around 530 million including cattle,
buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry.
India is world’s largest milk producer and exports milk to countries like Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhutan, the UAE, and Afghanistan etc.
In 2019­20 about 190 million tonnes of milk was produced. In 2019­20, poultry meat
in India accounted for about 4 million tonnes and buffalo meat for about 1.5 million
metric tonnes.
India’s fish production in 2019­20 was approximately 13 thousand tonnes.
In terms of export, India exported about 11 lakh million tonnes of buffalo meat, 14
thousand million tonnes of sheep/goat meat and 3.5 lakh million tonnes of poultry
products in 2019­20.
FIve YeAR PLANs

The development plans are drawn by the Planning Commission to establish India’s
economy on a socialistic pattern in successive phases of five year periods—called the
Five Year Plans. The organization was set-up to formulate basic economic policies, draft
plans and watch its progress and implementation. It consists of:
1. Planning Commission of India.
2. National Planning Council.
3. National Development Council and State Planning Commissions.
Indian Polity

Indian Constitution

Drafting of the constitution

The task of framing the Constitution of India was given to the Constituent Assembly,
formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The Constituent Assembly appointed a
Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr B. R. Ambedkar, the then Law
Minister. The Constitution of India was enacted, signed and adopted by the Constituent
Assembly on 26 November 1949.
Commencement of Constitution: On 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into
force. It was also on this date that India became a Republic.

Structure of the Indian Constitution

Constitution is not to be interpreted as a mere law, but as the machinery by which
laws are made. A constitution is a living and organic thing, which, of all instruments
, has the greatest claim to be construed broadly and liberally. The Constitution of
India consists of:
1. The Preamble
2. Parts I to XXII, covering over 395 Articles
3. Schedules 1–12

Salient Features of Indian Constitution

Written Constitution: Indian constitution is well written and detailed. The Constitution
of India came into force on 26 January 1950 and since then Indians celebrate 26
January of each year as Republic Day. The Constitutions of Great Britain, Ireland,
Canada and Australia were major sources for the Indian Constitution.
Rigid and Flexible Constitution: In rigid constitution certain laws generally known as
constitutional or fundamental laws cannot be changed in the same manner as the
ordinary laws are changed . The constitutional laws are placed above the ordinary
law. A special procedure has been prescribed in the Indian Constitution to amend
the provisions . Some of the provisions of the Indian Constitution can be amended
easily whereas the procedure is difficult for some others . Hence , our Constitution
consists of features of both flexible and rigid constitution.
Federal System: Federalism is a system of government in which powers are divided
and distributed between the central government and state governments . Our
Constitution has the following federal features : i) Supremacy of the constitution ; ii)
Division of powers, and iii) Independent judiciary.
Secular State: The Indian Constitution establishes a secular state which means there
will be complete freedom to follow any religion . It guarantees freedom of faith ,
worship and conscience . It also means equal respect for all religions . The basis of
secularism is ethics and to bring about a society of equality and justice.
Parliamentary Democracy: The Constitution of India provides a parliamentary system
of government. A parliamentary form of government is that in which the executive is
responsible to legislature. In a parliamentary form of government, there is individual
responsibility as well as collective responsibility of the members of council of
ministers. The Constitution of India provides a bicameral legislature consisting of two
Houses – Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha . While Lok Sabha contains representatives
directly elected by the people on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise ; the Rajya
Sabha mainly consists of representatives of the states.
Fundamental Rights Part III of the Indian Constitution consists of Fundamental Right (
Articles 12 to 35). These are indispensable for the growth of human personality. They
not only create proper conditions for the complete development of an individual , but
also help in realizing true democracy.
These rights ensure equality of all citizens in the eyes of law. These rights maintain
proper balance between the individual interests and the public good. Following are
the six fundamental rights classified in the Indian Constitution: (a) Right to Equality; (b
) Right to Freedom; (c) Right against Exploitation; (d) Right to Freedom of Religion; (e
) Cultural and Educational Rights ; (f) Right to Constitutional Remedies . Right to
Property has been abolished by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978.
Directive Principles of State Policy : Part IV of the Indian Constitution consists of
Directive Principles of Sate Policy (Articles 36 to 51). They are fundamental in the
governance of the country . These principles act as a guide to the State and it is the
duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws . They aim at the
establishment of a welfare state in our country.
Socialist Principles : Equal pay for equal work . Adequate means of livelihood for
citizens, men and women equally.
Gandhian Principles: Promote cottage industry on an individual or co-operative basis
in rural areas. Organisation of village panchayats to enable them to functions as units
of self-governments. Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandary.
International Principles : Promote international peace and security. Maintain just and
honourable relations between nations.
Miscellaneous Principles : Equal justice and free legal aid. It is a libero -intellectual
principle.
Fundamental Duties: The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added Part IV A (Article
51A) in the Indian constitution containing 10 duties for the citizens of India.
According to former Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi. The chapter on
fundamental duties has been introduced not to smother rights but to establish
democratic balance.
Judicial Review : The Supreme Court and the High Courts in India enjoy the
power of judicial review. The power of judiciary to declare law as unconstitutional
and to interpret provisions of ordinary laws enacted by legislatures is called judical
review. Judiciary acts as a guardian of the constitution. Judiciary protects the right
and freedoms of the Indian citizens.
Universal Adult Franchise : The Constitution of India has introduced universal
adult franchise . All the adults above the age of 18 years , irrespective of their
castes, colour or sex are entitled to participate in the election.

Indian Judiciary

Indian administration is guided by three pillars – Legislature, Executives, and

Judiciary. Indian Judiciary. In India, we have an independent judiciary. The other
organs of the government cannot interfere with the functioning of the judiciary. It
is an important topic for the IAS Exam for the Indian Polity subject (UPSC GS ­II).
This article will provide you with relevant facts about Indian judiciary, what is the
role of the judiciary, its structure, organisation, and functioning.

The judiciary is that branch of the government that interprets the law, settles
disputes and administers justice to all citizens. The judiciary is considered the
watchdog of democracy, and also the guardian of the Constitution. For democracy to
function effectively, it is imperative to have an impartial and independent judiciary.
Independent Indian Judiciary
It means that the other branches of the government, namely, the executive and the
legislature, does not interfere with the judiciary’s functioning.
The judiciary’s decision is respected and not interfered with by the other organs.
It also means that judges can perform their duties without fear or favour.
Independence of the judiciary also does not mean that the judiciary functions
arbitrarily and without any accountability. It is accountable to the Constitution of the
country.
How Indian Judiciary is granted its independence?
The Constitution provides for a number of provisions that ensure that the
independence of the judiciary is maintained and protected. For more on this, you
can check the below links.
Indian Judiciary – Structure
India has a single integrated judicial system. The judiciary in India has a pyramidal
structure with the Supreme Court (SC) at the top. High Courts are below the SC,
and below them are the district and subordinate courts. The lower courts function
under the direct superintendence of the higher courts.
The diagram below gives the structure and organisation of the judicial system in
the country.
 Apart from the above structure, there are also two branches of the legal system
, which are:
Criminal Law: These deal with the committing of a crime by any citizen/entity. A
criminal case starts when the local police file a crime report. The court finally
decides on the matter.
Civil Law: These deal with disputes over the violation of the Fundamental
Rights of a citizen.
Supreme Court has three types of jurisdictions. They are original, appellate and
advisory. The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is mentioned in Articles 131,
133, 136 and 143 of the Constitution.

Functions of Indian Judiciary – What is the role of the Judiciary?

The functions of the judiciary in India are:
Administration of justice: The chief function of the judiciary is to apply the law to specific
cases or in settling disputes. When a dispute is brought before the courts it ‘determines
the facts’ involved through evidence presented by the contestants. The law then proceeds
to decide what law is applicable to the case and applies it. If someone is found guilty of
violating the law in the course of the trial, the court will impose a penalty on the guilty
person.
Creation of judge­case law: In many cases, the judges are not able to, or find it difficult to
select the appropriate law for application. In such cases, the judges decide what the
appropriate law is on the basis of their wisdom and common sense. In doing so, judges
have built up a great body of ‘judge­made law’ or ‘case law.’ As per the doctrine of ‘stare
decisis’, the previous decisions of judges are generally regarded as binding on later
judges in similar cases.
Guardian of the Constitution: The highest court in India, the SC, acts as the guardian of
the Constitution. The conflicts of jurisdiction between the central government and the state
governments or between the legislature and the executive are decided by the court. Any
law or executive order which violates any provision of the constitution is declared
unconstitutional or null and void by the judiciary. This is called ‘judicial review.’ Judicial
review has the merit of guaranteeing the fundamental rights of individuals and ensuring a
balance between the union and the units in a federal state.
Protector of Fundamental Rights: The judiciary ensures that people’s rights are not
trampled upon by the State or any other agency. The superior courts enforce
Fundamental Rights by issuing writs.
Supervisory functions: The higher courts also perform the function of supervising the
subordinate courts in India.
Advisory functions: The SC in India performs an advisory function as well. It can give its
advisory opinions on constitutional questions. This is done in the absence of disputes and
when the executive so desires.
Administrative functions: Some functions of the courts are non­judicial or administrative in
nature. The courts may grant certain licenses, administer the estates (property) of
deceased persons and appoint receivers. They register marriages, appoint guardians of
minor children and lunatics.
Special role in a federation: In a federal system like India’s, the judiciary also performs the
important task of settling disputes between the centre and states. It also acts as an arbiter
of disputes between states.
Conducting judicial enquiries: Judges normally are called to head commissions that
enquire into cases of errors or omissions on the part of public servants.

Indian Judiciary – Civil Courts

Civil courts deal with civil cases. Civil law is referred to in almost all cases other than
criminal cases. Criminal law applies when a crime such as a robbery, murder, arson, etc.
is perpetrated.
Civil law is applied in disputes when one person sues another person or entity. Examples
of civil cases include divorce, eviction, consumer problems, debt or bankruptcy, etc.
Judges in civil courts and criminal courts have different powers. While a judge in a
criminal court can punish the convicted person by sending him/her to jail, a judge in a civil
court can make the guilty pay fines, etc.
District Judges sitting in District Courts and Magistrates of Second Class and Civil Judge
(Junior Division) are at the bottom of the judicial hierarchy in India.
The court of the district judges is the highest civil court in a district.
It has both administrative and judicial powers.
The court of the District Judge is in the district HQ.
It can try criminal and civil cases and hence, the judge is called District and Sessions
Judge.
Under the district courts, there are courts of the Sub­Judge, Additional Sub­Judge and
Munsif Courts.
Most civil cases are filed in the Munsif’s court.
Civil courts have four types of jurisdiction:
Subject Matter Jurisdiction: It can try cases of a particular type and relate to a
particular subject.
Territorial Jurisdiction: It can try cases within its geographical limit, and not beyond
the territory.
Pecuniary Jurisdiction: Cases related to money matters, suits of monetary value.
Appellate Jurisdiction: This is the authority of a court to hear appeals or review a
case that has already been decided by a lower court. The Supreme Court and the
High Courts have appellate jurisdiction to hear cases that were decided by a lower
court.
Center and State Relationship

India, being a federal republic, needs coordination between the Center and
the States in many political, administrative, and governance affairs. In order
to avoid conflicts, the division of powers is clearly specified through the three
lists in Schedule 7 ie. Union list, State list, and Concurrent List. Inter­State
Council and National Development Council are other mechanisms/
discussion platforms for conflict resolution between the Center and States.

Inter­State Council
Constitutional Body – Article 263.
Based on the Sarkaria Commission recommendation(1983).
Formed in 1990.
Investigate and discuss the subjects of common interest between the Union
and State(s) or among the States.
The present composition of the Inter­State Council is as follows:
Prime Minister (Chairman).
Chief Ministers of all States.
Chief Ministers of Union Territories having a Legislative Assembly and
Administrators of UTs not having a Legislative Assembly and Governors of
States under President’s Rule (Governor’s Rule in the case of J&K).
Six Ministers of Cabinet rank in the Union Council of Ministers to be
nominated by the Prime Minister.
Four Ministers of Cabinet rank as Permanent invitees.

National Development Council

1.Non­constitutional and non­statutory.
2.Also known as Rashtriya Vikas Parishad.
3.It was set up on August 6, 1952.
4.NDC’s objective is to strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of
the nation in support of the Plan.
5.The National Development Council is presided over by the Prime Minister
of India and includes all Union Ministers, Chief Ministers of all the States,
and Administrators of Union Territories and Members of the Planning
Commission. Ministers of State with independent charge are also invited to
the deliberations of the Council.
 Local Government

The local self government includes both rural and urban government. It is the third
level of government. There are 2 types of local government in operation - Panchayats
in rural areas and Municipalities in urban area. Lord Ripon is known as the father of
local self government.

Local Government

Rural Urban Committees

+
Acts
Panchayati 73rd Amendment Structures 74th Municipalities Structures
Raj Act Composition, Amendment Composition,
Power & Act Power &
Functions Functions

Panchayati Raj
The term Panchayti Raj in India signifies the system of rural local self-government . It
has been established in all the states of India by the Acts of the State Legislatures to build
democracy at the grass root level . It is entrusted with rural development . It was
constituationlised through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992.

Evolution of Panchayati Raj

• The Narasimha Rao Government introduced the Constitutional Amendment
Bill in the Lok Sabha in September, 1991.
• It was passed by the Lok Sabha on 22nd December, 1992 and by the Rajya Sabha on
23rd December. Later it was approved by the 17 State Assemblies and received the
assent of the President of India on 20th April, 1993.
• Thus, it emerged as the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 and came into
force on 24th April, 1993.
• Rajasthan was the first state to establish the institution of Panchayati Raj in Nagaur
District in 1959. Rajasthan was followed by Andhra Pradesh.