VSGCP-G-95-001 C3

CLAM CULTURE: THE POSSIBILITIES

AND THE PITFALLS

~ pe~ BY
u~~g& MICHAEL
J. OESTERLING
8 COPY
ONLY

VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF MAMNE SCIENCE

SCHOOL OF MAMNE SCIENCE
COLLEGEOF WILLIAM & MARY
GLOUCESTER
POINT!VIRGINIA23062
 Nitional Sea Grant Depository
PellLibraryBuilding- GSO
University of Rhode Island
Narragansett,RI 02882-1197USA

This documentwaspublishedby
VirginiaSeaGrant'sMarineAdvisory Program
VirginiaInstituteof MarineScience,
School of Marine Science
Collegeof William W Mary,
GloucesterPoint,Virginia 23062

Author: MichaelJ. Oesterling

Editor: Susan C. Waters

VirginiaSeaGrantMarineResource
Advisory
No.58
VSG-95-03
 OVERVIEW
Clam culture in Virginia has recently
received a great deal of attention due to
the declining production of wild fishery stocks,anrl to
the a.pparentsuccess
of somecommercialclamfarms.
A 1994 survey of Virginia aquaculture by r.heVirginia
Agricultural Statistics Serviceidentit ted hard clams as
the most valuable cultured product in thc Common-
wealth;production in 1993exceeded$11million in
grosssales.
Bc wary of reports rhat clam farming is easyand
guarantees
financial rewards.Farmingclamsis much
more corriplicated than throwing clams overboard
and returning a few years later to harvest them for
market. The financial risks associatedwith aquacul-
ture ventures can bc substantial, depending upori
your scale of operatiori and any loan equity you may
have committed.
Correctly approached, «lam farming can be
profitable. It should be treatedlike anyother arming trailers or other "buildings" !, The purpose of this
enterprisethat maybe addedto an existingoperation stage is
to increa.se diversification, or as a new venture.
Capital investment, labor, an acceptablesite and some
specialized equipmerit are required and it is riot ~ to induce spawning thc releaseof reproductive
without risks. One of the biggest problems associated
with clam culture results from failing to realize that
one is dealingwith a liveanimaland that the "crop"
requirescontinualattentionjust like anyother animal
husbandry.Failure to realizethis could result in total
loss or reduction of he crop.
Careful preparation reduces or minimizes the
chances of f'ailure. Clam culture can be a disaster
to poor planning or lack of information. Beginners
should consider starting on a small scale. Much
practicalarid relativelyinexpensiveexperiencecan be
gainedby initially growinga smallplot of clams. As
experiencein production and marketingis gained,
you mayexpandinto largerand more complex
o peratio rls.
The elements necessaryfor a successfulclam
culture enterprise can be disddedinto 4 different
categories;
~ Suitable site ' one which has accessto acceptable
water ! .
~ Mariagement time and skills sometimes referred
to as moving up the learning curve!.
~ Money it takes money to make money!.
~ Market you don't make money growing clams;you
make money selling clarris!.
Thesecategoriesare important to the success
of
a clamfarming operationand shouldbe well under-
stood prior to any culturing attempts.
STA '.F.S OF DFVKLOPVILrsi f
Clam culture can be viewed as occurring in
three stages;
~ Hat.chery: Produces small seed grown froin eggs
through larval stages,
~ Nursery: Growslargerseedfor field planting.
~ Grow-out: Produces marketable size clams from
seed.
The hatchery stage,consistsof tanks and
equipment.in an upland facility including barges,
to condition broodstock into ripeness as required.
game tes! .
for embryogenic egg hatching! and larval culture.
for larval metamorphosis setting!.
~ to accomplishthe above,watermodificationssuch
as heating, cooling, filtering and chemical steriliza-
tion may be necessaryand equipment to carry this
due out is required.
~ and, if extensive water modification is used,
unicellular algae culture may be needed, with its
equipment requirements.
The hatchery stage techniques are standard for
all areas,but are fairly complex and expensive.
Standard methodology for larval cultivation has been
developedand basicmethodshavebeendescribed.
The section labelled "Sources of Information on Clam
Culture" lists publications where additional informa-
tion on methodology may be found,
The nurserystagetakesthe youngclamsor "set"
and protects, feeds and grows them until they are
largeenoughto plant in final growoutconditionson
natural bottom. This can be done by using a land-
based,field-based or combinat.ion system. Thc land-
basedsystemholds clamsin tanksor containersand
provides
foodbypumpingriaturalwatersor cultured PR >DI. ,TIV I:11!F.I.INE<> AND
algae.Manytimesyouwill heartheterms"upweller"
waterflowsfrom bottom to top within a cylin<fer Ct! NSl BERATI ! NN
holding smallclams!or "downwcller" waterflows Siteselection
is themost
imPortant
steP
i n establish-
from top to bottom! associated
with thesetypesof inga clam
farm.Choosing
a sitefor bivalvecultureis
sysrems.Another land-basednui'seryuseslorig he first and mostimportant step. 'I'rial plotsan<i
shallowtanksor troughs raceways!.Rawseawateris experiments
witheqtiipmcntarerecommended
pumpedfromanadjacentsourceandeitherdelivered beforea large-scale
operationis es ablished,A
ro one end of the racewaycreating a horizontal flow miriimum of one yearis recommendedto assess
the
or sprayed<iverthe watersurfaceto promotegood seasOnal varult On.
watermixing. The field-basednurseryplacesjuvc-
nilesin protectedcontainersplant d within thc 13ethorough in your'examinatiOnOfa sitearid
natural environment. Field-based nurse» systerris rememb<.rthat biological,environmenta,sociological
elirninatc the need for pumping, but labor and primarily public perception!,arid operationalfactors
equipment
cost~will bedifierentfrom land-based all interact, 'I'hcscrangefrom the effect<ifpliysical
systems.Nurserysystemdesignwill varyin response 11aramc erS ro p<iliticalfor cs. TopiCslo consi<ler
to technicalcapability,equipmcntavailability,preda- includewa erdcptfi; borlom characteristics; pro ec-
tor abundance, cost consideratioris, land availilbility, tion froln waveaction; Sva crquality; tidal flOWand
permittingand labor limitati<!ns.Eachof thesemilst height; tlirhidity; pre<la i<in;
fouling; p<illu ion;
be considered for each locality when evalua ing site n ivigablewaters;access; coriflie of usc;and permits.
requirementsand availableresources. Thc inipor anceof'carel'lilsiteselectioncarirlot
Thegrow-outstageuseslargerseedclamswliicli be >vcrcrriphasizcd. It will plobiibly be impossiblero
arc plantedin field conditionsusingnatural food fin<iarid gainaccessto a sirethat will be perfectin
phytoplankton!iintil harvest.Clamscan be grown < very!vay, I hus,your selectiorlof a sitewill involv<!a
in trays,bags,under netsor cagesdesignedto protect seriesof lradc-<>ffsand c<>rnprOmiscs.
YO rmay firid,
the seedfrom predatorsand to allowsubstan ialwiitei for' example, hat convenientlylocatedsiteswhich
flow to providefood. VariablesI'or grow-outto yielrlexcellentgrowtlialsohaveilnoverabundanceof
harvestare sitespecificand affectedby predators, pre<Litors
or endto getbliricdin s lndandreqliirc
fouling,foodavailability,
temperature
anddissolverl m<!rc rie ending.
Lxcep I 'inal gl nv h 1
oxygen, I larvestingis often locallyregidated.
Hatchery, nursery and grow-out sys emsma! no
all be needed o develop a profitable bilsincss. One
1iltcs nlilv hilvc o tre
sile<'itir< d iii ortler r<i r 'I'he criteria for ezralu-
ating an aPPrr>j'rri ate
ge g<!odsuriival, or
or hvoof thesemaybe the bestinitial s ra cqqfor your err>z rcrut
siteinr'lude
Vlre V<'1Sil.
businessplanwith additionsor full integration er:olop'cat,
r:r>mjeting
possible
later, In general,
mostculturing
canbecome Ec<>f<!ga
of tbe
resource zz.sv.s
and
successful
througha grow-out
operationbegunby site gi ca lv;if f<cts
purchasing
large-size
seedandgrowing
themout. <'lain grOw h;in<i
Later one can add a nurseryafter becomingprofi- stlrvival. 1<up<!
rtiln
cient at seedhandling,or if availabilityof seedor it.s 1'let olis ln< hlrlc th<.'
costbecomesa limiting factor,estahlisliinga hatcticr! 1iVirlg ocganiSnts ha
could bc a viable corisideration. Another' option to coll rihtn ' to the
be consideredis enteringinto a "cooperative"grow- f<>orl,f ><rtirtg,pn <L1-
ing agreementwith an establishedclamgr<nvcror o<1, iuld dlscas ', ils
hatcherywhichwill provideseedin return for the w' 'll ils tll C w.ll<'1
<'hilract<. r'i'sri 's <!f' tile
opportunityto marketthefinal product.Thesetvpcs
of arrangementscanbebeneficialto bothen ra-level si tc.
producersand the establishedgrower. I'<><i<1
algae<>rphyt<>plankton! is a majorfactor
coil ri'bu ingto rlam growth. Tliis is controlled by
both hc qililntitydcnSirv!<!ffOOdaswell ilS'the
qlialily fi«.rsity! f<»!davailable.Ari easywayto
< raft ; t<he i<i<i<1
p<i entialof an arcil is to look for
lie pres<ncc <! nattirallyoCC lrringclamS.
 Foiiling organisms c;in affect water and fo<>d
flow through protective eqiiipment and can inhibit
growth and lower prodtic value. Fouling can vary
seasonally i id greatly afTectequipmcnt and labor
costs. Foiiling organisms may compete f'or t.hesame
food organisms as thc clams, titus greatly affecting
clan>growth rates.
-C:1ampredators are o»t ol the most important
aspectsto consider iti site se-I»
<-lion. Their type and
abiindanc<. riecd lo be assess<cl in deciding what.
eqiiipment and inetfiOds ate ttsed for protection,
Ol.lie ' envi ron m<.nial f;ictors iiiclude weather,
w;ivc and bottom conditions, clat i survival, equip-
inciil neecls,and operational constraints, I hese
coiidilions incliide gcograpliic and seasonalvariation
iti salinity, temperature, w tet' quality anti flow;
ho lorn sediment characterislics; and wind, wave ind
tidal action.
The optimal salinity raiigc is between 2:>and 35
pat'ls per thoiis;md. Salinities iniich aboveor below
l.hisrange for morc thar>short periods may result in
slow growth or even death, Optimal temperature
range is between 20-28' : 8-82'F! . :Ia tts can
sursive in higher and l<>wcrtcmpet'a i res but growth
rates are af'fcctcd. Dissolved oxygen levels should be
above 8>.64ml/I parts per million! during most of
the diurnal cycle.
Protecl.ion from wind and wave acl.ion miist he
consiclered in site sclcction. Ateas exposed to prcvail-
iiig wincbscan causesediineiil movement and workiiig-
con<fition probleiiis. Al bough clams can grow in
most scdiinctit typesanil at most depths, the la ter two
will itffec the equipment, methods and working
condil.ions.
Adjacent landowners and public opinion can
greatly affect ob aining a lcasc or expanding an
opera ion, Alternate iises hy fisherinen and hoaters as
well as residential aesthetics son e imes referred to as
see lievista!, potential sources of polliition, conflicts
with other usersand future development nccd to bc
considered.
I plattd accessand its contributioii to field
operations, boat launching, cquiprnent storage,
h;irvesling and seciirity wali affect.how well a clam
farm operates. Site construction constraints, abilities
to expand, permitting and availability of utilities need
to bc evaluated for all upland facilities and their costs
included in all businessplans. Pl;ms for handling
security should also include upland and field sites,as
well as access between them.
Fconomic considerationsinclude a range of opera-
tional variables affected by environmental and
biological condit.ions. ::ulture methods, equipment,
labor aruf financial assessmentsnay vary becauseof
site specificity, >tdecluateinitial i nvest>nent
capitali s
needed to offsetnegativeannual profitsu>hiih>nayoccur
during thefirst four to /iveyearsof oPerntion.Year-to-year
cash needs w~II be an additional financial burden
diiring thc start-upyearsand youmustclearlyunder-
standthe timing and magnitudeof aII costsand
earnings.
leasing, per>nittingand re~ilation re<luire>nents
shouRI be researched and all permits, licensesand
notifications he made to proper authorities hcf<>rc
starting your operati<m. Rerneinber that water
classifications,leasing and harvest.ingregulations nay
change, In Virginia, your f~rststop will bc with the
Virginia Marine ResourcesCommission VMRC!.
VMRC is responsible for managing thc leasing of
state-ownedbot.toms, 'I'hey maintain maps and charts
showing areasavailable for leasing. This figures
prorninendy in yoiir site sclcction proces~. At the
satne time, you can inquire as to the current water
classification. Basedupon established bacteriological
standards, waters are classified as to whether oi' not
shellfish may be harvested for direct consumption.
Those waters from which shellfish nay be harvested
for direct consiimption are ktiown as "approved."
Other water classificationsmay allow for seasonal
harvesting, harvest for relaying a form of self-
purification!, or may prohibit shellfish harvesting at
all tiines. While VMRC:will probably be able to tell
you what the classification is, it is the Division of
Shellfish Sanitation DSS!, Virginia Department of
Health, that actually does the classification. Once a
site is chosen, it would be ads4sable to contact l.he DSS
lo investigateany pastharvestingclosuresin the area
or if the area is subject to seasonalrestrictions.
Depending upon the scaleof your operation, you ntay
also he required to obtain a per nit from the Virginia
Department of Environmental Ouality DE@ for
water withdrawals or discharges. All local building
and businessordinances must also be satisfied prior to
operation.
klarhet considerations should include local and
national demand, seasonalityand consistencyof
supply.It is alsothe time to makedecisionsasto how
you intend to sell your product, Will you consign
product. to a wholesaler or direct sell? This should be
an integral part of your businessplan. Remember,
you don't make rtiOneygrowing clams; you make
money selliiig clams if you sell them for a high
enough price!,
 Biolop'calbackgrorzrrdnote that it is placed 5th in
order of importance! of the c!am should bc under-
stood when evaluating techniques, seed sources,
growth problems and conditions for enhancing
growth. There is a greatdeal of written material
available on clam biology.
Predationis a major causeof mortality in a clam
operation, Sufficientexclusiontechniquesor plant.-
ing strategies for instance,
larger sized seed! must be
incorporated into farming
methods ro ensure profit-
able survival rates. For
instance, in Virginia the blue
crab anrl mud crabs are
major c!am predators. Most
peop!e would irnrnediately
think it is the biggest crabs
that can cause the most
damage. This is not neces-
sarily true. Small crabs, just
metamorphosing from
mega!opsto lirst crabstagecanactuallysettlethrough
the meshof protectivedevicesand causeextensive
damageasthey growand consumeclam seed.
Harvestingregulationsof permitted equipment or
techniques,aswell asshellfishsanitationsurveysof
harvestablewaters should be researched for present
and future statusfor your area. This aspect of clam
farmingwill affectlabor requirementsI'or your
operation.
¹zrseryaridgr<nuaut
techniques
varyin designand
efficiencya eachsite. Experimentmodifyingvarious
methodsand proceduresto bestsuit your location.
What works best for your neighbor may not be yotir
best option.
RecordkeePing
is an important factor in eflectivc
evaluationand organizationof anyfarm operation.
Maintain accurate records to establish pat.ternsand
trendsthat can help you modifyand improvein
delinquent areas.
Security
is a vitalcomponentof anyclamfarm
venture. Be surethat you haveeffectivemethodsto
protectyour crop from theft. Whilepoachingand
vandalism have not been serious problems in Virginia,
the expansionof "opportunities"by an increasein
culture activities creates the potential for problems.
LABOR AND TIME
RE QI:IREMENTS
It cannot be stated enough, that clam cultiirc is
notjust throwingsmallclamseedon the bottom and
comingbacka coupleyearslater to reapa bountifu!
harvest. A great deal of hard work is involved. Be-
sidesallocatingyour resourcesmoney!,you needto
understand the time requirements for different
aspectsof clam culture,
A hatchery is very tcchnica! and time corisum-
ing. Is!otonly arc you takingcareof your broodstock,
but vou are also growing food a!gac! to feed them. A
!ot of "busy" work is involved, but it is not mindless
work. Each task must be perlormcd at the appropri-
ate time and in accordance with a preset schedule.
Attention must be paid ro the details and sanitation.
You are also spawning animals and growing plank-
tonic larvae to the setting stage,as well as culturing
algae.
During thc nurseryphaseyou will be routinely
cleaningand gradingyour smal!seed. Depending
upon thc sizeof yoiir facilitythis could occiipy a great
deal of time.
Field planting beginsbeforeyou actualput seed
clams on your beds. You inust make sure your
groundsarcpreparedprior to going out with seedto
plant. Areobstructionsremoved?Haveyou staked
out your planting area.' Haveyou decidedwhich
groundsare to he planted,and whatorder? Is all your
equipmentready?The actualplanting is straight
forward and not too difficult.
Once you have planted your seed and predator
protectionis in p!ace,it is not time to sii backarid
wait I'or thc do!!ars to come rolling in. FieM mainte-
nance is.a never ending task. You must continually
maintain your plots. This means regularly inspect.ing
the predatorprotection, removingpredatorsfrom
under~cts, lilting the nets if they are silting espe-
ciallyafter wind or storm surges!,cleaningor replac-
ing netsthat becomefouled or tom. Youmayneedto
cull or grade your beds, depending on how you
planted. In the eventof unusualweatherevents
storms!, you need to be prepared to do extensive net
replacementor repairsin a shori.period of time.
Essentiallyyou are on call 365 daysa year,to protect
the well being of your investment.
 If you have ever dug clams,then you know how
strenuous harvesting can be. Multiple that experi-
ence by thousands of clams. If you are to be a year-
round supplier,then your work schedulemustinclude Virginia. Approachedin a logical,wellinformed
harvestingand gradingor packagingtime on a weekly manner, it has the potential for returning a profit on
basis, This means keeping track of tides for the most your efforts. Likewise,doric without adequate
favorable time to harvest and scheduling necessary
field actiidties in order of priorities.
Marketing may or may not be a labor problem,
dependinguponyour initial decisions.Ilowevcr,do
not overlook the time constraints in selling your
clams. The world will not beat a path to your door t.o
buy your clams unlessyou have done your market.ing
work in advance.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
ON CLA~ CULTURE
Adams,CJ.C. Cato,J.E. Easley,Jr., S. Kcmp, W.
Mahan, J.J.Manzi, M, Oesterling, R. Pomeroy, E.
Thunberg, D. Vaughan, and R. Walker, 1991.
Investing in Commercial Hard C]am Culture: A
Comprehensive Guide to the South Atlantic
St.ates.Report Number 104, Florida Sca Grant,
CollegeProgram,Universityof Florida,Gainesville,
FL 32611.
Castagna,Michael and John N. Kraeuter, 1981.
Manual for Growing the Hard Clam Mercenaria.
Special Report in Applied Marine Science and
OceanEngineeringNo. 249, Virginia Instittite of
Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA 23062. Out
of Print!
Hartman, Michael. 1989, Manual for the Design and
Operationof a LowBudgetHatcheryfor the Hard
Clam Mercenariamercenari a. Aquaculture Report
Series,Florida Department of Agriculture and
Corisumer Seridces,Divrisionof Marketing,
Mayo Building, Tallahassee,FI. 32399-0800.
Huner,Jay V. and E. Evan Brown editors!. 1985.
Crustaceanand AfollttskAquacultttrein ttu United
States.The AVI Publishing Co. Inc., P.O, Box 831,
Westport, CT 06881,
CONCLUSION
Clam culture is an expanding businessin coastal
planning it is guaranteed to lose you money!
Assistance in clam culture can be obtained from
the Marine Advisory Program, Virginia Institute of
Marine Science,College of William and Mary,
Glouccster Point, VA 23062.
A : KN OWLED GEM ENTS
I hispublicationbenefittedgreatlyfrom critical
renewby Mike Castagna.Much of our kriowledgeon
clam culture can be traced to his efforts. Thanks,
Mike!
Kemp,Phillip S. 1991.ClamCardening: A Manual
for the SmallScale Clam Operation in North
Carolina. UNC-SG-91-02.University of North
Carolina SeaGrant College Program, Box
8605, NCSU, Raleigh, NC 27695-8605,
Loosanoff; Victor L. and Harry C, Davis. 1963.
Rearing of BivalveMollusks. IN F.S.Russell
editor!, Advances in Marine Biology, Volume 1,
Academic Press lnc., New York.
Malinowski,Steve. 1986. Small-ScaleFarmingof the
Hard Clam on Long Island, New York. Aquacul-
hire Innovation Program, New York State Urban
DevelopmentCorporation, 1515 Broadway,New
York, NY 10036.
Manzi,J.J, and M. Castagna editors!, 1989. Clam
AIaricttlturein ¹rth America, Developments in
Aquaculture and FisheriesScience, 19. Elsevier
Science Publishing Co. Inc655 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10010.
Vaughan,D., L. Creswelland M. Pardee, 1989,A
Manual for Farming thc Hard Shell Clam in
Florida. Aquaculture Report Series,Florida
Departmentof Agriculture and ConsumerServices,
Division of Marketing, Mayo Building, Tallahassee,
FL 32399-0800.