GRAPHS

1 INTRODUCTION
We have studied one non-linear data structure so far i.e Trees. A graph is another non-
linear data structure that is widely used to solve many real-life computing problems. For
example, we need to use a graph to find out whether two places on a road-map are connected
and what is the shortest distance between them. Graphs are used in simulating electrical
circuits to find out current flows and voltage drops at various points in the circuit. Graphs are
widely used in telephone and computer networks.
Graphs have great historical significance too. In 1736, the famous mathematician Euler used
the concept of a graph to solve the “Koenigsberg problem”. In the small town of Koenisberg in
Prussia, the river Pregal flows around the island of Kneiphof and then divides into two. The four
land areas ( A, B, C, D) bordering the river are connected by seven bridges ( a,b,c,d,e,f,g). The
problem is to find out whether it is possible to start walking from some area, cross each bridge
exactly once and return to the starting land area. Euler used graphs to prove that this would not
be possible. A walk which achieves this is called an “Eulerian Walk”.

{{{ Diagram }}}

In this chapter, we will study this data structure, its implementation and its applications.
Before that, we will study some definitions and terminology.

DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Graph
A graph G is a collection of two sets V and E. V is a finite non empty set of vertices
(or nodes) and E is a finite non empty set of edges (or arcs) connecting a pair of vertices.
An edge is represented by two adjacent vertices G is represented as G = (V,E)
Example

10 - 1
 10 - 28
Graphs

V1
G 1 = (V,E )
V = { V 1 , V 2 V 3, V 4 }
V2 V4 E = { ( V 1 , V 2 ), (V 2 , V 3 ) }
(V 3 , V 4 ), (V 4 , V 1 ) }
V3
G1

V1 V1 V1

V2 V4 V2 V3 V2 V3

V3 V4
V4 V5 V6 V7

G2 G3 G4
Some examples of graphs

Undirected Graph
A graph is an undirected graph if the pairs of vertices that make up the edges are
unordered pairs.
i.e. an edge(Vi, Vj ) is the same as (Vj, Vi). The graph G1 shown above is an undirected
graph.

Directed Graph
In a directed graph, each edge is represented by a pair of ordered vertices i.e. an edge
has a specific direction.
In such a case, edge (Vi, Vj)  (Vj, Vi)
Example
V1 V3

V2 V4
G5
Directed graph

G5 = (V,E)
V = { V1, V2, V3, V4}
E = { (V1, V2 ), (V1,V4), (V2, V4), (V1, V3) }
For an edge (Vi, Vj) in a directed graph, vertex Vi is called the tail and Vj is the head of the
edge. Vi is adjacent to Vj and Vj is adjacent from Vi.
 10 - 28
Graphs

Complete Graph
If an undirected graph has n vertices, the maximum number of edges it can have is
nC2 = n (n-1) / 2. If an undirected graph G has ‘n’ vertices and nC2 edges, it is called a
complete graph.
If the graph G is directed and has n vertices, G is complete if it has n(n-1) edges.

Multigraph
A multigraph is a graph in which the set of edges may have multiple occurrences of the
same edge. Note that it is not a graph.

Degree of Vertex
The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges incident to that vertex.
In the undirected graph G1, the degree of each vertex = 2.
Indegree of a Vertex
If G is a directed graph, the indegree of a vertex is the number of edges for which it is head
i.e. the numbers edges coming to it.
Example In graph G5, indegree (V4) = 2
indegree (V1) = 0
A node whose indegree is 0 is called a source node.
Outdegree of a vertex
If G is directed graph, the out degree of a vertex is the number of edges for which it is the tail
i.e. the number of edges going out of it.
Example outdegree (V1) = 3
outdegree (V2) = 1
A node whose outdegree is 0 is called a sink node.

Adjacent vertices
If (Vi, Vj) is an edge in G, then we say that Vi and Vj are adjacent and the edge (Vi, Vj) is
incident on Vi and Vj.

Path
A path from vertex Vp to Vq exists if there exists vertices Vi1, Vi2, …..Vin such that there exist
edges (Vp, Vi1) , (Vi1, Vi2),………(Vin, Vq)
Length of a Path
 10 - 28
Graphs
The length of a path is the number of edges on it.
Linear Path
A linear path is a path whose first and last vertices are distinct.
Cycle
A cycle is a path whose first and last vertices are the same.
Example V1 V2 V3 V1 is a cycle in G4. A graph with no cycles is called an acyclic graph. A
directed acyclic graph is called dag.

Connected Graph
Two vertices Vi and Vj are said to be connected if there is a path in G from Vi to Vj.
Strongly Connected Graph: A directed graph G is said to be strongly connected if for every
pair of distinct vertices Vi, Vj, there is a directed path from Vi to Vj and also from
Vj to Vi.
Weakly Connected Graph : A directed graph G is said to be weakly connected there exists
atleast one set of distinct vertices Vi, Vj, such that there is a directed path from Vi to Vj but no
path from Vj to Vi.
Example: The following is a weakly connected graph because there is a path from V1 to V4 but
none from V4 to V1.
V1 V3

V2 V4

G5
Subgraph
A subgraph of G is a graph G such that V(G)  V(G) and E(G)  E(G)
Example: The subgraphs of G1 are

V1 V3
V2

V2 V3 V4
Subgraphs of G1

Forest
A Forest is defined as an acyclic graph in which every node has one or no predecessors.

Weighted Graph or Network

 10 - 28
Graphs
A number (weight) may be associated with each edge of a graph. Such a graph is called a
weighted graph or a network.
Example
The number may represent the distance, cost, etc.

V1
10 5

V2 V3 V4
4 6
Weighted Graph

Spanning Tree
When a graph G is connected, a traversal method visits all its vertices. In this case the
edges of G are partitioned into two sets.
T for the edges traversed.
B (Back edges) which were not traversed.
The edges in T form a tree which connects all vertices of graph G. Such a tree is called a
spanning tree.
A spanning tree consists of the minimum number of edges to connect all the vertices.
Example

g ra p h (i) (ii) (iii)

S p a n n in g tre e s
A graph and its spanning trees

Minimum Cost Spanning Tree

The spanning tree having the minimum sum of weights of edges is called minimum cost
spanning tree.
These weights may represent the lengths, distances, cost, etc.
Such trees are widely used in practical applications such as network of road lines between
cities, etc.

Spanning Forest
A spanning forest of a graph G = ( V, E) is a collection of vertex disjoint trees Ti = (Vi, Ei), 1 i
 k such that V =  Vi for all 1 i  k and Ei  E(G), 1 i  k
 10 - 28
Graphs

GRAPH REPRESENTATION
To represent a graph in memory, we will have to store data in such a way that the
information about vertices and edges can be correctly stored and it is possible to extract the
required information and manipulate it. Hence, it is important to select the correct method of
implementation so that algorithms may be applied on the graph.
Several representations for graphs are possible. However, we shall be studying only three of
them.
i. Adjacency matrix
ii. Adjacency list
iii. Adjacency multilist
The choice of a particular representation will depend upon the application.

1 Adjacency Matrix
The adjacency matrix A of a graph G is a two dimensional array of n  n elements where n is
the numbers of vertices. The entries of A are defined as
A[i][j] = 1, if there exist an edge between vertices i and j in G.
A[i][j] = 0, if no edge exists between i and j.

Example

Adjacency Matrix

The adjacency matrix for an undirected graph will be a symmetric matrix. To find out whether
vertex j is adjacent to vertex i, the matrix element A[i][j] will have to be checked. If it is 0, it
indicates that j is not adjacent to i.

Class definition
 10 - 28
Graphs
The class definition for a graph represented as an adjacency matrix will be :

class graph
{
int A[10][10]; //adjacency matrix
int no_of_vertices;

public:
// member functions
}
Calculation of Degree
i. Undirected graph
From the adjacency matrix, it is very easy to calculate the degree of vertices of an
undirected graph.
The degree of vertex i is the number of 1’s in its row (or the sum of row i )
ii. Directed graph
(Indegree) For a directed graph, the indegree of vertex i is the sum of elements in
column i, i.e.total number of 1’s in column i.
(Outdegree) The outdegree of a vertex i is the sum of row i (i.e. number of 1’s in row i )

2 Adjacency List
The above method of representation has one major drawback. It uses arrays and hence is
memory inefficient.
Adjacency list is a linked representation of a graph. In this representation, there is one list
for each vertex v in the graph. Each list stores the vertices which are adjacent to vertex v.
Thus, for a graph with ‘n’ vertices, there are ‘n’ lists.
Each node of the list i contains two fields - Vertex and Link:
i. Vertex - Vertex number which is adjacent to vertex i.
ii. Link - Pointer to the next node in the list.
Each list has a head node. The array of all head-nodes represents the graph.

Example:
The adjacency list for graph G6 will be
V1 2 3 4 NULL

V2 1 3 NULL

V3 1 2 4 NULL
V4 1 3 5 NULL
V5 3 4 NULL
 10 - 28
Graphs
Adjacency List for G6

The adjacency list for graph G7 will be

Adjacency list for G7

Node Structure
The structure definition will be
class graphnode
{
int vertex ;
graphnode *next ;
};

The graph will now be defined as an array of pointers, each pointing to a list of nodes.

class listgraph
{
graphnode *list[MAX]; //array of pointers
int n; // number of vertices
public:
//operations
};

The following program implements a graph using an adjacency list. We will have to create
the list for each vertex by accepting adjacency information from the user. Starting with vertex 1,
we will build the adjacency list till the lists for all the vertices have been created. Each list will be
created in the same manner as we created a singly linked list i.e by creating nodes and
attaching them to the end of the list.

Program : Creation of Adjacency List

 10 - 28
Graphs
class listgraph; //forward declaration

class graphnode
{
int vertex;
graphnode *next;
public:
graphnode(int n=0) //constructor
{
vertex=n;
next=NULL;
}

friend class graph;

};

class listgraph
{
graphnode *list[MAX]; //array of pointers
int n; // number of vertices
public:
listgraph(int nov) //constructor
{
n=nov;
for(int j=0; j<n;j++)
list[j]=NULL;
}
void create();
void display();
};

void listgraph::create()
{
int i, j;
graphnode *temp, *newnode;
char ans;
for(i=0; i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
cout<<”\nIs there an edge between vertex “ << i+1<<”and”<<j+1;
cin>>ans;

if (ans==’y’)
{
newnode=new graphnode(j+1); //call constructor
 10 - 28
Graphs
/*** Attach newnode to list i ****/
if(list[i]==NULL)
list[i]=temp=newnode;
else
{
temp->next=newnode;
temp=newnode;
}
} /* end if */
} /* end for */
} /* end for */
}

void listgraph::display()
{
graphnode *temp;
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cout << endl;
cout<< "Vertex" << i+1 << “->”;
temp=list[i];
while(temp!=NULL) /** Traverse list i **/
{
cout<< "v” <<temp->vertex <<”->“;
temp=temp->next;
}
cout<<"NULL";
}
}

int main()
{
int n;
cout<<”Enter the number of vertices :";
cin>>n;
listgraph g(n);
g.create();
g.display();
return 0;
}

Inverse Adjacency List

From the adjacency list we can calculate the outdegree of any vertex i. The total number of
nodes in list ‘i’ is its outdegree.
To obtain the indegree, we can construct an inverse adjacency list. The inverse adjacency
list of G7 is as shown.
 10 - 28
Graphs

V1 N U LL
V2 1 NULL

V3 1 2 NULL

V4 1 NULL

V5 3 4 NULL

Inverse Adjacency list for G7

Orthogonal List
In certain applications, we may require the indegree as well as outdegree of a vertex. In such
cases, instead of maintaining two separate lists, we can use only one representation which will
allow us to calculate indegree as well as outdegree. Such a representation is called an
orthogonal list.
The node structure of an orthogonal list for any directed edge (Vi, Vj) is
Vi Vj Link of Vi Link of Vj
The link of Vi points to the node where Vi is the tail and link of Vj points to the node where Vj
is the head.

Example
1 3

H ead
1 2 3
Ta il
1 1 2 1 3

2 2 3

Orthogonal List

3 Adjacency Multilist
In the above representations, an undirected edge Vi, Vj will be represented twice, once in the
list of Vi and once in the list for Vj. To avoid redundancy, we can use an adjacency multilist
where each edge is stored only once and can be shared among more than one vertices.

An adjacency multilist consists of several lists in which nodes can be shared among several
lists.
 10 - 28
Graphs
The node structure is
flag Vi Vj Path i Path j

The flag is used to indicate whether edge (Vi, Vj) has been considered or not.
Pathi is the pointer to the next edge where vertex Vi appears.
Pathj is the pointer to the next edge where Vj appears.

Example
V1 V1 e1 e2 e3
e1 e2
e3 V2 e1 e4 e5
V2 e4
V3 e2 e4
V3 e6
e5 e6 e3 e5 e6
V4
V4

vi vj pi pi
1 2 e2 e4 e1

1 3 e3 e4 e2
V1
1 4 e5 e3
V2
V3 2 3 e5 e6 e4
V4
2 4 e6 e5

3 4 e6

Adjacency Multilist

There are 6 edges, e1 to e6 which are <1,2> , <1,3>, <1,4>, <2,3>, <2,4> and <3,4>. The
edges are shown with Vi representing the head and Vj the tail. Pi represents the next edge
where Vi is present and Pj represents the next edge where Vj is present. For example, in the
node for e1 , Pi is e2 where vertex 1 next appears and Pj is e4 where vertex 2 next appears
To find the adjacency list for any vertex, we start traversal from the node of that vertex. For
example, if we wanted the list corresponding to vertex 1, we have to start from node V1. From
that node, it proceeds as follows:
Node V1 points to e1. In e1, the edge is (1,2). Vertex 1 is Vi. Hence , we select Pi i.e, e2.
In e2 i.e. (1,3) we take the path to e3.
In e3 i.e. (1,4) we select the path Pi i.e NULL
 V1 : e1  e2  e3  NULL

For vertex V2, we begin from edge, e1. Since 2 is Vj, we select path Pj i.e e4.
In e4, 2 is Vi. Hence we take path e5.
In e5 ,2 is Vi. Hence we reach NULL
V2 : e1  e4  e5  NULL
Similarly we get,
 10 - 28
Graphs

V3 : e2 e4  e6  NULL
V4 : e3  e5  e6  NULL

GRAPH TRAVERSALS
Traversal is the method to reach every vertex of a graph. Graph traversals are more
complicated as compared to tree traversals because a single vertex may be visited many times
and the traversal may not terminate.
Hence, we also need a method of identifying a vertex, which has been visited previously so
that we don’t keep traversing from the same vertex again and again. This can be done by using
a flag ( a variable) which will store 0 if the vertex is not visited and 1 if visited.

Two methods are used for graph traversal

 Depth First Search
 Breadth First Search

1 Depth First Search

This method is similar to the preorder tree traversal method.
Starting from a particular vertex ‘v’ which is unvisited, we visit its unvisited adjacent vertex,
mark it visited and continue in the same way from this vertex till we reach a vertex which does
not have any unvisited neighbor. That is, starting from vertex ‘v’, we follow a path in the graph
as deeply as we can go marking the vertices in the path as ‘visited’. When there are no
adjacent vertices that are not visited, we proceed backwards (back track) to a vertex in the path
which has an ‘unvisited’ adjacent vertex and proceed from this vertex. The process continues
till all vertices have been visited.
The process terminates when no unvisited vertex can be reached from any of the visited
vertices.

Example
V1

V2 V3

V4 V7
V5 V6

V8
Depth First Search

This algorithm can be written in two ways

i. Recursive
 10 - 28
Graphs
ii. Non recursive
i. Recursive Depth First Search
We start with vertex v and mark it visited. A vertex w, which is adjacent to v and not visited,
is selected. A recursive call is given to the Depth First Search from w. The process stops when
all vertices are visited.
We require a global array ‘visited’ of size n , which is initialized to zero.
Algorithm recDFS (int v)
// visited is a global array initialized to zero
// v is the starting vertex
{

visited [v] = 1; /* Mark v visited */

display v
for each vertex w adjacent to v do
if (w is not visited)then
recDFS (w); //recursive call
}
ii. Non Recursive Depth First Search
In the non-recursive traversal, we require a stack in order to backtrack. The process starts
from vertex v. We mark this vertex “visited” and push it into the stack. We then find an adjacent
vertex w, which is unvisited. Mark it visited and push it into the stack. This becomes our current
vertex . The same process is followed till we reach a vertex which does not have any adjacent
unvisited vertex.
At this point, we pop a vertex from the stack and proceed in the same manner. The process
continues till the stack becomes empty.
Algorithm
1. Initialize visited array to 0
2. v is the starting vertex
3. Visited [v] = 1
4. display v.
5. Push v into stack
6. Search for w which is an unvisited vertex adjacent to v.
7. if w is found
visited[w] = 1
display w
push w into stack
v = w i.e. w becomes the current vertex.
Go to step 6
8. pop
v = pop
9. Continue from 5 till stack becomes empty.
10. Stop
 10 - 28
Graphs
For example, consider the graph in Fig 10.12 above. Here, we start from vertex V1. The
steps are shown below.

v w Visited Stack
V1 V1 V1
V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2
V2 V4 V1V2 V4 V1V2 V4
V4 V8 V1V2 V4 V8 V1V2 V4 V8
V8 V5 V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V1V2 V4 V8 V5
V5 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V1V2 V4 Pop,po
p
V8 V6 V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V1V2 V4 V6
V6 V3 V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V1V2 V4 V6 V3
V3 V7 V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1V2 V4 V6 V3 V7
V7 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1V2 V4 V6 V3 Pop
V7 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1V2 V4 V6 Pop
V3 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1V2 V4 Pop
V6 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1V2 Pop
V4 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 V1 Pop
V2 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 Empty Pop
V1 Not found V1V2 V4 V8 V5 V6 V3 V7 Empty

DFS and Connected Components

When DFS is initiated from a vertex v, DFS visits all vertices connected to v. So, all the
vertices visited and the edges in G, which are incident on these vertices forms a connected
component of G. Thus, DFS can be used to find all connected components of G by making
repeated calls to DFS.

2 Breadth First Search

The Breadth First Search ( BFS ) is the level-wise traversal of a graph. In the Breadth first
search method, we start at vertex v. Then all unvisited vertices ‘w’ adjacent to v are visited.
Then the unvisited vertices adjacent to ‘w’ are visited and so on. The process continues till
there are no more unvisited adjacent vertices left to visit.
 10 - 28
Graphs

For the above graph in Fig 3.12, BFS will yield

V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7, V8

We require a queue to implement BFS. The method of BFS is very simple. Starting with a vertex
v, we add it to the queue. Remove v from the queue and display. All its adjacent unvisited
vertices are added to the queue. These are removed one-by-one from the queue and their
adjacent unvisited vertices are added to the queue. The process continues till the queue
becomes empty.

Algorithm
1. Initialize visited array to 0.
2. v is the starting vertex.
3. Q is an empty queue.
4. Visited [v] = 1
5. Add v to queue
6. Remove v from queue and display v.
7. for all vertices w adjacent to v
if w is unvisited
add w to queue
visited[w] = 1
8. Continue from 6 till queue becomes empty.
9. Stop

The steps can be shown as follows for the graph in Fig 10.11.

v w Visited Queue
V1 V1 V1
V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V2 V3
V2 V4 V5 V1V2 V3V4 V5 V3V4 V5
V3 V6 V7 V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V4 V5 V6 V7
V4 V8 V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V5 V6 V7 V8
V5 Not found V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V6 V7 V8
V6 Not found V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V7 V8
V7 Not found V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V8
V8 Not found V1V2 V3V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 Empty
 10 - 28
Graphs

We can also perform BFS for a graph stored as an adjacency list. The following program
illustrates this.

APPLICATIONS OF GRAPHS
Graphs can be used in various applications like
i. Representation of electric circuits. Calculation of current flows, voltage drops at various
points in the circuits.
ii. Maps indicating connectivity and distances between different places.
iii. Telephone and computer networking.
iv. Routing from one location to another.
v. Scheduling of interdependent tasks or activities in an AOV (Activity on Vertex ) Network.
vi. Computing project completion time, delays, early start and late finish times for a project,
which is made up of several tasks.
vii. Computing the critical path in an AOE (Activity on Edge) Network using CPM ( Critical
Path Method).
viii. Several sophisticated techniques like PERT ( Performance Evaluation and Review
Technique), RAMPS ( Resource Allocation and Multi-Project Scheduling) have been
developed to evaluate projects which can be represented using network models. These
techniques extensively use graphs.

We will be studying some of the most commonly used applications of a graph. Finding the
Minimal Spanning tree in a graph and Computing the Shortest Path.

Connected Components and Spanning Trees

An undirected graph is said to be “connected” if every vertex is reachable from every other
vertex in the graph.
In the case of an undirected graph, a connected component of an undirected graph is a
maximal connected subgraph. This means that a connected component of an undirected graph
is a connected subgraph containing all edges incident to any of its vertices such that no vertex
outside the subgraph is reachable from any vertex in the sub graph.

A directed graph is said to be strongly connected if for every pair of distinct vertices vi and vj,
there is a directed path from vi to vj and also from vj to vi. In the following graph, there are two
strongly connected components.
 10 - 28
Graphs

2 6 5

3 4

{2,4,3} and {2,4,6}

Spanning Trees
If G is a graph containing n vertices, then the minimum number of edges needed to connect
the n vertices = n-1. All connected graphs with n-1 edges are trees. These are called spanning
trees.

Definition of Spanning Tree : Let G = (V, E) be an undirected connected graph. A

subgraph t = (V, E) of G is a spanning tree of G iff t is a tree.
A minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree with the lowest number of edges.

For example, the vertices of graph G may represent cities and the edges may represent the
roads linking these cities. In order to connect all cities, we will need n-1 links. However, there
may be many feasible combinations of the total n-1 links. Thus, a graph may have many
spanning trees as seen below.

Minimum Spanning Trees of (i)

DFS Spanning Tree

The spanning tree resulting from a call to DFS is known as the DFS spanning tree. The
edges of G traversed by the DFS method form a spanning tree.
BFS Spanning Tree
The spanning tree resulting from a call to BFS is known as the BFS spanning tree. The
edges of G traversed by the BFS method form a spanning tree.
 10 - 28
Graphs

V2

V1 V3 V5

V4 V6

If the starting vertex is V1, The DFS of this graph is V1 V2 V5 V3 V6 V4 and the BFS is V1 V2 V3
V4 V5 V6

In practical situations, the edges will have some weights associated with them. These may
be the distance of the link, Cost of construction etc. Thus, we may want to select the set of
edges which will result in lowest cost of construction or having minimum total length. Hence we
are interested in finding out the spanning tree having minimum total cost.
A minimum Cost spanning tree is a spanning tree whose sum of costs of the edges is
minimum.

We shall be studying two algorithms for finding the Minimum Cost Spanning tree.
1. Prim’s Algorithm
2. Kruskal’s Algorithm

1. Prim’s Algorithm
This algorithm builds the minimum cost spanning tree edge by edge. The edge to be
included in the tree T is chosen according to some optimization criteria. The criterion used
here, is to select the edge (u,v) having the smallest cost such that (u,v) is not already in the tree
and T U {(uv)} is also a tree. While including (u,v) we must ensure that it does not form a cycle.
The edge addition is repeated till T contains n–1 edges.
What is done in the Prim’s method is to select a previously unselected edge having the
lowest weight. If it does not form a cycle in the graph, it is added to the tree otherwise it is
rejected. The edge added to the tree is marked as visited so that it is not selected again. The
process completes when we have added n-1 edges to the tree.

Let us apply this method to the following graph to obtain its minimum cost spanning tree.
 10 - 28
Graphs
20
v1 v2
8
7 v3
4
v7
9 6
11
v6 v5 v4
15 10
Graph for Prim’s Algorithm

Step Consider Select Spanning Tree

v1

4
1. (V1, V6) (V1, V6)

v6

v1

(V1, V2), 4
2. (V5, V6)
(V5, V6)

v6 v5
15

v1

4
(V1, V2), (V5, V7),
3. (V4, V5)
(V4, V5)

v6 v5 v4
15 10

4. (V1, V2), (V5, V7), (V3, V4)

(V3, V4), (V4, V7)
 10 - 28
Graphs

v1

v3
4

v6 v5 v4
15 10

v1 v2
8
v3
(V1, V2), (V5, V7), 4
5. (V2, V3)
(V4, V7), (V2, V3)
6

v6 v5 v4
15 10

v1 v2
8
7 v3
(V1, V2), (V5, V7), 4
6. (V2, V7)
(V4, V7), (V2, V7) v7
6

v6 v5 v4
15 10
(V1, V2), (V5, V7), (V4, V7) Forms a cycle
7.
(V4, V7)
8. (V5, V7), (V1, V2) (V5, V7) Forms a cycle
9. (V1, V2) (V1, V2) Forms a cycle

The algorithm for the above method is given below

Algorithm PRIMS (E, Cost, n)

{
/* E is the set of edges in G, Cost is the adjacency cost matrix, n
are the number of vertices */

T = {0}; /* Start with vertex 0 and no edges */

while (T contains less than n–1 edges)

{
 10 - 28
Graphs
select (u,v) from E such that cost [u,v] is minimum and uT and vT
If (u,v) is found then
Add v to T
else
break;
}
if (T contains fewer than n–1 edges print - No spanning tree)
}

2. Kruskal’s Algorithm
In the Prim’s algorithm studied earlier, at any stage, the set of selected edges must form a
tree.
In the Kruskal’s algorithm, however, the set of edges may not be a tree at all stages. The set
will generally be a forest and can be completed into a tree iff there are no cycles in the set. The
edges will be considered one by one such that it has minimum cost among the remaining edges
and does not form a cycle.
The method is simple. The spanning tree T is constructed edge by edge. We select the
edges one-by-one. We select an unvisited edge having smallest cost and add it to the partially
complete spanning tree. If the edge forms a cycle, it is not considered. When n-1 edges have
been added to the spanning tree, the process stops.
Example
20
v1 v2
8
7 v3
4
v7
9 6
11
v6 v5 v4
15 10
Graph for Kruskal’s Algorithm

Step Consider Spanning Tree

1 (V1, V6)
v1 v2

v3
4
v7

v6 v5 v4

2. (V3, V4)
 10 - 28
Graphs

v1 v2

v3
4
v7
6

v6 v5 v4

3. (V2, V7)
v1 v2

7 v3
4
v7
6

v6 v5 v4

4. (V2, V3)
v1 v2
8
7 v3
4
v7
6

v6 v5 v4

5. (V4, V7) Forms a Cycle, Reject

6. (V4, V5)
v1 v2
8
7 v3
4
v7
6

v6 v5 v4
10
7. (V5, V7) Forms a Cycle, Reject
8. (V5, V6)
 10 - 28
Graphs

v1 v2
8
7 v3
4
v7
6

v6 v5 v4
15 10

The Algorithm can be written as follows:

Algorithm Kruskal (E, cost, n)

{
T = 0; /* start with a Tree having no edges */

While (T contains less than n–1 edges and E is not empty)

{
choose edge (u,v) from E such that cost [u,v] is minimum
delete (u,v) from E
if (u,v) does not create a cycle in T
add (u,v) to T
else
discard (u,v)
}
if (T contains fewer than n–1 edges)
Print “no spanning tree”
}

Comparing Prim’s and Kruskal’s Algorithm

Both produce identical trees when edge weights are distinct. When G is connected, Kruskal’s
algorithm cannot produce a forest. When no weights are equal, then random edge selection
cannot occur.

Shortest Path
Graphs may be used to represent the road network of a state or country with the vertices
representing cities and the edges representing the connecting roads. Each edge may be
assigned a weight, which may be the distance between the two vertices or the time taken to go
from one vertex to another.
A person wishing to travel from city A to city B could require the following information.
i. Is there a path from A to B?
ii. If there is more than one path from A to B, which is the shortest?
 10 - 28
Graphs
An algorithm devised by Dijkstra is a “single source all destinations” algorithm which gives
the shortest paths from a given vertex (source) to all other vertices in the network.
Inputs
1. This algorithm takes the input graphs in the form of a cost matrix which is an adjacency
matrix with each element,
A[i] [j] = cost of edge (i,j), if it exists
= infinity, otherwise
2. visited is an array of n elements which indicates whether a vertex has been visited or not.
3. dist is an array of n elements which stores the distances of all vertices from the source
vertex.

Algorithm
1. V is the starting vertex
2. Initialize visited array to 0.
3. Initialize all elements of distance array as
dist [i]= cost [v] [i]
4. visited[v] = 1
5. num = 1
6. while (num < n)
{
u = choose(dist, n) ; num = num + 1;

/* choose is a function which returns u such that dist[u] = min{ dist [w]} where
visited[w] is false */

for w = 1 to n
{ if (! visited[w])
if (dist[u] + cost[u][w]<dist[w])
dist[w] = dist[u]+cost[u][w]
}
}
7. dist array contains the shortest paths from V to all other destinations.
8. Stop

Analysis
In this algorithm , the dist array initially contains distances from v to all the vertices which are
adjacent to it. The remaining are .
In the next steps, we select a vertex u, which is closest to v. Using u, find out the distances
from v to the vertices w, which are connected to u . Compare the distance vw and distance
(vu)+(uw). If this new distance happens to be less than the distance in the distance array
(vw), the new distance is put in the array. This means that there is a shorter path to a vertex
w (which is adjacent to u) from vertex u as compared to the current path from (vw)
The process continues till all vertices have been considered.
 10 - 28
Graphs
Note: This algorithm only gives the shortest distances from starting vertex v to all other vertices.
It does not store the paths to these vertices. For that, we will have to use some additional logic.

Example: Consider the 8 vertex digraph (directed graph) with cost adjacency matrix as
shown
80 120 150
V1 V2 V3 V4

30 100 25
100
V0 V5
0
170 14 90

V7 V6
100
Weighted graph

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 10 - 28
Graphs
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Starting vertex = V4 . All paths are calculated with respect to V4

Dist Array Remarks
Step Visited u
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Topological Sort
Graphs are commonly used for project planning which consists of many interdependent
activities. These activities are represented as vertices and the directed edges represent the
order of the activities. Such a graph is called an Activity on Vertex (AOV) network.

AOV network: A directed graph in which the vertices represent activities or tasks and the
edges represent the precedence is called an AOV network.
Vertex i in an AOV network is a predecessor of vertex j if there is a directed path from i to j.
This means that unless activity i is completed, j cannot be performed. There should be no cycles
in an AOV network i.e there should be atleast one activity which does not have a predecessor.
Example
 10 - 28
Graphs

V2 V2

V1 V4 V1 V4

V3 V3

fe a s ib le n o t fe a s ib le
AOV networks
In the first AOV network, V1 does not have any predecessor and hence it is the starting
activity.
In the second network, there is a cycle i.e. each activity is dependent on some other activity.
Hence the project represented by this graph is not feasible.

Topological Sort
If we have an AOV network, then we would like to find out whether the project is feasible or
not and if it is feasible, then in what order should the activities be performed so that the project
can be completed. This can be done using a method called the “Topological Sort”.

The process of converting a set of precedences represented by an AOV network into a linear
list in which no later activity precedes an earlier one is called Topological Sorting. This method
identifies the order of the activities.
The process is very simple. We start with the activity / activities having no predecessor i.e.
having indegree 0. These are then marked as visited and pushed into a stack. We then pop an
activity from the stack, find out the activities dependent on this activity and reduce their
indegrees by 1. The same process repeats again till all the activities have been visited and the
stack is empty.

Algorithm
1. Accept AOV network in adjacency list form
2. S is an empty stack
3. Search for vertex v whose indegree is 0.
4. if v is found
mark v as visited
make indegree of v = –1
push v into stack

5. If v is not found
If stack is empty
Go to 7
Else
pop v from the stack and display.
Reduce the indegree of all vertices adjacent to v by 1.
6. Repeat from step 3 till all vertices have been visited.
 10 - 28
Graphs
7. If all vertices are not visited
Display “Project not feasible”
8. Stop.

Since we need the indegree of the vertices, the node structure has to be modified. Each list
will have a head node which also stores the indegree of the vertex. We can use the first node of
each list to store the indegrees.

Example
A O V n e tw o rk A d ja c e n cy lis t
In d e g re e p tr
V1 0 2 3 NULL
V2 V4
V2 1 4 NULL

V3 1 4 5 NULL
V1
V4 2 5 NULL
V3 V5 V5 2 N U LL
AOV network

Vertex Indegrees
considered Remarks
No. Stack Display
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
1 V1 -1 1 1 2 2 v1 Push v1, Make indegree -1
Pop 1, Display
2. None -1 0 0 2 2 Empty 1 Reduce indegrees of v2 and
v3
V2, v3 Push vertices with indegree =
3. -1 -1 -1 2 2 V2,V3
0, Make indegree -1
None Pop 3, Display
4. -1 -1 -1 1 1 V2 1, 3 Reduce indegrees of v4 and
v5
None Pop v2, Display
5. -1 -1 -1 0 1 Empty 1,3, 2
Reduce indegree of v4
6. V4 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 V4 Push v4, Make indegree -1
5. None -1 -1 -1 -1 0 Empty 1,3,2 ,4 Pop v4 , reduce indegree of v5
6. V5 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 V5 Push V5
7. None -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 Empty 1,3,2,4,5 Pop V5, Display

Thus , the topological order is

V1, V3, V2, V4, V5
 10 - 28
Graphs

Dist Array Remarks

Step Visited u
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7