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Rice Science, 2022, 29(4): 328−339

Review

Weed Management in Rainfed Upland Rice Fields under Varied

Agro-Ecologies in Nigeria

Oyebanji O. ALAGBO1, Oluyemisi A. AKINYEMIJU2, Bhagirath S. CHAUHAN3

(1Department of Crop Production and Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220005, Nigeria;
2
Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa 353, Ondo-State,
Nigeria; 3Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation / School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of
Queensland, Gatton 4343, Queensland, Australia)

Abstract: The demand for rice to meet the dietary need in low-income countries is expected to witness
an exponential rise as the population increases. Meeting the rice demand domestically has remained
challenging due to significant yield loss caused by several biotic and abiotic factors. Among these factors,
one of the most important is the high weed pressure that ravages the upland rice ecology. In Nigeria,
several independent weed control techniques, such as physical, chemical and cultural methods, have
been recommended and adopted for weed control across varying rice upland ecologies. However,
outcomes of these approaches when used independently have not consistently led to an increase in yield.
There remains an outstanding deficit between the actual yield and the potential rice yield. This review
aimed to identify potential research gaps, and quest effective and sustainable weed management
strategies in smallholder upland rice farming systems in Nigeria. A critical analysis of studies suggests the
potential of sustainable weed management practices if adopted and adapted smartly in different upland
ecologies in Nigeria. Competitiveness of upland rice against weeds can be enhanced through strategic
integration of weed competitive cultivars, optimum nitrogen application timings (within weed-free periods),
uniform plant spacing, and high seeding rates, with conventional herbicide/manual weed control practices.
However, such management practices can only be engaged where inputs are supplied on time and the
technical know-how is extended to farmers. The review equally highlights potential research gaps for
further studies.
Key words: herbicide; integrated weed management; weed flora; tillage practice; rainfed upland rice

Rice is one of the predominant staple foods in low-
income countries and a major source of carbohydrate.
It also contains protein, fat, thiamine, riboflavin, zinc
and niacin in minimal amounts (Phillip et al, 2018).
Cultivated upland rice area is expected to increase in
the future due to shortages in labor and water supply
globally (Mahajan et al, 2014). To meet the current
food security challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, cultivated
upland rice area has increased in recent years (Saito et al,
2018). Between 0.5–1.0 million hectares of cultivated
area in Nigeria contributes 20%–30% of the global
annual upland rice production (Saito et al, 2018).
The upland rice ecology covers 32%–55% of the
total land area used for rice cultivation in Nigeria
(Biyi, 2005; Phillip et al, 2018). Upland rice thrives
well on heavy soils with good water holding capacity,
a slightly acidic to neutral pH (5.5–7.0), and an
average rainfall of 1 200–1 600 mm (Adeosun et al,
1996; Kamai et al, 2020). Nevertheless, achieving
optimum yield in the sub-Saharan African region is
still difficult due to the high incidence of insect pests,
birds, diseases, weeds and drought, as well as limited

Received: 5 September 2021; Accepted: 9 November 2021

Corresponding author: Oyebanji O. ALAGBO (oyebanjialagbo@oauife.edu.ng)
Copyright © 2022, China National Rice Research Institute. Hosting by Elsevier B V
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review under responsibility of China National Rice Research Institute
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2021.11.004
Oyebanji O. ALAGBO, et al. Herbicides, Integrated Weed Management, Weed-Flora, Tillage Practices, Cultivars 329

technical know-how among smallholder farmers
(Akobundu 1987; Rodenburg and Johnson, 2009; Niang
et al, 2017; Kamai et al, 2020). For instance, in Nigeria,
upland rice yields in farmers’ fields rarely exceed 1–2
t/hm2 (Akobundu, 1987; Phillip et al, 2018), compared
with an estimated yield of 4–6 t/hm2 under experimental
field conditions (Akobundu, 1987; Singh et al, 1997;
Adeosun and Lagoke, 2005; Niang et al, 2017; Kamai
et al, 2020).
Amongst these challenges, the increasing pressure of
weeds in the upland rice ecology has remained a major
cause of rice yield loss in Nigeria (Akobundu, 1987;
Emmanuel et al, 2021b). More importantly, the
increased abundance and diversity of weed populations
in different upland agro-ecologies calls for concern.
Uncontrolled weed infestation in upland rice accounts
for 42%–100% yield reductions (Akobundu, 1987;
Ekeleme et al, 2007; Rodenburg and Johnson, 2009;
Daramola et al, 2020; Emmanuel et al, 2021a). To
reduce such huge loss, several studies have proposed
weed management strategies for upland and lowland
rice in sub-Saharan Africa (Rodenburg and Johnson,
2009; Saito et al, 2010; Ogwuike et al, 2014; Johnson
et al, 2019; Rodenburg et al, 2019). However weed
population and species vary from year to year
(Akobundu, 1981; Kolo et al, 2021) and from one
location to another, depending on rainfall pattern,
species composition, soil fertility level, frequency of
land use, seeding technique and weed management
strategy under specific agroecology (Akobundu, 1987;
Kolo et al, 2021). Therefore, managing weeds
efficiently under changing climate would further
necessitate better knowledge of weeds peculiar to
different rice ecologies and the need to propose specific
weed management strategies. It is not clear whether
studies conducted so far in Nigeria have some merits to
propose sustainable weed management in upland
environments. Hence, it is need to review weed
management research conducted in upland rice fields
under different agro-ecologies in Nigeria. The
objectives of this review were to identify potential
research gaps, and quest effective and sustainable weed
management strategies in smallholder upland rice
farming systems in Nigeria.
Weed flora of Nigerian upland rice ecology
Pre-dominant weed flora of rainfed upland rice and
their distributions across different agro-ecologies in
Nigeria are shown in Table 1. About 69% of these
weeds are annual grasses and broadleaved weeds, some
of which have been declared a threat to upland rice
ecologies in sub-Saharan Africa and many parts of the
world, including: Cyperus rotundus, Rottboellia
cochinchinensis, Digitaria horizontalis, Ageratum
conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, and Eleusine indica
(Rodenburg et al, 2015; Kraehmer et al, 2016). The

Table 1. Predominant weed flora in rainfed upland rice ecologies in Nigeria.

Agroecological zone
Prominent weed Class of weed Life cycle
SGS SSR SWR SER NGS
Acanthospermum hispidium DC. Broadleaved Annual – – + – +
Ageratum conyzoides L. Broadleaved Annual + + + + +
Amaranthus spinosus L. Broadleaved Annual + + + + +
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & Robinson Broadleaved Perennial – – + – –
Commelina diffusa Burm. F. Broadleaved Perennial + + + + +
Crotalaria retusa L. Broadleaved Annual – – – – +
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Grass Annual + + + + +
Cyperus rotundus L. Sedge Perennial + – – – –
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel Grass Annual + + + + +
Digitaria horizontalis Wild Grass Annual + + + + +
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Grass Annual + – – – –
Eleusine indica Gaertn. Grass Annual – – – + +
Euphobia heterophylla L. Broadleaved Annual + + + + +
Panicum maximum Jacq. Grass Perennial + + + + +
Panicum repens L. Grass Perennial + + + + +
Paspalum orbiculare Forst Grass Perennial + + + + +
Pennisetum purpureum Schumach Grass Perennial – – + – –
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton Grass Annual + + + + +
Solanum nigrum L. Broadleaved Annual/Biennial – – – – +
Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Wild Broadleaved Annual – – + – –
Tridax procumbens L. Broadleaved Annual – – + – –
SGS, Southern Guinea Savanna; SSR, South-South Rainforest; SWR, Southwest Rainforest; SER, Southeast Rainforest; NGS, Northern Guinea
Savanna; +, Presence of weeds; –, Absence of weeds.
330
invasiveness of weeds under any cropping systems has
been attributed to several factors. For instance, the
prevalence of annual weeds in the upland rice ecology
could have resulted from the persistent and repeated
deposit of weed seeds in topsoil layers, especially
under conservation agriculture systems (Chauhan and
Johnson, 2008a, b, c), with poor spacing and seeding
rates which are common to most rice ecologies in
Nigeria. However, recent weed management studies
rarely address the biology and ecology of problem
weeds in upland rice fields in Nigeria.
Studies on weed flora dynamics in Nigeria are scanty
and often inconsistent, and therefore, it becomes
impossible to understand the behaviour of weeds in rice
ecologies. A study of weed flora in Edo State of
Nigeria (a typical rainforest) was conducted to
understand the frequency, abundance and uniformity of
weed species across upland rice fields characterized by
consistent hoe weeding and/or hand-pulling practices
(Obadoni and Remison, 2004). The results are similar
to the weed flora reported by Gill and Ene (1978), 26
years earlier in upland rice fields in the same region.
Such similarity suggests the use of a consistent
agronomic practice that leave the weed flora undisturbed.
Unfortunately, recent and increased adoption of
herbicide technology in upland rice in Nigeria and the
response of weeds to climate change in other parts of
the world suggest that the weed community structure
across different agroecological zones in Nigeria must
have changed with time (Ziska, 2003; Franks et al,
2007; Alagbo, 2016; Adigun et al, 2017). Hence, to
model a sustainable weed management strategy, it is
necessary to understand how weed species have adapted
to agronomic practices in various rice ecologies (Dada
et al, 2017a, b).
Physical methods of weed control in upland
rice
Tillage practices
In upland rice, good land preparation combined with
timely sowing is known to retard weed infestation
significantly (Singh and Ghosh, 1992). Such practice
ensures the deep burial of surface weed seeds (Chauhan
and Johnson, 2010). Unfortunately, conventional tillage
is capital intensive and non-affordable among most
rural farming households. About USD 60 is estimated
to cultivate 1 hm2 field in Nigeria (FAO, 2014), and
such a huge cost may be unaffordable by farmers in
low-income countries. Besides, timely accessibility to
tractors remains a challenge among smallholder
Rice Science, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2022
farmers in some parts of the country (Ajah, 2014).
Alternatively, zero or minimum tillage is affordable
and widely adopted in rainforest zones where rice
mechanization is limited due to undulating land
terrains and tree vegetations. Nevertheless, such tillage
practices have been associated with higher weed
pressures in these zones (Olofintoye and Ajayi, 1997;
Alagbo, 2016), probably due to the early emergence of
weed seeds found within topsoil surfaces with low
initial dormancy and high light requirement for
germination (Chauhan and Johnson, 2008a, b, c).
Unfortunately, the relationship between weed seed
germination and tillage practice is largely unknown in
Nigerian upland rice ecologies. It is important to study
the association between the rising weed pressures and
specific tillage practices adopted in specific upland
rice ecology.
Practice of stale seedbed technique
The stale seedbed technique is the inducement of
weed seed germination after rain or irrigation before
planting. Such weeds are then controlled using tillage
or herbicides. The purpose is to reduce the population
of surface weed seeds before crop seed sowing. The
stale seedbed practice is found to reduce the weed
population by 53% compared with plots where the
technique is not implemented (Singh et al, 2007). In
Nigeria, where the practice of conservation tillage is
common with prevalent annual weeds in upland rice
ecosystems (Table 1), the practice of stale seedbed
techniques, combined with active predation of weed
seeds by insects, maybe a possible remedy to control
vigorous annual weeds.
Mechanical weed control
The use of mechanical weeders has been reported as a
good complement for existing weed management
practices in sub-Saharan Africa (Rodenburg et al,
2015). Some mechanical weeders were tested recently
among selected rice growers in Lafia, Niger State,
Nigeria (Johnson et al, 2019), and the farmers prefer
the ring hoe mechanical weeder as it reduces weeding
time significantly. However, one limitation of this
technology is the non-uniformity in row spacing
widely practised among upland rice farmers, as the
ring hoe requires a uniform spacing, and another
concern is whether this technology would be affordable
in the long run (Johnson et al, 2019). Hence, it is
important to investigate the adoption of this technology
in other rice-growing communities in Nigeria.
Oyebanji O. ALAGBO, et al. Herbicides, Integrated Weed Management, Weed-Flora, Tillage Practices, Cultivars
Manual weeding practices
The traditional weed control method in upland rice
involves the use of hoe and/or hand-pulling (Kamai et al,
2020). It is laborious, expensive and limited to small-
scale production. In most cases, laborers become
scarce at the optimum weeding period due to the
tedious nature of manual weeding and demand by
other farm activities (Adeosun et al, 1996). Means of
173, 259 and 376 man-hours per hm2 are needed to
carry out manual weeding once, twice and thrice
respectively in sub-Saharan Africa (Ogwuike et al,
2014). Practically, manual weeding often causes some
levels of damage to rice due to difficulty in weeding
within close inter- and intra-row spacing (Adigun et al,
2005). In addition, weeds with rhizomatous roots and
morphology similar to rice often escape manual
weeding when rice is sown in narrow spacing (Adigun
et al, 2017; Kamai et al, 2020).
Field trials in upland rice often conclude hand-
weeding treatments as the best in terms of weed
control, good crop vigor and grain yield compared
with other treatments in Nigeria (Akobundu, 1987;
Adeosun and Lagoke, 2005; Obadoni and Remison,
2007; Adigun et al, 2017). It is practically not possible
due to a shortage of labor for weed removal at the
critical period, coupled with unfavorable weather
conditions (Adigun et al, 2014). In practical terms,
manual weeding would be appropriate when integrated
with other weed control methods in upland rice.
Cultural weed management practices
The practice of appropriate field operation timing with
the use of weed competitive cultivars, fertilizers,
narrow crop spacing and high seeding rates to retard
weed growth has been proposed several times
(Kamara et al, 2010; Kolo et al, 2012, 2021). In most
cases, such practices are integrated with a major weed
control method. For instance, the use of nitrogen (N)
fertilizer, cropping pattern and competitive cultivars
are routinely practised in upland rice fields in Nigeria;
however, their potentials for integrated weed management
are still unharnessed. This is probably due to poor
input supply.
Timeliness of operation
The critical period of weed control largely depends on
the relationship between crop seeding date and the
emergence period of weed species in specific rice
ecology (Yawale et al, 2019). Under direct seeding,
the emergence of rice and weed seedlings occurs at the
331
same time (Nojima, 1996), which results in high
competition for water, light and other soil nutrients. To
attain optimal yields in direct seeding in Nigeria, weeds
should be better controlled at the early developmental
stages of upland rice (Adigun et al, 2005). Timely and
effective weed control enhances nutrient uptake by the
rice plants and reduces uptake by weeds (Kolo et al,
2021). Therefore, understanding the critical period of
weed removal is a key to develop an effective
management strategy in Nigerian upland rice fields.
Once weeds are not removed at this period, crop yield
loss becomes inevitable. The period between 3 and 9
weeks after sowing is the most critical period of weed
competition in upland rice in Nigeria (Adeosun, 2005,
2008; Yawale et al, 2019; Emmanuel et al, 2021a). It is
equally agreed that fertilizer application timing should
be synchronized with the weed-free period for efficient
nutrient uptake by rice (Adeosun, 2005, 2008; Kolo et al,
2021). It is needful that agricultural policies and
extension programs provide such an environment
whereby smallholder farmers can adhere strictly to
such timely practices. Such timeliness is one of the
elements of good agronomic practices that can boost
upland rice yield in major production zones.
Effect of N on upland rice ecosystem
N remains the most limiting and important soil
nutrient in sub-Saharan Africa (Saito et al, 2019). The
total N present in Nigerian savanna soils ranges from
0.136%–0.194% (Kamai et al, 2020). Low N levels
affect significantly to the yield gap between actual and
potential rice yields. Such limited soil N is further
competed by rice and weeds (Sankaran and de Datta,
1986). Increased N can enhance dry matter accumulation
of weeds competing with upland rice when weeding is
delayed (Kolo et al, 2020, 2021), which often results
in significant loss of rice yield (Usman et al, 2002;
Kolo et al, 2021). The level of N uptake differs among
weed species (Kolo et al, 2020). For example, a
positive correlation is confirmed between soil N level
and N intake by C. rotundus (Ali and Sankaran, 1984)
and E. colona in upland rice (Chauhan and Johnson,
2010). N can be effectively utilized by rice when the
fields are free of weeds (IRRI, 1973). In Nigeria,
synchronizing high N application with weed-free
periods increases yield and yield components of
upland rice cultivars, due to efficient N uptake that
enhances rice growth and development under weed-
free conditions (Adeosun, 2005, 2008; Kolo et al,
2020, 2021). For instance, early weed removal up to 6
332
or 9 weeks after sowing combined with N application
between 90–120 kg/hm2 (depending on rice agro-
ecologies) enhances early crop establishment and
increases upland rice yield (Usman et al, 2002;
Emmanuel et al, 2021b; Kolo et al, 2021). Alternatively,
when early weed removal is not feasible, rice
competitiveness against weeds at the early growth
stage can be achieved with a higher rate of N fertilizer,
where weed competitive cultivars are adopted. For
example, application of N at 90 kg/hm2 on NERICA 8
(an upland variety) significantly increases crop vigor,
the number of tillers and plant height at the early
growth stage (Kamara et al, 2010; Adigun et al, 2017).
Effects of crop spacing and seeding rate
Maintaining an optimum plant population is necessary
to maximize grain yield. Optimum plant density
enhances rapid and uniform plant growth in such a way
that light, water and nutrient resources are efficiently
utilized by crop plants compared with competing
weed species (Miah et al, 2004). To enhance early
crop establishment and effective competition against
weeds, appropriate plant spacing and seeding rate plays
a vital role. Inter- and intra-row spacing between 15
and 30 cm can achieve better suppression of weed
growth (Olofintoye and Ajayi, 1997; Adeyemi et al,
2015). Also, a significant interaction effect between
weeding regime, seeding rate, and grain yield suggests
that a proper seeding rate can compliment other weed
control methods in upland rice (Kehinde, 2002).
Manual seeding remains a major seeding technique
in many upland rice fields in Nigeria. Under such a
situation, uniform plant spacing and seeding density,
required to maintain optimum plant population, is seldom
realised. Thus, achieving better weed suppression is
not feasible, even with the best cultivars. In addition,
reduced adoption of ring hoe weeding tools in
Nasarawa State of Nigeria is recently attributed to the
lack of uniform plant spacing practised among rural
farmers (Johnson et al, 2019). This further suggests that
adopting new weed control technology in Nigeria
would necessitate accurate seeding and uniform spacing
technique. Hence, advocating the adoption of smart
and accurate rice seeders is crucial in upland rice
ecologies.
Use of competitive cultivars
Differences in rice varietal genotype, age, morphology
and physiology determine, to a large extent, the
performance of rice cultivars in the field (Akobundu,
Rice Science, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2022
1987). The development of weed-competitive rice
cultivars for upland rice production is a key to optimize
grain yield in smallholder farms in sub-Saharan Africa
(Ekeleme et al, 2009; Saito et al, 2018). Many studies
have attributed cultivar-weed competitiveness to a
cultivar ability to tolerate or suppress weed growth and
maintain high grain yield under both weed-free and
weedy conditions (Jannink et al, 2000; Fischer et al,
2001; Zhao et al, 2006; Ekeleme et al, 2009; Saito et al,
2012). Genetic engineering of crop competitive genes
against weeds has been proposed (Mahajan et al, 2014).
For example, genes that stimulate allelochemicals,
enhance nutrient uptake and rapid growth habits can
be transferred into crops (Haas and Streibig, 1982;
Jabran, 2017).
In the Northern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria, under
high weed pressure, NERICA1 and NERICA4 cultivars
produce higher grain yield than CG14 (weed competitive
but poor yielding) and ITA150, suggesting their
tolerance to high weed pressure (Ekeleme et al, 2009).
A similar trend is reported for NERICA1 in Southern
Guinea Savanna (Ismaila et al, 2011; Kolo and Umaru,
2012). Regrettably, NERICA1 and other NERICA
cultivars are unable to prove similar outcomes in other
neighbouring countries (Saito et al, 2012, 2018).
Alternatively, IR74371-3-1-1 and Aus 257 are reported
as early maturing and high-yielding cultivars, with
better weed-suppressive ability and greater nutrient
uptake than NERICA1 (Saito, 2016). These cultivars
are proposed to be better parents for breeding weed
suppressive traits in upland rice (Saito and Futakuchi,
2014; Saito, 2016). It is therefore important to
evaluate and update reports on potential cultivars that
combine weed suppressive ability, higher yield and
efficient nutrient uptake in low nutrient soils across
upland rice ecologies in Nigeria.
Chemical weed control methods
The advantage of chemical weed control in upland
rice compared to manual weeding in terms of higher
yield and reduced labor cost has been reported over
decades (Ogungbile and Lagoke, 1986; Akobundu,
1987; Lagoke et al, 1987; Usman, 2012; Adigun et al,
2017; Kolo et al, 2020). However, the performance of
herbicide in the upland rice ecologies fluctuates,
depending on the weed flora, weed growth stage and
the pattern of weed emergence. Therefore, effective
weed management in diverse field situations would
require a combination of herbicide mixtures with a
wide activity spectrum (Adigun et al, 2005). Table 2
shows potential herbicides or herbicide mixtures
Oyebanji O. ALAGBO, et al. Herbicides, Integrated Weed Management, Weed-Flora, Tillage Practices, Cultivars
Table 2. Herbicides recommended for different upland rice ecologies in Nigeria.
Common name Recommended dose Timing
Bispyribac sodium 40 g/L POST
Butachlor 1.0 kg/hm2 PRE
1.5 kg/hm2 PRE
Glyphosate 1.44 kg/hm2 Pre-plant
Oxadiargyl 320 g/L PRE
Prapanil + 2,4-D 4.5 kg/hm2 POST
2.0 kg/hm2 POST/PRE
1.2 kg/hm2 + 0.8 kg/hm2 POST
3.5 kg/hm2 POST
Pretilachlor + Pyribenzoxim 450 g/L + 30 g/L POST
Pre-plant, Pre-plant emergence; PRE, Pre-emergence; POST, Post-emergence; NGS, Northern Guinea Savanna; FST, Forest transition; SW, South
West; SGS, Southern Guinea Savanna.
recommended for upland rice across agro-ecological
zones in Nigeria.
In Guinea and Sudan Savanna zones of Nigeria,
several pre-emergence (PRE) and post-emergence
(POST) herbicides have been evaluated and recommended
to farmers. Sole application of either glyphosate (pre-
plant), oxadiargyl or butachlor has proven effective as
PRE herbicides in the zones at recommended doses
(Table 2). While POST herbicides are recommended
either as preformulated mixture rates or mixed at
specified doses to achieve better weed efficacy in the
zones. For example, pretilachlor and pyribenzoxim
mixtures, propanil and 2,4-D mixtures, and bispyribac
sodium have been reported at specific recommended
doses (Table 2).
In the rainforest zone of Nigeria (Table 2), only a
few herbicide trials have been conducted compared
with the Savanna ecological zone. Due to limited farm
size and scarcity of tractors to plow, pre-plant/non-
selective herbicides are often deployed to reduce the
cost of plowing. Farmers often apply glyphosate and
paraquat as pre-plant herbicides to clear weeds at the
initial stage of cultivation. Although glyphosate and
paraquat are not conventional rice herbicides, their
broad-spectrum activity, acceptance and affordability
have encouraged their consistent adoption as pre-plant
herbicides under no-till upland and lowland rice
production systems in the rainforest zones (Alagbo and
Akinyemiju, 2018). For example, pre-plant application
of glyphosate at 3.0 kg/hm2 gives 70% weed control
efficacy with an average grain yield of 3.9 t/hm2 in a
rainforest zone, and the cost of weed control with
paraquat seems cheaper compared with hand weeding
(Obadoni and Remison, 2007). This may partly explain
the reasons why most farmers adopt paraquat above
other herbicides in a mixed cropping system. Only a
few PRE (i.e. butachlor) and POST (i.e. propanil +
333
Agro-ecological zone Reference
Lafiagi, NGS Usman, 2012
Abeokuta, FST-SW Adigun et al, 2017
Sudan Savanna Kano Yawale et al, 2020
Lafiagi, NGS Usman, 2012
Lafiagi, NGS Usman, 2012
Sudan Savanna Kano Yawale et al, 2020
Abeokuta, FST-SW Adigun et al, 2017; Kolo et al, 2020
Samaru, NGS Danmaigoro et al, 2015
Badeggi, SGS Ismaila et al, 2011
Lafiagi, NGS Usman, 2012
2,4-D) herbicides have been evaluated in the zone so
far (Table 2). New herbicides can be evaluated and
recommended to improve weeding efficiency in the
rainforest zone.
Table 3 shows herbicide classes recommended for
weed control in upland rice over the past three decades
in Nigeria. There is an urgent need to investigate the
status quo of these rice herbicides in Nigeria. In
sub-Saharan Africa, reasonable numbers of herbicides
are absent among farmers and in the markets while
unreported and/or unregistered new herbicide products
presents in the market (Rodenburg et al, 2019).
Increased demand for this product is largely attributed
to high illiteracy levels among farmers in some
sub-Saharan African countries (Achandi et al, 2018).
For instance, in Nasarawa State of Nigeria, farmers
rarely read herbicide labels, they depend largely on
their neighbor’s knowledge of what herbicide is
efficient to control weed in rice (Rodenburg et al, 2019).
It therefore becomes necessary that favourite rice
herbicides in the market are collected and evaluated in
future research and appropriate dose recommended in
different rice ecologies.
Herbicide-resistant rice
The adoption of herbicide-resistant rice has the
potentials to reduce the proliferation of weeds that
have developed resistance to conventional rice herbicides
with time (Chauhan, 2013). For instance, imidazoline-
resistant rice has been developed in the USA for this
purpose (Gealy et al, 2003). Such technology may
reduce overdependence on assorted rice herbicides in
most upland ecosystems. Unfortunately, it is not
deployed in Nigeria yet.
Integrated weed management strategies
Integrating two or more weed control methods is
334 Rice Science, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2022

Table 3. List of herbicide classes recommended for upland rice in Nigeria in past three decades.

Common name Mode of action Group a Family Reference

Cinosulfuron Inhibition of acetolactate synthase 2 Sulfonylurea Adeosun et al, 1996; Adeosun and
(acetohydroxyacid synthase) Lagoke, 2005
Pyribenzoxim Inhibition of acetolactate synthase 2 Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate Usman, 2012
Bispyribac sodium Inhibition of acetolactate synthase 2 Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate Usman, 2012
2,4-D Action like indole acetic acid (synthetic auxins) 4 Phenoxy-carboxylic-acid Ismaila et al, 2011; Adigun et al, 2017
Dimethametryn Inhibition of photosynthesis at photosystem II 5 Triazine Adeosun and Lagoke, 2005
Bentazon Inhibition of photosynthesis at photosystem II 6 Benzothiadiazinone Kehinde, 2002
Propanil Inhibition of photosynthesis at photosystem II 7 Amide Obadoni and Remison, 2007; Adigun
et al, 2017
Molinate Inhibition of lipid synthesis, not ACCase inhibition 8 Thiocarbamate Obadoni and Remison, 2007
Glyphosate Inhibition of EPSP synthase 9 Glycine Obadoni and Remison, 2007
Diflufenican Inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis at the phytoene 12 Pyridinecarboxamide Adigun et al, 2005
desaturase step
Oxadiazon Inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase 14 Oxadiazole Kehinde, 2002; Adeosun and Lagoke,
2005; Mahadi et al, 2006
Oxadiargyl Inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase 14 Oxadiazole Usman, 2012
Butachlor Inhibition of very long chain fatty acids 15 Chloroacetamide Adigun et al, 2017
(Inhibition of cell division)
Piperophos Inhibition of very long chain fatty acids 15 Other unclassified Enyinnia, 1992; Adigun et al, 2005
(Inhibition of cell division) herbicides groups
Pretilachlor Inhibition of very long chain fatty acids 15 Chloroacetamide Enyinnia, 1992
(Inhibition of cell division)
Paraquat Photosystem-I-electron diversion 22 Bipyridylium Obadoni and Remison, 2007
a
The different numbers indicate the groups each herbicide belongs according to the herbicide grouping of the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA,
2010).
2,4-D, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid; ACCase, Acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitor; EPSP, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate.

crucial for the sustainable management of weeds in
upland rice culture in Nigeria (Tosh et al, 1981; Chauhan,
2013; Adigun et al, 2017). Although herbicide application
in upland rice has successfully reduced drudgeries/time
wastage occasioned by manual weeding in the past
three decades (Akobundu, 1987; Adeosun and Lagoke,
2005; Obadoni and Remison, 2007; Adigun et al,
2017), achieving season-long weed management is still
difficult with herbicides, considering varying growth
habits of weed species under changing climatic
conditions (Adigun et al, 2005; Chauhan, 2012; Adigun
et al, 2016). As temperature and atmospheric CO2
levels begin to rise, below-ground parts, such as
stolon and rhizomes, are predicted to spread fast,
irrespective of water availability (Ramesh et al, 2017).
Herbicides are predicted to become less effective
(Mutti et al, 2019), in response to changes in anatomy,
growth physiology and phenology of the target weed
flora (Ramesh et al, 2017). Thus, farmers will have to
carefully synchronize the timing of weed control with
the weed life cycle (Ramesh et al, 2017). Addressing
the aggressive weed pressure peculiar to upland rice
ecosystems in Nigeria would necessitate the timely
transfer of new and effective weed management
technologies to complement existing weed management
potentials in the farmers’ domain. Therefore, it is
necessary that efficient/sustainable Integrated Weed
Management (IWM) strategies should target possible
reductions in the increasing spread of perennial
propagules and heavy deposit of annual weed seeds in
topsoil layers within upland ecosystems (Mahajan et al,
2014). Practical IWM strategies recommended for
upland ecosystems in different agroecological zones
are discussed under this section.
In the Guinea Savanna ecosystem, the practice of
conventional tillage is necessary to manage weeds
effectively within a cropping cycle. This should be
followed by manual or mechanical drilling/dibbing of
rice seeds at 50–80 kg/hm2 seeding rate, at 4–6 seeds
per stand and 25 cm × 25 cm inter- and intra-row
spacing (Table 4). For better enhancement of seedling
growth, 300 kg/hm2 of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (NPK) fertilizer formulation should be
applied at 3 weeks after sowing (Enyinnia, 1992;
Usman, 2012), such that it falls between the weed-free
period to enhance nutrient uptake by rice seedlings
rather than the weeds (Adeosun, 2005, 2008; Kolo et al,
2020). In a situation where soil nutrition is extremely
low due to intensive cropping practices, about 10 t/hm2
of poultry manure or other available sources of organic
supplements could be applied as an alternative source
of soil nutrient amendment (Danmaigoro et al, 2015).
Oyebanji O. ALAGBO, et al. Herbicides, Integrated Weed Management, Weed-Flora, Tillage Practices, Cultivars 335

Table 4. Integrated weed management prescriptions for rice upland ecological zones of Nigeria.

Parameter Guinea Savanna zone Rainforest zone

Seeding method Direct seeded at 50–80 kg/hm2 Manual drilling or dibbing 5 seeds per hill
Plant spacing 25 cm ×25 cm spacing at 4–6 seedings per stand 25 cm ×25 cm inter- and intra-row spacing
Cultural method Application of 10 t/hm2 poultry manure followed by conventional Conventional tillage followed by 200 kg/hm2 NPK at 21
tillage, broadcasting 300 kg/hm2 NPK at 21 DAS and 150 DAS and supplemented with 200 kg/hm2 urea at 42 DAS
kg/hm2 urea later during panicle initiation (42 DAS)
Manual weeding Hand pulling or hoe weeding once or twice (at 25 or 45 DAS) Hoe weeding at 42 DAS (if necessary)
Chemical PRE Oxadiargyl (320 g/L); Butachlor (1.5 g/L) Butachlor (1.0)
methoda POST Pretilachlor (450 g/L) + Pyribenzoxim (30 g/L) at 21 DAS; Glyphosate (3.0) at 21 DAS; Propanil + 2,4-D (2.0 kg/hm2)
Propanil + 2,4-D (3.5 g/L) at 45 DAS at 42 DAS
Ex China (Dwarf), ITA257 (medium), FARO49 (IT315), ITA301, NERICA8, FARO41
Rice cultivar
NERICA1, FARO46
Grain yield 2.2–3.8 t/hm2 2–4 t/hm2
Reference Adeosun et al, 1996; Kehinde, 2002; Adeosun and Lagoke, 2005; Enyinnia, 1992; Obadoni and Remison, 2007; Adigun et al,
Ismaila et al, 2011; Usman, 2012; Yawale et al, 2020 2017; Kolo et al, 2020
a
Either one of any of the listed post-emergence (POST) or pre-emergence (PRE) chemical methods can be integrated with other management strategies.
DAS, Days after sowing.

At a later growth stage (e.g. during panicle initiation),
150–200 kg/hm2 urea should be applied to further
enhance rice vegetative growth so that the canopy weed
surpression effect can be sustained until harvest
(Enyinnia, 1992; Usman, 2012).
The following POST herbicides are expected to
control weeds effectively when properly integrated
with the above recommended strategies: propanil +
2,4-D formulation between 2.0–4.5 kg/hm2 depending
on weed pressure, pretilachlor (450 g/L) + pyribenzoxim
(30 g/L) mixture and byspyribac sodium (40 g/L). Also,
the following PRE herbicides have been recommended
for upland rice: oxadiargyl (320 g/L), butachlor (1.5
kg/hm2) or a pre-plant glyphosate application where
no-till is practised (Usman, 2012; Yawale et al, 2020).
The practice of manual weeding operation is expected
to supplement these herbicides either once or twice,
especially where labor is cheap and affordable
(Akobundu and Fagade, 1978; Adigun et al, 2017).
Also, hand pulling should be adopted at a later growth
stage in case of high weed infestation. When weed
management strategies are well integrated, the
following varieties show higher yield potentials in the
Guinea Savanna zone: Ex-China (Dwarf), ITA257
(medium), FARO49 (IT315), FARO46 and NERICA1
(Adeosun et al, 1996; Ekeleme et al, 2009; Ismaila et al,
2011; Kolo and Umaru, 2012).
In the rainforest zone, conventional tillage is
expected to precede any other operations, except for
slopy topographic/hilly areas, where it becomes
difficult to use tractors. The practice of direct seeding
by drillings or dibbling at 5 seeds per hill at a spacing
of 25 cm ×25 cm is equally established (Table 4). This
is expected to be followed by the application of 200
kg/hm2 NPK fertilizer at 42 d after sowing (DAS)
(Enyinnia, 1992; Adigun et al, 2017). The only POST
herbicide recommended for weed control in the
rainforest zone is propanil + 2,4-D formulation (2.0
kg/hm2). The following PRE herbicides have also been
recommended: butachlor (1.0 kg/hm2) (Enyinnia, 1992;
Adigun et al, 2017), and a pre-plant application of
glyphosate (3.0 kg/hm2) (Obadoni and Remison, 2007).
Where noxious weed invasion persists, manual weeding
is expected to supplement the efficacy of the above
herbicides. For instance, the significant interaction
between N and weed management under forest-
savanna transition zone in Nigeria shows that yield
response of upland rice to applied N is dependent on
adopted/applied weed control method (Kolo et al,
2021). Application of N at 90 kg/hm2 combined with
the integration of butachlor and one manual weeding
in a cropping cycle gives the rice a competitive
advantage over weeds compared with either sole
butachlor or manual weeding. Such integrated weed
control efficiency could be attributed to the initial
efficacy of the herbicide in inhibiting weed-root
elongation and development (Agrawal et al, 2014),
followed by subsequent weed removal by manual
weeding before they mature (Kolo et al, 2021).
However, limitations of this technology could be the
cost of labor and herbicides which are not considered
in this review. ITA301, NERICA8 and FARO41 show
significant yield potential in the rainforest zone under
effective weed management (Enyinnia, 1992; Adigun
et al, 2017).
PERSPECTIVES
Some forms of physical and cultural practices, such as
336
tillage, manual weeding, use of weed competitive
cultivars, enhanced N uptake by the rice crop and
suitable cropping patterns, have been comprehensively
studied with positive results across agro-ecological
zones. However, their impact on crop yield under
farmers’ fields seems insignificant. This may be due to
farmers’ inadequate financial resources and scarcity of
farm machinery when needed. The efficiency of cultural
practices to suppress weeds in combination with other
IWM approaches would depend largely on farmers’
knowledge of appropriate timing and availability of
scarce resources. Hence, the availability of farm inputs
like tractors, fertilizers, rice seeders, manual/mechanical
weeders and herbicides should be prioritized. Also,
farmers must be engaged with the technical know-how
of IWM strategies.
It is no doubt that the effect of climate changes and
prevalent agronomic practices (such as tillage operation
and consistent herbicide application) have influenced a
change in weed flora of upland rice fields over time.
Therefore, a reassessment of weed flora composition,
biology and ecology of problem weeds as affected by
various agronomic practices in upland rice fields
should be exhaustively reviewed. Most importantly, the
interaction exists between competitive weed pressures
and tillage practices in different rice ecologies.
The use of mechanical weeders to manage weeds
looks promising in upland rice (Johnson et al, 2019).
However, its efficiency, feasibility and acceptability
among smallholder farmers should be further investigated
in major rice agro-ecology.
Future research should show how different
components of cultural practices could be harnessed
and adopted for effective weed management in
practical terms. For example, N fertilizer is better
applied within the critical period of weed control to be
efficiently utilized by rice other than the weeds
(Emmanuel et al, 2021a; Kolo et al, 2021). However, it
is uncertain whether such recommendations are strictly
adhered to. Hence, it is need to identify their adoption
levels and possible factors limiting its efficiency
among smallholder farmers. Also, the use of weed
competitive cultivars should be further extended to
other rice agro-ecology. Introducing herbicide-resistant
cultivars can help mitigate future resistance of weeds
that have become tolerant to conventional rice
herbicides in upland rice.
Several pre-plant (paraquat and glyphosate), PRE
(butachlor and oxadiargl) and POST (propanil + 2,4-D
amine, pretilachlor + pyribenzoxim and bispyribac
Rice Science, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2022
sodium) herbicides have been tested and recommended
for weed management in upland rice with different
outcomes across agroecological zones. Nonetheless,
herbicides and other weed management trials seem
skewed to the savanna than the other ecological zones.
To tackle the recent weed invasion, a multi-locational
herbicide trial program is needed to select the best
performing rice herbicides for different rice agro-
ecologies. Also, the level of compliance with
recommended herbicide technology among farmers
remains uncertain. Many of the recommended rice
herbicides in sub-Saharan Africa no longer exist in the
market (Rodenburg et al, 2019). Therefore, it is
necessary to validate rice herbicides of preference to
rice farmers.
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