EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION.

NAMEERAH TARIQ
2021-ARCH-40
12/29/2021
INTRODUCTION
The pre-eminent civilisation of ancient Egypt was situated near the lower banks of
River Nile and a little bit towards the Mediterranean Sea. The civilisation lasted for
almost 30 centuries, from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by
Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three main periods: the Old Kingdom
(about 2,700-2,200 B.C.E.), the Middle Kingdom (2,050-1,800 B.C.E.), and the New
Kingdom (about 1,550-1,100 B.C.E.). These can further be divided into more time
periods according to the rise and fall of great political powers and gradually their
improvement in living standards:

 Neolithic Egypt (6000-4500 BCE/BC)

 Predynastic Egypt (4500-2950 BCE/BC)
 Early Dynastic Egypt (2950-2670 BCE/BC)
 Old Kingdom Egypt (2670-2168 BCE/BC)
 First Intermediate Period Egypt (2168-2010 BCE/BC)
 Middle Kingdom Egypt (2010-1640 BCE/BC)
 Second Intermediate Period Egypt (1640-1548)
 New Kingdom Egypt (1548-1086)
 Third Intermediate Period Egypt (1086-664)
 Late Period Egypt (664-332)
 Macedonian Egypt (332-304 BCE/BC)
 Ptolemaic Egypt (304-30 BCE/BC)

This huge civilisation initially started due to agricultural land found near the River
Nile and understanding the repeated conditions and behaviour of the fertile waterbody.
As a result of predictable flooding and controlled irrigation, the fertile valley produced
surplus crops, allowing for more dense population and social development. Taking
advantage of its abundant resources, the administration developed a unique system of
writing, collective construction, agricultural projects, trade with neighbouring areas,
supported the mining industry and naturally asserting Egyptian dominance would
require a military force. Under the control of a pharaoh and guided by an elaborate
system of religious beliefs, the Egyptian people cooperated and united under a
powerful bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators.

Ancient Egyptians have left us with an everlasting legacy by being ahead of their time
and mastering all early concepts of agriculture, building constructions, language and
further poetry, means of transportation (boats), art and lastly effective use of
medicine.
HISTORY

Predynastic period
Through the late Middle Pleistocene, nomadic modern humans began living in the
Nile Valley about 120,000 years ago. The arid climate of Northern Africa in the late
Palaeolithic period became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations to
subside near the River.

In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the climate of Egypt was much calmer to
live. In all environs, the vegetation and fauna were profuse, and the Nile region had
abundant waterfowl population. Hunting was also common among Egyptians at this
point, and many animals became domesticated at this time.

A series of cultures that were established throughout the Nile valley by about 5500 BC
demonstrated firm control over agriculture and animal husbandry, and could be
distinguished by their pottery and personal items such as combs, bracelets, and beads.
These earliest known evidences of culture are named as the Badari culture, followed
by the Naqada culture which is divided into 3 parts: the Amratian (Naqada I), the
Gerzeh (Naqada II), and Semainean (Naqada III). During the time of Amratian
culture, obsidian would be imported to shape
blades from Ethopia. In Naqada II times,
early evidence exists of contact with the Near
East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos
coast. Whereas Naqada III leaders expanded
their control of Egypt northwards along the
Nile. In addition to this, they traded with
oases of the western desert to the west, and
cultures from the Near East and Eastern
Mediterranean to the east, Egypt-
Mesopotamia relations grew during this
period.

Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150–2686 BC)

Around 3100 B.C. a king started a campaign against the other cities, the king’s identity is
debated but most believe that his name was Namer and his people are said to believe he
was a descendant of the Egyptian god, Horus. Due to his campaigns, he successfully had
taken control of all of Egypt and became known as the first pharaoh of Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians called the Nile as “Iteru” meaning “Great River” and
considered it a blessing from their gods to all living beings. The city of Memphis was
the capital of Egypt for a long time and was built by Namer, who is debatably said to
be known as the first ever pharaoh of Egypt.

First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)

Around 2200 B.C. there was a period of drought that lasted 140 years leading to mass
hunger and economic deadline which led to empires for provinces revotting and
announcing independence. After some time the parties became victorious with one
ruling lower Egypt and one ruling upper Egypt and after a small battle, the ruler of
Upper Egypt won with reuniting Egypt which started the next era known as the
‘Middle Empire’.

Middle Kingdom (2134–1700 BC)

During this time period the concept of life after death gained popularity and with the
economic success of Egypt, the rulers of Egypt started building even more pyramids
as tombs.

Middle Kingdom kings had done all they could to secure the country militarily and
politically, and they had an abundance of agricultural land and mineral wealth.

The construction of pyramids took a lot of effort, each granite stone weighted
approximately 2.5 tons and were extracted 800 km from their building sites. The
blocks were placed on boats of the Nile, until they reached their destination from
where they were put on sleds to the site of the pyramid and into their place. These
pyramids would approximately take 30,000 men to build, unlike popular belief most
of the men who worked on the pyramids were free men who got salaries and slaves
were also used who were given the most dangerous task.

the end of this time period a war had begun which the pharaohs finally won starting
another era called the ‘new kingdom’.

The New Kingdom (1674–1069 BC)

The New Kingdom pharaohs hooked up a length
of unparalleled prosperity with the aid of securing
their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties
with their neighbours, together with the Mitanni
Empire, Assyria, and Canaan and prolonged the
have an impact on of the pharaohs to the greatest
empire Egypt had ever seen.

Late Period (1069–332 BC)

During this period no technological advances were made but political wars were at its
peak. Towards the end of this era, greeks had taken over without putting put a fight.

Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC)

After Alexander the great has successfully taken over Egypt, The city showcased the
power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture.

Hellenistic way of life did now not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies
supported general traditions in an effort to impenetrable the loyalty of the populace.
They constructed new temples in Egyptian style, supported usual cults, and portrayed
themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as greek and Egyptian mythologies
were combined and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian
motifs.

GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY

Administration and commerce

The king used to be the supreme army commander and head of the government, who
relied on a paperwork of officers to manipulate his affairs. In cost of the
administration used to be his 2nd in command, the vizier, who acted as the king's
consultant and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, constructing projects, the
criminal system, and the archives. The temples fashioned the spine of the economy.
Not solely had been they locations of worship, however had been additionally
responsible for gathering and storing the kingdom's wealth in a machine of granaries
and treasuries administered with the aid of overseers, who redistributed grain and
goods.

Egyptians used coinage in the later period after it had been introduced to them from
aboard but up until then they had maintained a proper trade system where they used a
specific amount of grain set as a currency Workers have been paid in grain; a easy
laborer may earn 51⁄2 sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman
may earn 71⁄2 sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices have been constant throughout and
recorded in lists to facilitate trading.

Social Status
Farmers made up the bulk of the population, however agricultural produce was once
owned without delay by using the state, temple, or noble household that owned the
land. Farmers had been additionally challenge to a labor tax. Artists and craftsmen had
been of greater repute than farmers, however they had been additionally below
kingdom control, working in the retail outlets connected to the temples and paid
immediately from the nation treasury. Scribes and officers shaped the higher type in
historical Egypt, recognized as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen
clothes that served as a mark of their rank. The higher classification prominently
displayed their social popularity in artwork and literature. Below the the Aristocracy
have been the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialised education in their
field. It is uncertain whether or not slavery as understood nowadays existed in historic
Egypt; there is distinction of opinions amongst authors.

Gender Equality
The historical Egyptians considered guys and women, inclusive of humans from all
social classes, as in reality equal below the law, and even the lowliest peasant was
once entitled to petition the vizier and his courtroom for redress. Although slaves had
been in general used as indentured servants, they had been capable to purchase and
promote their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and had been normally
handled by way of docs in the workplace. Both guys and female had the proper to
personal and promote property, make contracts, marry and divorce, acquire
inheritance, and pursue felony disputes in court. Married couples ought to very own
property mutually and defend themselves from divorce by way of agreeing to
marriage contracts. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even grew to
become pharaohs.

Agriculture
The Egyptians identified three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu
(harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the
river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt perfect for developing crops. After the
floodwaters had receded, the developing season lasted from October to February.
Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which had been irrigated with ditches
and canals. Egypt obtained little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their
crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which have
been then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing
eliminated the chaff from the grain, and the grain used to be then floor into flour,
brewed to make beer, or saved for later use.

The historic Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and quite a few different cereal
grains, all of which have been used to make the two principal meals staples of bread
and beer.[88] Flax plants, uprooted earlier than they commenced flowering, have been
grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers had been break up alongside their size
and spun into thread, which used to be used to weave sheets of linen and to make
clothing. Papyrus developing on the banks of the Nile River was once used to make
paper. Vegetables and fruits had been grown in backyard plots, shut to habitations and
on greater ground, and had to be watered by using hand. Vegetables protected leeks,
garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and different crops, in addition to grapes that
had been made into wine.

ARCHITECTURE
The state organized and funded construction projects for religious and
commemorative purposes, but also to bolster the pharaoh's power. Ancient Egyptian
architects built large stone structures with great accuracy and precision using simple
but effective tools and sighting instruments, still admired today. Peasants lived in
simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate
structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and
Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water
pools, deities and geometric designs. Palaces were built in stone in order for them to
stay forever and lotus motifs were used a lot as a symbol of decoration.

The oldest preserved temples in ancient Egypt, such as those at Giza, consist of
enclosed halls topped by slabs of stone supported by columns. To the front of the
temple's sanctuary, architects added the hypostyle hall, a design that remained popular
until the Greco-Roman period. The mastaba was the first and most popular tomb
architecture in the Old Kingdom, a flat-roofed rectangular structure constructed of
mudbrick or stone over an underground burial chamber. Step pyramids of Djoser are
made up of stone mastaba blocks stacked one atop the other. Most later rulers
abandoned pyramids in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs during the Old and
Middle Kingdoms. However, the use of pyramid structure continued in private tomb
chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal pyramids of
Nubia.

temple of dendur

TRADE
In the Predynastic Period,
they established trade with
Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also
established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the
burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in
Canaan and exported back to Egypt. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis
lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Their relations with
Greece provided them olive oil.

CULTURE
Mudbrick houses were designed to keep cool during the day and were occupied only
by immediate family members. There was an open roof over each house's kitchen that
contained a grindstone for grinding grain, as well as a small oven for baking bread.
Food, drink, and raw materials were stored, prepared, transported, and consumed in
pottery. The walls were painted white and could be covered with wall hangings made
of dyed linen. Reed mats covered the floors, while wooden stools, raised beds, and
individual tables provided the furniture.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Egyptians used these for a lot of things since they ground they resided in was heavily
abundant in it. They used them in building construction, for their jewelry, as a societal
class representation, godly figurines and tools

CUISINE
Bread and beer were staple foods, along with vegetables such as onions and garlic,
and fruits like dates and figs. During feast days, all enjoyed wine and meat, while the
upper classes indulged more frequently. You could salt and dry fish, meat, and fowl,
and cook them in stews or roast them on a grill.

LANGUAGE
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic
language intently associated to the Berber and Semitic
languages.] It has the 2nd longest regarded records of
any language (after Sumerian).

Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is

composed of thousands of symbols. Hieratic was once
continually written from proper to left, typically in
horizontal rows.