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NCM 115: NURSING RESEARCH MIDTERM REVIEWER (2ND SEM) 3. IDENTIFYING THE TARGET POPULATION OF THE RESEARCH
Course Module on NCM111 NURSING RESEARCH 1
NOTE:
 The target population is the ideal or speculative group of human (or
I. MAJOR ELEMENTS OF NURSING RESEARCH animal) subjects with whom we intend to conduct research.
 The presence/absence of the list will dictate the type of sampling
1. TITLE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY process that we can use in our research study.
NOTE: ideal research title should not be more than 15 words (more than 20
words in other books).

a. Target Population – the speculative and ideal group of people

b. Variables – these are the ideas, topics, factors, or concepts which
the investigation focuses on

2. IDENTIFYING VARIABLES OF THE RESEARCH

NOTE: Variables in research are classified according to their function in the
research investigation.

4. THREE (3) GENERAL CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH

NOTE: Research studies are generally classified according to the purpose of
the study, method in which it will be conducted, and the type of data analysis.

A. THE GENERAL PURPOSES OF RESEARCH: To determine the purpose of

the research, it is important for the nurse researcher to restructure the
research titles into problem statements or research questions.

Descriptive - This type of research aims to describe (either in

numerical or narrative format) the occurrence of a phenomenon.

Answers the research question “What is…?”

Exploratory - The research that primarily focuses on identifying

underlying factors that contribute to the existence of a phenomenon.

Answers the question “What are…?”

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Explanatory - Commonly used in associative and correlational
investigation wherein the researcher aims to determine the extent of
relationship between two or more phenomena. –
Answers the question “Why does…?” or “How does…?”
Predictive- the main purpose of this type of research is to establish
how the exposure (or lack thereof) to an antecedent would predict
the outcome or consequence. This type of research purpose is
commonly used in modeling future outcomes based on antecedent
situations/probabilities.
Utilizes the conditional phrase “What happens to variable Y if
variable X occurs…”
B. GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS: Method refers to the
process by which the variables are observed as they occur or manipulated
to see the causal relationships among them.
Experimental Method
 intends to manipulate, expose, utilize, and/or administer a
causal variable to determine the outcome(s).
 commonly done is the causal variable (also known as
“independent variable”) is a tangible treatment, intervention,
or medication.
Non-Experimental Method
 does not manipulate the variables because they occur naturally
and cannot be utilized/administer intentionally.
 Variables which are considered as behaviors, diseases, and/or
natural calamities are under this type of research method.
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C. THE GENERAL TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS: Research can also be
classified according to the type of data gathered and analyzed. Research
investigations may generate numerical data, narrative statements, or
both.
Quantitative Data Analysis
 research study conducted by measuring the variables under
investigation.
 type of research is best hinted with clues such as “level of…”,
“rate of…”, “incidence of…”, “severity of…”, “degrees of…”,
and other words which provide the intent to measure the
variables under investigation.
Qualitative Data Analysis
 investigation which focuses on non-measurable factors that lead
to the occurrence of a phenomenon.
 includes, but not limited to, indepth understanding of concepts,
themes, ideologies, patterns of behaviours, and other thematic
comprehension of an occurring phenomenon.
Mixed-Method Research
 situations wherein a field of scientific investigation can be best
understood by measuring the data and documenting the
underlying narratives. Therefore, a mixed-method research is the
combination of both quantitative and qualitative data analyses.
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II. OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
b. Delimitation of the Problem
III. DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. IDENTIFYING AND DELIMITING RESEARCH PROBLEMS
a. Terminologies
Research Problem
 complex and general area of interest
 puzzling topic that the researcher is attempting to solve
 through the research problem the investigator will be
motivated to act in order to solve the problem and if not,
accumulate enough knowledge to contribute.
Research Questions
 enumerated sets of specific, interrogatively stated
statements.
 overall guide in addressing the research problem
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Hypothesis
 predicted possible answers or solutions to the research
questions
 testable, empiral, logical yet tentative guess that will
also provide guidance on how the investigator would
proceed.
Research Purpose
 summary of the major goal that the research is
attempting to achieve
 supported further by specific aims and objectives.
At the start of the investigation, the researcher expects that the
topic she has chosen is way too broad to investigate. Thus, the
delimitation process guides the researcher in narrowing the
focus of the investigation and create a more specific and well-
defined research topic. The delimitation process is divided into
three (3) parts: S-E-L
 Scope and Coverage – summary of what will be done in
research.
 Expected Manageability – technique used to eradicate
or control the extraneous variables.
 Limitation of the Study – the imperfection or
weaknesses of the study (backed up by the
recommendation).
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c. Stating the Research Purpose and Research Questions Two (2) Types of Research Question

The research purpose and research questions are the overall
guides of the research study because they dictate the methods
and type of data analyses.
FOUR (4) GENERAL TYPES OF PURPOSE IN RESEARCH
MAJOR Question
 coincides with the overall goal that contains the major
variables and target population.
 formulated first (using deductive reasoning) and
answered last (using inductive reasoning).

MINOR Questions
 the specific inquiries that the investigator attempts to
answer.
 Maximum of 6-8 questions.
 formulated after the major problem (deductive
reasoning) and answered first to summarize the answer
for the major problem (inductive reasoning).

2. CONDUCTING LITERATURE REVIEWS A. LITERATURE REVIEW

a. Literature Review:
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b. Purposes of doing Literature Reviews
 Gathering a substantial amount of previously documented
evidences to justify the necessity of doing the investigation.
 Widening the idea of the researcher in the problem he is
investigating.
 Determining the feasibility of conducting the research.
 Establishing a concrete foundation of knowledge from which the
current investigation would be done.
c. Recall: Hierarchy of Evidence
d. Locating and Documenting Literature for a Research Topic
Use of Bibliographies
 Manual and/or Electronic;
 the most common and usual approach wherein the
researcher get the text (in verbatim) together with
the reference.
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Manual Bibliographies
 provide a concretely physical literature despite being
time-consuming to be conducted.
Electronic Database Search
 provides convenient method of retrieving
literatures but has the potential for being
wiped out online.
NOTE:
The most common electronic literature source used in
nursing research is the Cumulative Index for Nursing and
Allied Health Literature (CINAHL).
 Ascendancy Approach – “footnote chasing”
 uses citations from relevant studies to track
down earlier research upon which the
studies are based
 tracing of the oldest or first published
literatures.
 Descendancy Approach – “index tracing”
 uses forward approach in searching recent
investigations that are cited to be the key
studies.
 appropriate for conducting concurrent
evidence-based research (published 3 to 5
years ago).
 Grey Literature
 uses materials with more limited
distributions (e.g. unpublished reports,
dissertations, etc.).
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e. Two (2) Types of Literatures
Conceptual Literature – materials that contain factual information
without any research-related content (e.g. encyclopedia, textbook,
newspaper, internet, etc.).
Research Literature – materials that contain research findings and
data (e.g. theses, dissertations, journals, etc.).
f. Two (2) Types of Literature Sources
PRIMARY SOURCE – variety of information, data, knowledge taken
directly from the original author.
SECONDARY SOURCE – literature passed from one author to another.
These are the types of data that can be traced using ascendancy and
descendancy approach.
g. Honesty, Accuracy, Copyright, and Plagiarism
Republic Act 8293 or The Philippine Copyright Law
Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s words or ideas without
giving credit to the original source (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). To
avoid plagiarizing the work of another researcher, one must use
appropriate references and ask the consent of the original source if
deemed necessary.
Citation- the process of giving credits to the original owner of in research
literature .
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h. Styles in Literature Citations
A citation is a method of acknowledging the individual for
their creative and/or work and that the product of their
intellectual endeavor supported your own research.
In citing our research literatures, we commonly include the
author's name, date published, location of the publishing
company, journal title, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier).
A citation style dictates the information necessary for a
citation and how the information is ordered, as well as
punctuation and other formatting.
 APA Style (7th Edition) –
American Psychiatric Association
 This the most commonly used style in academic
research and will be used as our main citation
style for our research proposal in IDC-CON.
 MLE Style (8th Edition)
Modern Language Association
 This style is widely used is areas of humanities,
language, and literary articles (i.e. poem, ballads)
 Chicago Style (17th Edition)
 Chicago is a literature documentation style
originally published by the Chicago University
Press in 1906 and has been used since then. This
style integrates grammatical rules and
punctuations in American English. This style is
presented in two basic documentation systems:
a. Notes and bibliography style is preferred by
many in the humanities, including those in
literature, history, and the arts.
b. author-date style has long been used by
those in the physical, natural, and social
sciences.
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 Turabian Style (9th Edition)
 Originally based on the Manual of Research
Papers, Theses, and Dissertations written by
Kate L. Turabian, it is basically the same as
Chicago Style but slightly modified to cater the
needs of student writers.
 It is also presented in two basic documentation
systems:
a. Notes/Bibliography style is used widely
in literature, history, and the arts.
b. Author-date style has long been used in
the physical, natural, and social sciences.
 IEEE Style
Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
 is a professional organization supporting
many branches of engineering, computer
science, and information technology. In
addition to publishing journals, magazines,
and conference proceedings, IEEE also
makes many standards for a wide variety of
industries. IEEE citation style includes in-text
citations, numbered in square brackets,
which refer to the full citation listed in the
reference list at the end of the paper. The
reference list is organized numerically, not
alphabetically.
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3. CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
Potentials of the Researcher – simply describes the
enthusiasm, motivation, or interest of the investigator on the
topic of inquiry.
Significance of the Problem – consideration of the important
contribution of the investigation; a problem becomes
significant if there is the need for investigating the
discrepancy between ideal and real scenario.
Researchable of the Problem – a problem is researchable if
it considers the empiricism or generalization of ideas based
on factual evidences; not opinionated but scientific.
Feasibility of the Problem – doable; considers the potential
for success in investigation because of enough:
Financial funding (most important)
Research resources (i.e. literatures, materials, laboratory
apparatus)
Experience of researcher
Ethically upright to conduct and respects human dignity
Available and accessible samples during data collection
Time is enough for investigation
Approval & support from authorities and administration
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IV. DEVELOPING FRAMEWORK AND FORMULATING

HYPOTHESIS IN RESEARCH
1. Framework in Research
A framework is an implicit explanation or rationale that supports the
investigator’s expectations and hypotheses for the subjects,
variables, and relationships under investigation.
This explanation will provide the central theme or backbone of the
whole research study.
The researcher presents his statement either as an argument or
agreement that either contradicts or supports the background
information lifted from the literature reviews.
Theoretical Framework
 an explanation that was adopted and adjusted from
an existing theory and/or research that has already
been studied in the past. It differs greatly from
conceptual framework simply because these
structures of explanation are readily available and
not created from scrap.
 For example, a theoretical framework may want to
use Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs but will
adapt the concepts/variables relative to the
research on “Nurses’ Personal and Professional
Growth”.
NOTE:
The overall purpose of Conceptual and Theoretical Framework is to make
sense of the research study that the researcher intends to conduct.
3. The Difference: Conceptual Framework versus Theoretical Framework

2. Theoretical and Conceptual framework in research

Conceptual Framework

 a structure of explanation formulated by the

investigator (graphically or narratively)
which serves as a combination of concepts
and relationship between/among the
variables of the research. It is the product of
the literature review done thoroughly by the
researcher.
 A conceptual framework can be as simple as
the presumed relationships and/or dynamics
among the researcher’s independent,
dependent, and extraneous variables.
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V. METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF RESEARCH

Three (3) Dichotomies of Hypotheses:
1. RECALL: GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE,
Simple & Complex Simple Hypothesis – contains 1 independent and METHOD, DATA ANALYSIS, AND TIMELINE
1 dependent variable. Usually utilized in univariate or bivariate
research studies. Complex Hypothesis – contains 2 or more
independent and/or 2 or more dependent variables. Commonly used
in multivariate researches.

Non-Directional & Directional

 Non-Directional Hypothesis – simply predicts whether there is a 2. TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO DATA: QUANTITATIVE,
signicant relationship / effect between the variables investigated QUALITATIVE, MIXED-METHODS
or none at all. Usually utilized in descriptive or exploratory
investigations.
 Directional Hypothesis – predicts the expected extent of
relationship between the variables being investigated, whether
directly related or inversely associated. Commonly used in
explanatory research studies.

Null & Alternative

 Null Hypothesis – Negatively stated guesses which predicts the

inexistent relationship between the variables. Also called
Statistical Hypothesis because the statistical computations in the
analysis phase of the research study directly test the truthfulness
of the null statement. Once the statistical results prove that null
is false, then it logically signifies that the variables have
relationship.
 Alternative Hypothesis – Affirmatively stated predictions
expressing that there is an existent relationship between or
among the variables under investigation. Also called Research
Hypothesis since it usually provides final solutions to the problem
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3. SPECIFIC RESEARCH DESIGNS: EXPERIMENTAL VERSUS NON- 4. STUDY POPULATION, SETTINGS, AND SAMPLING DESIGNS
EXPERIMENTAL
a. The Sampling Process

b. Specific Sampling Designs

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c. Representativeness in Research
The degree of representation of the samples to the target population.
A representative sample has major characteristics distinctly similar to
the target population. It requires that the relevant information about
the element (or sample) be taken to maintain. However, gathering
information from your subjects may lead to Sampling Bias. This is
necessary to make a valid conclusion based on equally represented
characteristics.
Randomized Selection of Samples ensures that the findings and
conclusion are non-biased. Therefore, Stratified Random Sampling
and Cluster Sampling are the two most representative sampling
techniques because they both guarantee that each characteristic and
area of the target population are represented.
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5. INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA-GATHERING TOOLS
Instrumentation
refers to the overall plan on what tool, equipment or approach
will be used in collecting the data. It is important to plan for the
most appropriate data-gathering tool because it impacts the level
of evidence of the research.
a. Four (4) Approaches in Data-Collection
1. Use of Readily Available Data - It is the most convenient yet
unrealiable.
2. Observational Approach- It is hard to be done in a large-scale
setting or for behaviors that are not publicly shown (e.g. sexual
practices, self-care, contraceptive use, etc.)
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3. Self-Recording or Self-Report Approach – a method of subjectively Evaluation of Research Instrument

collecting data based on the paticipants’ perspective. The
participants themselves provide the data. Because the instrument affects the empiricism of the data
gathered, the researcher must first evaluate if the equipment or
a) Questionnaire – indicated for large-scale population, instrument is:
quantitaive and allows simultaneous gathering of data in a
variety of settings.
b) Interview – gathers more in-depth data that covers both
verbal and non-verbal information. However, this approach
is time-consuming that it is only utilized in a small-scale
population.

4. Mechanical Instruments – utilizes any form of machine that

gathers bodily information

a) Biophysical Measures – tools that gathers physical

appearances or anatomical structures.
b) Biophysiological Measures – tools that focuses on
Classification of Data
measuring bodily functions
After the data have been gathered, it is important that the
researcher categorizes the data in order to create an organized
presentation and furthermore facilitate an easier statistical
analysis. An effective data categorization will facilitate a clearer,
more convenient, concise and valid findings.
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Frequency Distribution Tables

Presentation of Data
An organized data is well-presented so that it would facilitate
easy comprehension and analysis. Data are graphically presented
in three (3) most common methods:
provide a way of organizing data in table format, allowing convenient
and comprehensive understanding of basic characteristics of the
variable.
shows possible values of the variable grouped into class intervals, raw
and relative frequencies, and cumulative frequency

5 general steps:
• Create an ordered array
• Determine class intervals
• Obtain raw frequencies of each class interval
• Compute relative frequencies of each class interval
• Compute cumulative relative frequency of each class interval

Charts & Graphical Displays of Data

Charts quickly reveal facts about data that might be gleaned from
table only after careful study.
Often the most effective way to describe, explore, and summarize
sets of numbers
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Types of Charts & Figures: THE 2 TYPES OF STATISTICS

Desriptive Statistics that include formulas utilized to summarize
Histograms (bar graph) – show the shape of distribution of variables and describe the overall collected data.
that numerical, either interval or ratio scales
Inferential Statistics that include formulas utilized to test the
Frequency Polygons (line graph) – provides rough estimates of the hypotheses (most of all, the null hypothesis).
shape of the distributions
Specific Statistical Formula
Stem-and-Leaf (stemplots) a. Descriptive Statistics:
–provide information
regarding the range of
values while preserving the
individual values of the
variable

Pie Chart - alternative to bar charts but for variables in nominal scales

Describing Data with Sample Statistics

Using descriptive statistics is important in summarizing the overall

characteristics of samples

Four Characteristics of Samples:

 Central tendency – typical value of the variable

 Dispersion – how data spread out, whether homogenous or
heterogenous
 Skewness – determine the normality of distribution (parametric
distribution)
 Kurtosis – determine the pointedness or flatness of data
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Measures of Dispersion  Normally distributed variables require specific types of statistics

Used to present the spread of scores, or variation in dataset (commonly known as parametric measures)
Usually presented with the measures of central tendency, to  Analyzing normal distribution is only done for variables with
avoid misrepresentation of the data numerical values (interval/ratio)
 To easily identify whether the variable is normally distributed,
the mean and the median should have equal values
 If the mean and median are not equal, then the variable has
skewed distribution; skewness can be:
• Positively skewed = mean > median
• Negatively skewed = mean < median
 If the variable has skewed distribution, it would require statistical
formula that are non-parametric measures

Kurtosis (Peakedness or Flatness)

Kurtosis refers to the pointedness or flatness of data distribution,

usually determined by the results of standard deviation
Statistical Tools for Measures of Dispersion:
b. Inferential Statistics:
Range – difference between the highest and lowest value in a dataset
(for nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels); can be unstable
Interquartile Range – middle 50% of the data, also known as the 75th
to 25th percentiles (P75 – P25); usually reported with the median in
central tendency
Standard Deviation & Variance – SD is reported with the mean and
the square root of the variance; when SD is a large number, this
usually means that the data is widely scattered (heterogenous);
variance is the sum of the squared deviations of the mean
Coefficient of Variation – comparing the variation of two or more
different variables measured in different units

SKEWNESS & KURTOSIS

Symmetry of Data (Normal Distribution)

 Symmetrical data means that the variable has normal

distribution
 When plotted in a graph, the variable forms a perfect bell curve
with most of the data are concentrated at the central region
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STEPS IN DATA ANALYSIS

1. Data Entry – encoding the data into the spreadsheet and will be followed
by the decision on the measurement level of the data collected.

2. Data Cleaning – ensuring that all data are usable and valid, this can be done
by manually and electronically checking for missing data.

3. Describing the Samples – using descriptive statistics to describe the

samples and summarize the data.

4. Testing the Hypothesis – determine the list of inferential statistics to

determine the hypothesis to be accepted as the final answer to the research
questions.

Two Types of Errors in Research

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Phases of Nursing Research Process

In remembering the research process, remember the phrase “I Read FHM

Daily And Comfortably” and recognize all the capital letters as the steps for
conducting the research corresponding to the format on how to disseminate
the findings.
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Concepts to Consider In Planning Reasearch