Data and Information: Introduction, Types of Data, A Simple Model of a

Computer, Data Processing Using a Computer, Desktop Computer, Data storage,

storage cell, physical device used as memory cells, random access memory, read
only memory, secondary storage, compact disk read only
memory(CDROM),archival store

Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store the programs and data being used
by the CPU in real-time. The data on the random access memory can be read, written,
and erased any number of times. RAM is a hardware element where the data being
currently used is stored. It is a volatile memory. Types of RAM:
1. Static RAM, or (SRAM) which stores a bit of data using the state of a six
transistor memory cell.

Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
2. Dynamic RAM, or (DRAM) which stores a bit data using a pair of transistor
and capacitor which constitute a DRAM memory cell.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory where the data has been pre-
recorded. Data stored in ROM is retained even after the computer is turned off ie, non-
volatile. Types of ROM:
1. Programmable ROM, where the data is written after the memory chip has been
created. It is non-volatile.
 2. Erasable Programmable ROM, where the data on this non-volatile memory
chip can be erased by exposing it to high-intensity UV light.
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM, where the data on this non-
volatile memory chip can be electrically erased using field electron emission.
4. Mask ROM, in which the data is written during the manufacturing of the
memory chip.

Differences :

Sl. Difference RAM ROM

No
1 RAM is a volatile memory ROM is a non-volatile memory

which could store the data as which could retain the data

Data retention long as the power is supplied. even when power is turned off.

2 Working type Data stored in RAM can be Data stored in ROM can only

retrieved and altered. be read.

Used to store the data that has It stores the instructions

to be currently processed by required during bootstrap of

3
Use CPU temporarily. the computer.

4 It is much slower than the

Speed It is a high-speed memory. RAM.

5 Size,

Capacity and Large size with higher Small size with less capacity

Cost capacity and costlier and cheaper

6 The CPU cannot access the

CPU The CPU can access the data data stored on it unless the data

Interaction stored on it. is stored in RAM.

Central Processing Memory: Introduction, The Structure of a Central Processing
Unit, Specification of a CPU, Interconnection of CPU with Memory and I/O
Units, Embedded Processors

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory
are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

matching, and merging of data.

Output devices: Introduction, Video Display Devices, Flat Panel Displays,

Printers, Audio Output

What are Input Devices

Input devices can send data or information to a computer or another device. Input
devices cannot receive data or signal from some other devices. Various input devices
are as listed below:

1. Keyboard: It is an input device which sends data in to the computer. The

data send depends on the key pressed by the user.
 2. Mouse: A mouse is a small handheld input device which controls a cursor
in a graphical user interface. It can move and select text, files, folders etc. on
our computer according to the user input.
3.  Microphone: it receives audio generated by some input source and sends
the same to a computer.
4. Webcam: it sends the captured images to a computer.
5. Graphics Tablets: This input device is used to draw using hand.
6. Trackballs: trackball is an upside down mouse which is encased within a
socket. It is a cursor control device.
7. Barcode reader: It is used to read the barcode of various items and feed the
same to computer.
8. Gamepad: Also known as joy pad is the input controller for video games.
9. Joystick: these input devices are used to control video games.
10. Scanner: Scanner optically reads and document, file or image and then
changes it into digital signal and sends to the computer.
11. Electronic Whiteboard
12.  OMR: optical mark recognition/ reader, is used to read marks on a
document and send them to computer.
13.  OCR: OCR stands for optical character Recognition, is an input device
which reads printed text and sends that to computer.
14. MICR: Magnetic Ink Character Reader is an input device which generally
finds application is banks to process cheques.

What are Output Devices

A device that can receive data from computer or another device and create output with
that data is called output device. Examples of various output devices are as :

1. Monitor: A monitor is an output device that is responsible for

receiving data from a computer and displaying that information as text or
images for users to see.
2. Projector: Gets data from a computer and displays or projects the same
information onto a screen or a wall. Projector cannot directly accept data
from a user and send that data to another device.
3. Speakers:  Receives sound signal from a computer and then plays that
sound signal and thus we hear songs or music or any other audio.
4. Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on
paper. There are two types of printers

Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon
and onto the paper are called impact printers. Exp. Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
Daisy Wheel

Characteristics of Impact Printers are following

Very low consumable costs

Impact printers are very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

Non-Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters by striking against the
ribbon and onto the paper are called impact printers. Exp. Laser Printers, Inkjet
Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Faster than impact printers.

High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.

Programming Languages,

An operating system is software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. It is an interface
between computer user and computer hardware.
Functions of Operating System are

1. Security: The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and
similar other techniques. It also prevents unauthorized access to programs and
user data.

2. Control over system performance: Monitors overall system health to help

improve performance. Records the response time between service requests and
 system response to have a complete view of the system health. This can help
improve performance by providing important information needed to troubleshoot
problems.

3. Job accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and
users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or
group of user.

4. Error detecting aids : Operating system constantly monitors the system to

detect errors and avoid the malfunctioning of computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users: It coordinates and assigns

interpreters, compilers, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

6. Memory Management: The operating system manages the Primary Memory or

Main Memory. It keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory
are used by which user program. It allocates the memory to a process when the
process requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has terminated
or is performing an I/O operation.
7. Device Management: It Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system and
designates a program responsible for every device known as the Input/Output
controller. It decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how
long and allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices
when they are no longer required.

8. File Management: A file system is organized into directories for efficient or

easy navigation and usage. It carries out the following file management
activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and
status of every file and more. These facilities are collectively known as the file
system.

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file, process, and
memory. Thus operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource
manager. Thus operating system becomes an interface between user and machine.

1. Multiprogramming – A computer running more than one program at a time

(like running Excel and Firefox simultaneously). The concurrent residency of
more than one program in the main memory is called as multiprogramming.
2. Multiprocessing – A computer using more than one CPU at a time. The
availability of more than one processor per system, which can execute several set
of instructions in parallel is called as multiprocessing.
3. Multitasking – The execution of more than one task simultaneously is called as
multitasking. Tasks sharing a common resource (like 1 CPU).
4. Multithreading is an extension of multitasking. A process is divided into several
different sub-processes called as threads, which has its own path of execution.
This concept is called as multithreading.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Multiprogra Multiproce Multithrea Multitask
mming ssing ding ing
1 What it The The A process The
is: concurrent availability is divided execution
residency of of more into several of more
more than one than one different than one
program in the processor sub- task
main memory per system, processes simultane
is called as which can called as ously is
multiprogram execute threads, called as
ming. several set which has multitaski
of its own ng.
instructions path of
in parallel is execution.
called as This
multiproces concept is
sing. called as
multithread
ing.
2 Number One More than Can be one One
of CPU: one or more
than one
3 Job More time is Less time is Moderate Moderate
processi taken to taken for amount of amount of
ng time: process the job time is time.
jobs. processing. taken for
job
processing.
4 Number One process is More than Various One by
of executed at a one process component one job is
process time. can be s of the being
being executed at same executed
execute a time process are at a time.
d: being
 executed at
a time.
5 Econom It is Is less Is It is
ical: economical. economical. economical economic
. al.
6 Number One at a time. Can be one Usually More than
of users: or more one. one.
than one.
7 Through Throughput is Throughput Moderate. Throughp
put: less. is ut is
maximum. moderate.
8 Efficien Less Maximum Moderate Moderate
cy:
9 Categori No further Symmetric No further Single
es: divisions & divisions. User &
Asymmetric Multiuser.
.

Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each
user gets time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from single user or from different users also.
The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is
over OS switches over to next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity
  Less chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation
of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control
device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-
defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems and Soft real-time.

A Single-User Operating System is a system in which only one user can access the
computer system at a time.

A Multi-User Operating System is a system that allows more than one user to
access a computer system at one time.
The difference between single user operating system and multi user operating system
are given below:
CHARACTERISTIC  SINGLE-USER  MULTI-USER
S OPERATING SYSTEM OPERATING SYSTEM

A Multi-User Operating
A Single-User Operating
System is a system that
System is a system in which
Definition allows more than one user to
only one user can access the
access a computer system at
computer system at a time.
one time.

 A super user gets all the
powers of maintaining the
Super User system and making changes
to ensure the system runs
smoothly.
Super user does not exist
when it comes to a multi-
user operating system as
each entity has control over
their working.

 Single-User Operating  Multi-User Operating

 Complexity
System is simple. System is complex.

 Only one task at one time   Schedules different tasks

Performance
gets performed. for performance at any rate

A Classification of Programming Languages,

The language processors can be any of the following three types:
1. Compiler –
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high
level language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program
in machine language is called as a Compiler.
 A compiler is a program which coverts the entire source code of a programming
language into executable machine code for a CPU. Compiler takes large amount
of time to analyse the entire source code but the overall execution time of the
program is comparatively faster. Compiler generates the error message only after
scanning the whole program, so debugging is comparatively hard as the error can
be present anywhere in the program. Then, it generates intermediate object code.
Example, C++, C etc

2. Assembler : The Assembler is used to translate the program written in

Assembly language into machine code. Interpreter takes a source program and
runs it line by line, translating each line as it comes to it. It takes less amount of
time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time of the program is
slower. Its Debugging is easier as it continues translating the program until the
error is met. No intermediate object code is generated. Examples: Python, Perl
3. Interpreter: Interpreter is a program that converts the high level
language into the bit format i.e. machine language. The function of the
interpreter and compiler is the same but the interpreter translates one line at a
time and executes it. No object code is produced so every time when the
program has to be run it is to be interpreted first.

4. The word Algorithm means “a process or set of rules to be followed in

calculations or other problem-solving operations”. Therefore Algorithm refers
to a set of rules/instructions that step-by-step define how a work is to be
executed upon inorder to get the expected results.
5. Flowchart: A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.
Programmers often use it as a program-planning tool to solve a problem. It
makes use of symbols which are connected among them to indicate the flow of
information and processing.
The process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is known as
“flowcharting”.
6. Pseudocode: It is an informal way of programming description that does not
require any strict programming language syntax or underlying technology
considerations. It is used for creating an outline or a rough draft of a program.
Pseudocode summarizes a program’s flow, but excludes underlying details. It
enables the programmer to concentrate only on the algorithm part of the code
development.
7. Decision table :

Software concepts: Definition, types of software: system & application software

packages, hardware &software.

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and

execute specific tasks. A software or computer software essentially a type of programs
which enable the users to perform some particular specific task or actually used to
operate their computer. It essentially directs all of the peripheral devices on the entire
computer system- what exactly to do and how exactly to perform a task. Software
plays a key role of a mediator between the user and the computer hardware.

There are two types of Software:

System Software is the type of software which is the interface between application
software and system. In general they are developed in low level language which is
more compatible with the system hardware in order to interact with. It is used for
operating computer hardware. They are installed on the computer when operating
system is installed. System software are specific to system hardware so less or no user
interaction available in case of system software. System software can run
independently. It provides platform for running application software. Some examples
of system software’s are compiler, assembler, debugger, driver, etc

Application Software:
Application Software is the type of software which runs as per user request. It runs on
the platform which is providing by system software. For Application software, high
level language is used for their development as they are developed as some specific
purpose software. It is used by user to perform specific task. They are installed
according to user’s requirements. The user can interacts with it as user interface is
available in this case. They can’t run independently without the presence of system
software. Examples are word processor, web browser, media player, etc.

Hardware is a set of physical parts of computers which actually executes the

instruction. Hardware cannot do any task without instructing by software. A hardware
can be touched being a physical electronic device and are manufactured in factories.
Hardware categories are Input Devices, Output Devices, Storage Devices, Internal
components of CPU and motherboard.

Data Organisation: Introduction, Organizing a Database, Structure of a

Database, Database Management System, Example of Database Design, Non-text
Databases, Archiving Databases
Unit – 4 (10 L)

Network : A network consists of two or more separate devices (laptops, printers,

servers, etc.) that are linked together so they can communicate.

The rate at which data are moved across a communications channel is called data
transmission speed. Bandwidth, data transfer rate, data rate, or
connection speed, it refers to the amount of digital data exchanged between two
devices via a specific channel in a given period. Network speed is generally
measured in bits per second (bit/s).
A client is a computer hardware device or software that accesses a service made
available by a server. The server is often (but not always) located on a separate
physical computer.

A server is a physical computer dedicated to run services to serve the needs of

other computers. Depending on the service that is running, it could be a file
server, database server, home media server, print server, or web server.

A host is a computer, connected to other computers for which it provides data or

services over a network. In theory, every computer connected to a network acts
as a host to other peers on the network. In essence, a host reflects the logical
relationship of two or more computers on a network.

In data communications, a terminal is any device that terminates one end (sender
or receiver) of a communicated

Data Transmission Mode:

Simplex

In simplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver occurs
in only one direction.  Example: Keyboard and monitor.

Half Duplex

The communication between sender and receiver occurs in both directions in half
duplex transmission, but only one at a time.  The sender and receiver can both send
and receive the information, but only one is allowed to send at any given time.  For
example, a walkie-talkie, both speakers can communicate, but they have to take turns.

Full Duplex

In full duplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver can
occur simultaneously.  The sender and receiver can both transmit and receive at the
same time. For example, using a telephone, both speakers can communicate at the
same time.

The full duplex transmission mode offers the best performance among the three, on
account of the fact that it maximises the amount of bandwidth available.

Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents

another time-based variable. These kind of signals works with physical values and
natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight,
lighting, etc.
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate
values at any point in time. It can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This
type of signal represents a real number within a constant range of values.

KEY DIFFERENCES:

 An analog signal is a continuous signal whereas Digital signals are time

separated signals.
 Analog signal is denoted by sine waves while It is denoted by square waves
 Analog signal uses a continuous range of values that help you to represent
information on the other hand digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent
information.
 The analog signal bandwidth is low while the bandwidth of the digital signal is
high.
 Analog instruments give considerable observational errors whereas Digital
instruments never cause any kind of observational errors.
 Analog hardware never offers flexible implementation, but Digital hardware
offers flexibility in implementation.
 Analog signals are suited for audio and video transmission while Digital
signals are suited for Computing and digital electronics.

Network topology refers to the arrangement of computers connected in a network

through some physical medium such as cable, optical fiber etc. Topology generally
determines the shape of the network.

The various types of network topologies are as follows:

1. Bus topology
2. Star topology
3. Ring topology
4. Mesh topology
5. Hybrid topology
6. Tree topology
Linear Bus Topology: In the linear bus topology, all the nodes are connected to the
single backbone or bus with some medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable etc.

Benefits of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.
 The Cable length required is the least in comparison to other topologies.
 The working of this topology is easy to understand.
 Expansion can be done easily by linking the cables together.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

 If the main cable collapses, the complete network collapses.

 The network performance is at stake and reduces if there are numerous nodes
and heavy network traffic.
 The main cable can only be so long. The length of the cable is limited.
 Bus Topology is not as fast as Ring Topology.

Star Topology: All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as
hub device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and hub.

Benefits of Star Topology

 Star topology boasts fast performance due to low network traffic.

 It is easy to upgrade the Hub, as and when required.
 Setup can be done easily and can be easily modified as well.
 Star Topology is easy to troubleshoot.
  In case a node has failed, it can easily be replaced without affecting the
working of the rest of the network.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

 The installation cost is extreme and it is costly to use.

 All the nodes are dependent on the hub.

Ring Topology: In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate
or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts.

Benefits of Ring Topology

 The network is not affected by numerous nodes or heavy traffic, as only the
nodes possessing tokens can transfer data.
 Ring topology has cheap installation and expansion.

Drawbacks of Ring Topology

 It is a tedious task to troubleshoot in Ring topology.

 It is difficult to add or delete nodes, as it interrupts the network activity.
 If one computer crashes, the entire network activity is disrupted.

Mesh Topology : In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple

hosts.This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or
may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Benefits of Mesh Topology

 Every connection has the ability to carry its particular data load.
 Mesh Topology is very robust.
 It is easy to diagnose faults.
 Mesh Topology provides with privacy and security.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

 Mesh Topology is challenging to install and configure.

 As all the nodes are connected with each other, the cabling is costly.
 Bulk wiring is essential.

Hybrid Topology: It is the combination of multiple topologies, used for constructing

a single large topology. The hybrid topology is created when two different network
topologies are interconnected.
Benefits of Hybrid Topology

 It is easy to troubleshoot and provides simple error detecting techniques.

 It is a flexible network topology, making it quite effective.
 It is scalable since the size can be made greater easily.

Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology

 It is complicated to design it.

 It is very expensive, as it involves more than one topologies.

TREE TOPOLOGY:

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology.

Benefits of Tree Topology

 It is easy to expand the network with more nodes.

 It is easy to maintain and manage.
 It is easy to detect an error in the network.

Drawbacks of Tree Topology

 It is profoundly cabled.
 It is expensive when compared to other topologies.
 If the root node collapses, the network will also collapse.4

These transmission media may be of two types −

  Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system
that has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
 Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in
form of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

Guided Media is also known as Wired or Bounded transmission media. A signal

travelling the media is directed and confined by the physical limits of the medium.

Advantage:

 More secure
 Provides high speed
 Used for shorter distances

Disadvantage :

 Need Physical link

 Time Consuming

There are three types of guided media which are Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial

Cable and Fiber-Optic Cable are explained below.

Twisted Pair Cable :

Twisted-Pair Cable consists of two insulated conductors wire wound (normally
copper), twisted together. In which one wire is to carry the signal to destination and
other is used as a ground reference. Twisting is done so that the noise will equally
affect the wire from the external environment.
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): 
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on
a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications. 
Advantages: 
1. Least expensive
2. Easy to install
3. High speed capacity
4. Susceptible to external interference
5. Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
6. Short distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): 
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It
is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone
lines. 
Advantages: 
1. Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
2. Eliminates crosstalk
3. Comparitively faster
4. Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
 5. More expensive
6. Bulky
Applications :
1. It is used in telephone lines.
2. Also used in the DSL line (ADSL)
3. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).

Coaxial Cable
(ii) Coaxial Cable – 
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is
split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use
Coaxial cables. 
Advantages: 
 
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages: 
Advantages:
1. Carries signals of higher data rate and bandwidth.
2. Easy to install and expand, inexpensive
3. Better noise immunity
Disadvantages:
1. The network depends on a single cable.
2. Expensive and difficult to install when compared with twisted pair.
Application:
 Used in analog telephone networks, could carry 10,000 voice signals.
 Used in analog telephone networks and Cable TV networks.

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable – 

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It
is used for transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional.
Advantages: 
 
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages: 
 
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Unguided Media: 
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. 
Features: 
 
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media: 
(i) Radiowaves – 
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission. 
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite. 
(ii) Microwaves – 
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution. 
(iii) Infrared – 
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

TYPES OF NETWORK

LAN - Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network that connects computers and
devices within a limited area like a residence, an office, a building or a campus. On a
small scale, LANs are used to connect personal computers to printers. However,
LANs can also extend to a few kilometres when used by companies, where a large
number of computers share a variety of resources like hardware (e.g. printers,
scanners, audiovisual devices etc), software (e.g. application programs) and data.
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a larger network than LAN. It often covers
multiple cities or towns. It is quite expensive and a single organization may not have
own it.
WAN - Wide Area Network
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a much larger network than LAN and MAN. It often
covers multiple countries or continents. It is quite expensive and a single organization
may not have own it. Satellite is used to manage WAN.
LAN MAN WAN

Definition LAN stands for MAN stands for WAN stands for
1 Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network.
Network. Network.

Ownership LAN is often owned MAN ownership WAN ownership can

2 by private can be private or be private or public.
organizations. public.

Speed LAN speed is quiet MAN speed is WAN speed is lower

3
high. average. than that of LAN.

Delay Network Network Network Propagation

Propagation Delay is Propagation Delay Delay is longer in
4
short in LAN. is moderate in WAN.
MAN.

Congestion LAN has low MAN has higher WAN has higher
5 congestion as congestion than congestion than both
compared to WAN. LAN. MAN and LAN.

Fault Fault Tolerance of Fault Tolerance of Fault Tolerance of

6 Tolerance LAN is higher than MAN is lower than WAN is lower than
WAN. LAN. both LAN and MAN.

Maintenance Designing and Designing and Designing and

maintaining LAN is maintaining WAN is maintaining WAN is
7 easy and less costly complex and more complex and more
than WAN. costly than LAN. costly than both LAN
and MAN.

TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol
here but supports all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over
the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is
supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host
programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level
protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.

OSI REFERENCE MODEL:

The OSI layers may be summarised by:

1. Physical layer: Provides electrical, functional, and procedural characteristics

to activate, maintain, and deactivate physical links that transparently send the
bit stream; only recognises individual bits, not characters or multicharacter
frames.
2. Data link layer: Provides functional and procedural means to transfer data
between network entities and (possibly) correct transmission errors; provides
for activation, maintenance, and deactivation of data link connections, grouping
of bits into characters and message frames, character and frame
synchronisation, error control, media access control, and flow control
(examples include HDLC and Ethernet)
3. Network layer: Provides independence from data transfer technology and
relaying and routing considerations; masks peculiarities of data transfer
medium from higher layers and provides switching and routing functions to
establish, maintain, and terminate network layer connections and transfer data
between users.
4. Transport layer: Provides transparent transfer of data between systems,
relieving upper layers from concern with providing reliable and cost effective
data transfer; provides end-to-end control and information interchange with
quality of service needed by the application program; first true end-to-end
layer.
5. Session layer: Provides mechanisms for organising and structuring dialogues
between application processes; mechanisms allow for two-way simultaneous or
two-way alternate operation, establishment of major and minor synchronisation
points, and techniques for structuring data exchanges.
6. Presentation layer: Provides independence to application processes from
differences in data representation that is, in syntax; syntax selection and
conversion provided by allowing the user to select a "presentation context"
with conversion between alternative contexts.
 7. Application layer: Concerned with the requirements of application. All
application processes use the service elements provided by the application
layer. The elements include library routines which perform interprocess
communication, provide common procedures for constructing application
protocols and for accessing the services provided by servers which reside on
the network.

Differences between OSI and TCP / IP Reference Models

 OSI model is a generic model that is based upon functionalities of each layer.
TCP/IP model is a protocol-oriented standard.
 OSI model distinguishes the three concepts, namely, services, interfaces, and
protocols. TCP/IP does not have a clear distinction between these three.
 OSI model gives guidelines on how communication needs to be done, while
TCP/IP protocols layout standards on which the Internet was developed. So,
TCP/IP is a more practical model.
 In OSI, the model was developed first and then the protocols in each layer were
developed. In the TCP/IP suite, the protocols were developed first and then the
model was developed.
 The OSI has seven layers while the TCP/IP has four layers.

Unit – 5 (10 L)
Some Internet Applications: Introduction, E-mail, Information Browsing
Service, The World Wide Web, Information Retrieval from the World Wide
Web, Other Facilities Provided by Browsers, Audio on the Internet, Pictures,
Animation and Video via Internet
Societal Impacts of Information Technology: Introduction, Privacy, Security and
Integrity of Information, Disaster Recovery, Intellectual Property Rights,
Careers in Information Technology