Endangered Species, International Protection: Peter H Sand

Endangered Species, International
Protection
Peter H Sand
Content type: Encyclopedia entries

Product: Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law
[MPIL]
Module: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International
Law [MPEPIL]
Article last updated: March 2017
Subject(s):
Countermeasures — Sustainable development — Economic sanctions — Developing countries — Natural
resources — Endangered species — Environmental disputes — Pollution
Published under the auspices of the Max Planck Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of Law
under the direction of Rüdiger Wolfrum.
From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2015. All Rights Reserved.
Subscriber: Oxford University Press - Master Gratis Access; date: 14 December 2019
A. Introduction
1 Within the general context of international environmental law, designated natural fauna
and flora resources are internationally protected against the risks of over-exploitation and
extinction (→ Conservation of Natural Resources; → Environment, International Protection).
However, unlike classical area-specific nature protection regimes (→ Nature, International
Protection; → World Natural Heritage), species-specific protection is typically ‘a-territorial’;
ie, individual specimens and living populations of animals or plants are subject to the
international regime solely on the basis of their taxonomic identification as members of a
listed protected species, irrespective of their geographical location inside or outside
national territory. While any individual specimen of a protected species may thus be subject
to the territorial sovereign control of the State where it is located (→ Natural Resources,
Permanent Sovereignty over), that customary rule does not apply to the species itself; ie,
the abstract genotype to which the specimen belongs, biologically defined as ‘a population
or series of populations of organisms capable of freely interbreeding with one another
under natural conditions’ (Wilson). Hence, species that are authoritatively classified as
‘endangered’ (ie, at a high risk of extinction in the wild) under international treaties may
well be viewed as common resources of humankind. Given the declared → community
interest in their long-term conservation, the host States concerned share a distinct fiduciary
accountability as ‘public trustees’ for these global trust resources, vis-à-vis the ultimate
beneficiaries of the trust; ie, all people of the human species, including future generations
(→ Intergenerational Equity).
2 Wild-living fauna and flora are considered renewable or ‘flow resources’, replenished by
natural reproduction/propagation. Characteristically, however, they have a ‘critical zone’
below which their depletion—from natural causes, or from human interference—may
become irreversible, and hence may lead to extinction. The worldwide human-induced loss
of species is now well documented as accelerating any losses inherent in the evolutionary
process at alarming rates (→ Biological Diversity, International Protection).
B. Sectoral/Regional Regimes
3 Historically, international action against over-exploitation of wildlife species already
prompted the 1893 Bering Sea Fur Seals Arbitration, followed by the Pacific Fur Seal
Treaties of 1911 and 1957 (the 1911 Convention Respecting Measures for the Preservation
and Protection of Fur Seals in the North Pacific Ocean; and the 1957 Interim Convention
[with Schedule] on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals; see also → Bering Sea), and
early European agreements such as the 1902 Convention for the Protection of Birds Useful
to Agriculture. Today, there is a wide range of bilateral and multilateral → treaties for the
conservation of migratory wildlife species (→ Migratory Species, International Protection),
as well as for commercially exploited marine species (→ Marine Living Resources,
International Protection; see also → Fisheries Agreements; → Marine Mammals; → Whaling),
inland fisheries (mainly under the auspices of the → Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations [FAO]), tropical forests (→ Forests, International Protection), and
agriculturally used plants and plant genetic resources (→ Plant Genetic Resources,
International Protection).
4 On a regional basis, multilateral single-species agreements have been concluded, inter
alia, to protect polar bears in the → Arctic Region (the 1973 Agreement on the Conservation
of Polar Bears), terrestrial species such as the vicuña in South America (the 1979
Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuña), and marine living resources
in → Antarctica (the 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources; and the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty).
Furthermore, lists of protected species are contained or foreseen in the annexes to a
number of general regional nature conservation conventions (including the 1940
Convention on Nature Protection and Wild Life Preservation in the Western Hemisphere;
and the 1979 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats)
and to several regional seas protocols (including the 1985 Protocol on Protected Areas and
on Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African Region; and the 1990 Protocol on Specially
Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region; see also → Regional Seas,
Environmental Protection).
5 One of the most active regional regimes in this field is the European Union, starting with
its 1979 Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the Conservation of Wild Birds (as amended in
2006 by Council Directive 2006/105/EC [2006] OJ L363/368 and in 2013 by Council
Directive 2013/17/EU [2013] OJ L158/193) and the 1992 Council Directive 92/43/EEC on
the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (‘Habitats Directive’), as
interpreted by the European Court of Justice in several leading decisions involving
protected species (eg Cases C-103/00 and C-504/14 Commission v Greece [‘Caretta Cases’ 1
and 2]; → European Union, Court of Justice and General Court), and further elaborated by
the European Commission in its 2007 Guidance Document on the Strict Protection of
Animal Species of Community Interest under the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC.
C. CITES: Wildlife Conservation and Sustainable Use

6 The total volume of legal world trade in wildlife (animals and plants, including forests and
fisheries) and their products has been estimated at US$332.5 billion annually (Engler). For
many → developing countries in particular, exports of products harvested or collected from
the wild—such as furs, hides, timber, or medicinal plants—continue to provide a significant
source of income. National and international regulation of wildlife species therefore needs
to strike a balance between the ecological concerns of nature conservation, and legitimate
economic concerns of sustainable resource utilization (→ Trade and Environment).
1. Historical Development
7 Attempts at multilateral law-making for endangered species date back to the 1900
Convention Designed to Ensure the Conservation of Various Species of Wild Animals in
Africa which are Useful to Man or Inoffensive (‘First London Convention’), and the 1933
Convention relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State (‘Second
London Convention’). Both treaties contained elements of a system to deal with the problem
of unsustainable exploitation of wildlife by the colonial powers (→ Colonialism), through
hunting restrictions for particular species listed in annexes; confiscation of illegally taken
ivory; and export licensing for specified wildlife products. While the First London
Convention never entered into force due to a lack of ratifications, the Second London
Convention became applicable to most of the colonial territories in Africa, the Indian
subcontinent, and Indonesia, but did not survive the era of → decolonization.
8 Following several initiatives at the national level to restrict trade in wildlife species, the
matter was taken up from 1963 onwards in the Swiss-based non-governmental International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (‘IUCN’, now World Conservation
Union), which took the lead in preparations for a draft convention, endorsed by a
recommendation of the → United Nations (UN) in the Action Plan of the 1972 Stockholm
Conference (Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment), and
finalized by a diplomatic conference at Washington DC on 3 March 1973 as the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (‘CITES’).
9 CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975, and currently has a near-universal membership
of 182 States. A rectification protocol noting editorial mistakes in the authentic treaty texts
(inter alia, Arts III, XIV, and XVI CITES) was drawn up in the form of a → procès-verbal by
the Swiss Government as → depositary, communicated to States Parties and signatories on
19 March 1976, and endorsed by the Conference of the Parties (‘COP’), the supreme
decision-making body of CITES, at its first meeting (→ Conference [Meeting] of States
Parties). A protocol amending Art. XI CITES, adopted by an extraordinary meeting of the
conference at Bonn on 22 June 1979, entered into force on 13 April 1987 (Bonn Amendment
to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
A further protocol to amend Art. XXI CITES in order to admit the EU as a party was adopted
by another extraordinary meeting at Gaborone on 30 April 1983 and entered into force on
29 November 2013 (Gaborone Amendment to the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; → European Community and Union, Party to
International Agreements; → Treaties, Amendment and Revision). While the Convention had
already unilaterally been transformed into directly applicable EU law in 1982 by Council
Regulation (EEC) 3626/82 [1982] OJ L384/1, as revised by Council Regulation (EC) 338/97
[1997] OJ L61/1, the EU thus officially became a party on 8 July 2015.
10 Periodic authentic treaty interpretation is provided by resolutions of the COP, adopted

by a two-thirds majority at its triennial plenary meetings (→ Environmental Treaty Bodies;
→ International Law, Development through International Organizations, Policies and
Practice; → Treaties, Declarations of Interpretation). There are 96 conference resolutions
currently in effect, available on the Convention’s website. Even though CITES resolutions
have occasionally—unsuccessfully—been challenged as mere recommendations ‘without any
legal effect’ (eg by France before the ECJ in Case C-182/89 Commission v France [‘Bolivian
Furskin Case’] at 4344), they are regularly sanctioned by collective trade embargoes (see
paras 17–18 below), which have made CITES demonstrably more effective in practice than
most other comparable treaty regimes (→ Environmental Compliance Control).
2. Treaty Structure and Institutions

11 CITES regulates global market access for wildlife specimens, live or dead animals and
plants as well as their parts and derivatives, by subjecting all border-crossing trade—
including trade with Non-Member States (Art. X CITES, elaborated in Res 9.5/1994 as
revised in 2013)—to mandatory licensing on the basis of permits issued by the exporting
country, and in exceptional cases to additional licensing by the importing country. Permits
are granted in accordance with standard criteria (formerly CITES Appendix IV, now laid
down in Res 12.3/2002 as revised in 2016), in light of an agreed ‘black list’ of species
excluded from trade (CITES Appendix I) and a ‘grey list’ of controlled tradable species
(CITES Appendix II). Furthermore, each country of origin may unilaterally add to the lists
by entering species in (CITES Appendix III), or may notify other countries (through the
CITES Secretariat) of further national restrictions. All Member States have a duty to enact
and enforce the terms of the treaty by national laws (see para. 16 below), and to provide
periodic trade data and reports on national implementation (Art. VIII CITES, with standard
criteria and guidelines laid down pursuant to Res 11.17/2000 as revised in 2016;
→ Reporting Systems). Reports are electronically processed and compared by the CITES
Secretariat to determine, inter alia, whether trade data submitted by exporting and
importing countries correspond with regard to the species concerned.
12 CITES Appendices I and II are amended every three years by the COP in light of the
changing conservation and trade status of the species listed (Art. XV CITES) on the basis of
agreed listing criteria (Res 9.24/1994 as revised in 2016). Arguably the most controversial
illustration of this up-listing/down-listing procedure continues to be the status of elephants
and the qualified ban on ivory trade (Res 10.10/1997 as revised in 2016). A further measure
of flexibility is provided by reservations under Arts XXIII and XV (3) CITES, which allow
dissenting countries to opt out of species-listing decisions (Res 4.25/1983 as revised in
2007; → Treaties, Multilateral, Reservations to); and by a number of specific exceptions that
were either built-in (eg for scientific exchanges, and for captive-bred or artificially
propagated specimens, under Art. VII CITES) or subsequently introduced by the conference
(in particular the quota system for limited trade in Appendix I-species, under Res 9.21/1994
as revised in 2004, Res 10.4/1997, and Res 13.5/2004 as revised in 2007).
13 Under the auspices of the omnipotent COP, new elected institutions not originally
anticipated in the convention evolved over time: in particular, the Standing Committee
(initially established by Res 2.2/1979) to which the conference delegated important treaty
management functions during the periods between plenary meetings; and the two sectoral
scientific committees (for animals and plants) which deal with most issues regarding the
listing and delisting of species, and which also meet intersessionally (Res 11.1/2000 as
revised in 2016).
14 While initial funding for CITES operations and meetings had been provided since 1975
by the → United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), responsibility for the
convention’s budget (currently about US$6 million annually) was transferred to the COP
after formal treaty amendment in 1979 and the establishment of a special CITES fund for
this purpose, as one of the → trust funds under UNEP auspices, to which Member States
make assessed contributions based on the UN scale. Under Art. XII CITES, secretariat
services are provided by UNEP, with possible assistance from qualified other bodies.
Initially entrusted to the IUCN, the secretariat was formally taken over by UNEP in 1985,
with an office now based in Geneva, together with CITES trade and species databases
managed by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge. Shared
administrative competences for staff recruitment, accommodation and supervision are laid
down in a 2011 agreement between the CITES Standing Committee and the UNEP
Executive Director.
15 Participation of → Non-Governmental Organizations (‘NGOs’) and → civil society

continues to play an important role in the operation of the convention, through scientific
advice from volunteer specialist groups of the IUCN Species Survival Commission and other
non-governmental bodies. External monitoring is provided by the IUCN/WWF (World Wide
Fund for Nature) TRAFFIC (Trade Records Analysis for Fauna and Flora in Commerce)
programme (a non-governmental ‘watchdog’ network with national/regional offices in 16
countries worldwide), pursuant to two Memoranda of Understanding concluded in 1999
between the CITES Secretariat, IUCN, and TRAFFIC International (Memorandum of
Understanding between the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and IUCN; and Memorandum of
Understanding Concluded between TRAFFIC International, on Behalf of the TRAFFIC
Network, and the United Nations Environment Programme, Secretariat of the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). The accreditation
of non-governmental → observers at CITES conferences—admitting technically qualified
NGOs ‘unless at least one-third of the Parties present object’, pursuant to Art. XI (7) CITES
as elaborated in Resolution 13.8/2004 (revised in 2013)—became a model for several
subsequent environmental treaties (→ Environment, Multilateral Agreements).
3. Implementation and Compliance Control
16 Like most treaty regimes for the regulation of business activities (→ International
Economic Law), CITES depends on national legislative and administrative measures to
become effective (→ International Law and Domestic [Municipal] Law). For domestic
measures to be considered in → compliance with the convention, they must—as a minimum
—provide States Parties with the authority to a) designate at least one management
authority and one scientific authority; b) prohibit trade in specimens in violation of the
convention; c) penalize such trade; and d) confiscate specimens illegally traded or
possessed (Art. VIII CITES; and Res 8.4/1992 as revised in 2010). Since 1992, the COP has
periodically evaluated the national implementing legislation of Member States (ranking
them according to their compliance adequacy in three categories); provided advice, training
and → technical assistance to countries still in default; and in case of persistent non-
compliance, recommended collective → sanctions.
17 The innovative CITES system of → economic sanctions for non-compliance was not
foreseen in the original treaty text but gradually evolved as a result of continuous practice
by the COP, re-stated and consolidated in Resolution 14.3/2007 on CITES Compliance
Procedures. Where a case of non-compliance cannot be resolved by direct communication
between the country concerned and the CITES Secretariat (under Art. XIII CITES) or the
Standing Committee (under delegation from the conference), the conference or the
committee may decide to recommend → countermeasures in the form of a trade embargo; ie
‘the suspension of commercial or all trade in specimens of one or more CITES-listed
species’ (Res 14.3/2007 para. 30). In → State practice, the embargo is collectively enforced
by Member States exercising their right under Art. XIV (1) (a) CITES to adopt ‘stricter
domestic measures regarding the conditions for trade … or the complete prohibition
thereof’ of CITES-listed species with the country so targeted.
18 First used against Bolivia, collective trade suspensions have since been recommended
by the conference in more than 100 cases over the past three decades, both for treaty
infringements by Member States (eg Thailand in 1991, Italy in 1992, Greece in 1998, India
in 2004) and against non-Member States failing to provide the ‘comparable documentation’
required under Art. X CITES and Resolution 9.5/1994 (revised in 2013) on trade with non-
Member States, thus resulting in significant third-country effects to discourage ‘free-
riding’. Given the economic consequences of an embargo, most of the countries targeted
quickly returned to compliance. The procedural safeguards of Resolution 14.3/2007—
including prior consultation, with rights of hearing and response for targeted countries—
are fully compatible with the corresponding rules on legitimate countermeasures developed
by the → International Law Commission (ILC) in its 2001 (Draft) Articles on Responsibility
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in particular Arts 48–54. Multilateral
→ retorsion therefore seems preferable to → unilateral trade measures (such as the 1971
Act to Amend the Fishermen’s Protective Act of 1967 to Enhance the Effectiveness of
International Fishery Conservation Programs [‘Pelly Amendment’], invoked against alleged
CITES infractions by Japanese marine turtle imports in 1991), given that unilateral
sanctions are wholly within the executive discretion of individual governments (Japan
Whaling Association v American Cetacean Society) and remain open to challenge under the
non-discrimination rules of the → World Trade Organization (WTO). The threat of a
collective embargo under Resolution 14.3/2007 is also likely to be more effective in practice
than recourse to adversarial dispute resolution by → arbitration under Art. XVIII CITES,
which requires mutual → consent for submission and so far has never been used
(→ Environmental Dispute Settlement).
19 The bulk of CITES implementation occurs at the domestic level, with national authorities
applying and enforcing international norms vis-à-vis individuals and corporate entities, ie
the phenomenon known as dédoublement fonctionnel. The convention also provides the
framework for inter-administrative co-operation to combat illegal trade in listed species
(see also → Co-operation, International Law of). For this purpose, the CITES Secretariat has
entered into Memoranda of Understanding with the International Criminal Police
Organization (‘ICPO’; → Interpol) and the → World Customs Organization (WCO), and
together with these organizations, the World Bank and the United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime (‘UNODC’) formed the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime
(‘ICCWC’) in 2010. Resolutions 11.3/2000 (as revised in 2007) and 17.6/2016 call on
Member States to become parties to the UN conventions against → transnational organized
crime and corruption (→ Corruption, Fight Against); and UNGA Res 69/314 on ‘Tackling
Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife’ in turn calls for universal participation in and effective
implementation of CITES. National CITES management authorities also participate in the
voluntary International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (‘INECE’).
20 At the regional level, six African countries concluded in Lusaka the 1994 Agreement on
Co-operative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora
under UNEP auspices, followed by the 1999 Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law
Enforcement of the → Southern African Development Community (SADC) adopted in
Maputo. Within the framework of the → Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a
regional Wildlife Enforcement Network (‘ASEAN-WEN’) was established in 2005. Similarly,
a North American Wildlife Enforcement Group (‘NAWEG’) has been operating under the
→ North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (1993) since 1995. The EU
Committee on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora also set up a permanent enforcement group in
1995, composed of management authorities from EU Member States (→ European
Community and Union, Actor in International Relations). As a result of the incorporation of
CITES into EU law since 1982 (currently under Council Regulation 338/97/EC on the
Protection of Species of Wild Fauna and Flora by Regulating Trade Therein, as periodically
amended), European national management authorities may thus be said to exercise a kind
of détriplement fonctionnel, implementing national laws that implement EU regulations in
turn implementing CITES (→ European Community and Union Law and Domestic
[Municipal] Law).
D. Interlinkages
21 Several external evaluations of CITES have confirmed the overall operational
effectiveness of the treaty in regulating legitimate international wildlife trade and curtailing
illegal trade. It should be kept in mind, however, that CITES is but one component of the
existing patchwork of global and regional conventions protecting wild fauna and flora. It is,
by definition, narrowly focused on the trade issue which is only one among the multiple
threats to wildlife resources—such as the inexorable loss of natural habitats; the impacts of
global pollution and climate change (see also → Climate, International Protection); the
consequential or accidental spread of alien species; and unsustainable practices of
economic exploitation.
22 One of the lessons learned is the continuous need for co-operation and synergy with
other nature protection regimes, whether species-oriented or area-oriented, especially the
biodiversity and migratory species treaties operating under UNEP auspices. This objective
has been acknowledged in CITES Res 10.4/1997, Res 13.2/2004, and Res 13.3/2004 (revised
in 2007) and addressed through a ‘Liaison Group’ of seven biodiversity-related conventions
(established in 2004 under Decision VII/26 of the Conference of the Parties to the
Convention on Biological Diversity), and a series of Memoranda of Understanding with their
secretariats. At the same time, species conservation regimes must continue to maintain a
dynamic—and at times inevitably conflictual—discourse with the multitude of treaty
regimes for the sustainable management of living resources, such as whaling (addressed by
CITES Res 11.4/2000, revised in 2002); fisheries, as illustrated by the ‘tuna v dolphin’ and
‘shrimp v turtle’ disputes (GATT United States — Restrictions on Imports of Tuna; WTO
United States — Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products; → General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade [1947 and 1994]; → World Trade Organization, Dispute
Settlement); and forests (addressed by Res 14.4/2007 on co-operation between CITES and
the International Tropical Timber Organization). In this context, the CITES Secretariat has
also concluded specific inter-agency co-operation agreements with the FAO, the WTO, and
the → United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
Select Bibliography
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A FlachsmannVölkerrechtlicher Schutz gefährdeter Tiere und Pflanzen vor
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with the Conservation of Wildlife (Grotius Cambridge 1985).
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Dordrecht 1989).
A Cassese ‘Remarks on Scelle’s Theory of “Role Splitting” (dédoublement fonctionnel)
in International Law’ (1990) 1 EurJIntlL 210–31.
MJ Glennon ‘Has International Law Failed the Elephant?’ (1990) 84 AJIL 1–43.
MC Maffei La protezione internazionale delle specie animali minacciate (CEDAM
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C de Klemm Guidelines for Legislation to Implement CITES (IUCN Gland 1993).
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A and J Schmidt-Räntsch Leitfaden zum Artenschutzrecht (Bundesanzeiger-Verlag
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M Bowman ‘International Treaties and the Global Protection of Birds’ Part I and II
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Experiences of CITES, Montreal Protocol and Basel Convention (UNEP Nairobi 1999).
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Present and Future of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Earthscan London 2000).
PH Sand ‘A Century of Green Lessons: The Contribution of Nature Conservation
Regimes to Global Governance’ (2001) 1 International Environmental Agreements:
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M Yeater and J Vasquez ‘Demystifying the Relationship between CITES and the
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PH Sand ‘Sovereignty Bounded: Public Trusteeship for Common Pool
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PH Sand ‘Scientific Whaling: Whither Sanctions for Non-Compliance with
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Select Documents
Act to Amend the Fishermen’s Protective Act of 1967 to Enhance the Effectiveness of
International Fishery Conservation Programs (Pelly Amendment) Pub L No 92-219, 85
Stat 786 (1971).
Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (adopted 15 November 1973, entered
into force 26 May 1976) (1974) 13 ILM 13.
Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild
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1950 UNTS 35.
Bering Sea Fur Seals Arbitration (Great Britain v United States) (1893) 1 Moore
International Arbitrations 755.
Bonn Amendment to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (adopted 22 June 1979, entered into force 13 April 1987).
Case C-182/89 Commission v France [1990] ECR I-4337.
Case C-103/00 Commission v Greece (Caretta Case 1) [2002] ECR I-1147.
Case C-504/14 Commission v Greece (Caretta Case 2) [2016] ECLI:EU 847.
Commission of the European Community ‘Guidance Document on the Strict Protection
of Animal Species of Community Interest under the Habitats Directive 92/43/
EEC’ (February 2007).
Convention on Biological Diversity (adopted 5 June 1992, entered into force 29
December 1993) 1760 UNTS 79 (‘CBD’).
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (concluded 20
May 1980, entered into force 7 April 1982) 1329 UNTS 47.
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (adopted
19 September 1979, entered into force 1 June 1982) 1284 UNTS 209.
Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuña (adopted 20 December
1979, entered in force 19 March 1982), in W Burhenne (ed) International
Environmental Law: Multilateral Treaties vol 6 (Erich Schmidt Berlin 1974, reprinted
by Kluwer London 1995) I/2000, 979:94/001.
Convention Designed to Ensure the Conservation of Various Species of Wild Animals
in Africa which are Useful to Man or Inoffensive (signed 19 May 1900) (1900) 188
CTS 418.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(adopted 3 March 1973, entered into force 1 July 1975) 993 UNTS 243 (CITES); with
Appendices I–III (2 January 2017).
Convention Respecting Measures for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals in
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Endangered Species, International Protection: Peter H Sand

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Endangered Species, International

Content type: Encyclopedia entries

C. CITES: Wildlife Conservation and Sustainable Use

10 Periodic authentic treaty interpretation is provided by resolutions of the COP, adopted

2. Treaty Structure and Institutions

15 Participation of → Non-Governmental Organizations (‘NGOs’) and → civil society

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