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QHRXXX10.1177/1049732315570119Qualitative Health ResearchJackson et al.

Article
Qualitative Health Research

Using a Qualitative Vignette to Explore a

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DOI: 10.1177/1049732315570119
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Michaela Jackson1, Paul Harrison1, Boyd Swinburn1,2,

and Mark Lawrence1

Abstract
This article discusses how qualitative vignettes were combined with interviews to explore a complex public health
issue; that is, promoting unhealthy foods and beverages to children and adolescents. It outlines how the technique was
applied in practice and the combination of vignette-based interviews with a broader approach involving Gadamerian
hermeneutics. Twenty-one participants from the public health community and the marketing and food and beverage
industries took part in vignette-based interviews between March and September 2012. Overall, the qualitative vignette
method afforded an efficient, generally well-received technique that effectively explored the issue of promoting
unhealthy foods and beverages to children and adolescents. The vignette provided structure to interviews but allowed
certain responses to be investigated in greater depth. Through this research, we argue that qualitative vignettes allow
researchers to explore complex public health issues. This article also provides a valuable resource for researchers
seeking to explore this technique.

Keywords
adolescents/youth; children; research, qualitative; research, interdisciplinary; interviews; knowledge transfer; social
issues; obesity / overweight

Background and Context
Over the past 40 years, global rates of overweight and
obesity have risen dramatically (World Health
Organization [WHO], 2014), with rates among children
in some countries tripling since 1970 (May, Freedman,
Sherry, & Blanck, 2013). In exploring causes for the cur-
rent situation, the WHO (2006) declared “a robust evi-
dence base to support the fact that exposure to the
commercial promotion of energy-dense, micronutrient
poor foods and beverages adversely affects children’s
diets” (p. 26). The WHO highlighted significant amounts
of food and beverage promotion targeting children, chil-
dren’s engagement with this promotion, that the majority
of this promotion was for unhealthy foods and beverages,
and that such promotion influences children’s awareness,
attitudes, behavior, and consumption (WHO, 2006).
In response, it has been argued that the food industry,
and to a lesser extent the marketing industry, has
attempted to defend its behavior and respond to calls for
action while still seeking profit (Grimm, 2004; Moodie
et al., 2013; Wansink & Huckabee, 2005). Among both
public health and marketing literatures, there is evidence
that some members of the food industry feel threatened
by the prospect of statutory regulation, taxation, fines,
and restrictions regarding food marketing to children
(Grimm, 2004; Lewin, Lindstrom, & Nestle, 2006;
Sharma, Teret, & Brownell, 2010; Wansink & Huckabee,
2005). While industry representatives defend their
actions, the issue continues to generate public interest and
debate (Hilton, Patterson, & Teyhan, 2012). There have
been increasing calls for governments to regulate against
forms of marketing such as television advertising and the
use of cartoon characters (e.g., Donjen, 2011; Hope,
2011; Lavelle, 2004).
Among analyses of how obesity has been reported, the
media have been criticized for moralizing, oversimplify-
ing, and sensationalizing the matter (Boero, 2013).
Competing perspectives seek to position obesity as either
an individual or societal problem (Hawkins & Linvill,
2010; Hilton et al., 2012). Differences have also been
observed in the way the media reports different stake-
holder groups’ preferred responses to this issue
(Henderson, Coveney, Ward, & Taylor, 2009). More
1
Deakin University, Burwood, Australia
2
University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Corresponding Author:
Michaela Jackson, Deakin Graduate School of Business, Deakin
University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125, Australia.
Email: Michaela.jackson@deakin.edu.au

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2 Qualitative Health Research 
recent coverage of this issue continues to feature combat-
ive, adversarial language, for example, “War of deep-
fryer heats up” (Julian, 2009), “The battle over taxing
soda” (Leonhardt, 2010), and “CI demands tobacco-style
plan to fight obesity” (Consumers International, 2014).
As such, it can be argued that childhood obesity presents
a complex and controversial public health issue.
Qualitative research accommodates a range of theo-
retical perspectives, assumptions, and circumstances that
shapes the research process and outcome (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994). Qualitative research is acknowledged for
explaining how meaning and social experience are cre-
ated (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Likewise, public health
researchers have recognized the possible contribution of
this form of enquiry to food- and health-related research
questions (e.g., Canning, Hird, & Smith, 2010; Harris et
al., 2009; Jack, 2006). Among qualitative data collection
methods, vignettes have been used by social and health
researchers to explore issues that might be sensitive,
painful, or controversial (e.g., Barter & Renold, 2000;
Borell, Asaba, Rosenberg, Schult, & Townsend, 2006;
Brondani, MacEntee, Bryant, & O’Neill, 2008; Dobkin
de Rios et al., 2005; Hughes, 1998). Qualitative vignettes
have been combined with interviews to explore public
health topics including pre-natal HIV testing (Medley,
Mugerwa, Kennedy, & Sweat, 2012), mental health prob-
lems (Medina, Kullgren, & Dahlblom, 2014), and child-
hood immunization (Leask, 2009). Of closer alignment to
the issue of promoting unhealthy foods and beverages to
children and adolescents, Ludwig, Cox, and Ellahi (2011)
combined qualitative vignettes with interviews to explore
the health-related perceptions and social constructions of
obesity among Pakistani women in the United Kingdom.
Qualitative vignettes have also been combined with inter-
views to explore student food choices, from a consumer
perspective (Van der Merwe, Kempen, Breedt, & de Beer,
2010). Most recently (while this article was under
review), Mah, Taylor, Hoang, and Cook (2014) also com-
bined qualitative vignettes with interviews to investigate
moral reasoning and policy debate associated with the
issue of food advertising to children in Canada. While
both papers offer valuable insights, this article provides a
more detailed account of how qualitative vignettes and
interviews have been combined as part of comprehensive
qualitative methodology, involving a constructivist epis-
temology, critical paradigm, and Gadamerian hermeneu-
tics. In contrast, Mah et al. (2014) focus more heavily on
the search and analysis of documents that informed their
vignette. In addition, it can be argued that this article is
broader in focus—while the issue of promoting unhealthy
foods and beverages to children and adolescents com-
prises moral and ethical aspects, this was not the sole
focus of our study. Differences associated with geogra-
phy and sample participants are also evident.
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This article makes a valuable contribution to the small
body of literature documenting the application of the
qualitative vignette method to public health issues associ-
ated with childhood and adolescent overweight and obe-
sity. It uses the issue of promoting unhealthy foods and
beverages to children and adolescents to highlight the
suitability and contribution of qualitative vignettes for
exploring public health issues. It first explains how the
vignette technique was included as part of a broader qual-
itative approach and provides a brief outline of vignettes
as a data collection method. It then discusses how this
method was applied in practice. Benefits and challenges
associated with this study are also included. Although
results of the vignette-based study are discussed, the
emphasis of this article remains on the research method
used. This article proposes that qualitative vignettes offer
a viable technique for investigating public health issues
while accommodating complexity and context. In doing
so, this article provides a valuable guide for researchers
interested in applying the qualitative vignette technique
to such public health issues.
Methodological Approach
Researchers are encouraged to reflect upon and acknowl-
edge assumptions implicit in the choice of issue being
studied, as well as assumptions within theories, para-
digms, and research contexts (Manning, 1997). Figure 1
summarizes the philosophical and theoretical influences
that informed and shaped this study, and connects the
qualitative vignette technique to other elements within
the methodology. These elements are discussed, briefly,
as follows.
This project is associated with a relativist ontological
position, which assumes the existence of multiple reali-
ties (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998), rather than a single objec-
tive truth (Hugly & Sayward, 1987). Adopting this
perspective produces a complex view on reality in which
truths exist in several, alterable forms and are constructed
by individuals or groups (Guba & Lincoln, 1998). A rela-
tivist ontology is closely associated with a constructivist
epistemology (Guba, 1992; Guba & Lincoln, 1998).
Where relativism assumes the existence of multiple reali-
ties, constructivism assumes that truth and knowledge are
created as a result of perspective (Denzin & Lincoln,
1998).
This research approach combines a constructivist epis-
temology with the critical paradigm. The adoption of a
certain paradigm affects other aspects of a research
design—the way questions are asked, how data are inter-
preted, and the relationship between subject and
researcher (Patton, 1990). The critical approach is inter-
disciplinary and experimental (Given, 2008), and is asso-
ciated with scholars and theories that question, rather
Jackson et al. 3

Ontological and Epistemological

Alignment

Ontology - Relativist
Assumes the existence of multiple realities
rather than a single objective truth, or belief
that realities exist external to the mind.

Epistemology – Constructivist
Assumes that truth and knowledge
are created as a result of
perspective. Research Paradigm - Critical

Critical researchers are not

satisfied with understanding;
change is the desired outcome.

Methodology – Qualitative

Understanding, explaining and

exploring research problems,
holistic perspectives, Data Analysis
understanding and explaining • Hermeneutic analysis of interviews
social settings and relationships from Study 1 and 2
within them. • NVivo analysis of interview data for
Methodological areas of consensus between
Framework – Gadamerian research populations
Hermeneutics

Understanding as the
Data Collection
interpretation of meaning.
• Study 1 – semistructured interviews
Generated through the
analysis of texts. • Study 2 – vignette-based
interviews

Figure 1.  Methodological schema.

than accept, tradition and absolute claims (Bronner,
2011). Researchers working within the critical paradigm
are not satisfied with understanding—change is the
desired outcome (Bleicher, 1980; Crotty, 1998).
Associated with this motivation is analysis and critique of
forces or ideologies that underpin action (Given, 2008).
Critical theorists maintain that groups within society
occupy a more or less favorable status as afforded by
their possession, or lack, of power (Kincheloe &
McLaren, 2000). Progress comes from those who can
step outside the normalized social context and question
dominant understandings (Bronner, 2011). Critical theo-
ry’s influence on this project is evident in the theoretical
concepts and phenomenon on which scenarios within the
vignette were based. It also shaped the interpretation of
data generated through the vignette-based interviews.
Both aspects are discussed later in this article.
Critical theory has been associated with an ontological
position of historical realism and understanding based on
structures that have crystallized over time to be perceived
as real in their current form (Guba & Lincoln, 1998). In
this sense, the combination of a constructivist epistemol-
ogy with the critical paradigm might seem atypical.
However, each of these constructs can be perceived as
broad family groups, with a range of individual
approaches within them (Flick, 2008). It has also been
argued that aspects of different paradigms and traditions
can be combined on the proviso that careful consideration
is given to the compatibility of chosen components
(Maxwell, 2005). As the field of qualitative research con-
tinues to mature, it has been claimed that new theoretical
and philosophical connections will emerge, making it
possible to cautiously combine elements of different par-
adigms (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011).
The methodological framework selected for this proj-
ect—Gadamerian hermeneutics—was based chiefly on
its appropriateness to the research question.
Methodological frameworks reflect traditions in qualita-
tive research (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994) and provide
guidance for the collection and analysis of data (Patterson
& Williams, 2002). Hermeneutics is concerned with the
interpretation of meaning as generated through the analy-
sis of texts (Schmidt, 2006). Texts can exist in written
form, as images, interviews, films, or observation of
behaviors. Understanding is the main goal of hermeneu-
tic research, rather than causal explanation or definitive
analysis (Kinsella, 2006; Patterson & Williams, 2002;
Schmidt, 2006). Among his contributions, Gadamer out-
lined key principles of philosophical hermeneutics,
namely, the hermeneutic circle, question and answer dia-
logue, and fusion of horizons (Schmidt, 2006). Through
the application of these interrelated concepts, the author’s
intended meaning can be recreated, providing deep under-
standing and potentially revealing insights overlooked by

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4 Qualitative Health Research 
scientific methods (Schmidt, 2006). Hermeneutics pro-
vided the opportunity for depth of understanding on the
topic of food marketing to children and adolescents in a
way that would complement, not replicate, existing work
conducted in a positivist-quantitative tradition.
Critical hermeneutics was also considered as a meth-
odological framework for this project. Unlike Gadamerian
hermeneutics, critical hermeneutics seeks not just under-
standing but also to reveal hidden meanings that help to
establish or reinforce power (Prasad & Mir, 2002). It
assumes that principles, such as the exercise and imbal-
ance of power, as manifested through language (Kinsella,
2006), are correct and that their presence distorts mean-
ing (Bleicher, 1980). Given the relative paucity of quali-
tative data related to the research topic, starting with a
critical approach risked omitting a valuable step in under-
standing this issue. To establish this understanding while
critiquing the interpretation appeared impractical, and at
odds with the hermeneutic foundation that rejects the
notion of a single, correct meaning (Bleicher, 1980). As
noted by Bleicher (1980) and Kinsella (2006), Gadamerian
hermeneutics can include critical aspects—allowing
researchers to recognize their own pre-understanding,
which they bring to the interpretation of texts. Researchers
are justified in acknowledging influence from the critical
paradigm, as they are any other form of knowledge or
experience. Similarly, a critical approach can be accom-
modated within the flexibility of the question and answer
dialogue of philosophical hermeneutics. Through this
process, researchers can probe deeply for meaning and
understand the influences behind texts. Overall,
Gadamerian hermeneutics allowed for the possibility of
critical analysis without making this the overriding pur-
pose of investigation. As outlined in Figure 1, it is within
this broader methodological context that qualitative
vignettes were selected as a data collection technique.
Qualitative Vignettes as a Data Collection
Technique
Vignettes are short stories, hypothetical scenarios, or
descriptions of incidents (Finch, 1987; Schoenberg &
Ravdal, 2000). Although most common in written form,
vignettes have been used in audio, video, avatar, or pic-
ture format (Alahuhta, Korkiakangas, Keränen, Kyngäs,
& Laitinen, 2011; Hughes, 1998; Johnson, 2000).
Vignettes are used as a stimulus to generate a reaction,
discussion, or opinion from participants (Finch, 1987;
Jenkins, Bloor, Fischer, Berney, & Neale, 2010;
Schoenberg & Ravdal, 2000) and should resemble realis-
tic situations. Complementing the constructivist episte-
mological alignment of this project, the vignette technique
recognizes that values, decisions, and judgments occur
within context, rather than in isolation (Finch, 1987;
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Grønhøj & Bech-Larsen, 2010). Social researchers have
used vignettes to examine actions within a specific con-
text, to elucidate judgments, and to assist in researching
sensitive subjects (Barter & Renold, 1999). These charac-
teristics have led to their application across a range of
social topics and problems, as well as to the study of cul-
tural norms, and moral and ethical frameworks (Barter &
Renold, 1999, 2000). Drawing from a tradition of use
among psychologists (Hughes, 1998), vignettes have
been used within the fields of social work (e.g., Wilks,
2004), education (e.g., Lieberman, 1987; Veal, 2002),
medical care and treatment (e.g., Welch, Lutfey,
Gerstenberger, & Grace, 2012), and nursing (e.g., Gould,
1996). Marketing researchers have likewise used
vignettes to explore issues associated with consumer vul-
nerability (e.g., Broderick et al., 2011) and racial profil-
ing (Sierra, Heiser, Williams, & Taute, 2010).
The majority of published studies have approached the
vignette technique from a quantitative perspective (Barter
& Renold, 1999, 2000); that is, scenarios have been used
in conjunction with surveys that quantify participants’
responses. Describing new applications of the vignette
method is consistent with the aim of conducting research
that can be distributed and used in a variety of contexts
(Malterud, 2001). It similarly reflects the essential role of
documentation in qualitative research (Holloway, 2005).
Ultimately, the decision to apply the vignette tech-
nique was based on their suitability for researching sensi-
tive subjects, their acknowledgment of context, and their
ability to capture opinions and perspectives (Barter &
Renold, 1999). The capacity for vignettes to be combined
with individual interviews was considered an additional
strength. The work of authors, such as Thompson (1997),
similarly provides a precedent for combining interviews
with a hermeneutic framework. Within this framework,
interviews facilitate the co-construction of meaning by
researcher and participant through the form of guided
conversations (Crist & Tanner, 2003). The focus on indi-
vidual respondents, rather than a group of participants,
also reflects the researcher’s alignment to a constructivist
epistemology (Given, 2008). Individual interviews like-
wise eliminate issues, as well as benefits, associated with
focus groups or group interviews, such as those discussed
by Hyde, Howlett, Brady, and Drennan (2005) and Patton
(2002). Practical difficulties associated with arranging a
meeting time and place common to all participants were
also avoided.
Developing the vignette. Researchers are encouraged to
consider the nature of the research topic, participants, rel-
evance, interest, and timing in developing a vignette
(Hughes & Huby, 2004). Researchers can modify an
existing vignette (Grønhøj & Bech-Larsen, 2010), or
choose from several styles of vignette, including a series
Jackson et al. 5
of scenarios that unfold as a story (Jenkins et al., 2010).
Finch (1987) and Hughes and Huby (2004) emphasized
the importance of vignette scenarios that are realistic and
believable. Heeding this advice, and owing to the lack of
existing examples of qualitative vignettes on this particu-
lar topic at the time, this study looked to practical exam-
ples in trade and professional literature (e.g., Neff, 2011).
It likewise drew from academic literature across public
health, marketing, and related disciplines regarding food
marketing to children, as well as elements of social and
critical theory (e.g., Zwick, Bonsu, & Darmody, 2008).
The process of developing the qualitative vignette is sum-
marized in Box 1 and described as follows.
Box 1. Steps Taken to Develop the Qualitative Vignette.
1. Evaluate the appropriateness of the qualitative
vignette technique in light of the research question,
broader methodological approach, research popu-
lation, and practical considerations.
2. Establish topics of interest. In this case, such topics
drew from academic literature and theoretical
concepts.
3. Consider the form of the vignette and method of
delivery, for example, video, interviews.
4. Become familiar with practical examples that
would be relevant and realistic to members of your
sample population.
5. Begin to craft scenarios that are reflective of real-
life situations and involve theoretical concepts,
questionable behaviors, or phenomena of interest.
6. Review the qualitative vignette in light of the
research question. Seek feedback on the vignette
from experienced researchers.
7. Test the qualitative vignette, paying attention to
practical considerations such as timing and method
of delivery, as well as the effectiveness of the
vignette in generating insightful data.
8. Revise and retest the vignette as necessary.
Immersion in relevant academic and professional lit-
erature enabled the researcher to identify topics that could
be explored using the vignette technique. Through this
process, the researcher similarly became familiar with
recent examples of industry practice. At this stage, practi-
cal considerations, such as how the vignette would be
delivered and how long participants would be willing to
participate in the exercise, were also considered. The
researcher began to craft scenarios that were reflective of
real-life situations and involved the theoretical concept,
questionable behavior, or phenomenon of interest. Draft
versions of these scenarios, and the vignette exercise as a
whole, were reviewed by experts in the field of consumer
behavior, obesity, and food policy. Permission to engage
participants in vignette-based interviews was obtained from
the Deakin University Human Ethics Committee during
this stage. Once approval was granted, the vignette-based
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interviews were piloted with members of the research
populations. Refinements were made prior to participant
recruitment.
The vignette was based around the marketing activi-
ties of a fictional multinational confectionery company,
called Delice. The vignette aimed to explore the chal-
lenges, threats, and opportunities associated with the food
and beverage industry’s promotion of unhealthy foods
and beverages to children and adolescents. It aimed to
explore this subject as perceived by marketers and mem-
bers of the food and beverage industry, and public health
professionals. The vignette was designed so that the same
scenarios would be presented to participants from both
research populations, outlined below. Scenarios within
the vignette reflected a range of marketing practices,
from more established and commonplace to scenarios
that could be regarded as more controversial. Table 1 out-
lines the theoretical concepts associated with each sce-
nario in the vignette, as well as references to literature or
practical examples that informed or influenced the sce-
narios. Evidence of the critical paradigm is apparent in
concepts such as hegemony and the power disparity
between the food and beverage industry and children, as
well as promotional activities involving co-creation.
Research populations and participant recruitment. Purpo-
sive sampling (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Robinson,
2014) was used to identify participants with professional
involvement in the issue of promoting unhealthy food
and beverages to children and adolescents and who would
be willing to discuss this issue. Preliminary reading and
immersion in this issue within an academic setting con-
tributed to two research populations being identified—
public health professionals, and marketing and food and
beverage industry professionals. Public health profes-
sionals comprised individuals employed in public health
and related professions. It included people working for
public health advocacy groups, academics, bureaucrats,
and public policy makers. Professionals from the market-
ing and food and beverage industries included individuals
employed to market food and beverage products, or orga-
nizations that supported this end.
Guided by the principle of maximum variation sam-
pling (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Patton, 2002), indi-
viduals occupying a range of roles within these research
populations were sought. This included participants from
a variety of sub-sectors within each industry, participants
at different stages of their career or levels of seniority, or
participants associated with different fields of expertise
within each research population. For example, partici-
pants from the marketing and food and beverage indus-
tries included strategists, consultants, researchers, and
creative directors. This approach enabled a range of
understandings and perspectives related to the issue of
6 Qualitative Health Research 

Table 1.  Qualitative Vignette and Concepts.

Vignette Scenario Concept or Issue Discussed by

Scenario 1 Globalization Grimm (2004); Hawkes (2004,
Delice Candy and Beverage is a major international Nutrition transition 2006, 2007, 2008); John (1999);
confectionary company. The company attributes recent Targeting young children Lobstein, Baur, and Uauy (2004);
financial success to its expansion into the Asian market. Power disparity McGinnis et al. (2006); Olds
To bring this venture to fruition, Delice conducted et al. (2009)
significant research into the culture and consumer
preferences of its target audience of children and
teenagers aged 2 to 17 years, including focus group and
ethnographic research.
Scenario 2 Megamarketing Humphreys (2010), Kotler (1986)
Delice executives also worked to form relationships with
identified government staff and industry advocates in
the lead up to their expansion into the Asian market,
including forming joint-venture agreements with local
companies and making donations to industry associations
and political parties, all of which were legal and disclosed
in company reports.
Scenario 3 Hegemony of Western Knuttila (2005); McCracken (1989);
Delice developed the Share the Joy marketing campaign to culture McGinnis et al. (2006); Mehta,
coincide with its launch in the Asian region. The campaign Product placement Coveney, Ward, and Handsley
featured several of the company’s most popular candy (subtlety in marketing) (2010); Nairn and Fine (2008)
products and sought to build the brand’s reputation as Celebrity endorsement
desirable. It built on the target audience’s (children and (subtlety in marketing)
teens) likely previous encounters with the brand through
Western popular culture: Delice has for several years
invested in product placement in popular film, television
programs, and more recently, music videos. Regional
celebrities were recruited to star in the campaign and the
brand has also featured in a television series popular in
the region.
Scenario 4 Use of multiple Cheyne, Dorfman, Gonzalez, and
The campaign also featured promotion on several websites promotional channels Mejia (2011); Ewing (2009);
popular with the target audience, as well as extensive radio, Layton (2011); Preston (2004);
outdoor and ambient media (e.g., bus shelter advertising) Schor and Ford (2007)
and point-of-sale promotions near store checkouts.
Scenario 5 Co-creation Asquith (2009); Elliott (2007);
The Share the Joy campaign invited members of the Establishing brand- McGinnis et al. (2006); Mehta,
target audience to upload photos that depict scenarios consumer relationships Coveney, Ward, and Handsley
or situations in which they will share the joy of Delice Nature of the product (2010); Neff (2011); Preston
products when they arrive in their market. Examples on Publicity (subtlety) (2004); Scaraboto (2011); Zwick,
the website included hanging out with friends and family Bonsu, and Darmody (2008)
celebrations. The best 30 entries will be selected for use
in the company’s post-launch marketing campaign and will
receive a month’s supply of Delice products. Celebrities’
involvement in competition has attracted media coverage
from local radio and television networks.
Scenario 6 Privacy Caudill and Murphy (2000), Petty
To upload an entry, individuals need to create a log in (2000), Wang, Lee, and Wang
and submit details such as their age, suburb where they (1998)
live, and contact details in case they win. These details
are stored by the company and data will be analyzed
for future marketing campaigns. Most countries in the
region do not have privacy legislation in place, but Delice
outlines that customers can contact them if they have
concerns about their privacy or how the information they
provided will be used.
(continued)

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Jackson et al. 7

Table 1.  (continued)

Vignette Scenario Concept or Issue Discussed by

Scenario 7 Labeling Betterhealth (2013), Sacks et al.
In light of concerns about the increase of childhood (2011)
obesity, all Delice products contain nutritional
information on pack and more dietary tips and nutrition
and exercise advice is available via the Delice brand
website.
Scenario 8 Marketing in schools George and McDuffie (2008),
Delice also offers an in-school nutritional training program Sponsorship of nutrition Hawkes (2010), Levine (2000),
for all children in primary schools in countries where education Lucas (2004), McGinnis et al.
Delice operates. The program is conducted by a Delice- Subtlety in marketing (2006), Neff (2011), Sweet (2009)
sponsored nutritionist who educates students on sound
nutrition practices and the importance of regular physical
activity. At the conclusion of the hour-long session
students will receive a “goody bag” including take-home
nutrition information and healthy recipes, a plastic
Frisbee, and two treat size Delice chocolate bars, all
branded with the Delice logo or product packaging.
Scenario 9 Industry self-regulation Garretson and Burton (2005);
Delice also became a signatory to the International Television as dominant Hawkes and Harris (2011);
Food Manufacturer’s Alliance pledge to reduce by focus Kraak, Story, Wartella, and
50% the amount television advertising of food and Use of cartoon characters Ginter (2011); Wang, Lee, and
beverage products directed at children. The pledge Wang (1998); Weber, Story, and
requires participating companies to commit to a series Harnack (2006)
of principles, such as not using cartoon characters in
marketing campaigns, and enables consumers and other
stakeholders to register their concerns with the Alliance
for consideration.
Scenario 10 Regional variance in “Companies ‘Exploit’ Junk Food
Delice has since shifted the balance of its promotional regulation Loopholes” (2007); Keiper
spend away from television advertising toward other Navigating regulations (2011), Lee (2010), MacMullan
methods, chiefly the Internet. Striving to maintain its Letter of the law versus (2009)
reputation as a sound corporate citizen, Delice is aware spirit of the law.
that two countries within the Asian region have recently
introduced more stringent statutory regulations regarding
food marketing to children. In light of this decision, Delice
decided to modify creative elements of promotional
campaigns for these countries only, such that they comply
with legislation.

Note. Supplemental Reference List S1 is available online at qhr.sagepub.com/supplemental and includes details of all references listed in Table 1.

unhealthy food and beverage marketing to children and
adolescents to be captured (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994).
Three recruitment methods were used: direct contact
with potential participants using previously obtained con-
tact details or direct contact facilitated by publicly avail-
able information. Snowballing (Maykut & Morehouse,
1994), whereby the researcher sent information about the
research project to third-party contacts and asked them to
forward this information on to potential participants, was
also used. All three approaches included an information
kit that contained a copy of the Plain Language and
Consent Form as per Deakin University Human Ethics
requirements. Completed consent forms were collected
from interview participants prior to interviews
commencing.
The vignette in action.  Interviews were conducted either
face-to-face or by phone. Although face-to-face inter-
views were preferred, phone interviews accounted for
around a third of all interviews conducted. In the case of
phone interviews, participants were sent a copy of the
vignette by email just prior to the scheduled interview

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8 Qualitative Health Research 
start time. Interview participants were invited to read or
listen to the first section of the vignette, after which they
discussed perceived challenges, threats, or opportunities
associated with the particular scenario. This process was
then repeated until all scenarios had been discussed. In
responding to the scenarios, interview participants were
advised to draw on their professional background, as well
as personal opinions or experiences. Participants were
also told that there were no correct or incorrect answers,
or that they may not be able to identify any challenges,
threats, or opportunities associated with a particular sce-
nario. Where permitted by the participant, written notes
and audio recordings were made during interviews. Fol-
lowing the interviews, the researcher recorded observa-
tions and thoughts about the interview. These notes and
reflections supplemented audio transcriptions and notes
taken during the interviews and were used throughout the
analysis process (Harris et al., 2009; Tesch, 1990).
Hughes and Huby (2004) advocated that imprecision
in vignette scenarios can be used as an opportunity to
investigate the reasons behind a participant’s response.
Accordingly, rather than attempting to provide all details
within a scenario, participants were advised that if they
felt a scenario lacked detail, they should respond as best
they could, highlighting any assumptions that led them to
that conclusion. In this way, the vignette design both
acknowledged and used lack of detail as an opportunity to
further explore participants’ perceptions and reactions
(Hughes & Huby, 2004). Similarly, in instances where
participants focused on challenges or threats associated
with the vignette scenarios, the researcher prompted
whether the participant saw any opportunities or whether
any changes could be made to improve the scenario.
During data analysis, a tendency for some participants to
focus on challenges and threats rather than opportunities
was highlighted.
Unlike quantitative research in which emphasis is
given to the sample size or number of respondents to help
ensure generalizability, qualitative research is guided by
principles such as saturation and adequacy (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994; Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006).
Adequacy refers to the total amount of information that is
collected (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994), regardless of the
number of sources. Hence, qualitative inquiry can gain
depth of understanding from comparatively few sources
(DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Saturation is said to
have occurred when multiple sources—not necessarily in
the same form, for example, interview participants, writ-
ten documents, or observations might all be used—repeat
the same information (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). A total
of 21 interviews comprised this study. This included 10
interviews with members of the public health community
and 11 interviews with members of the marketing and
food and beverage industries. Together, the principle of
saturation, the work by Guest and colleagues (2006), and
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practical considerations guided the number of interviews
that were conducted.
Data analysis. Data analysis for this study involved
detailed reading of vignette-based interview transcripts
and notes made in a research journal. Consistent with a
hermeneutic approach (e.g., Adamson, 2011; Trede,
2007), data analysis involved several rounds of question-
and-answer dialogue in which the researcher probed
interview transcripts and notes in greater depth. Three
cycles of hermeneutic question-and-answer dialogue
focused on the following:
•• Round 1—the meaning the researcher constructed
from the interview notes and transcripts
•• Round 2—how the issue was being framed, con-
nections to social forces or theoretical concepts,
and whether an alternative interpretation could be
constructed
•• Round 3—how the comments of a particular par-
ticipant aligned to those made by others
Although a protracted process, this enabled the researcher
to understand certain topics or themes within the data.
NVivo software helped to manage and organize interview
transcripts, and to verify and refine hermeneutic
analysis.
Writers, such as Manning (1997), Lincoln (1995), and
Lincoln and Guba (1986), make several recommenda-
tions for enhancing the quality of qualitative research that
are consistent with a relativist paradigm (Manning, 1997)
and a constructivist epistemology (Lincoln, 1995; Lincoln
& Guba, 1986). Several measures were adopted through-
out this project to enhance the trustworthiness and authen-
ticity of this research, for example, peer debriefing with
other members of the research team, analyzing data using
both NVivo and via hermeneutic analysis to facilitate tri-
angulation, and prolonged engagement with data. The
potential of this project to shape policy regarding the
issue of food marketing to children also provided a strong
motivation for the researcher to provide accurate and
honest analysis and interpretation of the data. The follow-
ing two questions guided the construction of hermeneutic
texts and publications that comprise the outputs of this
project: “Are these findings sufficiently authentic that I
may trust myself in acting on their implications? Would I
feel sufficiently secure about these findings to construct
social policy or legislation based on them?” (Lincoln &
Guba, 2000, p. 178).
Results
As noted above, the vignette exercise was specifically
used to explore the challenges, threats, and opportunities
associated with the food and beverage industry’s
Jackson et al. 9
promotion of unhealthy foods and beverages to children
and adolescents. Given this article’s focus, this section
presents results that demonstrate certain characteristics of
the qualitative vignette approach, as observed through
this study.
Provided Insights Into What Participants
Understood and the Way They Approached
the Vignette
As discussed in greater depth below, the vignette was
successful in stimulating discussion around perceived
challenges, threats, and opportunities associated with the
vignette scenarios. However, the qualitative vignette
method also provided insights into the way participants
engaged with the vignette exercise. For instance, partici-
pants from the marketing and food and beverage indus-
tries were understood as more inclined to address the
vignette from a marketing management perspective. Such
participants displayed a tendency to raise tactical con-
cerns, or frame threats as negative impacts to the business
that featured in the vignette, rather than implications to
society as a whole. Comments were received regarding
the broad nature of the target audience, lack of informa-
tion about the timing of radio advertising, and the appeal
of celebrities to an older audience. Among such com-
ments, one marketing participant commented,
You don’t talk about the times they want to run these radio
ads. The outdoor and ambient media, bus shelter advertising.
Bus shelter advertising says to me that they are talking to an
older demographic. Bus shelter advertising, if they’re talking
to kids, they’re not going to be doing metro lights.
(Marketing/Food and Beverage Industry Participant 15B)
Comments such as this were interpreted as evidence of
managerialism (e.g., Considine & Painter, 1997; Entman,
1993) and its impact on the professional practice and per-
spective of several marketers interviewed. However, it
could alternatively suggest greater technical knowledge
and proficiency in managing those elements that com-
prise a successful marketing campaign.
Some marketing and food and beverage industry par-
ticipants also appeared careful and deliberate in their
choice of words, particularly when discussing circum-
stances that could be regarded as problematic. The exam-
ple in which a participant substituted the term areas of
concern with shades of grey highlights this propensity—
“this is where you start to get into areas of concern . . . um
well sorry, areas where there is more shades of grey”
(Marketing/Food and Beverage Industry Participant 9B).
Marketers’ professional responsibilities provide a possi-
ble explanation for this finding. Marketers craft meaning
through verbal and visual signs and symbols for a range
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of products and brands, including food (Tresidder, 2010).
It is possible that marketers practiced at selecting and
using language to achieve a desired response were trans-
ferring these skills, not necessarily consciously, to the
interview situation. Alternatively, such behavior could
have been interpreted as reluctance by some interviewees
to acknowledge that marketing can have negative or ethi-
cally dubious elements.
Members of the public health community interviewed
were more inclined to make judgments, usually negative,
about the scenarios within the vignette than were partici-
pants from the marketing and food and beverage indus-
tries. As stated by one participant, “Yeah, look, I’m
probably just going to keep talking about problems,
which is so negative and I feel terrible” (Public Health
Participant 5B). Research participants from this popula-
tion were also understood as viewing the vignette sce-
narios as more of a statement of fact, rather than an
opportunity to critique campaign mechanics. That public
health participants would likely have a less sophisticated
understanding of marketing management than their mar-
keting or food and beverage industry counterparts might
explain this observation. Alternatively, this could suggest
that these participants perceived the vignette to portray
real-life situations. However, comments were also made
by some participants from this population about the size
or extensiveness of the campaign.
Members of the public health community were more
inclined to discuss the vignette from a society-wide
level, along with associated macro-level consequences
and antecedents. This was understood to be consistent
with this sample group’s remit, that is, where marketers
might work with a specific company or companies,
members of the public health community work with
populations. This same reason could explain why par-
ticipants from the public health community made more
references to broader socio-economic theories or phe-
nomenon—such as the nutrition transition, globaliza-
tion, or neoliberalism—during vignette-based
interviews. These participants could be more attuned to
exploring determinants that underlie trends or shifts at
a population level (Lawrence & Worsley, 2007).
However, the researcher observed that members of this
sample group were more attuned to those concepts that
had been discussed in public health literature—such as
globalization and the nutrition transition—yet made
little reference to concepts in the vignette that were
drawn from the macro-marketing discipline, that is,
megamarketing (Humphreys, 2010; Kotler, 1986) or
co-creation (Bonsu & Darmody, 2008; Zwick et al.,
2008). As such, this observation might simply reflect a
stronger familiarity by participants from this sample
group with their own discipline’s literature or topics of
research.
10 Qualitative Health Research 
Balance Between Flexibility and Structure
As noted earlier in this article, imprecision in vignette
scenarios can be used to investigate the reasons behind a
participant’s response (Hughes & Huby, 2004). However,
an unexpected benefit of the vignette was that it provided
a natural set of parameters for interview discussions.
Although not a common occurrence, there were instances
whereby participants drifted off the topic of investigation
or were interpreted as trying to guide the conversation. In
one instance, a participant appeared particularly passion-
ate about cultural sensitivity, whereas another discussed
at length the proactive response of their organization to
this issue. In these circumstances, the scenarios provided
a way for the interviewer to observe the participant’s
interest in the topic being discussed, and then politely
remind the participant about the scenario and their
responses.
Although variables within a vignette can be altered to
focus on specific points of interest (Barter & Renold,
1999; Finch, 1987), in this study, the vignette was kept
consistent between research populations—the responses
of populations became the focus of analysis, rather than
variables within the vignette. For example, regulation
(including government policy and bans) of unhealthy
food and beverage marketing to children and adolescents
was the opportunity most frequently raised by public
health professionals during vignette-based interviews. By
comparison, among marketing/food and beverage indus-
try participants, opportunities were more likely to be
identified that were beneficial for the company or repre-
sented mutual benefit for business and community. The
following quote demonstrates this perspective:
I think the opportunity here is—we’ve talked about gathering
data before and developing a dataset of—to be used in a
CRM [Customer Relationship Management] program. I
think something like this is interesting because it would be
great to actually form a community around kids that are
eating a healthy—living a healthy lifestyle, as you say.
When it was just, say, upload a photo and we might send you
a month’s supply of this stuff, that felt a bit odd, as we talked
about. I think this one feels like more of a credible situation
to actually engage—develop and engage your community
around living the practices here that this nutritionist and the
data that they would be putting forward to these kids can
actually go and live by. (Marketing/Food and Beverage
Industry Participant 6B)
Opportunities that served to benefit the community or
society more broadly, but not business, were rarely noted
during interviews with members of this sample group.
Overall, the vignette highlighted complexity associated
with the food and beverage industry’s promotion of
unhealthy foods and beverages to children and
adolescents.
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Provided a More Comfortable Way of
Discussing a Controversial Issue
The “distance” provided by vignettes has been found to
make an interview experience less threatening (Barter &
Renold, 2000; Hughes, 1998) and can result in a creative
and enjoyable experience for participants (Hughes,
1998). The majority of vignette-based interviews con-
ducted provided support for these arguments. For exam-
ple, most participants from the marketing and food and
beverage industries, which have been noted for their
political lobbying activities (e.g., Hawkes, 2007; Nestle,
2002; Nieburg, 2013), were willing to discuss the sce-
nario involving donations to political parties. At other
times, participants revealed that they had previously
worked with companies that had engaged in marketing
unhealthy foods and beverages to children and adoles-
cents, or revealed examples of current practice that they
felt were unacceptable. For example, one participant
commented, “I worked on the [name of company]
account, probably shouldn’t name companies but, um,
you know, the funny thing about that is kids don’t really
care about the chocolate, they care about the toy”
(Marketing/Food and Beverage Industry Participant 5B).
This example demonstrates the capacity of the vignette
technique to encourage participants to draw on their own
experiences or examples. It likewise suggests that the
vignette assisted to develop a sense of rapport between
participant and researcher (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree,
2006).
Some participants from both research populations
remarked spontaneously at the conclusion of the vignette-
based interview that they enjoyed the exercise or that it
“made me think.” However, a small number of partici-
pants, chiefly from the marketing or food and beverage
industries, were interpreted as more guarded in their
responses. One participant commented that they were
not sure what the vignette was trying to provoke them to
say (Marketing/Food and Beverage Industry Participant
15B), whereas another responded to the scenario about
the fictitious company’s commitment to a self-regulatory
pledge by asking, “What do you want me to say about
this?” (Marketing/Food and Beverage Industry
Participant 4B).
Efficiency—Allowed a Range of Issues to Be
Explored
As outlined in Table 1, the qualitative vignette comprised
10 different scenarios. These scenarios made sense inde-
pendently, but combined to form a more comprehensive
account of the company’s actions. More than a dozen
concepts, issues, or concerns could also be associated
with these scenarios. By comparison, semistructured
Jackson et al. 11
interviews that comprised a parallel study addressed three
topics within a similar 45-to-60-minute timeframe.
In some interviews, the researcher observed that addi-
tional time to explore issues in greater detail would have
been beneficial (Finch, 1987). Criticisms regarding the
length of the vignette-based interviews by participants
were comparatively few. One participant commented
during a pilot interview that there appeared to be many
scenarios to cover in the time available. Another partici-
pant commented that the exercise seemed like a rather
protracted way to explore the topic. Despite this, the
number of variables included in the vignette was per-
ceived to be a limitation, that is, too many scenarios were
included. Reducing the number of scenarios within the
vignette would also address an associated challenge,
namely, Eskelinen and Caswell’s (2006, p. 500) observa-
tion that the abundance of data collected can produce
feelings of “analytical overdose.” The amount of data
gathered, combined with the broader research framework
of Gadamerian hermeneutics, resulted in a rich, yet pro-
tracted process of data analysis.
Discussion: The Value of This
Method to Health Researchers
The “need for dynamic and innovative methodological
approaches that circumvent shortcomings in existing
measures” (Schoenberg & Ravdal, 2000, p. 72) has been
highlighted by social researchers. Likewise, there is rec-
ognition of the complexity of public health problems and
the acknowledgment that qualitative research could facil-
itate more a comprehensive understanding of public
health issues (Canning et al., 2010; Harris et al., 2009;
Jack, 2006). Obesity researchers recognize the impor-
tance of broader environmental factors (Swinburn, Egger,
& Raza, 1999). Qualitative vignettes offer an established
method for exploring sensitive social, moral, or cultural
issues, in a way that acknowledges their broader context
(Broderick et al., 2011).
The qualitative vignette used in this study afforded an
efficient, generally well-received technique that enabled
the researcher to effectively explore the issue of promot-
ing unhealthy foods and beverages to children and ado-
lescents with two distinct research populations—both
involved in shaping policy responses. In addition to
responding to the scenarios, the qualitative vignette tech-
nique provided valuable insights into the way participants
approached vignette as a whole. The vignette also pro-
vided structure to interviews, while allowing the capacity
to explore certain responses in greater depth. However,
several challenges were revealed. This study highlights
the need to balance the range of concepts included in the
vignette exercise with adequate time to explore responses
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in greater depth. Likewise, this study confirmed the need
for researchers using the qualitative vignette technique to
craft scenarios that generate a response, but are not too
extreme.
The contributions of this study are twofold. The pri-
mary contribution of this work is that it demonstrates that
the qualitative vignette technique can successfully be
adapted to explore controversial public health issues. The
vignette enabled the researcher to capture participants’
responses to the scenarios presented, broader issues they
felt relevant, and insights into the way they approached
the issue in a manner that exceeded expectations. Second,
in describing the qualitative vignette method, the steps
taken to create the vignette, and presenting selected
results, this article provides a valuable guide for other
public health researchers motivated to explore this
technique.
Finally, this study also demonstrates the effectiveness
of the qualitative vignette method to reflect the complex-
ity and context of a current public health issue. Data col-
lected through the vignette-based interviews added
nuance on a range of topics, depth of perspective, and
understanding. In contrast to the positivist perspective
that has influenced public health research (Williams &
Popay, 1997), this study did not provide a clear, concise
answer. Although sacrificing clarity, it is arguable that
this study captured a more accurate depiction of the way
this issue is understood by participants.
Conclusion
The qualitative vignette method offered a viable approach
to exploring a controversial public health issue. In com-
bining academic literature and practical scenarios, the
vignette approach enabled the discussion of marketing
and public health dilemmas in a theoretically grounded,
yet accessible form. By keeping the structure of the
vignette consistent between research populations,
responses highlighted areas of commonality and dis-
agreement within and between research populations.
This article has aimed to transfer knowledge to public
health researchers interested in expanding their repertoire
of qualitative data collection techniques. Existing litera-
ture on the use of qualitative vignettes within other fields,
and the study on which this article is based, have been
used to argue that qualitative vignettes present a feasible
option for public health researchers. Overall, the qualita-
tive vignette technique provided an efficient way of col-
lecting data, provided balance between flexibility and
structure, and enhanced the researcher’s depth of under-
standing about the food and beverage industry’s promo-
tion of unhealthy foods and beverages to children and
adolescents.
12 Qualitative Health Research 
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared the following potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article: Mark Lawrence is a researcher within a NHMRC
Centre for Research Excellence in Obesity Policy and Food
Systems (APP1041020) and within Healthway, the Western
Australian Health Promotion Foundation, research into practice
project, “Food Law, Policy and Communications to Improve
Public Health Project.”
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article:
Michaela Jackson was the holder of an Australian Postgraduate
Award (November 2010–May 2014).
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Author Biographies
Michaela Jackson, Bachelor of Communication (Honours)
(Professional Communication), at the time of writing, is a
final-year PhD candidate at the Deakin Graduate School of
Business, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.
Paul Harrison, PhD, is a senior lecturer at the Deakin Graduate
School of Business, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.
Boyd Swinburn, PhD, is a professor of Global Health and
Nutrition at the School of Population Health, University of
Auckland, New Zealand.
Mark Lawrence, PhD, is a professor of Public Health Nutrition
at the School of Nutrition and Exercise Science, Deakin
University, Melbourne, Australia.

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