Solutions to the Exercises of Chapter 13

13A. Riemann Sums

1. a = 0, b = 5, m = 4. The partition is 0 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5. So ∆x1 = 2 − 0 = 2, ∆x2 = 3 − 2 =

1, ∆x2 = 4 − 3 = 1, ∆x4 = 5 − 4 = 1, and p1 = x1 = 2, p2 = x2 = 3, p2 = x3 = 4, and

p =2 p =3 p =4 p =5
1 2 3 4

p4 = x4 = 5. So


4
f (pi )∆xi = f (p1 ) · 2 + f (p2 ) · 1 + f (p3 ) · 1 + f (p4 ) · 1
i=1
= 2(25 − 22 ) + (25 − 32 ) + (25 − 42 ) + (25 − 52 )
= 42 + 16 + 9 + 0 = 67.

2. a = 0, b = 4, n = 4. The partition is 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < 4. ∆x1 = 1 − 0 = 1, ∆x2 = 2 − 1 =

1, ∆x3 = 3−2 = 1, ∆x4 = 4−3 = 1, and p1 = midpoint between 0 and 1 = 12 , p2 = midpoint

1 p =—
p =— 5 p =—
3 p =— 7
1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2

between 1 and 2 = 32 , p3 = midpoint between 2 and 3 = 52 , p4 = midpoint between 3 and 4

 = 72 . So


n 
4
f (pi )∆xi = f (pi ) · 1 = f (p1 ) + f (p2 ) + f (p3 ) + f (p4 )
i=1 i=1
 2  2  2
1 3 5 7
= 16 − + 16 − + 16 − + 16 − ( )2
2 2 2 2
1 9 25 49 1 + 9 + 25 + 49
= 4 · 16 − − − − = 64 −
4 4 4 4 4
84
= 64 − = 64 − 21 = 43.
4

3. a = −1, b = 2, m = 6, ∆x1 = −0.5 − (−1) = 0.5, ∆x2 = 0 − (−0.5) = 0.5, ∆x3 =

0.5 − 0 = 0.5, ∆x4 = 1.0 − 0.5 = 0.5, ∆x5 = 1.5 − 1.0 = 0.5, ∆x6 = 2 − 1.5 = 0.5, and
p1 = −1, p2 = −0.5, p3 = 0, p4 = 0.5, p5 = 1.0, p6 = 1.5. So

p =-1 p =-0.5 p =0 p =0.5 p =1 p =1.5

1 2 3 4 5 6


n 
6
f (pi )∆xi = f (pi )(0.5) = (0.5) [f (p1 ) + · · · + f (p6 )]
i=1 i=1
     
= (0.5) (−1)3 + 2 + (−0.5)3 + 2 + (03 + 2) + (0.5)3 + 2
   
+ (1.0)3 + 2 + (1.5)3 + 2
= (0.5) [(−1 + 2) + (−0.125 + 2) + 2 + (0.125 + 2) + (1 + 2) + (3.375 + 2)]
= (0.5) [2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 − 1 − 0.125 + 0.125 + 1 + 3.375]
= (0.5) [12 + 3.375]
= (0.5)(15.375) = 7.6875

4. a = 0, b = 2, m = 4, ∆x1 = 0.5 − 0 = 0.5, ∆x2 = 1.0 − 0.5 = 0.5, ∆x3 = 1.5 − 1.0 =
0.5, ∆x4 = 2 − 1.5 = 0.5. So

2
 p =0.25 p =1 p =1.25 p =2
1 2 3 4


n 
4
f (pi )∆xi = f (pi )(0.5)
i=1 i=1
= (0.5) [f (p1 ) + f (p2 ) + f (p3 ) + f (p4 )]

1 1 1 1
= (0.5) + + +
0.25 + 1 1 + 1 1.25 + 1 2 + 1

1 1 1 1
= (0.5) + + +
1.25 2 2.25 3
= (0.5) [0.8 + 0.5 + 0.44 + 0.33]
= 1.035

13B. Pushing a Riemann Sum to the Limit

5. i. The partition is 0 < 37 < 6

7
< 9
7
< 12
7
< 15
7
< 18
7
< 21
7
= 3. It follows that the points,
p1 , . . . , p7 are as listed.
ii.

7 
7
3
f (pi )∆xi = f (pi ) ·
i=1 i=1
7
 
  3
= f (p1 ) + f (p2 ) + f (p3 ) + f (p4 ) + f (p5 ) + f (p6 ) + f (p7 )
7
 2  2  2  2
 3 3 3 3
= 16 − 1 · + 16 − 2 · + 16 − 3 · + 16 − 4 ·
7 7 7 7
 2  2  2  
3 3 3  3
+ 16 − 5 · + 16 − 6 · + 16 − 7 ·
7 7 7 7
 2  2  2  2
  2 3 3 3 3
= 16 · 7 − 1 · +2 · 2
+3 ·2
+4 · 2
7 7 7 7
 2  2  2  2  
3 3 3 3  3
+ 52 · + 62 · + 72 · + 72 ·
7 7 7 7 7
  2  
3  2  3
= 16 · 7 − 1 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 72
7 7

3
 iii. The use of the sum of squares formula shows that this equals
 2    
 3 7(7 + 1)(14 + 1)  3
16 · 7 −
7 6 7
9 (7 + 1)(14 + 1)
= 16 · 3 − 2
2  7
9 120
= 48 −
2 72
540
= 48 − 2 = 48 − 11.02 = 36.98
7

6. i. p1 = 1 · n3 , p2 = 2 · n3 , p3 = 3 · n3 , p4 = 4 · n3 , · · · ,
pi = i · n3 , · · · , pn = n · n3 = 3.
 2  2
ii. f (pi ) = 16 − (pi )2 = 16 − i n3 = 16 − i2 · n3
iii.
    n  2   

n 
n
3  3 3
f (pi )∆xi = f (pi ) = 16 − i2

i=1
n n n
 i=1  
i=1
     2  
 n
3
2
3 n
3 3
= 16 · n − i 2
= 48 − i 2

i=1
n n i=1
n n

   2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 3 3 (n + 1)(2n + 1) 9
= 48 − = 48 − · 2
6 n n 2 n
 2 
9 (n + 1)(2n + 1) 9 2n + 3n + 1
= 48 − = 48 −
2 n2 2 n2
 
9 3 1
= 48 − 2+ + 2
2 n n

7. i. When n is pushed to infinity, Pn  = 3

n
goes to zero.
ii. Review Steps (1) - (3) of the limit process
n 

lim f (pi )∆xi .

P
→0
i=1

Notice that in Step (1) you were free to take any partition P and that in Step (2) you
were free to take any points p1 , · · · , pn with p1 in the first subinterval, p2 in the second,
and so on. The assertion in Step (3) was that the numbers

n
f (pi )∆xi
i=1

produced by the repetition of Steps (1) and (2) with partitions P whose norms go to
zero, will close in on some number
n
lim f (pi )∆xi .

P
→0
i=1

4
 This number is the same regardless of how the partitions P and the points pi were selected
along the way. This fact was not proved in the text. Rather, it was only made plausible
by making the connection with areas.

Now turn to the procedure outlined in Exercise 6. Notice that it is a specific instance of
the process described in Steps (1) and (2). It follows that the limiting number
 

9 3 1
lim 48 − 2+ + 2
n→∞ 2 n n

must be equal to n 

lim f (pi )∆xi .

P
→0
i=1

iii. Because  n 
b 
f (x) dx = lim f (pi )∆xi
a
P
→0
i=1

by definition, we find that

 3  

9 3 1
(16 − x2 )dx = lim 48 − 2+ + 2
0 n→∞ 2 n n
9
= 48 − · 2 = 48 − 9 = 39.
2
Correction: Note that the answer 37 (as stated in the text) is incorrect.

13C. Applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

8. From the fact that dx d

cos x = − sin x, we see that F (x) = − cos x is an anti-derivative of
f (x) = sin x. Therefore,

π
π
π
sin x = (− cos x) 02 = − cos − (− cos 0).
2

0 2

A look at the graph of cos x (see Figure 10.29) shows that cos π2 = 0 and cos 0 = 1. So
 π
2
sin x dx = 1.
0

9. We need an anti-derivative of tan x = cos sin x

x
. Let g(x) = cos x. So g  (x) = − sin x, and tan x =
g
(x)
(x)
− g(x) . A review of Section 10.3 tells us that dx d
[− ln g(x)] = − gg(x) d
. So dx [− ln(cos x)] = tan x.
Therefore,

5
 
π
π
π
tan xdx = − ln (cos x) 04 = − ln cos − (− ln cos 0)
4

4
0
√
2 1
= − ln + ln 1 = − ln 2 2 + ln 2 + 0
2
1 1
= − ln 2 + ln 2 = ln 2 ≈ 0.347.
2 2

d
10. Recall from Section 8.6 that dx
tan x = sec2 x. So

π
π
π
sec2 dx = tan x 04 = tan − tan 0 = 1 − 0 = 1.
4

0 4

The answers to the next two exercises depend on formulas from Sections 10.1 and 10.3.
 ln 5 ln 5
11. ex dx = ex ln 2 = eln 5 − eln 2 = 5 − 2 = 3.
ln 2
 7
1 7 7
12. dx = ln x 3 = ln 7 − ln 3 = ln ≈ 0.847.
3 x 3
13. This integral can be solved by use of the formula
 √ 
a2 − x2 √ a + (a2 − x2 ) 2
1

dx = a2 − x2 − a ln +C
x x

as follows:
 √  √

4
4
25 − x2 √ 5+  25 − x2
dx = 25 − x2 − 5 ln 
x  x
1
√  1 √ 
√ 5+ 9 √ 5 + 24
= 9 − 5 ln − 24 + 5 ln
4 1
√ √
≈ 3 − 5 ln 2 − 24 + 5 ln(5 + 24)
≈ 3 − 3.466 − 4.899 + 11.462 ≈ 6.097.

14. Making use of the discussion preceding this exercise, we get

 6  20
20
(2x − 7)dx = − (2x − 7)dx = −(x2 − 7x)6
20 6
= − [(400 − 140) − (36 − 42)] = −(260 + 6) = −266.

6
 15. By the discussion preceding Exercise 14,
 1   8 
3 1 3 1
x + 4x − π dx = −
2 2 x + 4x − π dx
2 2

8
1
 8 
2 5 2 3 
= − x 2 + 4 · x 2 − πx 
5 3 1
   

2 5 8 3 2 8
= − 8 + 8 − 8π −
2 2 + −π
5 3 5 3
≈ −[72.408 + 60.340 − 25.133 − (0.4 + 2.667 − 3.142)]
≈ −107.69.

16. Once again by the discussion preceding Exercise 14,

 0  π
   
cos x − 8x dx = −
2
cos x − 8x2 dx
π
0
 π
 

8 3  8 3
= − sin x − x  =− 0− π −0
3 0 3
8 3
= π .
3

The fact to use in the next three exercises is:

 x 
d
f (t)dt = f (x).
dx a

17. F  (x) = x(1 + x3 )9 .

18. F  (x) = sin x (cos x − 4x2 ) .
 x
 
19. Let F (x) = sin t + 2t−3 dt. By the formula already referred to, F  (x) = sin x + 2x−3 .
0
Notice that G(x) = F (3x2 ). An application of the chain rule shows us that
  2 −3 
 
G (x) = F (3x ) · 6x = sin 3x + 2 3x
2 2
6x
1 12 1
= 6x sin 3x2 + 12x 2 3
= 6x sin 3x2 +
(3x ) 27 x5
4
= 6x sin 3x2 + .
9x5

7
13D. The Substitution Method

20. With u = 4x − 5, we get du

dx
= 4. So du = 4dx anddx = du
4
. So
  

1 du 1
1 1 1 2 3 
(4x − 5) dx =
2 u · = 2 u 2 du = u2 + C
4 4 4 3
2 3 C 1 3
= (4x − 5) 2 + = (4x − 5) 2 + C.
12 4 6

21. With u = 1 − 5x2 , we get du

dx
= −10x. So du = −10x dx. Therefore,
  

3 5
u du = − u 3 + C 
2 2 2
10x(1 − 5x ) dx =
2 3 u (−du) = −
3 3
5
3 5
= − 1 − 5x2 3 − C 
5
3 5
= − 1 − 5x2 3 + C.
5

22. Because du = 2x dx, we get

  
2 1 1
x cos x dx = (cos u)( du) = cos u du
2 2
1
= [sin u + C  ]
2
1
= sin x2 + C.
2

du
23. Since dt
= cos t, we get
 
3 u4
sin t cos t dt = u3 du = +C
4
1 4
= sin t + C.
4

24. Note that du = dx and x = u − 1. So

    
1 1 3 1
(x − 1)(x + 1) 2 dx = (u − 2) u 2 du = u 2 − 2u 2 du
2 5 2 3
= u2 − 2 · u2 + C
5 3
2 5 4 3
= (x + 1) 2 − (x + 1) 2 + C.
5 3

8
25. Because dx = du and x = u − 3, we get
  
1
2 12 1
2
x (x + 3) dx =
2 (u − 3) u du = (u2 − 6u + 9)u 2 du
  
5 3 1
= u 2 − 6u 2 + 9u 2 du
2 7 2 5 2 3
= u2 − 6 · u2 + 9 · u2 + C
7 5 3
2 7 12 5 3
= (x + 3) 2 − (x + 3) 2 + 6(x + 3) 2 + C.
7 5

26. Because dx = du and x = u + 2, we see that

   2
x2 (u + 2)2 u + 2u + 4
dx = du = du
(x − 2)3 u 3 u3

 −1 
= u + 2u−2 + 4u−3 du

= ln u − 2u−1 − 2u−2 + C
= ln(x − 2) − 2(x − 2)−1 − 2(x − 2)−2 + C.

du
27. Note that = sec2 ϕ, so du = sec2 ϕdϕ. Therefore,
dϕ
 
sec2 ϕ du
2
dϕ = .
tan ϕ + 1 u2 + 1

du
By a formula from Section 10.5, 2
= tan−1 u + C. So
u +1

sec2 ϕ
2
dϕ = tan−1 (tan ϕ) + C
tan ϕ + 1
= ϕ + C.

There is a simpler approach to this problem. Dividing the identity

sin2 ϕ + cos2 ϕ = 1

by cos2 ϕ, gives us the identity tan2 ϕ + 1 = sec2 ϕ. So

 
sec2 ϕ
dϕ = dϕ = ϕ + C.
tan2 ϕ + 1

28. Try u = 12x7 + 19. So du

dx
= 84x6 . Hence du = 84x6 dx and (looking ahead), x6 dx = 1
84
du. So
  1 
5x6 5( 84 du) 5 −1 5
7
dx = = u du = ln u + C
12x + 19 u 84 84
5
= ln(12x7 + 19) + C.
84

9
29. Try u = 1 + 2x + 4x2 . So du
dx
= 2 + 8x = 2(1 + 4x). Hence du = 2(1 + 4x)dx. Therefore,
  
1 du 1 1
2 12
(1 + 4x)(1 + 2x + 4x ) dx = u2 = u 2 du
2 2
1 2 3
= · u2 + C
2 3
1 3
= (1 + 2x + 4x2 ) 2 + C.
3

30. With u = sin t, we get du = cos t dt, and hence

 
6 u7
sin t cos t dt = u6 du = +C
7
1 7
= sin t + C.
7

31. Try u = ez + 1. So du = ez dz and ez = u − 1. We now get

 
1 1
z 2z
(e + 1) e dz =
2 (ez + 1) 2 ez · ez dz
 
1 3 1
= u 2 (u − 1)du = (u 2 − u 2 )du
2 5 2 3
= u2 − u2 + C
5 3
2 z 5 2 3
= (e + 1) 2 − (ez + 1) 2 + C.
5 3

= 43 x− 3 and hence x− 3 dx = 34 du. Also, when x = 1 and x = 8, u = 5

1 2 2
32. Let u = 1 + 4x 3 . So du
dx
and u = 9, respectively. Therefore,
 8   9  9
− 23 1 1 3 3 1
x 1 + 4x 3 dx = u · du =
2 u 2 du
4 4
1
5 9 
5

3 2 3  1 3 1 3
= · u2  = 92 − 52
4 3 5 2 2
1 3 1 √ 3 1    √ 
= ·3 − 5 = 27 − 5 5 .
2 2 2

du
33. Let u = 1 + 2x. So dx
= 2 and dx = 12 du. Also, when x = 0 and 3 respectively, u = 1 and 7.
Therefore,
 3  7  7
dx 1 du 1 −2
 = 1 = u 3 du
0
3
(1 + 2x)2 1 2 (u 2) 3
1 2
 7  7
1 1 3 1 3√ 3
(3)u 3  = u 3  = 7− .
3
=
2 1 2 1 2 2

10
 34. Let u = t10 . So du
dt
= 10t9 and (looking ahead) t9 dt = du10
. For t = 0 and 1, u = 0 and 1
respectively. Therefore,
 1  1
du
9 10
t tan(t )dt = tan u ·
0 0 10
 1
1
= tan u du.
10 0
It remains to find an antiderivative of tan u. But this was already done in the solution of
d
Exercise 9 above, du [− ln(cos u)] = tan u. So
 1  1 
1  1
t9 tan(t10 )dt = − ln(cos u)  = [− ln(cos 1) + ln 1]
0 10 0 10
1 0.616
≈ (− ln(0.540) + 0) ≈ ≈ 0.062.
10 10
du 1
35. Let u = ln x. So dx
= x
and du = dx x
. For x = 1 and 3, respectively u = 0 and ln 3. Therefore,
 1  3
(ln x)2 (ln x)2
dx = − dx
x x
3 1
 ln 3  ln 3 
1 
= − u2 du = − u3 
0 3 0
1
= −( (ln 3)3 − 0) = − ln 3.
3

13E. Computations of Areas

36. Because f (x) ≥ 0 over the interval in question, this area is equal to
 1
1 1 1 1 2
x4 dx = x5 −1 = − (−1) = .
−1 5 5 5 5

37. Because f (x) ≥ 0 over [−2, −1], the area is

 −1  −1
1 −2

−1 −1
2
dx = x dx = −x −2
−2 x −2
  1 1
= −(−1)−1 − −(−2)−1 = 1 − = .
2 2

38. The area is equal to

 4
1 2 3 4 2 3 2
x 2 dx = x2 1 = 42 −
1 3 3 3
2 3 14
= (2 − 1) = .
3 3

11
 1
39. Refer back to Figure 5.25 and note that the graph of f (x) = x 3 lies below the x-axis for
−3 ≤ x ≤ 0 and above the x-axis for 0 ≤ x ≤ 8. Hence
 0
1
x 3 dx = −(area below the x-axis and above the graph from x = −3 to x = 0)
−3

and the area that is to be computed is equal to

 0  8

1 1 3 4 0 3 4 8
− x 3 dx + x 3 dx = − x 3 −3 + x3 0
−3 4 4
0
   
3 4 3 4
= − 0 − (−3) 3 + 83 − 0
4 4
3 √ 3 3 √
(− 3)4 + 24 = (3 3) + 12
3 3
=
4 4 4
9√ 3
= 3 + 12.
4

40. Because cos x ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 , the same is true for f (x) = sec x. So by the first part of
Section 13.3, the area is

π
π

sec x dx = ln(sec x + tan x)04

4

0
 π π
= ln sec + tan − ln (sec 0 + tan 0)
 4  4
2  √ 
= ln √ + 1 − ln (1 + 0) = ln 1 + 2 − 0
2
≈ 0.881.
 3 √
41. The area is x + 1 dx. This integral is easily solved by the method of substitution: u =
0
x + 1; du = dx; u = 1 and 4, respectively, when x = 0 and 3. So
 3  4
√ 2 3 4 2 14
u 2 du = u 2 1 = (8 − 1) =
1
x + 1 dx = .
0 1 3 3 3

Can you think of a reason why this area is the same as that of Exercise 38? [Hint: Refer to
Section 10.8.]

2 lies below the x-axis for −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 and above the x-axis

x
42. Because the graph of f (x) = (x2 +1)
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, the area in question is
 0  2
x x
− 2 2
dx + 2 2
dx.
−1 (x + 1) 0 (x + 1)

du
These integrals are solved by the substitution u = x2 + 1 as follows: dx
= 2x, so xdx = 12 du.

12
 Therefore, the sum of the two integrals is equal to
 1  5  
1 du 1 du 1 2 −2 1 5 −2
− 2
+ 2
= u du + u du
2 2 u 1 2 u 2 1 2 1
1  −1 2  1  −1 5 
= −u 1 + −u 1
2  2  
1 1 1 1
= − +1 + − +1
2 2 2 5
1 2 13
= + = .
4 5 20
 3
1 3
43. dx = ln x1 = ln 3 − ln 1 = ln 3 ≈ 1.099.
1 x

1 3

 5
1
44. The area is given by dx. This integral is solved by the substitution u = x − 1 as
2 x−1
follows:
 
5
1 4
1 4
dx = du = ln u1 = ln 4 = 2 ln 2 ≈ 2(0.693) ≈ 1.386.
2 x−1 1 u

x=1

0 2 5

13
 x
45. Let f (x) = x2 +4
. Because

(x2 + 4) − x(2x) x2 − 4
f  (x) = = − ,
(x2 + 4)2 (x2 + 4)2

observe that f  (x) ≥ 0 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and f  (x) ≤ 0 for all other x. So the graph of f (x)
is decreasing over x = −4 ≤ x ≤ −2, increasing over −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, and then decreasing over
2 ≤ x ≤ 5. A rough sketch of the situation is

A2
-4 -2
2 5
A1

So the area to be computed is equal to

 0  5
x x
− 2
dx + 2
dx.
−4 x + 4 0 x +4

du
These integrals can be solved by the substitution u = x2 + 4. Because dx
= 2x and hence
xdx = 12 du, we get that the area is
 
4
1 du 29
1 du 1 4  1 

29 
− + = − ln u 20 + ln u4
20 2 u 4 2 u 2 2
1 1 1
= − (ln 4 − ln 20) + (ln 29 − ln 4) = [ln 29 + ln 20 − 2 ln 4]
2 2 2
1 (29)(20) 1 145
= ln = ln ≈ 1.795.
2 16 2 4

13F. Integration by Parts

46. Starting with u = x and dv = sin x dx, we get du = dx and v = − cos x. So

  
x sin x dx = u dv = uv − v du

= −x cos x − − cos x dx

= −x cos x + cos x dx
= −x cos x + sin x + C.

14
47.
 π  π  π
2 2 2
(x + x cos x) dx = x dx + x cos x dx
0 0 0
 π
1 2  π2 2
= x 0 + x cos x dx
2 0
 π
1 2 2
= π + x cos x dx.
8 0

To compute x cos x dx, we let u = x and dv = cos x dx and proceed by integration by parts:
du = dx, v = sin x, and
  
x cos x dx = u dv = uv − v du

= x sin x − sin x dx
= x sin x + cos x + C.
So

π
π

x cos x dx = (x sin x + cos x)02

2

0
π  π
= · 1 + 0 − (0 + 1) = − 1.
2 2
Therefore,
 π
2 1 π
(x + x cos x)dx = π 2 + − 1.
0 8 2
2
48. Proceeding as suggested, we have u = ln x, dv = x dx; du = x1 dx and v = x2 . So
  
x ln x dx = u dv = uv − v du
 2 
x2 x 1 x2 1
= ln x − · dx = ln x − x dx
2 2 x 2 2
x2 1
= ln x − x2 + C.
2 4
x3
49. The suggestion is to let u = ln x and dv = x2 dx. So du = x1 dx, v = 3
, and we get
  
2
x ln x dx = u dv = uv − v du
 3
x3 x 1
= ln x − · dx
3 3 x

x3 1
= ln x − x2 dx
3 3
x3 1
= ln x − x3 + C.
3 9

15
50. With u = x and dv = e5x dx, we get du = dx and v = 15 e5x . So
  
5x
xe dx = u dv = uv − v du

1 5x 1 5x
= x· e − e dx
5 5
x 5x 1 1 5x
= e − · e +C
5 5 5
x 5x 1
= e − e5x + C.
5 25
Therefore,
  
1
x 5x 1 5x 1
5x
xe dx = e − e 0
5 25
0
 
1 5 1 5 1
= e − e − 0−
5 25 25
4 5 1
= e + .
25 25

51. The integral should be x2 e5x dx. Does u = x2 and dv = ex dx accomplish anything? Let’s
see. Since du = 2xdx and v = 15 e5x , we get
  
2 5x
x e dx = u dv = uv − v du

2 1 5x 1
= x · e − 2x · e5x dx
5 5
2 
x 5x 1
= e − xe5x dx.
5 2
Notice that the integral has been reduced to the one already solved in Exercise 50. So


x2 5x 1 x 5x 1 5x 
2 5x
x e dx = e − e − e +C
5 2 5 25
2
x 5x x 1
= e − e5x + e5x + C.
5 10 50

52. Given the context, we will try to solve ex sin x dx by integration by parts. Let u = sin x
and dv = ex dx. So du = cos x dx and v = ex . Hence
 
e sin x dx = e sin x − ex cos x dx
x x

as required.

16
53. A quick answer to this question can be obtained by solving the equation derived in Exercise

52 for ex cos x dx. But this would not help us to solve Exercise 54. It is therefore more

useful to try to solve ex cos x dx by parts. Let u = cos x and dv = ex dx. So du = − sin x dx
and v = ex , and  
ex cos x dx = ex cos x + ex sin x dx.

Derive this formula by solving the integral of Exercise 52 in a different way (but still by parts).

54. By substituting the equation derived in Exercise 52 into that derived in Exercise 53, we get
 
e cos x dx = e cos x + e sin x − ex cos x dx.
x x x


So 2 ex cos x dx = ex cos x + ex sin x + C  and therefore,

1 1
ex cos x dx = ex cos x + ex sin x + C.
2 2
Check that similarly, 
1 1
ex sin x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x + C.
2 2

55. We begin by trying a substitution on ln(x + 1)dx. To avoid confusion (with the v, du
notation of the integration by parts method that will follow shortly) we let z = x + 1. So
dz = dx and  
ln(x + 1)dx = ln z dz.

Now let u = ln z and dv = dz. So du = z1 dz and v = z, and

  
ln z dz = u dv = uv − v du
 
1
= z ln z − z · dz = z ln z − dz
z
= z ln z − z + C.

So ln(x + 1)dx = (x + 1) ln(x + 1) − (x + 1) + C. Therefore,
 1 1
ln(x + 1)dx = [(x + 1) ln(x + 1) − (x + 1)] 0
0
= (2 ln 2 − 2) − (ln 1 − 1)
= 2 ln 2 − 1.
  
56. Let z = t 2 . So dz = 12 t− 2 dt and cos t 2 dt = (cos z) · 2z dz = 2 z cos z dz. Now let u = z
1 1 1

and dv = cos z dz. So du = dz and v = sin z. Therefore,

  
z cos z dz = u dv = uv − v du

= z sin z − sin z dz = z sin z + cos z + C  .

17
 It follows that

cos t 2 dt = 2 [z sin z + cos z + C  ]
1

1 1 1
= 2t 2 sin t 2 + 2 cos t 2 + C.

13G. Trigonometric Substitution

57. Let x = 12 sin θ with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Note that x = 0 when θ = 0 and x = 12 when θ = π2 .

Also, dx
dθ
= 12 cos θ, so dx = 12 cos θ dθ. With these substitutions, the integral is transformed as
follows:
 1
√  π

2 2 1
1 − 4x2 dx = 1 − sin2 θ · cos θ dθ.
0 0 2
Because 1 − sin θ = cos2 θ and cos θ ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 ,
2

 π
  π  π
2 1 1 2 2 1
1 − sin θ · cos θ dθ =
2 2
cos θ dθ = (1 + cos 2θ)dθ
2 0 2 0 4
0
 
1 1 π 1 π 1
= (θ + sin 2θ)02 = + sin π − 0
4 2 4 2 2
π
= .
8
The formula cos2 θ = 1+cos
2
2θ
is an easy consequence of the addition formula for the cosine
(see Exercises 2C) and the equality sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. Compute
 1
√
2
1 − 4x2 dx
0

1
in a totally different way by making use of the circle x2 + y 2 = 4
of radius 12 .

58. Let x = tan θ with − π4 ≤ θ ≤ π4 . Note that x = −1 when θ = − π4 and x = 1 when θ = π4 .

Also, dx = sec2 θ dθ. Therefore
 1  π
1 4 sec2 θ dθ
1 dx = 1 .
−1 (x2 + 1) 2 − π4 (tan2 θ + 1) 2

Recall that tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ. Because cos θ ≥ 0 for − π4 ≤ θ ≤ π4 , sec θ ≥ 0 for such θ, and
hence
 π  π
sec2 θ dθ π
sec θ dθ = ln(sec θ + tan θ)−4 π
4 4

1 =
2
− π4 (tan θ + 1) 2 − π4 4
   
2 2
= ln √ + 1 − ln √ − 1
2 2

18
 √  √ 
= ln 2 + 1 − ln 2−1
√ 
2+1
= ln √ ≈ 1.763.
2−1

59. Taking x = 3 sec θ, we get x2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 9(sec2 θ − 1) = 9 tan2 θ. Also, dx =

3 sec θ tan θdθ. So
  
x2 9 sec2 θ
√ dx = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ = 27 sec3 θ dθ.
x2 − 9 3 tan θ

60. Exercise 57 suggests that sin θ might play a role. After experimenting a little, let x = a sin θ.
So a2 − x2 = a2 (1 − sin2 θ) = a2 cos2 θ and dx = a cos θ dθ. Assuming that a ≥ 0 and cos θ ≥ 0,
we get
 √ 2  
a − x2 a cos θ a cos2 θ
dx = · a cos θ dθ = dθ
x a sin θ sin θ

1 − sin2 θ
= a dθ
sin θ
 
1
= a dθ − a sin θ dθ.
sin θ

1
= a dθ + a cos θ.
sin θ

1
The integral dθ is solved in a way analogous to the solution of
sin θ
 
1
dθ = sec θ dθ
cos θ
 √ 2
1 a − x2
in Section 13.3. The function sin x is the cosecant csc x. Try solving dx completely
x
in terms of x by starting with the substitution x = a cos θ. Make use of Section 10.5 and the
right triangle

θ
a

that depicts the equation x = a cos θ. You will be able to confirm that you did it correctly by
checking your answer against the conclusions of Section 10.4.

19
13H. Surface Area

61. The surface area is equal to

 5  
3
5  1
A = 2πx 1 + (3x2 )2 dx = 2π x3 1 + 9x4 2 dx.
0 0

This integral can be solved by the substitution u = 1 + 9x4 . Because du = 36x3 dx, we get
 5  5626

3
 1
4 2 1 1 1 2 3 5626
x 1 + 9x dx = u 2 du = u2 1
0 1 36 36 3
1  
= 56261.5 − 1 ≈ 7814.565.
54

62. The surface area is equal to

 1   1 √
−x
A = 2π e −x 2
1 + (−e ) dx = 2π e−x 1 + e−2x dx.
0 0

The substitution u = e−x shows promise (after some trial and error). Since du = −e−x dx, we
get
 e−1 √  1 √
A = 2π − 1 + u2 du = 2π 1 + u2 du .
1 e−1
At this point (see the discussion that concludes Section 13.3B), the substitution u = tan θ
suggests itself. Since du = sec2 θdθ,
 √   
2
2
1 + u du = 2
1 + tan θ sec θ dθ = sec3 θ dθ.

This integral has already been solved in Section 13.3C. Using this solution, we get
 √
1 1
1 + u2 du = (sec θ)(tan θ) + ln(sec θ + tan θ) + C.
2 2
To get from θ back to u consider the “picture” of the equation tan θ = u = u1 . This is

θ
1

1
√
From this right triangle we see that cos θ = √1+u 2 and hence that sec θ = 1 + u2 . Therefore,
 √
1 1
1 + u2 du = (sec θ)(tan θ) + ln(sec θ + tan θ) + C
2 2
1 √ 1  √ 
= u 1 + u2 + ln u + 1 + u2 + C.
2 2
20
 It follows that
  

1 √ 2
1  √
2 1−1
A = 2π u 1 + u + ln u + 1 + u e
2 2
 √  √  √  √ 
= π 1 · 2 + ln 1 + 2 − e−1 1 + e−2 − ln e−1 + 1 + e−2
√ √ √  √ 
Check that e−1 1 + e−2 = e12 e2 + 1 and e−1 + 1 + e−2 = 1e 1 + e2 + 1 . Therefore,
 √ √ 
√ √ e2 + 1 1 + e2 + 1
A = π 2 + ln(1 + 2) − − ln
e2 e
 √ 
√ √ 2
e +1 1 √
A = π 2 + ln(1 + 2) − 2
− ln − ln(1 + e2 + 1)
e e
≈ π[1.414 + 0.881 − 0.392 + 1 − 1.360] ≈ 4.848.

− 12 −x
63. Because f  (x) = 12 (4 − x2 ) (−2x) = 1 ,
(4−x2 ) 2

   3 √ 
3
2 √ x 2 2 4 − x2 + x2
A = 2π 4 − x2 1 + dx = 2π 4 − x 2 dx
− 12 4 − x2 − 12 4 − x2
 √  3
3
3

4πdx = 4πx−2 1
2 2
= 2π 4 dx =
− 12 − 12 2
  
3 1
= 4π − − = 8π.
2 2

13I. Up to the Gills

64. The equation of the circle (a quarter of which is shown in Figure 13.45) is

x2 + (y − 5.5)2 = 22 .
√
Solving for y, we get (y − 5.5)2 = 4 − x2 , hence y − 5.5 = ± 4 − x2 , and therefore, y =
√
5.5 ± 4 − x2 . Because the arc of Figure 13.45 lies below the line y = 5.5, the − applies. So
the arc is the graph of the function
√
f (x) = 5.5 − 4 − x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

65. Notice that

1 − 1 x
f  (x) = − 4 − x2 2 (−2x) = 1 .
2 (4 − x2 ) 2

21
 Therefore, the surface area is
 b 
A = 2πf (x) 1 + (f  (x))2 dx
a
 2  
 1  x2
= 2π 5.5 − 4 − x 2 2
1+ dx
4 − x2
  4 − x2 + x 2
0
 2 
  1
= 2π 5.5 − 4 − x2 2 dx
0 4 − x2
 2 
 1  2
= 2π 5.5 − 4 − x2 2 1 dx
0 (4 − x2 ) 2
 2  
5.5
= 4π 1 − 1 dx.
0 (4 − x2 ) 2

66. The integral of Exercise 65 is equal to

 2
 2  2
22π 1
A = √ − 4π dx = 22π √ dx − 4πdx.
0 4 − x2 0 4 − x2 0
 2
1 2
= 22π √ dx − (4πx)0
0 4 − x2
 2
1
= 22π √ dx − 8π.
0 4 − x2
The remaining integral is solved by the substitution
x = 2 sin θ
with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Note that x = 0 when θ = 0 and x = 2 when θ = π2 . Because dx = 2 cos θdθ,
 2  π
1 2 1
√ dx =  2 cos θdθ
0 4 − x2 0 4 − 4 sin2 θ
 π
2 cos θdθ
= 2 √
0 4 cos2 θ
 π
2 π
= dθ = .
0 2
Therefore, π 
A = (22π) − 8π = 11π 2 − 8π = 83.433 µm2 .
2

13J. Points in the Polar Plane

67. We will make use of the transformation equations

x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
and elementary facts about the sine and cosine. (See Sections 1.4 and 4.4.)

22
 √ √ √ √  √ √ 
i. x = 3 cos π4 = 3 · 22 = 32 2 and y = 3 sin π4 = 3 · 22 = 32 2. So (x, y) = 32 2, 32 2 .
  √ √    
ii. x = −2 cos − π6 = −2 cos π6 = −2 23 = − 3 y = −2 sin − π6 = (−2) − sin π6 =
   √ 
(−2) − 12 = 1. So (x, y) = − 3, 1 .
   
iii. x = 3 cos 7π = 3 cos 2π + π3 = 3 cos π3 = 3 · 12 = 32 and y = 3 sin 7π = 3 sin 2π + π3 =
3 √ √  √  3
3 sin π3 = 3 · 23 = 32 3. So (x, y) = 32 , 32 3 .
iv. x = 5 cos 0 = 5 and y = 5 sin 0 = 0. So (x, y) = (5, 0).
v. x = −2 cos π2 = (−2)0 = 0 and y = −2 sin π2 = (−2)1 = −2. So (x, y) = (0, −2).
π    π 
vi. x = −2 cos 3π 2
= −2 cos 2
+ π = (−2) − cos π
2
= 0 and y = −2 sin 3π
2
= −2 sin 2
+ π =
π
2 sin 2 = 2. So (x, y) = (0, 2).
 
vii. Since this problem is virtually identical to (vi), we do 4, − 5π 4√
instead.
 −5π     
x = 4 cos 4 = 4 cos 4 = 4 cos π + 4 = −4 cos 4 = −2 2 and y = 4 sin − 5π
5π π π
=
  √  √ √  4
−4 sin 4 = −4 sin π + 4 = 4 sin 4 = 2 2. So (x, y) = −2 2, 2 2
5π π π

viii. x = 0 cos 6π 7
= 0 and y = 0 sin 6π 7
= 0. So (x, y) = (0, 0).
 −23π   23π     
ix. x = − cos 3 = − cos 3 = − cos 8π − π3 = − cos − π3 = − cos π
= − 12 and
 −23π      √ 3
y = − sin 3 = sin 23π3
= sin 8π − π3 = sin − π3 = − sin π3 = − 23 . So (x, y) =
√
− 12 , − 23 .
 
x. In view of (ix) we will change this to 5, − 15 π .
    4 √ √  
x = 5 cos − 15 π = 5 cos 4π − 15
π = 5 cos π
= 5 2
= 52 2 and y = 5 sin −15 π =
 4  √ 4  √ √ 
4 2 4
5 sin 4π − 15 4
π = 5 sin π4 = 52 2. So (x, y) = 52 2, 52 2 .
   
xi. In view of (vi), do 1, 3π to −3, 14 π instead.
  2  6   
x = −3 cos 14 π = −3 cos 2π + √26 π = −3 cos π3 = − 32 and y = −3 sin 14 π =
 6   √  6
−3 sin 2π + 26 π = −3 sin π3 = −3 · 23 . So (x, y) = − 32 , − 32 3 .
     π √ √
xii. x = 3 cos − 5π = 3 cos π − π
= −3 cos − = −3 cos π
= −3 · 3
= − 32 3 and
 
6   6   6 6 2  √ 
y = 3 sin − 5π 6
= 3 sin π − π6 = −3 sin − π6 = 3 sin π6 = 32 . So (x, y) = − 32 3, 32 .

68. Suppose a point P (other than the origin 0) has polar coordinates (r, θ). Then

(r, θ + 2π), (r, θ − 2π), (r, θ + 4π), (r, θ − 4π),

and more generally, (r, θ + 2kπ), where k can be any integer (positive or negative), are polar
coordinates of P . Observe that any set of polar coordinates of P with first coordinate r has
the form (r, θ + 2kπ). Note that (−r, θ + π) also represents P and hence that any set polar
coordinates of P with first coordinate −r has the form (−r, θ + π + 2kπ) = (−r, θ + (2k + 1)π).
It follows that if a single set of polar coordinates can be determined for P , then all others are
given by the “recipe” above. So in the problems that follow it suffices to specify a single set
of polar coordinates.
 √
i. The ray θ = π4 goes through the Cartesian point (3,3). Taking r = x2 + y 2 = 9 + 9 =
√ √  √ 
18 = 3 3 provides the rest. So the polar coordinates are 3 3, π4 .

23
 
ii. The ray θ = − π4 goes through the Cartesian point (4, −4). Because r = 42 + (−4)2 =
√ √  √ 
32 = 4 2, the coordinates are 4 2, − π4 .
 
iii. Since the ray θ = π2 goes through (0, 5), the polar coordinates are 5, π2 .
iv. The ray θ = π goes through (−4, 0) so that the polar coordinates are (4, π).

Up to now we were able to determine a set of polar coordinates simply by “inspection”. From
now on we will be more systematic and use the transformation equations
y 
tan θ = and r = ± x2 + y 2 .
x
√ y √ √
v. Because x = 3 and y = 3 3, x = 3 3 3 = 3. By Table 1.2 of Section 1.4 and Figure 26 of
√
Section 4.4, θ = π3 is the only possible θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Note that r = ± 9 + 9 · 3 =
√ √  
± 36 = ±6. Because the point (3, 3 3) is in the first quadrant, 6, π3 is one answer.
√
3 √ √ √
vi. Note that tan θ = x = −31 = −3 33 = − 3. So tan(−θ) = 3. Hence −θ = π3 , or
y
3
−π
θ= , is the only possible θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 (refer to Table 1.2 of Section 1.4 and
3    √ 
Figure 26 of Section 4.4). Because r = ± 19 + 39 = ± 49 = ± 23 and the point − 13 , 33
 
is in the second quadrant, it follows that − 23 , − π3 are polar coordinates of the point.
√ √
vii. Because tan θ = −33 = − √3√3 3 = − √13 , tan(−θ) = √13 . Again by Table 1.2 of Section 1.4
and Figure 26 of Section 4.4, −θ = π6 , or θ = − π6 , is the only possible θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 .
√ √ √ √
Note that r = ± 9 + 3 = ± 12 = ±2 3. Since (−3, 3) is in the second quadrant, it
 √ 
follows that −2 3, − π6 are polar coordinates of the point.
√
Correction: Change the point in vii. to (3, − 3). This puts it into the fourth quadrant.
viii. As in the earlier problem, tan θ = −22√3 = − √13 implies that θ = − π6 is the only possible
√ √ √
θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Since r = ± 4 · 3 + 4 = ± 16 = ±4, and (−2 3, 2) is in the
 
second quadrant, −4, − π6 are polar coordinates of the point.
ix. To represent the origin 0 in polar coordinates we need r = 0. But θ can be arbitrary. So
(0, θ) with any θ is a set of polar coordinates for 0.
x. Because tan θ = xy = −5−5√3 = √13 , we get (as before) that θ = π6 is the only possible
√ √
θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Note that r = ± 25 · 3 + 25 = ± 100 = ±10. Because the
√  
point (−5 3, −5) is in the third quadrant, −10, π6 is a representation of it in polar
coordinates.

13K. Equations in Polar Coordinates

Exercises 69-75 are applications of the transformation equations

 y
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, r = ± x2 + y 2 , and tan θ = .
x
69. The equation 2x + 3y = 4 transforms to
2r cos θ + 3r sin θ = 4 or r(2 cos θ + 3 sin θ) = 4,

24
 and hence (since 2 cos θ + 3 sin θ cannot be zero) to
4
r= .
2 cos θ + 3 sin θ

70. This equation transforms to

i. 9r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ = 4r sin θ. Assume (for the moment that r = 0). So

9r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = 4 sin θ or r(9 cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 4 sin θ.

Now 9 cos2 θ + sin2 θ cannot be zero because if it were, then sin θ = 0, hence 9 cos2 θ
= 0 and thus cos θ = 0. But sin θ and cos θ cannot both be zero. Why not? So
ii. r = 9 cos42 sin θ
2 θ . Note that equations (i) and (ii) are not algebraically the same. For
θ+sin 
instance 0, 2 satisfies (i) but not (ii). But for any (r, θ) with r = 0, they imply the
π

same relationship between r and θ. Also, the graphs of the two equations are the same
because the origin lies on both.

71. This equation transforms to

i. r2 = r cos θ(r2 cos2 θ − 3r2 sin2 θ). If r = 0, then

1 = r cos θ(cos2 θ − 3 sin2 θ),

and hence, because cos θ(cos2 θ − 3 sin2 θ) cannot be zero,

ii. r = cos θ(cos2 1θ−3 sin2 θ) . Note that this time the graphs of (i) and (ii) are the same, except
at the origin 0 which is on the graph of (i) but not on the graph of (ii).

72. The equation r = 5 transforms to ± x2 + y 2 = 5, or x2 + y 2 = 25.
 
73. Notice that the origin 0 = 0, π2 is on the graph of r = 3 cos θ. It follows that r2 = 3r cos θ
has the same graph. This last equation transforms to x2 + y 2 = 3x.
y
74. tan θ = 6 becomes x
= 6.
75. Because the origin 0 = (0, 0) is on the graph of r = 2 sin θ tan θ, the graph of this equation is
the same as that of r2 = 2r sin θ tan θ. This transforms to x2 + y 2 = 2y · xy . To include the
origin on the graph, we rewrite this as x3 + xy 2 = 2y 2 .
76. The graph is the set of all (r, θ) with r = 6. This is the circle with center 0 and radius 6.
 
77. The graph is the set of all points of the form r, − 8π
6
. Consider the ray θ = − 8π6
. Since r can
be any number (positive, negative, or zero) the graph is the (straight) line through the origin
   4π    √
that this ray determines. Because tan − 8π 6 √
= − tan 3
= − tan π + π
3
= − tan π
3
= − 3,
the Cartesian equation of this line is y = − 3x.
78. The graph of r = sin θ is the same as that of r2 = r sin θ. Its Cartesian equivalent is x2 + y 2 =
y. This equation can be analyzed by completing the square on x2 + y 2 − y = 0. Because,

25
 x2 + y 2 − y + ( 12 )2 = ( 12 )2 , we get
 2  2
1 1
x + y−
2
= .
2 2
 
It follows that the graph of r = sin θ is the circle with center the Cartesian point 0, 12 and
radius 12 .
79. This equation transforms to y + x = 1, or y = −x + 1. This is the line with slope −1 and
y-intercept 1.
80. The graph of r = 2 cos 2θ is virtually identical to that of r = cos 2θ which is studied in
Example 13.23. The only difference is that the petals of the “rose”, see Figure 13.35, have
length 1 in the example and length 2 in this exercise.
2

-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

81. Lets start with the graph of r = −4 sin 3θ in Cartesian coordinates. Since
 
2
sin 3θ = sin(3θ + 2π) = sin 3 θ + π
3
this graph has period 23 π. So it is the graph of sin θ (which has period 2π) compressed by
r
1

0.5

Q
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

26
 a factor of 3. The Cartesian graph of r = sin 3θ is sketched above. It follows quickly from
this that the Cartesian graph of r = −4 sin 3θ is as drawn below.
r
4

Q
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4
Now let sketch r = −4 sin 3θ in “polar”. As the ray θ rotates from 0 to π6 , r slides from 0 to
−4 and as θ goes from π6 to π3 , r goes from −4 back to 0. The loop on the lower left of the
figure below is traced out in the process. Similarly, as the ray θ rotates from π3 to 2π
3
, r slides
π
from 0 to 4 (at θ = 2 ) back to 0. So the upper loop is traced out. Next, as the ray θ rotates
from 2π
3
to π, r slides from 0 to −4 (at θ = 5π
6
) back to 0. So the loopon the lower right is
4

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-1

-2

traced out. The rest of the graph is just a repetition of what we already have. For example,
as θ moves from 0 to − π3 , the, loop on the lower right is traced out. As θ moves from π to 4π
3
,
it is the loop on the lower left.
82. The considerations of Example 13.23 show that the Cartesian graph of sin 2θ is as sketched
below

27
 r
1

0.5

Q
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

So the Cartesian graph of 9 sin 2θ is

r

7.5

2.5

Q
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-2.5

-5

-7.5

Now to the polar graph of r2 = 9 sin 2θ. Observe that 9 sin 2θ ≥ 0 so θ must fall into
 π   3π     π   3π 5π 
0, 2 , π, √2 , 2π, 5π
2
, . . . or − 2
, −π , − 2 , − 2 , . . . . As the ray θ rotates from 0 to
π
2
, r = +3 sin 2θ slides from 0 to 3 (at θ = π4 ) and back to √ 0. In the process, the loop on the
upper right in the graph below is traced out. But r = −3 sin 2θ is also possible. This time

28
 2

-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

the loop on the lower left is traced out as √ θ varies from 0 to π2 . Similar considerations
3π
√ as θ varies from π to 2 , r = +3 sin 2θ traces out the loop
show that on the lower left
√ and
r = −3 sin √2θ traces out the loop on the lower left. As θ varies from − 2 to −π, r = +3 sin 2θ
π

and r = −3 sin 2θ traces these loops again. Repeating these considerations shows us that
the graph of r2 = 9 sin 2θ is complete as sketched.
83. The Cartesian graph of r = 2 − cos θ is shown below
r
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

Q
-7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5

Turning to the polar graph of r = 2 − cos θ, we see that r: slides from 1 to 2 as θ moves from
0 to π2 ; slides from 2 to 3 as θ moves from π2 to π; slides from 3 to 2 as θ moves from π to 3π
2
;
3π
and slides from 2 to 1 as θ moves from 2 to 2π. This four step process traces out the loop
sketched in the graph below.

29
 2

-3 -2 -1 1

-1

-2

Because the Cartesian graph r = 2 − cos θ is symmetric about the vertical axis, the pattern
is exactly the same as θ moves from 0 to − 3π 2
. The periodicity of the cosine tells us that the
polar graph of r = 2 − cos θ is complete as shown. (Incidentally, it is not transparent why this
graph is a “snail”.)

13L. Parabolas and Hyperbolas in Polar Coordinates

84. Equation (∗) becomes 4Lx + 4y 2 = L2 . Dividing through by 4L we get x + L1 y 2 = L4 and hence
x = − L1 y 2 + L4 . By remarks in Section 4.3, this is a parabola which opens up to the left. The
x-intercept is L4 . The y-intercepts are gotten by solving L1 y 2 = L4 for y; so they are y = ± L2 .
Thus the graph of x = − L1 y 2 + L4 looks as shown below.

L
—
2

F = (a, 0)
L
— x=d
4
L
-—
2

 
Because V = L4 , 0 is on the parabola we know that the distance from V to F is equal to the
distance from V to D. So L4 − a = d − L4 , and hence L2 = d + a. Because P = (a, b) is on the
parabola, the distance from P to F is equal to the distance from P to D. So b = d−a = L2 −2a.

30
 Since (a, b) is on the parabola, we see that
 2
1 L L
a = − − 2a + .
L 2 4
 2 2 2
Therefore, L4 − a = L1 L2 − 2a and hence, L4 − aL = L4 − 2aL + 4a2 . It follows that
aL = 4a2 . If a = 0, then L = 4a. So a = L4 and hence V = F. But this cannot be so. Why?
Hence a = 0. It follows that the latus rectum is L2 + L2 = L. Observe that (3) holds because
the axis of the parabola is defined to be the line through F perpendicular to D.

85. Left to the reader.

13M. Areas of Regions Given in Polar Coordinates

86. This is a circle of radius 4, so the area is 16π. Does the area formula
 b
1
A= f (θ)2 dθ
a 2

provide the same result? Taking r = f (θ) = 4, a = 0, and b = 2π, we get

 2π
1 2π
A= · 16dθ = 8θ0 = 16π.
0 2

87. The region is a loop above the polar axis traced out by the point

(r, θ) = (3 sin θ, θ)

as θ rotates from 0 to π. (The rotation of θ from π to 2π, or 0 to −π, etc. simply retraces
this loop.) So the area of the region enclosed by the loop is
 π 
1 9 π 2
A = (3 sin θ)2 dθ = sin θdθ.
0 2 2 0
1+cos 2θ
To evaluate this integral, recall that cos2 θ = 2
. So

1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ = 1 − = .
2 2
It follows that
 
9 π 1 − cos 2θ 9 π
A = dθ = (1 − cos 2θ)dθ
2 0 2 4 0
 

9 1 π 9
= θ − sin 2θ 0 = π.
4 2 4
By proceeding as in the solution of Exercise 78, one can show that the graph of r = 3 sin θ is
 2  2  2
the circle with equation x2 + y − 32 = 32 of radius 32 . So the area is π 32 = 94 π.

31
 88. The region in question

π
θ=—
3

θ=0

 π
1 3
has area A = (3 sin θ)2 dθ. Using facts from Exercise 87 (and using Examples 4.11 and
0 2
4.12), we find that the value of this definite integral is

 
 
9 1 π 9 π 1 2π
A = θ − sin 2θ 03 = − sin
4 2 4 3 2 3
    
9 π 1 2π 9 π 1 π
= + sin − = − sin
4 3 2 3 4 3 2 3
√  √
9 π 1 3 3 9 3
= − · = π− .
4 3 2 2 4 16

89. The graph of r = 2 + 2 cos θ = 2(1 + cos θ) is in essence the same as that discussed in
Example 13.22. (What is the difference?) So the entire graph is sketched out by letting the
ray determined by θ rotate from θ = 0 to θ = 2π. Therefore the area A of the cardioid is equal
to
 2π  2π
1 2
A = f (θ) dθ = 2(1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ)dθ
2
0 2π 0

= (2 + 4 cos θ + 1 + cos 2θ)dθ

0 
1 2π
= 3θ + 4 sin θ + sin 2θ 0 = 6π.
2

13N. Differential Equations

90. For y = 13 e3x , we get dy

dx
= 13 e3x · 3 = e3x . So y = 13 e3x does satisfy dy
dx
= e3x .
dy
91. With y = tan x + sec x, dx = sec2 x + sec x tan x. So
dy
2 − y 2 = 2(sec2 x + sec x tan x) − (tan2 x + 2 sec x tan x + sec2 x)
dx
= sec2 x − tan2 x = 1.

32
 dy
Why the restriction 0 < x < π2 ? Because cos π2 = 0 means that sec x and hence dx is not
defined for x = 2 . Note that the less restrictive condition − 2 < x < 2 would have been
π π π

sufficient.
d2 y
92. With y = sin 2x − cos 2x, we get dy
dx
= 2 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x, and dx2
= −4 sin 2x + 4 cos 2x. So
d2 y
dx2
+ 4y = 0.

93. For y = xe−2x , we get

dy
= 1 · e−2x + x(−2e−2x ) = e−2x − 2xe−2x , and
dx
d2 y
= −2e−2x − (2e−2x + 2x(−2e−2x )) = −4e−2x + 4xe−2x .
dx2
d2 y
Therefore, dx2
dy
+ 4 dx + 4y = (−4e−2x + 4xe−2x ) + (4e−2x − 8xe−2x ) + 4xe−2x = 0.

13O. The Method of Separation of Variables

94. After separating variables, we get

 
ydy = xdx,

2 2
and therefore, y2 = x2 + C. So y 2 = x2 + 2C and hence (after√changing C) the general solution
√
is y = ± x2 + C. The requirement y(0) = 4, forces 4 = ± C. So C = 16 and the − option
is impossible. So the particular solution is
1
y = (x2 + 16) 2 .

95. After separating variables,  

dy
= xdx.
y
x2
Hence ln y = 2
+ C, and therefore the general solution is
x2
y = eln y = e 2 +C .
1
Because y(1) = 3, we get 3 = e 2 +C . So ln 3 = 12 + C and C = ln 3 − 12 . The particular solution
x2 1
is y = e 2 +ln 3− 2 .
96. By separating variables,
 
dy dx
=
y x
and hence ln y = ln x + C. So y = eln y = eln x+C = eln x · eC = Ax, where A = eC . Therefore
the general solution is

33
 y = Ax with A > 0.
Note that the initial condition y(2) = 0, cannot be met because y = 0 forces x = 0. So there
is no particular solution that satisfies the given initial condition.
97. Correction: It should be (y − 3) dy
dt
= 1 instead of (y 2 − 3) dy
dt
= 1. By separating variables,
 
(y − 3)dy = dt.

y2
So 2
− 3y = t + C and (changing C’s),

y 2 − 6y − (2t + C) = 0.

By the quadratic formula,

 √
6± 36 + 4(1)(2t + C) 6 ± 2 9 + 2t + C
y = = .
2 2
√
So y = 3 ± 2t + 9 + C. To get y = 3 when t = 0, we need 9 + C = 0 or C = −9. So there
are two particular solutions:
√ √
y = 3 + 2t and y = 3 − 2t.

98. By separating variables,

 
(1 + y)dy = (sin x − cos x)dx

and hence
y2
y+ = − cos x − sin x + C.
2
So y 2 + 2y + (2 sin x + 2 cos x − C) = 0. By the quadratic formula, the general solution is

−2 ± 4 − 4(2 sin x + 2 cos x − C)
y =
√ 2
y = −1 ± 1 − 2 sin x − 2 cos x + C.

To get a particular solution, we need

√
0 = −1 ± 1 − 2 sin π − 2 cos π + C

1 = ± 1 − 0 − 2(−1) + C.

So the + option prevails, and C = −2. Hence the particular solution is

√
y = −1 + −1 − sin x − cos x.

Notice that sin x + cos x needs to be negative or 0 for this to make sense. Compare the graphs
in Figures 10.28 and 10.29 and determine an interval between π2 and 2π for which this is the
case.

34
 99. After separating variables,
 
(ln y)2
dy = x2 dx
y
To solve the integral on the left, let u = ln y. So du
dy
= y1 and hence
 
(ln y)2 u3
dy = u2 du = + C1
y 3
= (ln y)3 + C1 .
  13
x3 x3 x3
Therefore (ln y)3 +C1 = 3
+C2 and hence (ln y)3 = 3
+C. So ln y = 3
and y = eln y =
+C
x3 1 8 1  1
e( 3 +C) 3 . For the particular solution, we need 1 = e( 3 +C) 3 and hence that 83 + C 3 = 0. So
C = − 83 . So the particular solution is
 1
x3 3
− 83
y=e 3
.

13P. Chemical Reactions

100. i. Turning to the case a = b first, we get

 
dy
= kdt .
(a − y)2
For the integral on the left, we turn to the substitution u = a − y. So dy = −du and
 
dy −2 u−1
= − u du = − + C1
(a − y)2 −1
= (a − y)−1 + C1 .

Therefore,
(a − y)−1 + C1 = kt + C2
and hence (a − y)−1 = kt + C. So a − y = kt+C
1
and hence y = a − kt+C
1
. Refer back to the
narrative of the problem, and notice that y(0) = 0. Therefore, c = a and C = a1 . Hence
1

1 1
y = a− 1 = a − akt+1
kt + a a
a a(akt + 1) − a
= a− = .
akt + 1 akt + 1
a2 kt
So y(t) = akt+1
.
Observe that lim y(t) = a. By the quotient rule,
t→∞

dy a2 k(akt + 1) − (a2 kt)(ak)

=
dt (akt + 1)2
35
 a2 k
= = a2 k(akt + 1)−2 , and
(akt + 1)2
d2 y
= −2a2 k(akt + 1)−3 (ak)
dt2
−2a3 k 2
= .
(akt + 1)3
We now have the following information about the graph of y(t): it is increasing, concave
down, and has y = a as horizontal asymptote. So the graph has the shape

y=a

Note that the number of molecules produced at time t is always less that a. Suppose that
this were a commercial production run and that the manufacturer of the compound is
satisfied with a production of 0.99a molecules. How long should the reaction be allowed
a2 kt 99
to run? This is simple: put akt+1 = 0.99a = 100 a and solve for t:
99
100a2 kt = 99a(akt + 1), so 100a2 kt − 99a2 kt = 99a, hence a2 kt = 99a and t = .
ak
So if a and k are both large, then the run will end relatively soon.
ii. Now the case a = b. As before,
 
dy
= kdt.
(a − y)(b − y)

By “reversing” common denominators, we get

1 A B
= +
(a − y)(b − y) a−y b−y
A(b − y) + B(a − y)
=
(a − y)(b − y)
−(A + B)y + Ab + Ba
= .
(a − y)(b − y)
So A + B = 0 and Ab + Ba = 1. Since B = −A, we get Ab − Aa = 1 and hence A = 1
b−a
−1
and B = b−a . (Notice that a = b is needed here.) Therefore,
   
1
1
− b−a
1
1 1 1 1
= b−a
+ = − .
(a − y)(b − y) a−y b−y b−a a−y b−a b−y
36
So
  
dy 1 dy 1 dy
= −
(a − y)(b − y) b−a a−y b−a b−y
1
= [− ln(a − y) + ln(b − y) + C1 ]
b−a  

1 b−y
= ln + C1 .
b−a a−y

[Refer to the narrative of the problem and notice that a − y > 0 and b − y > 0 throughout
the reaction. Why is this relevant in the computations above?] Because

kdt = kt + C2 ,

we now get
 

1 b−y
ln + C1 = kt + C2
b−a a−y

and, after combining constants, that

 
b−y
ln = (b − a)kt + C.
a−y
b−y
Therefore, a−y = e(b−a)kt+C = De(b−a)kt , where D = eC . Because y = 0 when t = 0 (see
the narrative of the problem), we see that D = ab . So

b−y b
= e(b−a)kt .
a−y a
Finally, solve for y. After multiplying through and simplifying,
b (b−a)kt
b − y = (a − y) e
a
b (b−a)kt
y−y e = b − be(b−a)kt
 a 
b (b−a)kt
y 1− e = b − be(b−a)kt
a
b(1 − e(b−a)kt )
y =
1 − ab e(b−a)kt

This is the expression we needed to find.

We will now assume that a > b. This is no restriction, for as a = b, we could have
arranged this at the beginning of the narrative of the problem. What about lim y(t) = ?
t→∞
Since one molecule of the compound is formed by a combination of one molecule of each

37
of the reacting chemicals, it is clear that no more than b molecules of the compound can
be formed. Because a > b, lim e(b−a)kt = 0, and it follows that
t→∞

b(1 − e(b−a)kt )
lim y(t) = lim = b.
t→∞ t→∞ 1 − ab e(b−a)kt)
Because dydt
= k(a − y)(b − y) > 0, y is an increasing function of t. What about the
2
matter of concavity? The second derivative ddt2y is best computed with the chain rule
as follows: Let r (for rate) be the function dy
dt
of t. By the chain rule,
d2 y dr dr dy
2
= = · .
dt dt dy dt
Because r = k(ab − (a + b)y + y 2 ), we get dr
dy
= k(2y − (a + b)). So
dr
= −k((a − y) + (b − y))[k(a − y)(b − y)]
dt
= −k 2 ((a − y) + (b − y))(a − y)(b − y).
2
Because a − y > 0 and b − y > 0, it follows that dr
dt
= ddt2y is negative throughout, and
hence that the graph of y(t) is concave down. So the graph of y(t) has the same shape
as that sketched earlier for the case a = b.

How long will it take for 0.99b molecules of the compound to be formed? Set
b(1 − e(b−a)kt ) 99
y(t) = = b
1 − ae
b (b−a)kt 100
and solve for t. Doing this, we get
b (b−a)kt
100(1 − e(b−a)kt ) = 99(1 − e )
a
b
−100e(b−a)kt = −1 − 99 e(b−a)kt .
a
Therefore,
   
b 100a − 99b (b−a)kt
100 − 99 e(b−a)kt
= 1, and hence e = 1.
a a
 
a a
So e(b−a)kt = and (b − a)kt = ln . Now solving for t we get
100a − 99b 100a − 99b
   
1 a 1 a
t = ln = ln
(b − a)k 100a − 99b −(a − b)k 100a − 99b
 −1  
1 a 1 100a − 99b
= ln = ln
(a − b)k 100a − 99b (a − b)k a
 
1 99b
= ln 100 − .
(a − b)k a
This will happen quickly if a ≈ b and if k is large.

38
13Q. First-Order Linear Differential Equations

101. The equation y  + y = t fits into the scheme of equation (2) with p(t) = 1 and q(t) = t. Taking
P (t) = t, we need to solve 
tet dt.

This integral succumbs to integration by parts after taking u = t and dv = et dt. Since du = dt
and v = et , we get that
  
t
te dt = udv = uv − vdu

= te − et dt = tet − et + C.
t

Therefore, the general solution that we are looking for is

 
y(t) = e−t tet − et + C
= t − 1 + Ce−t .
Because y  (t) = 1 − Ce−t ,
y  (t) + y(t) = t
as required. To find the particular solution f (t) = t − 1 + Ce−t with f (0) = 2 we need
2 = 0 − 1 + C and hence C = 3. So f (t) = t − 1 + 3e−t is the required particular solution.

102. The scheme applies to this equation with p(t) = 2t and q(t) = 2t. Taking P (t) = t2 , we get


−t2 t2
y(t) = e 2te dt + C
 2 
= e−t et + C = 1 + Ce−t .
2 2

To get the particular solution, we solve

0 = y(0) = 1 + Ce◦ = 1 + C
for C, to get C = −1. So y(t) = 1 − e−t .
2

1
103. Take p(t) = and q(t) = cos t. With P (t) = ln t, we get
t


− ln t ln t
y(t) = e cos t e dt + C


−1
= t t cos t dt + C .

An integration by parts handles t cos t dt. Let u = t and dv = cos t dt. So du = dt, v = sin t,
and hence
  
t cos tdt = udv = uv − vdu

= t sin t − sin t dt
= t sin t + cos t + C.

39
 So
y(t) = t−1 [t sin t + cos t + C] = sin t + t−1 cos t + Ct−1 .

To get y(π) = 0, we need 0 = 0 + π −1 (−1) + Cπ −1 ; hence Cπ −1 = π −1 and C = 1. So the

particular solution is y(t) = sin t + t−1 cos t + t−1 .

104. i. We rewrite the equation as

dy
− x−1 + x−2 = 0.
dx
dy
So dx = x−1 −x−2 , and y = ln x+x−1 +C. To get y(1) = 3, we need 3 = ln 1+1+C = 1+C.
So C = 2 and the answer is

y(x) = ln x + x−1 + 2.

ii. This time,

dy
− x−1 y = −x−2 .
dx
This fits into the scheme discussed earlier with p(x) = −x−1 and q(x) = −x−2 . Taking
P (x) = − ln x, we get



−2 − ln x −2 ln x−1
y(x) = e ln x
−x e dx + C = x −x e dx + C


−3 1 −2
= x −x dx + C = x x + C
2
1 −1
= x + Cx.
2
To get y(1) = 3, we solve 3 = y(1) = 12 + C for C. So C = 52 and y(x) = 12 x−1 + 52 x is
the particular solution.
iii. This time,

dy
+ x−2 y = −x−2
dx
and we are “in the scheme” by taking p(x) = x−2 and q(x) = −x−2 . Take P (x) = −x−1
to get


x−1 −2 −x−1
y(x) = e −x e dx + C
−1
 −1

= e−x −e−x + C
−1 −1
= −e−2x + Ce−x .
To get the particular solution, we need 3 = −e−2 + Ce−1 ; hence Ce−1 = 3 + e−2 and
C = 3e + e−1 . Therefore,
−1 −1
y(x) = −e−2x + (3e + e−1 )e−x .

40
13R. Application to Radioactive Decay

105. Notice that there are x0 = 0.9928 grams of 238 92 U in the sample at time t = 0. Since the
half-life of 92 U is λ1 = 4.5 × 10 years, we convert that of 234
238 9
90 Th into years as well. This is
−2
λ2 = 365.25 = 0.066 = 6.6 × 10 . Since we are dealing with a sample of pure uranium at
24.1

time t = 0, the amount of 23490 Th at t = 0 is y0 = 0. Therefore by the formula, the amount (in
grams) of 90 Th at any time t ≥ 0, (in years) is
234

(0.9928)(4.5 × 109 )
y(t) ≈ (0 − e−0.066t )
(−4.5 × 109 )
≈ 0.9928e−0.066t .

With t = 109 this is approximately

0.9928e−66×10 ≈ 0.
6

So the amount is negligible. Think of it this way: Given the long half-life of 238
92 U, the daughter
234 234
90 Th is produced very slowly; given the relatively short half-life of 90 Th, the small amounts
of thorium produced vanish rapidly.

106. This problem is virtually identical to the previous problem and will be omitted.

41