Received: 16 April 2018 Revised: 26 June 2018 Accepted: 4 July 2018

DOI: 10.1002/oa.2716

SHORT REPORT

Sharp force trauma to a 1,000‐year‐old skull from the

Jerusalem mountains
Yossi Nagar1 | Haim Cohen2,3 | Boaz Zissu4

1
Excavations and Surveys, Israel Antiquities
Authority, Jerusalem, Israel Abstract
2
Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv Well‐preserved human skull, two upper vertebral bodies, and bones of the right hand
University, Tel Aviv, Israel
were found in a remote cave in the Jerusalem mountains. The individual was identified
3
Physical Anthropology, The National Center
of Forensic Medicine, Tel Aviv, Israel
as an adult male, 30–40 years old, who was C‐14 dated to the 11th century. It was
4
Department of Land of Israel Studies and attributed to the local, Bedouin population. The skull manifested four sharp force
Archaeology, Bar‐Ilan University, Ramat Gan, trauma lesions, resulted from interpersonal violence in different occasions: Two repre-
Israel
sent past events, one is peri‐mortem, and one is the direct cause of death. The current
Correspondence
Yossi Nagar, Israel Antiquities Authority, P.O. manuscript describes the pathologies and discusses possible interpretations, which
B. 586, Jerusalem 91004, Israel.
combine physical anthropology with archaeology, history, and ethnography altogether.
Email: yossi@israntique.org.il

KEY W ORDS

Bedouins, blood vengeance, cut marks, palaeopathology, trauma

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N seasonal streams running east to west. Nahal Soreq is one of them

During an archaeological survey of the lower slopes of Mt. Shimshon
(17 km west of Jerusalem), along the cliffs above Nahal Soreq, human
bones were found scattered in a cave (Figure 1). The bones were in a
very good state of preservation but included only the skull, two upper
vertebral bodies, and the right hand of an adult. Because the skull
manifested clear cut marks, it was taken by the excavators for further
analysis in the laboratory by physical anthropologists.
Some potsherds found in the Mt. Shimshon cave attest to human
activity at the site from the Iron Age to the Ottoman Period. Indeed,
the mountainous area surrounding the cave has been sparsely inhabited
since ancient times. In the Iron Age and the Hellenistic Period, it was
part of the Judahite/Judean kingdom; later, during the Early Roman
Period, it was populated by Jews who took refuge in the caves during
wartime (Ein‐Mor, 2009, pp. 460–477). During the Byzantine Period
the area was inhabited by Christians (monks), who lived in monasteries
or small farms. Starting in the 10th century, they were replaced by
Bedouin tribes; later, small Muslim Arab villages were established.
2 | T HE A R CH A E O L O GI CA L C O N TE X T
The area west of Jerusalem is a mountainous region that declines
westward towards the Judean Lowlands. It is crossed by several
and traverses the western Judean Hills in a series of sharp
meanders. The topography of the valley is rugged, with rocky cliffs
along the lower part of the steep slopes. Mt. Shimshon is located east
of where Nahal Soreq leaves the mountains and enters the Judean
Lowlands. Its northern cliffs are dotted by caves of various sizes,
already mentioned by the pioneering survey of 1864 (Schick, 1887).
British explorers briefly documented the caves again in 1881, suggest-
ing they were part of a monastery (Conder & Kitchener, 1883, p. 62).
Modern surveys have noted a human presence in these caves as early
as the Iron Age and especially during the Hellenistic, Roman, and
Byzantine Periods (Ein‐Mor, 2009, pp. 460–477; Gass & Zissu, 2009).
The osteological remains presented in this article were found in a
small cave that opens in the cliff just above the streambed, during an
archaeological survey conducted by B. Zissu, with the assistance of S.
Ya'aran and Y. Zissu. Its large entrance (5.8 × 2.8 m) is visible from the
surrounding area. The plan of the cave is approximately triangular
(max. length ~8 m; max. width ~5.8 m). In the centre of the floor, next
to the opening, is a cluster of large rocks that probably collapsed from
the ceiling. The bottom of the cave was covered by a thin layer of dirt
that had been systematically excavated by antiquities thieves. The
skeletal remains were found in the heap of debris left by the looters,
along with few potsherds from the Iron Age, the Roman Period
(first–second centuries CE), the Middle Ages, and the Ottoman Period.
None of these artefacts was directly associated with the bones; hence,

162 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2019;29:162–167.
NAGAR ET AL.
FIGURE 1 Allocation map [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
they could not be considered as burial goods and no clear archaeolog-
ical context is available. This made it necessary to take sample from
the skull for direct C‐14 dating at the Kimmel Center for Archaeolog-
ical Science of the Weizmann Institute. The results indicated a burial in
the 11th century CE, which corresponds to the Early Arab Period.
Calibrated range is 990–1040 CE for ±1σ (68.5%), 985–1050 CE for
±2σ (95.4%), with carbon value of 35% (Boaretto, 2015).
3 | A N T H R O P O L O G I C A L A N A L Y S I S OF T H E
REMAINS
The skeletal remains included only the skull, two upper vertebral
bodies (either cervical or upper thoracic),1 and the bones from the
1
The vertebral bodies were broken and identified on‐site as upper ones.
Because the non‐pathological skeletal remains were reburied according to the
Israeli law, more specific identification is now unfortunately impossible.
163
right hand (metacarpal and phalanges) of an adult. The skull is well
preserved, but the mandible and four maxillary teeth are missing
(Figure 2). It is of average size (Table 1) and manifests developed
muscle markings. The glabella and brow ridges are relatively
pronounced, and the mastoid process and the nuchal area are
moderately developed, indicative of a male (Bass, 1987, p. 82). The
coronal and sagittal suture closure is advanced, indicative of a person
aged 30 or more (Hershkovitz et al., 1997). Tooth attrition is grossly
indicative of a person aged 20–40 (Hillson, 1986, pp. 176–201): One
canine shows slight dentine exposure; the first premolars show
enamel attrition only; the second premolars show dentine exposure
in one cusp; the first molars show attrition in the shape of dentine
cup on two cusps; the third molars show attrition in the shape of
dentine cup on one cusp. Another age indicator is the closure of the
maxillary posterior median suture, characteristic of an individual aged
at least 25 years (Mann, Symes, & Bass, 1987).
164 NAGAR ET AL.

The skull was morphologically described using measurement

techniques that follow Howells (1973), according to a mandatory
list routinely in use by the IAA (Nagar, 2012). The results are
presented in Table 1.

3.1 | Injuries to the skull

Four ante‐ or peri‐mortem injuries to the skull were noted.
Injury A is a sharp force trauma located near the midline of the
frontal bone, anterior, and very close to the coronal suture
(Figure 3). The defect is 3.3 cm long and 1.5 cm wide at the widest
point. It is a narrowing cut, probably caused by a sharp implement
descending from above. The individual survived this injury, as the
rounded bone edges and bone remodelling are obvious evidences
of healing.
Injury B is located on the posterior part of the left parietal bone
between the sagittal and lambdoid sutures (Figure 4, 4.1). It is an elon-
gated sharp force trauma running diagonally, with the supero‐anterior
end next to the sagittal suture and the infero‐posterior end close to
FIGURE 2 Frontal view of the skull [Colour figure can be viewed at
the lambdoid suture. This injury, too, was caused by a sharp implement
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
from behind. The rounded bone edges and bone remodelling are clear
evidence that the injury was not fatal.
Injury C is located along the posterior part of the sagittal suture.
It is an elongated sharp force trauma running at a slight diagonal.
TABLE 1 Morphometric comparison The V‐shaped groove, 3.7 cm long and 0.7 cm wide (at the widest
Bedouin point), was caused by a sharp implement—probably a sword stroke
sample from behind. The lateral margin of the cut is rough and irregular in
Mt. Distance
(N = 53)
Shimshon (in terms texture; the medial margin is more incised and smooth. The smooth
Measurement skull Average SD of SD)
medial wall is more inclined than the relatively perpendicular lateral
Maximum length 181 186.2 6.0 −0.9
wall. The unpatterned small striations on this wall suggest a
Maximum breadth 132 135.5 5.9 −0.6
nonserrated blade (Figure 4, 4.2). The striae, which reflect the
Cranial index 72.9 72.8 3.1 0.0
topography of the blade, were probably caused by the natural defects
Cranial module index 148.3 151.1 4.8 −0.6
of the cutting edge (Byers, 2005; Tucker et al., 2001). The blow was
Mean height index 84.3 82.0 3.4 0.7
probably delivered from the right side, because the striations appear
Vault height index 88.6 85.7 2.9 1.0
on a plane parallel to the direction of the applied force (Byers,
Frontoparietal index 69.7 70.2 3.4 −0.1
2005). A fragment of bone was chipped away from the cortical surface
Bregma angle (Na–Ba) 47.5 48.6 3.3 −1.1
of the lateral wall, compatible with a chopping instrument (Byers,
Frontal angle 128.0 128.6 4.7 −0.1
2005) such as a sword. Sharp bone edges can be seen in horizontal
Parietal angle 130 132.3 −2.3 −0.6
and sagittal views. The absence of any signs of healing suggests that
Occipital angle 117.0 119.5 6.0 −0.4
this was a peri‐mortem injury. However, the cut is relatively superficial
Upper facial height 67 65.0 4.2 0.5
Upper facial index (1) 51.5 51.1 3.3 0.1
Upper facial index (2) 50.8 49.0 3.5 0.5
Orbital index 78.0 80.2 6.2 −0.4
Interorbital br. index 18.5 21.8 1.9 −1.7
Eye size index 54.5 56.6 3.8 −0.6
Cheek height index 24 32.6 3.5 −2.5
Nasal index 49.0 49.0 3.3 0.0
Maxillofrontal index 37.5 40.7 7.2 −0.4
Zygomaxillary angle 129 124.3 6.0 0.8
Biauricular breadth 119 116.8 5.3 0.4
Palatine index 81.6 78.0 7.0 0.5
Basion angle (nasion–prosthion) 38.5 37.6 2.5 0.3
FIGURE 3 Injury A: Healed cut mark [Colour figure can be viewed at
Foramen magnum ind. 81.1 81.9 5.4 −0.2
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
NAGAR ET AL.
FIGURE 4 Healed cut mark (4.1, injury B) and unhealed cut mark
(4.2, injury C) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
and not open into the intracranial cavity, so the injury may not have
been lethal.
Injury D is the largest one. It is elongated (25 cm in length), runs
almost vertically down from the left parietal bone, crosses the sagittal
and sqaumous sutures, and ends near the base of the zygomatic
process of the right temporal bone (Figure 5). A relatively open
straight cut, 8.7 cm long, is on the upper part of the skull crossing
the sagittal suture. The anterior wall of this cut is more incised and
smooth than the rough and irregular‐textured posterior wall. The
inferior end of the smooth wall terminates in a V‐shaped pattern very
close to the coronal suture, between the frontal and the right parietal
bone. A possible curved radiating fracture runs downward towards the
base of the zygomatic process from the inferior edge of the V‐shaped
pattern. This shape probably indicates a blow from a sword delivered
from above and the right side. Another possible curved radiating
fracture runs from the inferior left edge of the cut.
4 | DISCUSSION
As noted, the human skeletal remains under discussion were C‐14
dated to the 11th century CE (Early Arab Period), the time when this
region was probably sparsely inhabited by Bedouins. The territories
known as Palestine/Land of Israel lay on the border between two rival
FIGURE 5 Injury D: The largest, lethal cut [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
165
imperial powers—the Fatimid caliphate, based in Egypt, and the Byz-
antine Empire, based in Asia Minor. In this period, when frequent
incursions into the southern Levant by various Muslim powers (mostly
Turkish) destabilized the region even farther, the Fatimids encouraged
the migration of Bedouin tribes from Transjordan and the Arabian
Peninsula into the regions west of the Jordan River as a way to gain
support from the local population (Fraenkel, 1979). Bedouin presence
in this area continued further into the following Crusader and Late
Arab (Mamlukh) Periods as well.
The skeletal remains included the skull, two vertebral bodies, and
bones from the right hand. Based on the age at death and sex
indicators described above, they represent a male of 30–40 years.
The measurements taken from the skull were compared with a sample
of 53 well‐preserved Bedouin skulls from the skeletal collection at Tel
Aviv University (Table 1), and the distance in terms of standard
deviations between the Mt. Shimshon skull measurement data to the
mean Bedouin figures was calculated. In all but one parameter (cheek
height), the distance between Mt. Shimshon skull measures from the
average Bedouin data is less than 1SD, in accordance with our
presumption of his local, Levantine affiliation.
The fact that only some skeletal elements in a very good state
of preservation were found, may suggests that intentional selection,
rather than taphonomic processes (bone deterioration over time),
account for the incomplete skeleton. Arbitrary selection resulted
from the looting of the cave is less probable, as no human bones
scattered outside the cave's opening were found. The head and
the right hand were probably specifically selected for burial in this
cave. Beheading is a probable option, yet no evidence existed from
the vertebrae.
The head suffered at least four injuries. All manifested as cut
marks in the skull vault, probably the result of sword blows. Two
wounds (A and B), an elongated sharp force trauma located near the
midline of the frontal bone and on the posterior part of the left
parietal bone, showed a healing process and suggest that the
individual was involved in violent activity months or even years prior
to his death. One other injury (C), a sharp force trauma, is severe
and show no healing. Although it might have been nonlethal, the last
sword blow (injury D), cut from right to left across the vault into the
individual's brain, caused his death.
The individual's age and gender, its probable violent past, and the
sword stroke that cleaved his skull and killed him might suggest
several possibilities.
Interpretation 1. A mere killing. The skull represents an individual
who died as a result of an interpersonal violence. Such killing (in this
case, after at least two futile attempts) could have happened
regardless of any large‐scale historical event, or specific local cultural
context.
Interpretation 2. A warrior. Stretching the C‐14 dating intervals
to their limits, we enter the Crusader Period, in which European
soldiers invaded the southern Levant and settled in Jerusalem.
Relating the Har‐Shimshon individual to these events might suggest
a warrior. Based on the morphological analysis presented above
(Table 1), it is more reasonable to assume a local one. However,
this area was not crossed by the main roads usually used by
166
ancient armies (see our earlier geographic description), nor were in
this vicinity any settlement or a military stronghold which were
occupied and destructed.
Interpretation 3. A case of blood vengeance. The period from the
second half of the 10th century to the arrival of the Crusaders at the
end of the 11th century was marked by political instability, especially
in the Jerusalem region, and the absence of effective central gover-
nance of the southern Levant (Gil, 1987). In such an era, when
centralized government is deficient, and state jurisdiction is out of
reach, the practice of blood vengeance has the advantage of provid-
ing private individual with protection by the group (tribe; Bar‐Zvi,
1991, pp. 35–38) and is considered obligatory according to the
traditional Bedouin law (Bar‐Zvi, 1991, p. 34). Besides, according
to reports made by the archaeologist and ethnographer Pesach
Bar‐Adon, who witnessed cases of blood vengeance among Bed-
ouin tribes in northern Israel and the Golan Heights (Bar‐Adon,
1981), it involved both the beheading the suspected killer, and
the amputation of his right hand, brought to the avenger's family
as proof of fulfilling the deed. These osteological elements match
those described as detached from the corpse and buried separately
in the present study. However, no proof for amputation, neither in
the hand nor in the neck, is manifested by the osteological
elements found.
5 | C O N CL U S I O N S
Well‐preserved selected skeletal elements found in Mt Shimshon
cave, in a sparsely inhabited mountainous area west of Jerusalem,
were dated to the 10th–11th centuries CE and attributed to the local
Bedouin population. The skull, identified as that of a male aged 30–40,
manifests four severe injuries, attesting to a violent death. All the inju-
ries probably resulted from the blows of a sword. Although the last
blow split the victim's head and caused immediate death, earlier
healed cuts suggest that the person had also been involved in a violent
interaction in at least two instances in the past.
Although mere killing due to interpersonal conflict regardless of
any historic event cannot be refuted, violent death by the sword in
ancient Israel has been described in several cases always in
association with war (e.g., Mitchell, Nagar, & Ellenblum, 2006; Nagar,
2003, pp. 127–130; Rak, Arensburg, & Nathan, 1976). This is in
favour of considering the present skull as representing a warrior.
However, being away from the main roads, in an area where no
strongholds or villages were conquered, it is hard to attribute it to
any known event.
The possibility that it represents a case of blood vengeance was
also discussed, as it is in accordance with the osteological evidence,
the historical context, and ethnographic records. In a period and an
area where the judicial administration was out of reach, the ancient
practice of blood vengeance was kept by Bedouin tribes in order to
deter potential murderers and thus reduce the risks of being involved
in violence. This was exactly the circumstances in the region of
Jerusalem mountains during the 10th–11th centuries (Fatimid Period).
However, as this interpretation bears reasonable explanation to the
NAGAR ET AL.
presence of only few specific (yet well preserved) skeletal elements
in the cave, we failed to present any cut wounds in the hand or neck
in the bones which were found.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The documentation of the cave was carried out by the last author
on behalf of the Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies
and Archaeology at Bar‐Ilan University, with assistance from the
Cave Research Unit at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and
the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA). Shemesh Ya'aran and
Yotham Zissu prepared the plan and section. Skull photos were
taken by K. Amit, IAA.
AUTHOR CONT R IBUT IONS
This work is the original joint creation of Yossi Nagar, Haim Cohen,
and Boaz zissu.
Boaz Zissu excavated the cave in the Jerusalem mountains. He found
the pathological bones in question and described its context. Haim
Cohen identified the pathology as a sword cut and described it in pro-
fessional terms. Yossi Nagar identified the age and sex of the individ-
ual, made a comparative morphological analysis, and discussed the
finds in historical and ethnographic context. All three authors agreed
on the conclusions presented in this manuscript.
CON F L I C T S OF IN TE RE S T
The authors state that there are no conflicts of interest of any kind.
ORCID
Yossi Nagar http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0139-6492
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How to cite this article: Nagar Y, Cohen H, Zissu B. Sharp
force trauma to a 1,000‐year‐old skull from the Jerusalem
mountains. Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2019;29:162–167. https://
doi.org/10.1002/oa.2716