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Application of Geoelectrical Survey and Time-Lapse

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Chapter · April 2022

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Prime Archives in Sustainability: 3rd Edition

Book Chapter

Application of Geoelectrical Survey and

Time-Lapse Resistivity with
Groundwater Data in Delineating a
Groundwater Potential Map: A Case
Study from Phuket Island, Thailand
Avirut Puttiwongrak1*, Ratha Men2, Sakanann Vann2,3, Kiyota
Hashimoto2,3 and Thongchai Suteerasak2*
1
Geotechnical and Earth Resources Engineering, Asian Institute
of Technology, School of Engineering and Technology, Thailand
2
Faculty of Technology and Environment, Phuket Campus,
Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
3
Andaman Environment and Natural Disaster Research Center
(ANED), Prince of Songkla University, Thailand

*Corresponding Authors: Avirut Puttiwongrak, Geotechnical

and Earth Resources Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology,
School of Engineering and Technology, Pathumthani 12120,
Thailand

Thongchai Suteerasak, Faculty of Technology and Environment,

Phuket Campus, Prince of Songkla University, Phuket 83120,
Thailand

Published April 22, 2022

This Book Chapter is a republication of an article published by

Avirut Puttiwongrak, et al. at Sustainability in December 2021.
(Puttiwongrak, A.; Men, R.; Vann, S.; Hashimoto, K.;
Suteerasak, T. Application of Geoelectrical Survey and Time-
Lapse Resistivity with Groundwater Data in Delineating a
Groundwater Potential Map: A Case Study from Phuket Island,
Thailand. Sustainability 2022, 14, 397.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010397)

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How to cite this book chapter: Avirut Puttiwongrak, Ratha

Men, Sakanann Vann, Kiyota Hashimoto, Thongchai Suteerasak.
Application of Geoelectrical Survey and Time-Lapse Resistivity
with Groundwater Data in Delineating a Groundwater Potential
Map: A Case Study from Phuket Island, Thailand. In: Magdalena
Maciaszczyk, editor. Prime Archives in Sustainability: 3rd
Edition. Hyderabad, India: Vide Leaf. 2022.

© The Author(s) 2022. This article is distributed under the terms

of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology,

supervision, and funding acquisition, A.P.; investigation, data
curation, software, and formal analysis, R.M.; visualization,
validation, writing—original draft preparation, and project
administration, S.V.; resources, T.S.; writing—review and
editing, K.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by Research Fund of Prince

of Songkla University Phuket Campus, grant number X611196.

Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the Department of

Groundwater Resources, Thailand, for providing the
groundwater data for this study. Furthermore, we would like to
express special thanks to the Faculty of Technology and
Environment, Prince of Songkla University (PSU) Phuket
Campus for their many suggestions and helpful support.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abstract
Phuket is well-known around the world as a popular tourist
destination. Tourism-related population growth depends more on
groundwater as the only available source of potable water in
Phuket. The proper precautions must be taken to reduce the risk
of spending large sums of money in sinking abortive boreholes,

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and a groundwater potential map would enhance the success rate

of future groundwater exploration and exploitation in the study
area. Geoelectrical surveys were carried out in this study to
collect electrical properties of the subsurface, and the Dar-
Zarrouk parameters (DZP) were calculated using the
geoelectrical data. The first thematic groundwater potential map
was constructed using the interpretation of DZP, while the
second thematic groundwater potential map was created using
the basis maps of the depth-of-basement and aquifer thickness
parameters. Finally, two thematic maps based on geographic
information system (GIS) environments were overlaid on a
groundwater potential map of Phuket. However, in order to
provide a reliable assessment of groundwater potential, time-
lapse electrical resistivity imaging was used to confirm the area
of the high-potential zone indicated on the map. The map
created by this study is aimed to act as a reference for future
groundwater exploration and exploitation, preventing water
supplies from becoming unsustainable through botched borehole
drilling for groundwater production.

Keywords
Groundwater Potential; Phuket; Geo-Electrical Survey; Time-
Lapse Resistivity; Dar-Zarrouk Parameters

Nomenclature
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DZP Dar-Zarrouk Parameter
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
h The Thickness of Layer from Resistivity Model with the Unit of
Meter
IDW Inverse Distance Weighting
MASL Meters Above Sea Level
mbgl Meters below Ground Level
ohm-m Ohm-Meter
RMS Root-Mean-Square
S Electrical Longitudinal Conductance with Unit of mho
T Electrical Transverse Resistance with unit of ohm-m2
VES Vertical Electrical Sounding
2D ERI Two-dimensional Electrical Resistivity Imaging
ρ Electrical Resistivity (Rho) with the Unit of ohm-m

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Introduction
Groundwater has become an important source of water and is
used extensively in urbanization, industry development, and
domestic consumption [1]. Because of the growing demand for
water, groundwater exploration is becoming increasingly
important, particularly in areas where surface water is scarce [2].
Groundwater potential maps can show the quantitative condition
of groundwater to indicate possible sites for groundwater
exploration, the amount of precipitation, nature of infiltration,
lithology, geomorphology, and subsurface structure, all of which
affect groundwater potential [3].
Phuket is a province located in southern Thailand, and it is an
island well-known as a popular tourist destination around the
world. In the past, Phuket was mostly a mining and industrial
area, but it has been developed as a tourist destination since
1970s [4]. The residents of Phuket used to rely on surface water
such as the canal and the river for their domestic water needs.
The rapid and steady increase in tourists and tourism-related
local residents has outweighed the potential potable water supply
from surface water and thus more attention has been paid to the
exploration of groundwater. However, due to a lack of
understanding of subsurface conditions in many areas of Phuket,
a greater understanding of aquifer development and
characteristics in Phuket is required to evaluate groundwater
potential properly. In most cases, a combination of factors
determines the groundwater potential, where the zones or areas
define the amount of groundwater available in the study area.
Groundwater occurrence and flow are influenced by a variety of
factors, including the type, thickness, and structural fabric of the
underlying rocks, denudation, structural features, topography,
and others. From one place to another, these components have a
distinct influence on groundwater recharge potential. For
example, linear features such as fractures and faults can act as
conduits or barriers for groundwater circulation [5]. There is
limited research on groundwater potential delineations in
Thailand, particularly in Phuket. In the Chiang Mai Basin,
Northern Thailand, Taweelarp et al. [6] combined a large-scale
field survey and hydrogeological data to explore groundwater
potential. They used a computational model to evaluate

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groundwater potential in their research area by assessing yearly

recharge variations. Konkul et al. [7] applied a potential surface
analysis to map the groundwater potential in terms of both water
quality and quantity in the Huay Sai area of Phetchaburi
province in western Thailand. Charoenpong et al. [8] used an
interpolation method to outline the groundwater potential map in
the research area and the geographical distribution of
groundwater using specific capacity (SPC) data to construct a
groundwater potential map in Phuket.
A variety of ways to evaluate groundwater potential have been
proposed, and among them, the geoelectrical approach has
proven to be one of the most valuable tools in delineations and
has been used for many applications [9]. In particular, electrical
resistivity surveys are the most effective and efficient method
for groundwater assessment and exploration [10]. Electrical
resistivity surveys focus on the contrast between the
characteristics of the target’s resistivity and the environment’s
resistivity properties to assess the quantity of the target in the
environment [11]. In Andaman Island, India, Maury and Balaji
[12] used borehole data to assess the accuracy of the
interpretation of an electrical resistivity model to identify
various hydrogeological settings of groundwater. Similarly,
Owen et al. [13] used related wells in conjunction with a
geological map that aided the multielectrode resistivity study to
evaluate the potential for extracting groundwater, and
specifically for locating drilling points. Agbasi and Edet [14]
determined the depth to the water table, aquifer geometry, and
groundwater quality by analyzing measured apparent resistivity,
and the distribution of aquifer repositories was delineated
through the use of the Schlumberger configuration.
Groundwater potential maps were developed by the
interpretation of the aquifer’s resistivity and thickness in
combination with thematic maps of geology, geomorphology,
and hydro-lineament undertaken by Ojo et al. [15] and Alabi et
al. [16] in Southwest Nigeria. Geoelectrical properties obtained
from electrical resistivity calculation and interpretation known
as DZP, including S, T, transmissivity, and hydraulic
conductivity, were combined with geological data, such as the
depth-of-basement and aquifer thickness, to assess groundwater

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potential [9,10,14]. VES and hydrogeologic observations were

used by Ebong et al. [17] to estimate geohydraulic parameters
from fractured shales and sandstone aquifers in Abi, Nigeria.
Based on the interaction between transmissivity and transverse
resistance determined by VES, an increase in transmissivity
resulted in a large increase in T, indicating a continuous fluid
flow potential throughout the entire region, according to the
several researchers. Furthermore, when S increased, T and
transmissivity tended to decrease, especially in areas where
clayey materials were present in the aquifer’s rock matrix.
Variations in transmissivity and T levels in the area were linked
to the heterogeneous and anisotropic nature of the aquifer
systems in the area. In any case, the DZP are diagnostic of
transmissivity because it is influenced by the aquifer formation
resistivity and thickness. In Pakistan, Akhter and Hasan [18]
used VES in conjunction with pumping test data to calculate
aquifer parameters. In their investigation, the VES was
investigated, and resistivities and thickness characteristics were
determined. The transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity data
were calculated using the DZP. In their conclusions, the
transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity values derived from
pumping test data and the VES technique showed a good
correlation (R2 > 0.9). In addition, Amadi et al. [19] and Devi et
al. [1] used the depth-of-basement parameter in conjunction with
an electrical resistivity study to build a groundwater potential
map. Anbazhagan and Jothibasu [3] and Ali et al. [20] used
geospatial data from resistivity measurements for data
production and spatial integration of the groundwater potential
map using a GIS.
As previously stated, all integrated studies have given an
assessment of groundwater potential, but only a few studies are
supported by map validation. The purpose of this study is to
delineate the groundwater potential zones in Phuket, Thailand,
using interpretations of geoelectrical (DZP and resistivity
parameters) and geological (depth of the basement) data with the
aid of GIS techniques. A comprehensive electrical resistivity
survey was conducted throughout the study region to determine
the formation and thickness of the aquifer. Numerous boreholes
that were bored in the research region for producing
groundwater were used to acquire basement depth data. The

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groundwater potential map was verified using time-lapse

electrical resistivity in different seasons. Groundwater
exploration is critical for the target’s development, and this
study, as well as future works, should serve as a good example
of how scientific methods can be used to aid and facilitate future
groundwater exploration and exploitation. Finally, the outcomes
of this study’s map are aimed to serve as a guide for future
groundwater exploration and exploitation. Effective groundwater
exploration and exploitation can help to avoid unsustainable
water supplies caused by failed borehole drilling for
groundwater production.

Site Description
Phuket is a small island off the coast of Thailand’s southern
peninsula. It is surrounded by the Andaman Sea and lies
between latitudes 70°58’30” N and 70°51’50” N and longitudes
98°15’10” E and 98°21’50” E, encompassing an area of about
543 km2, as shown in Figure 1. The study area is still
categorized as rural, with more potential for urbanization and
tourism development. The region of the study area comprises a
geologically varied terrain, including hilly topography, alluvial
plains, and coastal areas. Phuket is made up of newer foundation
rocks that date from the Oligocene to the Late Cretaceous
geological periods [12]. The rocks are mainly granite, and they
have been severely worn by tectonic processes. This means that
they provide a good amount of potential groundwater [9].
Fence diagrams of cross-section lines E-W and S-N from north
to south and east to west across Phuket Island are depicted in
Figure 2. The top layer (fine-grain layer) is made up of sand,
clayey sand, and loose soils, while the second layer (coarse-
grain layer) is composed of weathered and fractured rocks. The
basement is the third (bottom) layer, which was predominantly
found of granite and some shales, according to Puttiwongrak et
al. [21]. The study region comes inside the weathered and
fractured units of hard rock environment that may store
groundwater, and weathering and fracturing improve the water-
bearing capacity. The study area’s rainfall pattern is predictable
and wet for most of the year, and thus the climate simply varies
between dry and rainy seasons. The monsoon season (June to

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September) has a lot of rain, and the wettest month is August

when the water level rises below 10 mbgl (meter below ground
level) in certain areas.

Figure 1: Phuket map with an illustration of flow direction, VES stations,

borehole/depth-of-basement location, the 2D ERI-Timelapse line and DEM.

Figure 2: Subsurface layers in Phuket Island: (a) cross-section line E-W, (b)
cross-section line S-N and (c) lines of cross-section illustration in the Phuket
map (modified from Puttiwongrak et al. [21]).

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Methods
The methods employed to assess the groundwater potential and
map the potential zones with the aid of the GIS environment are
described in this section, whose overview is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: A schematic description of the research methodology.

Electrical Resistivity Survey

A geoelectrical survey was carried out at 24 sites using the VES

technique, as illustrated in Figure 1. The resistivity of the
subsurface is measured using the VES approach, which is based
on the reaction of the subsurface to the flow of an electrical
current [19]. The electrical current, the potential differential, and
the electrode array shape all influence subsurface resistivity. The
subsurface’s water saturation and pore space connectivity affect
resistivity measurements. In addition, every VES station’s
coordinates were measured using the GPS as a geo-referenced
position. The VESs were performed utilizing a Schlumberger
setup with the SuperSting R2 resistivity meter [22], with a half-
current electrode spacing (AB/2) range of 5 to 200 m. Because
the correct lateral variation of resistivity is determined from the
duplication of measurements with the same values of AB/2 but
different values of MN/2, the Schlumberger setup was used for
this investigation. The current electrodes (A-B distance) were
gradually extended for subsequent tests, but the potential

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electrodes (M-N distance) were kept constant until the ideal

configuration was achieved.

The difference in apparent resistivity for each electrode spacing

was also taken into account for a quantitative interpretation of
the resistivity data. Using the EarthImager 1-D software [23] to
analyze all of the acquired data sets, layer resistivity and
thickness estimations were derived. The program showed
apparent resistivity and AB/2 value connections, and an iterative
calculation approach was used to conduct the qualitative
interpretation of subsurface resistivity distributions, which
successfully minimized interpretation mistakes. The calculation
of the true resistivity of the underlying materials needs the
iterative inversion method from the apparent resistivity (or iso-
resistivity) observed in the field survey. The VES data were then
processed using the curve matching approach and 1D
EarthImager computer software to obtain the layer (true)
resistivities and thicknesses, resulting in a 𝜌 − ℎ model with the
least RMS error between measured and computed resistivity
values. Furthermore, by correlating with the lithology
information from groundwater drilling data, the models were
improved to remove non-predictive bias interpretations. The drill
data lithology was based on the previous work in the research
region [24], and all model findings were in good agreement with
known borehole geological formations.

The interpreted results showed the distribution of resistivities as

a function of layer thickness, providing a comprehensive picture
of the studied area’s subsurface geology. Within the research
region, three main subsurface units were recognized based on
the VES curve interpretation: topsoil, worn basement, and fresh
bedrock. The low 𝜌 zone (14–100 ohm-m) is normally an
aquifer layer spanning from 7 to 40 mbgl that was interpreted as
the weathered basement in all geological units’ second layer.
The 𝜌 of the topsoil layer varies between 50 and 200 ohm-m,
and its thickness varies between 4 and 20 mbgl. Finally, the
fresh bedrock has a high 𝜌 that exceeds 300 ohm-m in all of the
research area’s locations. The interpretation curves were coupled
in close proximity to existing borehole data from the field
surveys to validate the correctness of the VES interpretations

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(Figure 1). For example, a comparison of VES-6, VES-14, and

VES-18 for 𝜌 interpretation utilizing 1D EarthImager software
with boreholes of BH-595, BH-614, and BH-498, respectively,
reveals a significant lithology agreement between the VES
interpretations and borehole data (Figure 4). It is also worth
noting that the VES interpretations match the geological profiles
presented by [25]. Table 1 shows how the measurements from
24 VES stations were interpreted in relation to borehole
lithology.

Figure 4: Example of VES-6, VES-14 and VES-18 for resistivity

interpretation using 1D EarthImager software with borehole validation of BH-
595, BH-614 and BH-498, respectively.

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Table 1: Summary of geoelectric and borehole profiles.

VES VES Coordinates Borehole Correlation of Geo-Electric and Borehole Profile

Station ID 1st Layer 2nd Layer 3rd Layer
UTM-X UTM-Y 𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 Soil 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 Soil Types 𝒉𝟑 𝝆𝟑 Soil Types
(m) (ohm-m) Types (𝐦) (ohm-m) (𝐦) (ohm-m)
VES-1 432031 883958 BH-588 7.68 50.0 Soil shale 31.6 30 Granite decay N/A 100 Granite
VES-2 426441 884623 BH-575 20.19 91.9 Soil shale 41.46 27.5 Granite decay N/A 111.5 Granite
VES-3 422078 886148 BH-440 6.22 84.2 Soil 20.12 29.3 Clay N/A 100.3 Clayey rock
VES-4 420563 890834 BH-453 6.73 81.9 Soil shale 20.87 40.3 Granite decay N/A 114.2 Granite
VES-5 424905 889617 BH-571 10.68 140.8 Soil 12.79 100.2 Weather rock N/A 303.2 Granite
VES-6 429157 890042 BH-595 16.93 128.4 Soil shale 39.02 100.4 Granite decay N/A 247.9 Granite
VES-7 434078 890005 BH-770 8.83 145.5 Soil shale 15.62 101.3 Granite decay N/A 240.9 Granite
VES-8 430386 894824 BH-698 4.93 57.5 Soil shale 23 19.9 Granite decay N/A 98.5 Granite
VES-9 427470 894941 BH-496 5.98 80.6 Soil 33.39 44.2 Clay N/A 193.7 Weathered
Rock
VES-10 425533 901940 BH-586 5.32 63.1 Soil 14.56 53.5 Clay 17.4 23.5 Clayey sand
8
VES-11 426708 861838 BH-665 4.04 144.9 Soil 6.84 45.5 Sticky soil 11.8 136.6 Clayey sand
6
VES-12 425957 868701 BH-755 12.67 92.3 Soil 13.75 52.8 Clayey sand 12.2 49.4 Weathered
6 Rock
VES-13 422216 866712 BH-616 29.15 139.4 Soil shale 15.13 48.7 Granite decay N/A 342.4 Hard Granite
VES-14 431614 868061 BH-614 19.37 138.1 Soil 21.14 53.3 Weather rock N/A 374.2 Granite
VES-15 435927 873251 BH-168 14.49 2.5 Stone N/A 221.3 Hard granite N/A N/A N/A
decay
VES-16 430728 873934 BH-359 12.12 172.6 Soil N/A 100.4 Granite decay N/A N/A N/A
VES-17 430982 878905 BH-710 5.87 96.0 Soil 28.99 43.5 Fractured N/A 191.1 Granite
rock
VES-18 420825 878440 BH-498 11.81 56.5 Soil 13.38 14.7 Granite decay N/A 271.7 Hard Granite
VES-19 423061 878654 BH-738 20.33 114.5 Soil shale N/A 200.2 Granite decay N/A N/A N/A
VES-20 428337 877270 BH-650 6.75 160.1 Benthic 5.2 59.7 Clayey sand 13.8 25.3 Weathered
1 Rock
VES-21 423468 873838 BH-255 10.13 61.8 Clay 8.01 21.8 Fractured N/A 195.5 Granite
rock
VES-22 427071 875008 BH-220 27.23 134.1 Benthic 7.19 100.5 Granite decay N/A 214.5 Granite
VES-23 420668 871425 BH-495 10.41 107.5 Soil 39.81 15.6 Weather rock N/A 181.5 Hard Granite
VES-24 427417 872842 BH-682 12.83 210.3 Soil N/A 100.4 Weather rock N/A N/A N/A

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Delineation of Depth-of-Basement

The depth-of-basement was obtained using lithologic data from

boreholes conducted for groundwater production in the study
region. In order to determine the thickness of the saturation
zone, a depth-of-basement measurement is required. The
basement depth in Phuket is relatively shallow; bedrock is found
at a shallow depth of around −8 MASL in the northern part of
the island, while it is thickest at 200 MASL in the southeast
(mountainous areas). The depth-of-basement data obtained from
the boreholes (Figure 1) were imported in the form of data
points with a projected coordinating system of WGS 1984 UTM
zone 47N datum, and then spatial interpolation was implemented
as a base map using the IDW method from the GIS technique.
The bulk of the bedrock of Phuket is fresh granite. Figure 5
depicts the depth-of-basement delineation in the study area. The
map also depicts a mountainous area with an elevation of more
than 50 MASL (blue color zones).

Figure 5: The base map of depth-of-basement in Phuket.

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Groundwater Potential Map Creation Using GIS

Environment

Two thematic maps of groundwater potential interpretations

were used to identify groundwater potential zones. The
groundwater potential map of S and total T or DZP was created
using the spatial analysis extension of ArcGIS as the first
thematic map, and both S and T base maps (Figure 6a,b) were
combined using a weighted overlay method to construct
groundwater potential mapping. During the weighted overlay
analysis, each parameter of each thematic map was ranked, and
weights were allocated based on the influence of the various
parameters [26,27]. Low S areas in the groundwater potential
map are connected with high T and indicate a good potential in
the zone [9]. The variation of S and T in hard rock reflects the
predominance of resistive and conductive zones in the formation
above the bedrock, signifying the groundwater potential. S is
defined by the ratio of ℎ and 𝜌 of a layer, whereas T is defined
by the product of ℎ and 𝜌 of a layer. The Equations (1) and (2)
from Mailet [28] were used to compute S (mho) and T (ohm-
m2), respectively.

ℎ𝑖
𝑆 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 (1)
𝜌𝑖

𝑇 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ℎ𝑖 𝜌𝑖 (2)

where the thickness of the layer determined by VES in each

station is h (m), the electrical resistivity of the layer determined
by VES in each station is 𝜌 (ohm-m), and the number of layers
in the geoelectric profiles is n.

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Figure 6: The interpolation maps of Dar-Zarrouk parameters: (a) longitudinal

conductance (S) base map and (b) transverse resistance (T) base map.

The overlay technique of the ArcGIS spatial analysis tool was

also used to create the second thematic map of groundwater
potential interpreted by depth-of-basement and aquifer
thickness. The low groundwater potential zone is characterized
by a shallow depth-of-basement and a minimum aquifer
thickness [1]. The depth-of-basement (Figure 5) and aquifer
thickness base maps (Figure 7), which were obtained from
borehole data and VES interpretation, respectively, were
imported as point data with georeferences and then spatially
interpolated using the IDW method, just like the base maps of S
and T.

Finally, based on the weighted overlay analysis of both the first

and second thematic maps, a Phuket groundwater potential map
was constructed using DZP, depth-of-basement, and aquifer
thickness data. The weighted overlay reclassifies values in input
rasters onto a similar suitability evaluation scale, assigning a
relative importance to each and adding them together for the
same weight (50%) to obtain a suitability value for each point on
the map.

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Figure 7: The base map of aquifer thickness in Phuket.

Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity

In most past studies, the groundwater potential map was not

evaluated to ensure its accuracy. In this study, however,
accuracy assurance was attempted with a time-lapse electrical
resistivity mapping validation for the in-depth verification of a
sample of a potential zone in the map. Time-lapse electrical
resistivity is commonly used to show the dynamic effect of a
parameter on subsurface resistivity distribution [29]. Because the
aquifer is likely to be always saturated by groundwater, the 𝜌 of
the high-potential zone in the dry season (December to April) is
considered to be the same as in the rainy season (May to
November). When the low-potential zone is found on the map,
the seawater zone (acting as a natural recharge in the aquifer
system) rises because of the loss of groundwater for production
during the dry season. The equilibrium between fresh water in
the aquifer and seawater intruding from the Andaman Sea has

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most likely been disrupted as a result of over-pumping of

groundwater to accommodate major growth in water demand to
sustain tourism in the last decade. Despite a high rate of
groundwater extraction, the average groundwater level in some
Phuket subdistricts gradually rose due to increased groundwater
recharge, which was caused by a variety of factors including
high precipitation rates, aquifer type, and seawater intrusion
caused by Andaman Sea level rise [30,31]. On the other hand, no
seasonal variation in 𝜌 in the time-lapse electrical resistivity in
the aquifer indicates that there is a large volume of groundwater
available in the high-potential area. As a result, the line survey
(2D ERI line) illustrated in Figure 1 was carried out using time-
lapse electrical resistivity in both dry and rainy seasons in order
to demonstrate that the high-groundwater-potential area on the
map is represented by no seasonal variation in 𝜌.

Results and Discussion

Groundwater Potential Based on DZP Interpretation

S is the ratio of distinct strata to their respective resistivity, while

T is commonly related to the transmissivity of the aquifer, which
characterizes permeability to fluid. As a result, the high T
suggests a high transmissivity toward a high yield of aquifer
units [9,10,14]. The low S, on the other hand, suggests that the
aquifer unit has a high permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and
low clay volume [2,9,10,14]. Therefore, as indicated in Table 2,
the low S zone of less than 0.1 mhos (poor protective capacity
rating) indicates an unprotected aquifer (contaminant concerns),
and the high-groundwater-potential zone is largely in the
northern and central regions of the research area. The high T
zone (>5000 ohm-m2) in the case of a transverse resistance base
map (Figure 6b) suggests a high potential of groundwater in the
research area’s northern half. Base maps of S and T are
complementary to each other, particularly in the research area’s
northern reaches.

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Table 2: Longitudinal conductance rating (protective capacity) of Aquifers

[32].

Longitudinal Conductance (mho) Protective Capacity Rating

>10 Excellent
5 to 10 Very good
0.7 to 4.9 Good
0.2 to 0.69 Moderate
0.1 to 0.19 Weak
<0.1 Poor

The groundwater potential for the first thematic map was built
using base maps, such as S and T calculated from VES
interpretation results, and base maps of S and T were integrated
by GIS software using the weighted overlay method as a spatial
analysis tool in ArcGIS 10.3 software. The integration was
based on the idea that good groundwater potential is related to
low S and high T. Individual thematic maps were given equal
weight, and ranks were assigned based on the importance of
groundwater. In addition, as indicated in Figure 8, the
groundwater potential was divided into three categories: (1) low,
(2) medium, and (3) high. According to the groundwater
potential map, a high aquifer potential zone can be found in the
center of the northern part, as well as in some specific areas in
the southern part, while low groundwater potential can be found
in the top northern part, as well as the western and eastern flanks
of the study area. Furthermore, the medium prospective zone
encompasses the majority of the study area.

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Figure 8: The first thematic map as a groundwater potential map interpreted

by Dar-Zarrouk parameters.

Groundwater Potential Based on Depth-Of-Basement

and Aquifer Thickness Interpretation

The depth-of-basement and aquifer thickness basis maps were

used to create the second thematic map of groundwater potential.
Fresh basement rock is also distinguished by high 𝜌 values that
exceed 10,000 ohm-m in practically every area. As illustrated in
Figures 5 and 7, the depth-of-basement (overburden thickness)
and the aquifer thickness were mapped. These were done to
provide a broad overview of the study area’s aquifer geometry.
Groundwater resources are more likely to occur in areas with a

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heavy overburden (high depth-of-basement), especially when

underlain by weathered hard rock [9]. Moreover, high and
moderate groundwater potential can be obtained from the area
based on the aquifer thickness, and the result shows that the
south-central zone of the study area has the highest aquifer
thickness (Figure 7) and that high groundwater potential can be
inferred in this part of the study area.

Then, using the raster addition method in ArcGIS’s spatial

analysis extension, a groundwater potential map based on depth-
of-basement and aquifer thickness interpretation was created and
shown in Figure 9. Based on the combination of the number of
favorable layers, the sub-basin region was categorized into high,
medium, and low groundwater potential zones. Considering the
thickness values of the deep depth-of-basement and thick
aquifer, the area considered a high groundwater zone was further
correlated with the first thematic groundwater potential map. It
was observed that the area around the south-central parts of the
map is inferred to exhibit high-groundwater-potential
characteristics. From the western area, the depth of the basement
decreases eastward and northward. As groundwater flows down
topography to it, the central section is naturally considered to be
a catchment zone.

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Figure 9: The second thematic map as a groundwater potential map interpreted

by depth-of-basement and aquifer thickness parameters.

Phuket Groundwater Potential

The thematic maps that depict the subsurface hydrogeological

conditions and subsurface geometry, including geoelectrical
qualities (DZP), at a different depth, depth-of-basement, and
aquifer thickness, were examined to create the final groundwater
potential map, as indicated in Figure 10a. The study area’s
potential zones were defined by combining both thematic maps
(the first and second thematic maps stated above) in a GIS

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environment using weighted overlay methods provided by

ArcGIS software’s spatial analysis tool. Individual themes were
given equal weight or influence, and ranks were assigned to each
component within the theme based on their known value to
groundwater. The groundwater potential zones on the integrated
map were divided into three categories: (1) low, (2) moderate,
and (3) high. The map shows that about 30% of the study area is
a high-potential zone, while the medium-potential zone occupies
about 67% of the study area, and a white patch (around 3%) of a
low-groundwater-potential zone was observed in the southeast
region of the study area.

Figure 10: Comparison of Phuket groundwater potential maps: (a) the

potential map produced in this study and (b) the potential map modified from
Charoenpong et al. [8].

The integrated geoelectrical inquiry and hydrogeological

analysis with aids of GIS techniques gave a useful outcome for
groundwater potential mapping and sustainable planning. The
map can be used to help future groundwater developments,
management practices, and cropping patterns. The map created
in this study shows a substantial correlation with and certain
similarities to the previous map of Charoenpong et al. [8], as
shown in Figure 10b, but the map created in this study reveals
the comfortable details and updated version of the groundwater

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potential map, which is well expected to provide a broader and

more accurate understanding of favorable groundwater potential
areas. Figure 10 shows comparative zones of high potential (blue
color zones), where production times (time differences between
two maps) and seasonal effects are not dominant, which are in
good agreement with each other.

Groundwater Potential Map Validation

As stated earlier, map validation for this study was also

conducted to improve accuracy and trustworthiness. Based on
the idea that high-groundwater-potential zones in the map can be
verified as high groundwater levels without seasoning, time-
lapse electrical resistivity has been employed for seasonal
monitoring of a high-potential zone of the study area. In the case
of the time-lapse electrical resistivity of the line survey (Figure
1), the result displays a percentage change of 0%, indicating no
changes in 𝜌 (corresponding to the high level of the groundwater
in the aquifer) among seasons. During the dry season (April
2020), the 𝜌 of this zone is less than 200 ohm-m, and it remains
constant during the rainy season (August 2020), as shown in
Figure 11.

Figure 11: The inverted results of 2D-ERI profile: (a) 2D ERI survey in dry
season on 8 April 2020, (b) 2D ERI survey in rainy season on 8 August 2020
and (c) time-lapse inversion indicating the percentage change of the resistivity
value between dry and rainy seasons in a high-potential zone for Phuket
groundwater potential validation.

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The results of this study can be applied appropriately to better

borehole planning and give a new database for groundwater
development and use in the area. Phuket is and will be
considered a strategically important island in Thailand for
tourism development, which necessarily requires more
groundwater exploration to meet the growing need of tapwater
by increasing groundwater resources. The information obtained
in this study will facilitate future groundwater exploration and
management in Phuket. To fulfill the expanding demands, a
sustainable water supply must be built on successful boreholes,
new groundwater resources, and effective exploration and
exploitation of groundwater.

Conclusions
The groundwater potential of Phuket, Thailand, which is well
known as a tourist destination, was identified and validated
utilizing a geoelectrical survey and time-lapse electrical
resistivity imaging, as well as the interpretation of geological
datasets. The following are the study’s main findings:

1. Plausibly promising zones for groundwater exploration in

the study area were specified.
2. The time-lapse electrical resistivity imaging confirmed the
groundwater potential map of Phuket. The time-lapse
electrical resistivity imaging indicates no seasonal changes
in the high-potential zone.
3. The groundwater potential map shows that medium potential
zones make up the majority of the research region (67%),
with a small patch (3%) of the low-potential zone in the
southeastern corner. The high-potential zones, which make
up 30% of the study area, are mostly in the south-central and
northeastern parts.
4. The effective geoelectrical survey, which combined
geological data with a time-lapse electrical resistivity
approach, provided a framework for assessing groundwater
potential throughout the study area.
5. To gather the subsurface data, a geoelectrical survey was
carried out, and the resistivity and thickness data for each
layer were interpreted using the 1D EarthImager software.

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After that, the DZP were calculated using those data

(resistivity and thickness data).
6. Thematic groundwater potential maps of Dar-Zarrouk
characteristics and depth-of-basement with aquifer thickness
were overlaid using GIS techniques on a map of
groundwater potential in the study area.

The geoelectrical methods were effectively conducted to obtain

the parameters used for the groundwater potential map in this
study, which enabled the integrated map approach of
groundwater potential evaluation. Future work, however, is also
continually required for monitoring, as more groundwater
exploration and exploitation will change the groundwater
potential in the target area where rapid development related to
tourism has been conducted and planned. It is also necessary to
evaluate the impact of groundwater exploration and exploitation
on ground subsidence to avoid excessive groundwater
exploitation for sustainable development of Phuket, Thailand.
Finally, a sustainable water supply must be built on successful
boreholes, new groundwater resources, and effective exploration
and exploitation of groundwater to meet the growing demands.

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