MM Law 6103-Q (JJ)

ကို ပြီးယာ က်ဴတိုရီရယ္ေမးခြန္း
1."Consideration must not be ----------- , immoral or opposed to the public policy."

the court regards unlawful
2.A agrees to B to discover treasure by magic. The act in itself is ----------- to be performed from
the very beginning.
difficult
possible
impossible
3. A promise to pay a time-barred debt must be ------------ .
oral
in writing
oral or in writing
4.Agreement is a wider term than contract. yes
5.A contract includes ------- an agreement
6.An agreement may be ---------- include a contract
7.Every contract contains ----------- .
a legal right
a legal obligation
legal right & obligation
8.An agreement which is required to be stamped will be --------- if it is n ot stamped at all.
unenforceable
enforceable
9. "A offers to sell his Toyota car to B for Ks.10,000,000 on acceptance of A’s offer by B, there is a
promise by A to sell the car and there is a promise by B to purchase the car there are two promises. It is
--------- ."
Bilateral
10. A minor --------- himself by a contract. Cannot bind
11.The seller is --------- to reveal the defects of his goods to the buyer subject to certain
conditions.
under duty
under no duty
12. If a person makes a representation believing what he says is true he commits ---------- .
innocent misrepresentation
fraudulent misrepresentation
13. The liability of the finder of goods belonging to someone else is that of a ----------- .
bailee
bailor
guarantor
14."In case of breach of contract , the injured party may sue on --------- ."
compensation
quantum meruit
15. ------------ damages consist of a small token award.
Nominal
Exemplary
Nomal
16. ----------- is usually granted in contracts relating to land.
Injunction
Specific performance
Compensation
17. ---------- will not be ordered where one of the parties is a minor.
Injunction
Compensation
18. ---------- may be prohibitory or mandatory.
Injunction
Compensation
19."In contract of guarantee, the person who gives guarantee is called ------------ ."
a surety
a bailor
a guarantor
20. ---------- is a person who is employed to bring his principal into contractual relations with
third parties.
An agent
A servant
A subodinate
21. Where only one party has to perform his duty or obligation it is ----------- .
bilateral contract
unilateral contract
22."On acceptance of proposal, proposer is called as ---------- ."
promisor
promisee
.23. ----------- is used by a dominant party on a weaker one to get an unfair advantage in a
contract.
Undue influence
Coercion
24.----------- can be a beneficiary.
Minor
Person attaining legal age
All
.25. The person making the proposal is called the " _______".
Promise
Promisor
Promisee
26." _________of the Contract Act,1872 provides two general modes of communication."
Section (2)
Section (3)
Section (4)
27. In Myanmer attaining the age of majority was provided in the _______of the Majority Act.
Section (2)
Section (3)
Section (4)
28. Mistake should be essential to the __________.
agreement
offer
promise
29. " Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any person, other than a minor is
________."
valid
invalid
void
30.There are __________ relating to the devolution or joint liabilities.
two rules
three rules
four rules
31. " _________ are not punitive or exemplary, they are compensation for loss suffered."
Damages
An Injunction
Specific Performance
32. " --------------- may be either an alien friend or a foreigner whose sovereign or State is at
peace with Myanmar, has usually contractual capacity of a Myanmar citizen."
An alien
An alien enemy
33.If a person makes a representation believing what he says is true he commits ---------------- .
34."The effect of -------------- is that the party misled by it can avoid the contract, but cannot sue
for damages in the normal circumstances."
35. " ----------------- means any wrong or damage done to another, either in his person, rights,
reputation or property."
Injury
Loss
Injury or loss
36. “Contract to do an act afterwards becoming impossible or unlawful”. Do you agree this
statement? Briefly discuss.
A contract may be discharged by impossibility.

Impossibility which arises from the non-existence of the
subject matter at the time of the contract is also void because
both the parties to an agreement are under mistakes as to a
matter of fact essential to the agreement. [S.56]
37.What is the definition of bailment and describe the duties of a bailor?
“A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person

to another for some purpose upon a contract that they shall,
when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise
disposed of according to the directions of the person
delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called
the "bailor". The person to whom they are delivered is called
the bailee .”
Duties of a Bailor
Section 150
Bailor Duty to disclose

“The bailor is bound to disclose to the bailee faul ts in
the good bailed, of which the bailor is aware, and which
materially interfere with the use of them, or expose the
bailee to extra ordinary risks; and if he does not make such
disclosure, he is responsible for damage arising to the bailee
directly from such faults.”
“If the goods are bailed for hire, the bailor is responsible
for such damage, whether he was or was not aware of the
existence of such faults in the goods bailed.”
38."A owes B Ks-100,000 but the debt is barred by the Limitation Act. A signs a written
promise to pay B Ks-50,000 on account of the debt. Is it a contract? Explain."
Debt is a contract. Promise to pay time-barred debt [Section 25(3)

"An agreement made without consideration is void
unless-when it is a promise made in writing and signed by
the person to be charged there with or by his agent generally
or specially authorized in that behalf, to pay wholly or in
part a debt of which the creditor might have enforced
payment but for the law for the limitation of suits"
39. What do you understand by “holding out”? And study the liability of pretended agent.
Explain the term agency by estoppels.
A person untruly representing himself to be the

authorized agent of another, and thereby inducing a third
person to deal with him as such agent, is liable, if his
alleged employer does not ratify his acts, to make
compensation to the other inspect to any loss or damage
which he has incurred by so dealing.
"A person with whom a contract has been entered into

in the character of agent is not entitled to require the
performance of it if he was reality acting, not as agent , but
on his own account".
Agency by Estoppel
Estoppel of a principal is dealt with in Section 237 which

says: - When an agent has, without authority, done acts or
incurred obligations to third persons on behalf of his
principal, the principal is bound by such acts or obligations
if he has by his words or conduct induced such third persons
to believe that such acts and obligations were within the
scope of the agent's authority.
40.Define the term the disqualification to contract.
A person may be disqualified from contracting by his

or her own law to which he or she is subject. For example,
in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract
without the authority of her husband.
(1) A statutory company cannot enter into a contract out of

its memorandum
(2) An alien enemy is incompetent to contract.
In Myanmar, the capacity of a woman to contract is

not affected by her marriage either under Myanmar
Customary Law.It is also the same in Hindu or
Mohammedan Law.
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1. "-----------------" means essentially that the goods are fit for the ordinary purpose for which
such goods are used.
Merchantable
2. ------------------------- means goods identified and agreed upon at the time a contract of sale is
made.
Specific goods
3. ------------------ includes their state or condition.
A quality of goods
4. -------------- means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contrct.
Fraud
5. ----------------------- is definded as "Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree
upon the same thing in the same sense".
6. -------------------- of the Sale of Goodss Act 1930 defines the important terms for the purpose
of consideration in sale transaction.
Section 2 Consent
7. -------------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.
a. proposal b.offer c. agreement d. promise
8. ------------ are obligations which though not contracts strictly, give rise to relations which
resemble those creasted by contracts.
a. Quasi-contract  b. Contract c. Agreement d. Deed

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9. ------------ are remedies for breach of contract.
a. Damages and specific performance  b.Damages, specific performance and injunction
c. Damages, injunction
10. -------------- under mistake of fact or mistake of law is called void agreement.
a. Agreement  b. Contract c. Communication
11. --------------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other, is an
agreement.
a. agreement b. promise /  c. offer d. proposal
12. ------------- must be communicated to the person who made the offer.
a. acceptance/  b. proposal c. offer d. agreement
13. --------------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.
a. proposal /  b. offer c. agreement d. promise
14. ---------------- communication would include telephone message.
a. Oral/  b. Written c. Printed
15. ------------- must have an economic value in order for it to be valid ain a contractual context.
Consideration
16. ------------------ is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made with the
intention that is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it is addressed.
An offer
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17. ------- may be made expressly by words or by conduct.
An offer
18. -------------- must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, by which a person does not
make an offer but invites another party to do so.
A promise
19. ------------ is committed when a party, without lawful excuse, fails or refuses to perform what
is due from him under the contract, or performs defectively, or incapacitates himself from
performing.
A breach of contract
20. ------------- is the remedy by which one party the injured party is released from his obligation
to perform because of the other party's defective or non-performance.
21. ------------------- means where a party disables himself from performing.
Impossibility
22. ----------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.
Damages
23. --------------- is clear and absolute refusal to perform, which includes conduct showing the
party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.
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24. --------------- is the remedy by which one party the injured party is released from his
obligation to perform because of the other party's defective or non-perfomance.
25. --------------, the terms of a contract may be inferred from the conduct of the parties or from
the circumstances of the case.
An express contract
26. ---------------- are strictly not contracts as there is no intention of parties to enter into a
contract.
Quasi contracts
27. ------------- is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made with the
intenion that it is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it is addressed.
An offer
28. --------------- is a final and unqualified expression of assent to the terms of an offer.
A promise
29. ------------ is the remedy by which one party is released from his obligation to perform
because of the party's defective or non-performance.
Repudication
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30. ---------------- is committed when a party, without lawful excuse, fails or refuses to perform
what is due from him under the contract, or performs defectively, or incapacitates himself
from performing.
31. -------------- is clear and absolute refusal to perform, which includes conduct showing the
party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.
Termination
32. -------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.
Damages
33. -------------- means the court may order payment for expenses necessarily incurred in
complying with the terms of the contract.
Indemnity
34. ------------------- arises when a promise is given in exchange for a promise in return.
Unilateral contract
35. ----------------- only may enforce the terms of agreement.
The parties to the contract
36. ------------- may be made expressly by words or by coduct.
An offer
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37. ------------ must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, by which a person does not
make an offer but invites another party to de so.
A promise
38. ---------------- means where a party disables himself from performing.
Impossibility
39. -------------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.
Damages
40. ------------- is the remedy by which one party the injured party is released from his obligation
to perform because of the other party's defective or non-performance.
41. -------------- is aborder term than a contract.
An agreement
complete
42. -------------- must be communicated to the person who made the offer.
acceptance
43. ------------ communication would include telephone message.
oral
44. -------------- stipulations are normally enforeced by an injuction.
positive
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45. ------------- are obligations which though not contracts technically give rise to relations
which look like those created by contracts.
Quasi-contracts
46. ------------------ enforceble at law is acontract.
An agreement
47. ---------- stipulations are normally enforced by an injunction.
positive
48. -------------- will be inadequate where the plaintiff cannot get a satisfactory substitute.
Damages
49. ------------- will be refused if the plaintiff has acted unfairly or dishonestly.
specific performance.
50. ------------------ are obligations which though not contracts technically, give rise to relations
which resemble those created by contracts.
quasi-contract
51. --------------- is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent another, or to
represent another , in dealing with third persons.
An "Agent"
52. ---------------- comes first in a valid contract.
Acceptance
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53. ----------will be refused if the plintiff has acted unfairly or dishonestly.
specific performance
54. --------------- is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to forbear, where a
contract is about to be broken by a party to the contract.
injunction
55. __________ are based on the doctrine of equity.
Contracts
56. ----------------- must be communicated to the person who made the offer.
acceptance
57. ----------------- are obligations which though not contracts technically give rise to relations
which look like those created by contracts.
Quasi-contrcts
58. -------------- is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to forbear, where a
contract is about to be broken by a party to the contract.
injunction
59. -------------------- enforceable at law is acontract.
An agreement
60. ------------ which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other, is an
agreement.
promise
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61. ---------------- can be addressed to a single person, to a specified group of persons, or to the
world at large.
An advertisement
62. ___________ is a person employed to do any act for another , or to represent another, in
dealing with third persons.
An "Agent"
63. --------------- contracts require a special from or method of creation.
formal
64. ---------------- comes first in a valid contract.
Acceptance
65. ---------- which from the consideration or part of the consideration for each other, is an
agreement.
promise
66. ------------ are the universally accepted process for making an agreement.
Proposal + accepeance + consideration
67. -------------- is made by words spoken.
Unlawful contract
68. --------------- are remedies for breach of contract.
Damages, specific performance and injunction

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69. ---------------- are the universally accepted process for making an agreement.
Proposal + acceptance + consideration
70. __________ is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent another, in
An "Agent"
71. ------------- in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and therefore void.
Agreements.
72. A proposal must be made with an intention to create ------------ relation.
legal
73. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be -----------.
void
74. "Agreement Contingent on an impossible event is ---------".
void
75. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the lost dog amounts to a
------------.
general offer
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76. A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief that a particular debt is barred
by the law of limitationk, the contract is -----------.
not voidable
77. Aung Aung " and "Bo Bo contract to marry with each other. Before the tim fixed for the
marriage, Aung Aung goes mad. The contract becomes -------------.
valid
78. Agreements by way of wager are ------------- and to suit shall be brought for recovering
anything alleged to be won on any wager.
void
79. All agreements are contracts if they are made by the --------- of parties.
free consent
80. A agrees to pay B Kyats 1,000000 if B will marry A's daughter C. C was dead at the time of
the agreement. The agreement is --------------.
void
81. Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance of ---------- the terms.
all
82. All aggreements are ------------ if they are made by competent to contract.
contracts
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83. " Agreements , the meaning of which is not certain, or capable of being made certain, are
-----.
void
84. A agrees to pay B Kyas 1,00000 if B will marry A's daughter C. C was dead at the time of
the agreement. The agreement is --------------.
valid
85. " A greement Contingent on an impossible event is ----------".
void
86. A patient in a lunatic asylum, who is at intervals of sound mind, may contract during those
intervals.
sound mind
87. An act done by a person in ignorance of offer does not amount to performance of the
condition of the --------------.
proposal
88. An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties therto,
but not at the option of the others, is a ----------- contract.
89. ------------- is a broader term than a contract.
An agreement
90. An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is -----------.
void
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91. A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes ---------- when it
cease to be enforceable.
void
92. A contract consistes of two elements:
legal obligation only
93. A proposal when accepted, becomes--------------"
a promise
94. A agrees to sell to B " a hundred tons of oill." There is nothing whatever to show what kind
of oil was intended. The agreement is ---------- for uncertainty.
valid
95. "A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose of making a contrct if , at the time
when he makes it, he is ----------- of understanding.
capable
96. An agreement to sell is an ------------- contract.
executed
97. A sale is by description where the class or kind of goods to which the goods belong is ---------
in the contract.
specified
98. A condition is a stipulation --------------- to the main purpose of the contract.
essential
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99. A sale is an -------------- contract.
executed
100. A "sale" is a transfer of property in goods which exactly means ------------ from the seller to
the buyer for the price.
passing of the goods
101. An agreement to transfer amounts to sale with ----------- have to be fulfilled.
certain conditions
102. A manyfacturer ----------- to a cosumer for loss and damages caused by his defective product
under the tort of negligence.
may be liable
103. "A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose of making a contract if , at the time
when he makes it, he is ------------- of understanding.
capable
104. Agreements by way of wager are ---------- and to suit shall be brought for recovering
voidable
105. An agreement to do an act impossibel in itself is -----------.
void
106. A contract consists of two elements:
am agreements and legal obligations.

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107. "A" and "B" contract to marry with each other. Before the time fixed for the marriage, A
goes mad. The contract becomes------------.
void
108. Aung Aung" and "Bo BO" contract to marry with each other. Before the time fixed for the
marriage, Aung Aung goes mad. The contract becomes ---------------.
void
109. A contract may contain terms which are not ----------- stated but which are implied, either
because the parties intended this , or by operation of law, or by custom or usage.
esxpressly
110. A misrepresentation may be -------------- which made in the wholly innocent belief that is
was true.
innocent
111. All agreements are -------------- if they are made by competent to contract.
contracts
112. A contract is an agreement giving rise to ------------- which are enforced or recognised by
law.
promises
113. An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the acceptance is ----
------- as against the acceptor, but not afterwards.

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114. An act done by a person in ignorance of offer does not amount to performance of the
condition of the ------------.
agreement
115. Agreements by way of wager are ------------- and to suit shall be brought for recovering
void
116. A patient in a lunatic asylum, who is at intervals of sound mind, may contract during those
intervals.
unsound mind
117. A contracts to pay B a sum of money when B marries C. C dies without being married to B.
The contract become ---------------.
valid
118. A proposal when accepted, becomes ----------------- relation.
not legal
119. An agreement which is enforceable by law at the optionof one or more of the parties thereto,
but not at the option of the other or other, is a ------------- contract.
valid
120. A contract may contain terms which are not -------------- stated but which are implied, either
because the parties intended this, or by operation of law, or by custom or usage.
expressly
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121. A particular type of contract is required by law ---------------.
oral or in writing
122. An express contract, the terms of a contract ------------ (written or spoken).
may be stated in words.
123. A misrepresentation may be-------------- which made in the wholly innocent belief that is was
true.
innocent
124. A contract may contain terms which are not ----------- stated but which are implied, either
because tha parties intended this, or by operation of law, or by custom or usage.
expressly
125. A misrepresentation may be ------------- which is made knowingly, without belief in its truth
or recklessly.
fraudulent
126. A contract consists of two elements:
both
127. A misrepresentation may be ---------------- which made by a person who had no reasonable
ground to believe that it was true.
Fraudulent
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128. A misrepresentation may be ------------- which made by a person who had no reasonable
grounds to believe that it was true.
Fraudulent
129. A particular type of contract is required by law-------------.
to be in writing
130. A particular type of contract must comply with the necessary formalities as to -----------, if
necessary.
writing and registration and attestation
131. A void agreement is -------------- ab initio, i e from the beginning
void
132. An express contract, the trems of a contract -------------- (written or spoken).
may be stated in words
133. An agreements is composed of elements ---------------.
offer and acceptance
134. A agreements are ----------- if they are made by competent to contract.
contracts
135. An agreement enforceable by law is a --------------.
a. proposal b. contract /  c. acceptance

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136. Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance of ------------ the terms.
a. two b. some c. one d. all/ 
137. A contrct of -------------- is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the liability of a
third person in case of his default.
a. agency b. indemnity c. guarantee
138. An act done by a person in ignorance of --------------- does not amount to performance of the
condition of the proposal.
a. proposal b. offer c. acceptance 
139. A proposes by letter, to sell a house to B at a certain price. In this case, the communication
of the proposal is ----------- when B receives the letter.
a. not complete b. complete  c. incomplete
140. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be -------------
a. void /  b. voidable c. valid d. invalid
--------------.
a. general offer/  b. offer c. specific offer d. proposal
142. An ---------------- is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent another, in
a. principal b. agent c. bailor d. sub-agent

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143. A contract is an agreement, creating and defining the obligation between ------------.
a.properties b. parties  c. possessions
144. A contract is an ---------- enforceable at law made between two or more persons by which
rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forberarances on the part of others.
a. treaty b. contract c. agreement 
----------------.
a. general offer  b. offer c. specific offer d. proposal
146. A and B make a contract grounded on erroneous belief that a particular debt is barred by the
law of limitation, the contract is ----------
a. valid b. voildable c. not voidable d. not performed
147. Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance of --------- the terms.
a. two b. some c. one d. all 
148. A court may restrain a party from committing a breach of contract by ------------.
injunction
149. A ---------------- is a false statement of fact made by one party to another, which induces the
other party to enter into the contract.
Misrepresentation
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150. Any person ----------------- its possession as against every one except the true owner.
is entitled to
151. An --------------- contract is a contract where the essential elements to create a valid contract
are met, but there is some legal defense to the enforcement of the contract.
enfroceable
152. An agreement not enforceable by law --------------.
is stated to be void
153. A proposal when accepted becomes ----------.
promise
154. An agreement not enforceable by law is stated to be void under -------.
section 2 (g)
155. An offer must be distinguished from an ----------- to treat, by which a person does not make
an offer but invies another party to do so.
invitation
156. A contract may be discharged if an unforeseen event occurs which make performance of the
contract impossible, illegal or essentially different from what was contemplated. it is ----------
frustration
157. A sells his car to B. A has a right to recover the price of the car from B. This right is a -------.
right is rem
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158. Agreement is a -------------.
Contract
159. All illegal agreements are void; but all void agreement and void contract is the same.
False
160. A minor, by misrepresenting his age, borrows some money.
He is liable to return the money
161. A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind, ---------- make a
contract when he is of unsound mind.
may not
162. A , B and C are under a joint peomise to pay D Ks 3,000 . C is unable to pay anything A ------
--- entitled to reveive Ks. 1500 from B.
163. A -------------- is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the liablity of a third person
in case of his default.
Contract of Guarantee
164. An agreement enforceable at law is a ---------------.
contract
165. A --------------- is a false statement of fact made by one party to another, which induces the
othe party to enter into the contract.
misrepresentation
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166. An agreement enforceable by law --------- -----------.
a valid contract
167. A contract creates -------------.
righs in personam
168. An adertisement to sell a thing by auction is -------------.
An invitation to offer
169. Acceptance must be --------------.
In writing
170. A contract that has been performed by both sifes is an ------------- contract.
executed
171. A void agreement is void a b initio but a void contract is not void ab initio.
False
172. A person who signs a contract is deemed to have read it.
True
173. A contract needs to be written, registered and signed by the parties and witnessedif any other
act provides so.
True
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174. A proposal is revoked by the communication of notice or revocation ------------
---- to the other party.
by the acceptor
175. A person to whom money has been paid, or anything delivered by mistake or under coercion
must repay or return it. It is a -----------.
agreement
176. An agent ------------ against the consequences of all lawful acts done by such agent in the
exercise of the authority conferred upon hime
has a right to be indemnified
177. An offer may be accepted by ------------.
condutct
178. An informal exchange of promises can be as binding and legally valid as a written contract.
Yes
179. A court may restrian a party from committing a breach of contract by------------.
injunction
180. An agreement without consideration is void but there are ---------- exceptions to this rule.
three
181. Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and therefore -------------.
void
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182. An agreements to do an at impossible in itself is----------.
void
183. An agreemtn not enforceable by law is said to be ------------.
void
184. An --------- contract is an agrement between parties that has been inferred from the conduct of
the parties.
express
185. A sells his car to B. A has a right to recover the price of the car from B. This right is a --------.
right is rem
186. A person who is usally of sound mind , but occasionally of unsound mind, ______ make a
may not
187. An order for ----------- will compel the addressee to fulfill the terms of a contract.
188. A sells his car to B. A has a right to recover the price of the car from B. This right is a --------
-.
right is rem
189. An advertisment to sell a ting by auction is ------------.
An invitation to offer
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190. According to enforceablity, the contracts may be classified as -------------.
voidable contracts
191. Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and therefore -----------.
void
192. An agreement not enforceable by law is stated to be void under ------------.
section 2 (g)
193. Agreement is a -----------------.
Acceptance of a proposal
194. A ---------- is a false statement of fact made by one party to another, which induces the other
party to enter into the contract.
misreprestation
195. A void agreement is void ab inito but a void contract is not void ab initio.
False
196. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the lost dog amount to a
-------.
general offer
197. An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one of the parties thereto, but not
at the option of the other or others, is ------------------.
a voidable contract
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198. A ------------ contract is a contract that has no legal effects.
void
199. A contract that has not been performed by both sides is an ------------ contract.
executed
200. Acceptance must be ---------------.
In writing
201. An agent --------- against the consequences of all lawful acts done by such agent in the
exercise of the authority conferred upon him.
has a right to be indemnified
202. A proposal when accepted becomes ---------.
promise
203. A proposal is revoked by the communication of notice of revocation ---------- to the other
party.
by the proposer
204. According to enforceability , the contracts may be classified as --------------.
voidable contracts
205. Acceptance -------------- communicated to the person who made the offer.
must be
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206. An offer must be distinguished from awn ----------- to treat, by which a person does not
make an offer but invites another party to do so.
inviatation
207. An offer --------- at any time before its acceptance.
may be revoked
208. An informal exchange of promises can be as binding and legally valid as a written contract.
Yes
209. A --------- is a false statement of fact made by one party to another, which induces the other
misrepresentation
210. An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is -------------.
void
211. A court may restrain a party from committing a breach of contract by ----------.
injunction
212. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be ---------.
void
213. A revocation of an offer is ----------- if it states a fixed time for its acceptance.
Effective
29
214. A contract that has been performed by both sides is an ----------- contract.
executed
215. A minor, by misrepresenting his age, borrows some money.
He is liable to returen the money
216. A contract that has not been performed by both sides is an ------------ contract.
executed
217. A proposal is revoked by the communication of notice of revocation ----------- to the other
party.
by the acceptor
218. A contract needs to be writen , registered and signed by the parties and witnessedif any other
act provides so.
True
219. An ------------ contract is a contract where the essential elements to create a valid contract are
met, but there is some legal defense to the enforcement of the contract.
enfoceable
220. A contract needs to be written, registered and signed by the parties and witnessedif any other
act provides so.
True
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221. Are the universally accepted process for making an agreement.
Proposal + acceptance + consideration
222. An agreement restraint of trade is valid under section 27 if relates to ------------.
mutual adjustment
223. An --------------- contract is an agreement between parties that has been inferred from the
conduct of the parties.
express
224. A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind, ----------- make a
may not
225. A peoposal when accepted becomes --------------.
promise
226. A promised to marry B. Later on B died. This contract of marriage ........... .
is illegal now
227. A agrees to sell to B" a hundred tons of Oil". There is nothing whatever to show what kind of
oil was intended . The ------------ is void for uncertainty.
proposal
228. A ----------- contact is a contract where one or both of the parties have the option to avoid
their contrctual obligations.
voidable
31
229. An agreement restraint of trade is valid under section 27 if relates to -----------.
mutual adjustment
230. All illegal agreements are void; but all void agreements are not illegal.
True
231. Any person --------- its possession as against every one except the true owner.
is entitled to
232. A degree for specific performance -------------/
is the kind of remedies for breach of contract
233. A contract ------------ in writing nor is it subject to any other requirement as to form.
need be concluded
234. A revocation of an offer is ------------ if the offer indicates that it is irrevocable.
effective
235. A revocation of an offer is ------------ if the offer has awcted in reliance on the offer.
effective
236. A breach of contract is not technically a failure to perform the contract in accordance with the
strict term.
Yes
32
237. A person who is interested in the payment of money which another is bound by
law to pay , and who therefore pays it, ________ entitled to be reimbursed by the other.
is
238. According to _________ of the Contract Act, all agreements are contracts if they are made by
the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful
object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void.
section 10
239. B accepts A's proposal by a lett er sent by post. The communication of the acceptance is ----
------------- .
complete
240. B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is -------------- as against B when the
telegram is dispatched, and as against A when it reaches him.
a. incomplete b. complete /  c. valid d. invalid
241. B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is ---------- as against B when the
a. incomplete b. complete  c. valid d. invalid.
242. B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is ------------ as against B when the
complete
33
243. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The communication of the acceptance is ---
----.
complete
244. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by poset. The communication of the acceptance is
complete : ---------------------, when the letter is posted.
as against A
245. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The communication of the acceptance is
complete _____________. When the letter is posted .
as against A
246. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The commuication of the acceptance is
complete: _______________, when the letter is posted .
as against A
247. Condiction is stipulation which is ------------ to the main purpose of the contract.
essential
248. Certain agreements which have been ------------ illegal or void by the law.
not expressly declared
249. Consent which is essential to constitute a valid contract.
a. It is not a factor b. It is a factor

34
250. Contract of indemnity is one of the ------- - contracts.
a. specific  b. special c. vague
251. Contract of indemnity is one of the -------------- contracts.
specific
252. Contractual rights and duties are created bycustm or usage.
True
253. Consideration is something of value which is given for a -----------.
promise
254. Compensation ---------- for any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by reason of the
breach.
is not to be given
255. Contract containing a guarantee must be in writing.
Yes
256. Every offer must be -----------------.
communicated
257. Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of ------------- according to Myanmar
law.
a. 16 b. 17 c. 18
35
258. "Every agreement by which any one is restrained from exercising lawful profession,
trade or business of any kind is to that extent -------------"
void
259. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an -----
-----. proposal
260. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, in an -----
-.
a. agreement  b. acceptance c. proposal d. offer
261. Every offer must be ------------.
a. communicated  b. uncommunicated c. valid d. void
262. "Every ---------------in restraint of the marriage of any person, other than a minor, is void."
contract
263. Every promise or every set of promise froming the ---------- for each other is an
"aggreement".
a. communion  b. consideration c. contract
264. Every contract requires -----------------.
a. consideration b. consequence c. contemplation
265. Every offer must be ---------.
a. communicated  b. uncommunicated c. valid d. void

36
266. Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of ------------ according to
Myanmar law.
a. 16 b. 17 c. 18 
267. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is ---------
-.
an agreement
268. Equity courts were developed in England to settle disputes where an award of money
damages at law would not be a proper remedy or where fairness required the application of --
----------.
equity
269. Every such offer (tender ) ---------------.
must be conditional
270. Every promise and every set of promises, froming the condisderation for each other, is an ----
----------------.
agreement
271. Each party must act in accordance with ----------.
belief
272. Every promise and evey set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an -------
. Agreement
37
273. Every agreement in restriant of the marriage of any person, other than a minor, ------
--.
is void
274. Every agreement in restriant of the marriage of any person , other than a minor , ------------.
is void
275. Every promise or set of promises forming the consideration for each other ----------.
agreement
276. Every such offer (tender) ----------------.
must be conditional
277. Every person is competent to contract ----------- from contracting by any law to which he is
subject.
who is not disqualified
278. Equity courts were developed in England to settle disputes where an award of money
damages at law would not be a proper remedy or where fairness required the application of --
-----.
equity
279. Every agreement by which any one is restrained from exercising a lawful profession , trade or
business of any kind is to that extent _______.
void
38
280. Every person shall be deemed to have attained his majority when he shall have
completed the age of ___________ in Myanmar.
eighteen years
281. Fraud exists when it is shown that a false representation has been made Knowingly.
True.
282. For a person to be bound to a contract, he must seriously --------------- to create legal
obligations.
a. intend  b.consider
283. "Goods" means every kind of ------------------ other than actionable claims and money.
moveable
284. Generally, a contract is an ----------- between two or more persons to do a particular act or
abstain from doing a particular act.
a. treaty b. contract c. agreement 
285. How many kinds of existing goods ?
three
286. How many kinds of contract of sale are there ?
two
287. In order to become an ----------, there must be communication of proposal and acceptance.
an agreement
39
288. In the case of an alternative promise, one branch of which is legal and the other illegal, the
legal branch alone ---------------."
can be enforce
289. In order to be a valid contrct, the agreement must not be expressly declared to be -----------.
void
290. It is --------------- when the goods themselves are delivered to the buyer on the key of the
warehouse containing the goods is handed over to him.
actual
291. If the goods are rejected by the buyer and the carrier or other bailee continues in possession
of them, the transit --------------- to be at an end.
is not deemed
292. In the case of contract for sale by sample there is --------------- condition that the bulk shall
correspond with the sample in quality.
an implied
293. In a sale, since the ownership passed from the seller to the buyer, -------------- bers the risk of
loss or deterioration.
buyer
294. In case of conflict between the express and implied warranties, the express term shall prevail
and the implied terms --------------.
shall not be considered

40
295. It is --------------- where before sale the goods are in the possession of a warehouseman
as bailee for the seller, and after the sale he agree to hold them as bailee for the buyer.
constructive
296. In the cse of a contract for sale of a specified article under its patent or other trade name,
there is --------------- s to its fitness for any particular purpose.
no implied condition
297. If the buyer or his agent in that behalf obtains of the goods ------------ their arrival at the
appoined destination the transit is at an end.
before
298. If the property in goods ------------ to the buyer, the unpaid seller has in addition to his other
remedies and a right of withholding delivery.
has not passed
299. If the date of delivery of goods is at the seller's option then he -------------- sufficient notice to
the buyer of his intention to deliver on a given date during the currency of the option so as to
enable the buyer to arrange for funds.
must give
300. In respect of communication there is an important point which is "when does the action of ----
---------be completed."
Communication
41
301. Intention to deceive's is essential in fraud, while that is not necessary in --------------.
misre presentation
302. In -------------- there should be an intention on the part of the parties to the agreement to
create a legal relationship.
303. In a contract for the sale of goods, it is ------------------- that the goods will be of a certain
quality and , if sold for a particular purpose, will be fit for the purpose.
an express term
304. In negligent cases the injured party may claim -------------------------.
indeminity
305. In negligent cases the injured party may claim -------------.
indemnity
306. In fraudulent misrepresentation cases there is an automatic right to -------------.
damages
307. In fraudulent misrepresentation cases there is an automatic right to -------------.
indemnity
308. In a contract for the sale of goods, it is -------------- that the goods will be of a certain quality
and , if sold for a particular purpose, will be fit for that purpose.
an express term
42
309. In negligent cases the injured party may claim -------------.
damages
310. It --------------- which is imposed on a party who is required to perform it.
is legal obligation
312. In order to become an -----------, there must be communication of proposal and acceptance.
a. offer b. promise c. agreement /  d. contract
313. If both of the contractiong parties have not yet performed what with agreed to do under the
contract, the contract is --------------.
a. not discharged b. discharged  c. performed d. not performed
314. If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to do under the contract,
the contract is -----------------.
a. Discharged /  b. breached c. waived
315. Insolvency of a party to a contract ----------- the contract.
a. Discharges /  b. breaches c. Waives
316. In a general offer, there need be no acceptance of the offer other than the performance of the
condition and he or she --------------- as a contract by the company.
was entitled to recover money
317. It is a contract that is --------------- by at least one of the parties.
unenforceable
43
318. In a -------------, a court may award monetary damages to a plaintiff for providing
work or services to a defendant even though no actual contract existed.
quasi-contracts
319. In writing if so required by law that statement ----------------- to from a valid contract.
is necessary element
320. It is a contract that is ------ by at least one of the parties.
unenforceable
321. If the proposer ------------- any specific method,the acceptor has to follow usual and
reasonable mode.
does not prescribe
322. If the proposor prescibes that the acceptance must be made through the medium of post
office, there is no acceptance if it is done ---------.
by oral (words of mouth)
323 In a general offer, there need be no acceptance of the offer other than the preformance of the
condition and he or she ------------ as a contract by the company.
was entitled to recover money
324. If the parties to a contract agree to substitute a new contract for it, or to rescind or alter it the
orginal contract --------------.
need be performed
44
325. If the proposer ----------- any specific method, the acceptor has to follow usual and
reasonable mode.
does not prescribe
326. In a case of alternative promise s, one branch of which is legal and the other illegal, the legal
branch alone --------------- enforced.
can be
326. It is a contract that is ------------ by at least one of the parties.
enforceable
327. If the proposor prescribes that the acceptance must be made through the medium of post
office, there is no acceptance if it is done ------------.
by oral (words of mouth)
328. In writing if so required by law that statement ----------- to form a valid contract.
is necessary element
329. In a valid contract, what comes first -------.
acceptance
330. In a case of alternative promises, one branch of which is legal and the other illegal, the legal
branch alone _________ enforced.
can be
331. In a validc first __________.
acceptance
45
332. MaungBa , a tradesman, leaves goods at U Mya's houxe by mistake. But treats the goods
as his won, he bound to pay Maung Ba for them.
is
333. Ma Maagress to sell to Ko Ko "a hundred tons of oil". There is noting whatever to show what
kind of oil was intended. The agreement is ----------.
void
334. Mere silence is not -------------- unless there is - (1) a duty to speack or (2) unless it is
equivalent to speech
undue influence
335. Many terms which are ------------- in law have been put into statutory form.
express and implied
336. Many social arrangements do not amount to ------------- because they are not intended to be
legally binding.
consideration
337. Many domestic arrangements, such as between husband and wife, or between parent and
child, lack force because ---------- did not intend them to have legal consequences.
the parties
338. MaungBa , a tradesman, leaves goods at U Myaa's house by mistake. But treats the goods as
his won, he bound to pay Maung Ba for them.
is
46
339. Once ----------- has been accepted, the parties have an agreement.
An offer
340. Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be ----------.
implied promise
341. Proposal and acceptance are the two basic elements of a ------------.
contract
342. Proposal and acceptance are the two basic elements of a -----------.
promice
343. Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be -------.
a. implied promise /  b. express promise c. promise d. agreement
344. Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be -------------
-.
a. implied promise b. express promise c. promise d. agreemen
345. Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promisors
befroe -------------.
a. proposal b. performance  c. communication
346. Promises which from the consideration or part thereof, for each other -----------.
agreements
47
347. Promises which from the consideration or part of the consideration for each other are called
----------------.
reciprocal promises
348. Parties are ----------- to enter into a contract.
free
349. Parties are ------------ to enter into a contract.
free
350. Parties determine it ------- of a contract, subject to the requirements of good faith and the
mandatory rules.
value
351. Parties are not competent to contract if any of them is ---------.
all the above
352. Promises which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other are called --
----------.
reciprocal promises
353. Parties determine its ---------- of a contrct, subject to the requirements of good faith and the
mandatory rules.
value
354. Parties are not competent to contrat if any of them is --------.
all the above

48
355. Responsibility of finder of good, Liability of person to whom money ---------------.
is paid or thing delivered
356. Responsibility of finder of goods,Liability of person to whom money -------------.
357. Rights and liabilities of finder of good s are subject to the same responsibility as a ---------.
a. bailor b. bailee c. indorseet
358. Specific performance can be granted only when the damages are ------------.
when the contract is certain, fair and just
359. Such agreements are ---------------- which do not give rise to legal consequences.
social agreement
360. Smuggling or murdering a person, ----------------- at law.
can be enforceable
361. Substanital failure to perform is any defect in -------------- must attain a certain minimum
degree of seriousness to entitle the injured party to terminatie.
misrepresentation
401. Section 2 (b) defines promise in these words: "When the person to whom the proposal is
made signifies his assent thereto, to proposal --------------------.
is said to be proposal
49
402. Smuggling or murdering a person, ------- --------- at law.
can be enforceable
362. Such agreements are --------- which do not give rise to legal consequences.
social agreements
363. The goods which are identified only ------------ the formation of the contract of sale, are
known as ascertained goods.
after
364. The performance of a contract of sale may be defind as the performance of the ---------------
of the seller and buyer as per the terms of the contract.
R.S
365. The goods which are not in existance at the time of contract of sale.
future
366. The unpaid seller of goods, having a lien thereon, -------------- his lien by reason only that he
has obtained a decree for the price of the goods.
does not lose
367. The law relating to the sale of goods was originally a part of the ----------- in 1930.
India Contract Act
368. The unpaid seller's right of lie or stoppage in transit it ------------- by any sale or other
disposition of the goods which the buyer may made, unless the seller has assented therto.
no affected
50
369. The delivery of goods to a wharfinger for sale cutody is ------------ delivery of the goods.
sufficient
370. The seller -------------- only to deficiency and express incurred on re-sale.
is entitled
371. The term may be definded as a representation made by the seller which purpose of the buyer.
non-fulfillment
372. The sale is --------------- when the auctioneer announce its completion by the fall of the
hammer or in anoter customary manner.
complete
373. The seller is bound to ------------- the exact quantity of goods sale.
deliver
374. The price means the ------------- for a sale of goods.
money consideration.
375. To offer a friend a metal is not to create ----------- relation.
legal
376. The person making the proposal is called the ----------.
promisor
51
377. Torts or civil wrongs obligations ---------- ----- in nature, but are enforeceable in a court of
law.
are not contrctual
378. The Latin maxim of ---------------- means that a specific person and not against the world at
large.
Rigt in person
379. To offer a friend a metal is not create ----------- relation.
legal
380. The buyer may insist on ------------- of the entire quality at a time and is not bound to accept
delivery thereof by installment.
delivery
381. The -------------- must be supported by consideration on both sides.
agreement
382. The price of goods is the importanct element of a -------------- sale.
valid
383. The person accepting the proposal is called the ------------.
promisee
384. The person making the proposal is called the ---------------.
Promisor
52
385. There are multiple remedies available once----------------- has been proved.
misrepresentation
386. The ----------------- must provide the consideration.
Contract
387. To offer a friend a meal is not to create ----------- relation.
not legal
388. The two elements of an agreement are:
an acceptance of that offer or proposal
389. The ------------- must be supported by consideration on both sides
aggreement
390. The object of the agreement ----------------.
must not necessary to be lawful
391. There are multiple remedies available once ------------ has been proved.
misrepresentation
392. The ------------- must provide the consideration.
Contract
393. To be a -------------, there must be a valid communication of offer and a valid communcation
of acceptance.
valid contract
53
394. Torts or civil wrongs obligations --------- ----- in nature, but are enforceable in a court of
law.
are not contractual
395. There are multiple remedies available once ---------------- has been proved.
misrepresentation
396. The terms of a contract can be divided into ---------------.
express terms and implied terms
397. The ----------- must provide the consideration.
Contract
398. To be valid and legally binding, --------------- must be met.
5 conditions
399. The meaning of the agreement must b certain or capable of being made certain. Otherwise
the agreement ---------------.
will not be enforceable at law.
400. The consent of the parties to the agreement have -------------.
capable of performance
401. The ------------ must be supported by consideration on both sides.
Agreement
54
402. The terms of the agreemtn should be ----- -----------.
403. Torts or civil wrongs obligations -------------- in nature, but are enforceable in a court of law.
are not contractual
404. The Latin maxim of ------------ means that a specific person and not aginst the world at large.
Rithts in personam
405. The ---------------- of an agent is to use all reasonable diligence in communicating with his
principal.
a. duty b. right 
406. The person making the proposal is called the --------------.
a. promissor  b. promisee c. acceptor d. promise
407. The person accepting the proposal is called then---------------.
a. promissor b. promisee c. acceptor d. promise
408. The offer must be made at -------------- time and place.
a. specific  b. proper c. normal
409. The parents of the minor may not attest a contract and the ------------ only may attest on
behalf of the minor.
a. possession b. guardian c. ownership

55
410. The acceptance must be absolute and ---- ------------.
a. unqualified/ b. qualified c. quality d. qualification
411. The Parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective ------------.
a. communications b. promises  c. contracts
412. To form a ------------ , the first essential element is a proposal which is made by one person
and accepted by another.
a. promise b. agreement c. contract 
413. The person accepting the proposal is called the --------------.
a. promissor  b. promise c. acceptor d. promise
414. The person making the proposal is called the --------------.
a. promissor  b. promisee c. acceptor d. promise
415. The person accepting the proposal is called then---------------.
a. promissor b. promisee c. acceptor d. promise
416. The fundamental basis of contract law is the ------ of the contractiog parties.
a. agreement b. consideration
417. The rule of law is that where an offer is required by statute to be in writing, also the
acceptance must be -------- in order for the offer to become a contract binding on both
parties.
a. writing b. not in writing
418. The ------------- to enter into a contract can also be considered one of the principles of
contract law.
56
a. quality b. quantity c. capacity
419. The principal revoking the agent's authority is the way in which an agency ------------.
can terminate
420. The Contract Act came into force -----------.
from 1 September 1872
421. "The performance of ------------- may be made in any mannaer, or at any time, which the
promisee prescribes or sanctions."
any promise
422. The damages which can be taken ------------ which can recover only in case of a breach of
promise of marrigae.
423. The person in respect of whose default the grantee is given is called the -----------.
principal debtor
424. The promise must be supported by bargain for --------------- that is legally sufficient.
consideration
425. The ---------- contracts can include contracts under seal, recognizances, negotiable
instruments, and letters of credit.
Formal
426. Thee must be mutuality before ----------- is available .
427. The preson accepting the proposal is called the --------------.

57
promisee
428. Tender is -----------.
an offer
429. Tender is ---------------.
an invitation to offer
430. The modes of communications were recognized in section ------------.
431. The damages which can be taken ----------- which can recover only in case of a breach of
promise of marriage.
are not exemplary damages
432. The person in respect of whose default the grantee is given is called the ---------.
principal debtor
433. The general rule is that a postal acceptance ------------ when the letter of acceptance is
poseted.
takes effect
434. There mst be mutuality before ---------------- is available.
435. The court does not grant ------------- unless it can give full relief to both parties.
injunction
436. The person making the proposal is called the ---------.
promisee
58
437. The promise must be supported by bargain for ------------- that legally sufficient.
conideration
438.. The person making the proposal is called the --------------.
promisee
439. The consideration or objects of an agreement is -------------, unless , it involves or implies
injury to the person or property of another.
legal
440. The principal revoking the agent's authority is the way in which an agency -------.
is void
441. There must be mutuality before -------------- is available.
442. The court does not grant ---------- unless it can give full relief to both parties.
injuction
443. "The performance of ----------- may be made in any manner, or at any time, which the
promisee prescribes or sanctions."
any promise
444. There are four kinds of remedies for breach of contract.
False
445. The ------------ contract can include contracts under seal, recognizances , negotiable
instruments, and letters of credit.
formal
59
446. The acceptance must be absolute and ----- ---------.
unqualified
447. Unless a different intention appears from the terms of the contract, stipulation as to time of
payment --------------- to be of the essence of the contract of sale.
are not deemed
448. Under the Sale of Goods Act, the contract of sale of goods means -------------- where by the
seller actually transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price.
a contract
449. Under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 , void agreement and void contract is the same.
False
450. Under the Contract Act promisor is the --------------.
person who makes the proposal
451. Under the Indian Contract Act, 1872, void agreement and void contract is the same.
False
452. Under the Contract Act promisor is the --------.
453. Under the indian Contract Act, 1872 void agreement and void contract is the same.
False
454. Under the Indian Contract Act, 1872, void agreement and void contract is the same.
False
455. Under the contract Act promisor is the ------------.

60
456. Void agreement signifies -------------.
agreement not enforceable by law
457. Where an offer in uncommunicated there can be ------------.
no contract
458. Where the buyer wrongfully neglect or refuses to accept and pay for the good, the seller ------
------ him for damages.
maysue
459. Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be -------------.
no contract
460. When consent to an agreement was caused by --------------, the agreement is a contract
voidable at the option of the party hose consent was so caused.
fraud
461. When the goods are brought by description from seller who deal in goods of that description,
there is an ------------- that the goods shall be of merchantable quality.
implied condition
462. When the whole of the price has not been paid or tendered; the seller of goods is deemed to
be an -----------------.
Unpaid Seller
463. Where the carrier or other bailee wrongfully refuse to deliver the goods to the buyer or his
agent in that behalf, the transit ------------- to be at an end.
is not deemed
61
464. Warranty is a stipulation which is only --- ------------ to the main purpose of the contract.
subidiary
465. Where the carrier or other bailee wrondfully refuse to deliver the goods to the buyer or his
agent in the behalf , the transit -------------- to be at an end.
is not deemed
466. When consent to any agreement was caused by ------------, the agreement is a contract
voidable at the option of the party hoose consent was so caused.
467. Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be ----------.
a. no contract/  b. contract c. deed d. agreement
468. Where damages are deemed inadequate , the court may make an order for ----------- which
will compel the party in breach to fulfil the terms of a contract.
compensation.
469. Where a contract is broken, the injured party can take actions for the injury sustained by the -
-------------- of contract.
breach
470. Which ONE of the following is not an equitable remedy ?
Damages
471. When, at the desire of the promisor, the promise or any other person has done or abstained
from doing, such act or abstinence or promise ----------.
consideration for other promise
472. Where an offer is un-communicated there can be ----------.
no contract
62
473. When one person signed to anoter his willingness to do or to obstain from doing
anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said
to make --------.
a proposal
473. Where an offer is un-communicated there can be ----------.
no contract
474. When consent to an agreement is caused by fraud, the agreement ------------ at the option of
the party whose consent was so caused."
is a contract voidable
475. When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained
from doing, such act or abstinence or promise ----------.
consideration for the promise
476. Where both the parties are under mistake as to matter of fact, the contract under section 20 is
---------.
voidable
477. When consent to an agreement is caused by fraud, the agreement ------------ at the option of
the party whose consent was so caused. "
is a void contract
478. Where damages are deemed inadequate, the court may make an order for --------- which will
compel the party in breach to fulfil the terms of a contract.
compensation
1
6103
1. Certain agreements have been ----------- declared illegal or void by the law.
impliedly
2. The terms of the agreement shall be ---------- of performance.

capable
3. A agrees to B to discover treasure by magic. The act in itself is ----------- to be performed from the
very beginning.
impossible
4. Consideration is --------- if it is fraudulent.

unlawful
5. A promise to pay a time-barred debt must be ------------ .

oral or in writing
6. "In so for as proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be -----
------ ."
express
7. Only legal agreements are called ---------- .

promises
8. "A says to B "will you purchase my car for Ks.20,000,000?” B says to A “Yes”. It is ---------- ."
a promise
9. An agreement which is required to be stamped will be -------- if it is under stamped.

enforceable
10. An agreement which is required to be stamped will be --------- if it is n ot stamped at all.

unenforceable
11. Illegal agreements are --------- from the very beginning.

void
promise by A to sell the car and there is a promise by B to purchase the car there are two promises. It
is --------- ."
is --------- ."
unilateral
13. "If a minor has obtained any benefit, he --------- be asked to repay."
can
15. An example of contingent contract is ------------ .

2
contract of agency
bailee
17. ---------- will not be ordered where one of the parties is a minor.
18. A contract of guarantee may be ---------- .

for an existing debt or for a future debt
19. ---------- is a person who is employed to bring his principal into contractual relations with third
parties.
An agent
20. An invitation by a company to the public to subscribe for its shares is ---------- .
offer
21. Advertising auction sales is ---------- .

invitation to offer
22. "On acceptance of proposal, proposer is called as ---------- ."

promisor
23. "On acceptance of proposal, offeree is called as ---------- ."

promisor
24. ----------- is used by a dominant party on a weaker one to get an unfair advantage in a contract.
Coercion
25. "A person usually of unsound mind, but occasionally of sound mind can make contract when he
is of ---------- ."
sound mind
26. " The definitions and terms relating to contract were provided as interpretative clause in the
Contract Act, ________."
1872
27. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be _______.

void
28. Acceptance must be communicated to the person who made the ______.
offer
29. ------------ must be communicated to the offer.

Acceptance
30. In Myanmer attaining the age of majority was provided in the _______of the Majority Act.
Section (3)
31. " Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any person, other than a minor is ________."
void
3
32. " _________ are not punitive or exemplary, they are compensation for loss suffered."
Specific Performance
33. " --------------- may be either an alien friend or a foreigner whose sovereign or State is at peace
with Myanmar, has usually contractual capacity of a Myanmar citizen."
34. "Ambassadors enjoy a privilege in that they ------------- in courts, unless they voluntarily submit
to the jurisdiction of the courts."
cannot be sued
35. No action can be brought by a party to ------------ .

an illegal agreement
36. Explain the “communication” of an offer and acceptance.

In order to constitute a contract, there must be steps to be taken by both side of the proposor or
offeror and accepter.
First, there must be a proposal by the side of proposor or offeror. And secondly, there must be
acceptance by the side of the offeree of accepter.
In this step of transaction the element of “communication” is an important factor to be considered to
constitute a valid proposal or offer and a valid acceptance Therefore, to be a valid contract, there
must be a valid communication of offer and a valid communication of acceptance.
37. Summarize the rules laid down in the Contract Act as to the appropriation of payment
made by the debtor.
The rules as to appropriation of payments are laid down under Section 56 to 61.
(1) Where debt to be discharged is indicated.[S.59]
(2) Where such debt is not indicated [S.60]
(3) Where neither party appropriated.[S.61]
Application of payment where:-
(1) Debt to be discharged is indicated
Section 59
“Where a debtor, owing several distinct debts to one
person, makes a payment to him, either with express
intimation or under circumstances implying that payment is to
be applied to the discharge of some particular debt, the
payment, if accepted, must be applied accordingly.”
(2) Debt to discharged is not indicated
Section 60
“Where the debtor has omitted to intimate and there are no other circumstances indicating to which
debt the payment is to be applied, the creditor may apply it at his discretion to any lawful debt
actually due and payable to him from the debtor, whether its recovery is or is not barred by the law in
force for the time being as to the limitation of suits.”
38. What do you understand by “holding out”? And study the liability of pretended agent. Explain
the term agency by estoppels.
4
39. What is the definition of fraud?

Section 17
“Fraud” means and includes any of the following acts
committed by a party to a contract, or with his connivance,
or by his agent, with intent to deceive another party thereto
or his agent, or to induce him to enter into the contract: -
40. What is the definition of contingent contract?

Contingent contract is defined in Section 31 as "a
contract to do or not to do something if some event, collateral
to such contract, does or does not happen".
1. According to Salmond a contract is an agreement creating and defining --------- between the
parties.
obligation
2. Two persons --------- enter into an agreement to do a criminal act.

can
5. A stops a taxi by waving his hand and takes his seat. There is an ----------- that A will pay the
prescribed fare.
implied contract
7. An agreement may be ---------- .

both legal and illegal
8. Every contract contains ----------- .

legal right & obligation
11. D agrees to buy V’s cycle by promising to pay cash on 14th June. V agrees to deliver the cycle
on 20th June.
An executed contract
12. A minor's contract is --------- in law.

voidable
13. A person who signs an instrument is bound by its terms even if he --------- it.
has not read
14. Wagering agreements are nothing but ordinary betting agreements.

yes
16. Contracts may be ---------- by laspe of time

discharged
18. "In contract of guarantee, the person who gives guarantee is called ------------ ."
a guarantor
19. "An expression of willingness of offeror to an offreee to do or to abstain from doing

anything,with a view to obtain the assent of an offeree and to enter him into a contract.It is --------- ."
offer
23. At the inception of agreement there must be a ________ made by one person to another.
5
proposal
24. Acceptance must be communicated to the person who made the ______.
offer
25. The consideration is said to be _________when it is a promise given for a promise.

executed
26. ------------ must be communicated to the offer.

Acceptance
27. When the state of war makes the contract itself ________.
relating to the devolution or joint liabilities
28. There are __________ relating to the devolution or joint liabilities.

three rules
29. " By substitution of new contract in place of the old one, this is called "________"."
novation
31. In a -------------- there must be mutuality in the sense that the gain of one party should be loss to
the other on the happening of an uncertain event which is the subject matter of the contract.
wagering contract
32. No action can be brought by a party to ------------ .

an illegal agreement
33. If a person makes a representation believing what he says is true he commits ---------------- .
34. "The effect of -------------- is that the party misled by it can avoid the contract, but cannot sue for
damages in the normal circumstances."
35. Generally the injured party can only avoid the contract and cannot get damages for ------------ .
36. “Contract to do an act afterwards becoming impossible or unlawful”. Do you agree this
statement? Briefly discuss.
Contingent contract is defined in Section 31 as "a contract to do or not to do something if some
event, collateral to such contract, does or does not happen".
37. “Agreements the meaning of which is not certain or capable of being made certain are void”.
Briefly discuss.
"Agreements, the meaning of which is not certain, or capable of being made certain, are void".
Illustration
(a)A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is nothing whatever to show what kind of oil
was intended. The agreement is void for uncertainty.
38. What are the damages for breach of contract? Explain the measure of damages.
Where there is a breach of contract, the usual remedy
6
is to sue for damages. In a claim for damages, two issues arise:

(1) Measure of damages, and
(2) Remoteness of damages
(i) Measure of Damages
The measure of damages for breach of contract is governed by the principles laid down in Section 73
of the Contract Act that “When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such breach is
entitled to receive, from the party who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or
damage caused to him thereby..”
Section 73
"When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such breach is entitled to receive, from
the party who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him thereby,
which naturally arose in the usual course of things from such breach or which the parties knew, when
they made the contract, to be likely to result from the breach of it.
Such compensation is not to be given for any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by reason
of the breach.”
39. Define the meaning of mistake of law.

Section 21
“A contract is not voidable because it was caused by a mistake as to any law in force in the Union of
Myanmar, but a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union of Myanmar has the same effect as a
mistake of fact”.(mistake of foreign law)
2. The parties to a contract must have ---------- to make valid contract.

legal ability
4. A agreed to pay Ks.15 lakh to B for ultra-modern decoration of his drawing room. The agreement
is void because the meaning of the term “ ultra-modern” is ----------- .
not certain
5. Object of an agreement is --------- if it is forbidden by law.

unlawful
9. Sometimes valid contracts may subsequently becomes --------- .

voidable
11. The seller is --------- to reveal the defects of his goods to the buyer subject to certain conditions.
under duty
15. When one of the two joint tenants paid the whole rents to landlord he is entitled to get
compensation from his co-tenant. It is ---------- .
contract of agency
16. X promises to paint a picture for Y. X must personally --------- the promise.
perform
17. ------------ damages consist of a small token award.

Exemplary
18. ----------- is usually granted in contracts relating to land.

7
19. ---------- may be prohibitory or mandatory.

26. " _________of the Contract Act,1872 provides two general modes of communication."
Section (3)
27. There are ________essential elements to form a valid contract.

Seven
29. "Mg Mg contracts to sell 800 bales of cotton for Ks. 200,000, if the ship by which they are
coming returns safely. This is a ---------------- ."
contingent contract
37. “Agreements the meaning of which is not certain or capable of being made certain are void”.
Briefly discuss.
38. What are the importance of time and place of performing the contract?
(1) Time for performance where on time is specified
Section 47
Time is specified and application to be made, “when a promise is to be performed on a certain day,
and the promisor has undertaken to perform it at any time during the usual hours of business on such
day and at the place at which the promise ought to be performed.”
Section 48
“When a promise is to be performed on a certain day, and the promisor has not undertaken to
perform it without application by the promisee, it is the duty of the promisee to apply for
performance at 'a proper place' and within the usual house of business.”
Section 49
“When a promise is to be performed without application
by the promisee, and no place is fixed for the performance of
it, is the duty of the promisor to apply to the promisee to appoint "a reasonable place" for the
performance of the promise, and to perform it at such place.”
39. "A owes B Ks-100,000 but the debt is barred by the Limitation Act. A signs a written promise to
pay B Ks-50,000 on account of the debt. Is it a contract? Explain."
Given the problem, "A owes B Ks-100,000 but the debt is barred by the Limitation Act. A signs a
written promise to pay B Ks-50,000 on account of the debt. Is it a contract?
A signed to pay B Ks-50,000 on account of the debt. So, it is a contract.
According to Section 126 defines
A "Contract of Guarantee" is a contract to perform the
promise, or discharge the liability of a third person in case
of his default.
The person who gives the guarantee is called the
"surety". The person in respect of whose default the grantee
is given is called the "principal debtor", and the person in to
whom the grantee is given is called the "creditor". A
guarantee may be either oral or written.”
1. The parties to a contract must have ---------- to make valid contract.

legal ability
2. The object of agreement ----------- lawful and legal.

must be
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3. Two persons --------- enter into an agreement to do a criminal act.

can
4. A ---------- contract is a one sided contract in which only one party has to perform his promise or
obligation party has to perform his promise or obligation to do or forbear.
bilateral
5. If the price is paid by the buyerand the goods are delivered by the seller at the same time.
Consideration is --------- by both parties.
executed
6. A minor --------- himself by a contract.

cannot bind

promisee
8. ----------- can be a beneficiary.

All
9. "If unlawful part in an agreement can be severed from the other lawful part of an agreement,
lawful part is ---------- ."
valid
10. There are some contracts into which a -------------- cannot enter without its seal.
company
11.What are the main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer”. Explain with example.
The main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer” are (1) A proposal is not a mere declaration
or intention to
make an offer but it is offer that is made with the idea the
person to whom the offer has been made will act in response
to his offer: there must be request to accept his offer.
Example
If 'A' says in conversation with 'B' that he would sell
his house will not amount to an "offer" or "proposal".
(2) A proposal must be made with an intention to create
legal relation.
Example
To offer a friend a meal is not to create legal relation.
(3) The terms of a proposal or an offer must be certain.
(4)A proposal (offer) may be general or specific.
Example
An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for
the finder of the lost dog amounts to a general offer.
(5)Every offer must be communicated.
(6)Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be no contract.

9
Sometimes a proposal takes the form of continuous offer, which is called 'standing offer'. A proposal
takes the form of continuous offer is called 'standing offer'.
An invitation to traders to make tenders, display of goods for sale in shop windows, and advertising
auction sales are instances of invitation to the other to make offer to buy or sell as the case may be.
Thus, for example, a book seller's catalogue with prices stated against the names of the books
is an invitation to the purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for the book seller to
accept it or not.
1. What do you understand by the term “communication”? Explain.

In order to become an agreement, there must be communication of proposal and acceptance.
According to the definition of the proposal and acceptance under the Contract Act 1972, it was
mentioned as:-
Section 2 (a) when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing
anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to
make a 'proposal'.
Section 2(b) when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal
is said to be 'accepted'.
Modes of Communication
"The communication of proposals, the acceptance of proposals, and the revocation of proposals and
acceptances, respectively, are deemed to be made by any act or omission of the party proposing,
accepting or revoking by which he intends to communicate such proposal, acceptance or
revocation, or which has the effect of communicating it". [Section (3)]
This section provides two general modes of communication, namely: by-

(i) any act or conduct
(ii) omission
By the above two modes it is intending to communicate to the other
The first mode “any act” would include any “words” or “conduct”. ”words” may be oral or written.
"written” would include letters, telephones, telex, advertisements etc.
"oral" would include telephone message.
‘Any conduct' would include positive acts or sings so that the other person understands what the
person acting or making sign means to say.
The instances of communicating by conduct are: -

1. Delivery of goods by the seller to a buyer who has offered to buy them for a certain price.
2. Steps into a public bus.
(ii) "Omission" would include such conduct or forbearance on one's part that the other person takes it
as his willingness or assent. Omission would not mean silence.
Communicating to an authorized agent also amounts to communication by means of the word
of "which has the effect of communicating it".
39. What is the definition of bailment and describe the duties of a bailor?
Section 148
“A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose upon a contract that
they shall, when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise disposed of according to the
directions of the person delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called the "bailor". The
person to whom they are delivered is called the bailee .”
Duties of a Bailor
Section 150
“The bailor is bound to disclose to the bailee faul ts in the good bailed, of which the bailor is aware,
and which materially interfere with the use of them, or expose the bailee to extra ordinary risks; and
10
if he does not make such disclosure, he is responsible for damage arising to the bailee directly from
such faults.”
“If the goods are bailed for hire, the bailor is responsible for such damage, whether he was or was
not aware of the existence of such faults in the goods bailed.”
2. "Consideration must not be ----------- , immoral or opposed to the public policy."

unlawful
6. "An agreements to do act, impossible in itself ----------- be enforced."

cannot
7. Agreement is a wider term than contract.

Yes
8. A contract includes ----------- .

an agreement
9. An agreement ----------- a contract.

include
13. "A contracts to buy a car from B by paying cash, B instantly delivers his car."
An executory contract
14. A ---------- contract is a one sided contract in which only one party has to perform his promise or
obligation party has to perform his promise or obligation to do or forbear.
bilateral
15. A minor's contract is --------- in law.

voidable
25. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be _______.

void
is --------- ."
bilateral
28. "A person is of unsound mind if at the time when he makes the contract, he is -------------- it and
of forming rational judgment as to its effect upon his interests."
capable of understanding
32. There are some contracts into which a -------------- cannot enter without its seal.
34. Generally the injured party can only avoid the contract and cannot get damages for ------------ .
Injury or loss
36. “A contract is an agreement enforceable by Law”. Do you agree this statement?

“A contract is an agreement enforceable by Law”. I agree this statement.
11
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides that "A Contract is an agreement enforceable
by law".
Section 10 of the said Act adds further qualification to the agreement as follows:-
"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract,
for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void.
Nothing here in contained shall affect any law in force in the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or
any law relating to the registration of documents.”
1. A and B agree to go to a movie on coming Sunday. A does not inform on resulting in loss of B’s
time.
It is social agreement.  
14. A minor --------- himself by a contract.

cannot bind
34. The assured must disclose to the insurer all ------------ facts and whatever he states must be
correct and truthful.
material
37. What are the main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer”. Explain with example.
The main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer” are (1) A proposal is not a mere declaration
or intention to
make an offer but it is offer that is made with the idea the person to whom the offer has been made
will act in response
Example
If 'A' says in conversation with 'B' that he would sell his house will not amount to an "offer" or
"proposal".
(2) A proposal must be made with an intention to create legal relation.
Example
Example
An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the lost dog amounts to a general
offer.
takes the
form of continuous offer is called 'standing offer'.
Thus, for example, a book seller's catalogue with prices stated against the names of the books is an
invitation to the
purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for the book seller to accept it or not.
40. What is the meaning of innocent misrepresentation?

Innocent misrepresentation causing, however innocently, a party to an agreement to make a mistake
as to the substance of the thing which is the subject of the agreement.
20. "In case of breach of contract , the injured party may --------- the contract"
12
rescind
21. "In case of breach of contract , the injured party may sue on --------- ."
quantum meruit
11. "In so for as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to
be ---------- ."
express
39. " What is the liability of person to whom money is paid, or thing delivered, by mistake or
under coercion?"
The fifth and the last kind of quasi -contract mentioned in Section 72 of the Act is that “a person to
whom money has been paid, or anything delivered by mistake or under coercion must repay or return
it.”
(a) A and B jointly owe 100 kyats to C. A alone pays the amount to C, and B, not knowing this fact,
pays 100 kyats over again to C. C is bound to repay the amount to B.
(b) A railway company refuses to deliver up certain goods to the consignee except upon the payment
of an illegal charge for carriage. This consignee pays the sum charged in order to obtain the goods.
He is entitled to recover so much of the charge as was illegal excessive.
19. X promises to paint a picture for Y. X must personally --------- the promise.
perform
24. The person making the proposal is called the " _______".
Promisor

agreement
33. "An ------------- contract too has no legal effect as between the immediate parties to the contract,
but has the further effect of tainting the collateral contracts also with illegality."
An illegal contract
36. Explain the term “consideration”. Discuss about the terms “the executor consideration
Consideration
When, at the desire of the "Promisor", the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from
doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from” and “the executed
consideration”.
doing, something ,such act or abstinence or promise is called a "consideration" for the promise.
[Section 2 (d)]
Section 2 (d) of the Contract Act defines the term “Consideration” as "when, at the desire of the
promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstain
from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is
called a consideration for the promise"
15. An engagement to marry someone is ----------- .

an executory contract
20. When one of the two joint tenants paid the whole rents to landlord he is entitled to get
compensation from his co-tenant. It is ---------- .
quasi contract

13
promisor
27. ----------- can be a beneficiary.

All
30. " Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any person, other than a minor is ________."
invalid
1. "A person is of unsound mind if at the time when he makes the contract, he is -------------- it and of
forming rational judgment as to its effect upon his interests."
incapable of understanding
34. In a -------------- there must be mutuality in the sense that the gain of one party should be loss to
the other on the happening of an uncertain event which is the subject matter of the contract.
wagering contract
Injury
36. What are the main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer”. Explain with example.
the main points to become a valid “proposal” or “offer"
(1) A proposal is not a mere declaration or intention to make an offer but it is offer that is made with
the idea the person to whom the offer has been made will act in response to his offer: there must be
request to accept his offer.
Example
"proposal".
Example
Example
offer.
invitation to the purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for the book seller to accept
it or not.
bailee
22. "An expression of willingness of offeror to an offreee to do or to abstain from doing

anything,with a view to obtain the assent of an offeree and to enter him into a contract.It is --------- ."
14
invitation to offer
25. An agreement between _______or more persons whereby one of them engages to do a thing or
not to do a thing for the other or others.
two
39. What is the effect of refusal to perform promise wholly?

Section 39 deals with the effect of breach of contract willfully caused by a party thereto.
“When a party to a contract has refused to perform, or disabled himself from performing, his promise
in its entirely, the promisee may put an end to the contract, unless he has signified, by words or
conduct, his acquiescence in its continuance.”
Illustration
A, a singer, enters into a contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sing at his theater, to sing at his
theatre two nights in every week during the next two months, and B engages to pay her Ks. 100,000
for each night's performance. On the sixth night A willfully absents herself from the theatre. B is a
liberty to put an end to the contract.
39. Define the term the disqualification to contract.

A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her own law to which he or she is subject.
For example, in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority of her
husband.
For example:
(1) A statutory company cannot enter into a contract out of its memorandum
In Myanmar, the capacity of a woman to contract is not affected by her marriage either under
Myanmar Customary Law. It is also the same in Hindu or Mohammedan Law.
1 - Agreement
To constitute a contract there must be an agreement.
An agreement is composed of two elements = offer and acceptance
2- Intention to create legal relationship

There should be an intention on the part of the parties to the agreement to create a legal relationship
Eg. In case of social agreement there is no intention to create legal relationship and there is no contract
3 - Free and genuine consent

The consent of the parties to the agreement = free and genuine.
The consent of the parties should not be obtained by misrepresentation Sec. 18, fraud Sec. 17, undue
influence Sec.16, coercion Sec.15 or mistake. Sec.20,21,22
4 - Parties competent to contract

The parties to a contract must be competent to enter into a contract.
According to Section 11, every person is competent to contract if he (i) is of the age of majority
[Majority Act Sec.3 – 18 yrs old], (ii) is of sound mind [Person of unsound mind can enter into a contract
during his lucid interval.], and (iii) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is
subject. [Insolvent, Alien enemy, Convict]
5. Lawful consideration
The agreement must be supported by consideration on both sides. The consideration must be real and
lawful. [eg. Immoral, opposed to public policy]
6 Lawful object
The object of the agreement must be lawful. [ Not to harm body or property, Not fraudulent object, Not to
threaten purpose of law, Not to be interest of public, agreement to do a criminal act]
7. Agreements not declared illegal or void
There are certain agreements which have been expressly declared illegal or void by the law. [ eg.
Agreement without consideration, agreement in restraint of marriage, wagering contract]
8. Certainty of meaning
The meaning of the agreement must be certain or capable of being made certain. Otherwise the
agreement will not be enforceable at law. [A agreed to pay $ 100,000 to B for ultra-modern decoration of
his drawing room. The agreement is void because the meaning of the term “ ultra – modern” is not
certain.]
9. Possibility of performance
The terms of the agreement should be capable of performance. An agreement to do an act impossible in
itself cannot be enforced. [eg. A agrees to B to discover treasure by magic]
10.SUPPLY OF NECESSARIES
According to Section 68 a minor is liable to pay out of his property for ‘necessaries’ supplied to him or to
anyone whom he is legally bound to support.The significance of this is that it does not arise out of a
contract as much so as it arises out of a contract.the minor is not personally liable and ‘necessaries’
include food,clothing as well as education,They also include watch bicycle etc.
11.PAYMENT BY A INTERESTED PERSON

According to Sec 69 a person who is interested in the payment of money which another is bound by law
to pay,and who therefore pays it, is entitled to be reimbursed by the other.
12.Ma Ngwe Shin and one vs. Gaung Boke (a) Maung Laung Kyamar and one, 1955.
Facts of the case were that the appellants leased out a place of land to the respondents at a monthly rent of
K 30. Subsequently, the area was occupied by the K.N.D.O, and the appellants evacuated to Yangon. The
appellants used the respondents for arrears of rent accrued due amounting to Ks.411 during their absence.
The respondents pleaded that they had paid Ks. 360 to the K.N.D.O, authorities during their occupation
and as such they were entitled to be reimbursed under Section 69 of the Contract Act.
13.OBLIGATION TO PAY FOR NON GRATUITOUS ACTS

According to Section 70 when a person lawfully does or delivers anything for the other ,not intending to
do so gratuitously,and the person derives any benefit from it,he is liable to compensate,or restore the thing
so done or delivered.
14.In the case of Sei Sheng Company vs. U Thein, 1948.

Three conditions must satisfy
[1] The thing to be claimed must have been done lawfully
[2] The person intending to do it must not have done it gratuitously
[3] The person must have derived benefit from the act
Meaning of "person enjoy the benefit" was illustration in The Official Receiver Yangon vs. M.M. Mulla,
a receiver is not the agent or representative of any party to the suit and hold the benefit of the party
ultimately successful in the suit. He can not therefore be said to be a person who had benefited by the
repairs to the party, belonging to another person.
Ma Ngwe Shin and One Vs. Gaung Boke (a) Maung Laung Kyamar and one1955 B. L.R (H.C) 283
The essential elements center around

[1] The payment made should be bona fide of ones interest
[2] The payment should not be a voluntary one
[3] The payment must be such that the other is bound by law to pay
15.RESPONSIBILITY OF THE FINDER OF GOODS

According to Sec 71 a person who finds goods belonging to another and takes them into his custody is
subject to the same responsibility as the bailee is bound to take as much care of the goods as a man of
ordinary prudence would,In addition to that he must make efforts to trace the owner.If he does not ,he will
be guilty of wrong conversation,and till the owner is found out the property will vest with the finder,
he can sell in case of

[1] goods are or perishable nature
[2] owner cannot be found out
[3] when owner refuses to pay for the lawful charges
[4] when the lawful charges amount to two thirds of thing
16.Liability of Person to Whom Money is paid, or Thing delivered, by Mistake or Under Coercion
The fifth and the last kind of quasi-contract mentioned in Section 72 of the Act is that “a person to whom
money has been paid, or anything delivered by mistake or under coercion must repay or return it.”
Remedies for Breach of Contract
• Suit for Damages (loss or damage suffered by breach of contract)
• Kinds – Ordinary or General Damages (damages which arise on a breach; parties know it at the time of
entering into contract; eg. Difference in contract price and market price) – Special Damages (breach of
contract under some special circumstances)
17.DAMAGES
Damages are a monetary compensation allowed to the injured party by the court for the loss or injury
suffered by him by the breech of the contract.
The objective of awarding damages for the breech of contract is to put the injured party in the same
position as if he had not been injured.
This is called the doctrine of restitution.The fundamental basis is awarding damages for the pecuniary
loss.
18.Kinds – Exemplary Damages (shows the Court’s strong disapproval of the conduct of the defendant in
committing the wrong; eg. Refusal to honor a cheque in spite of having funds) –
Nominal Damages (breach involved is of technical nature, so some nominal damages may be awarded) –
Remote Damages (not to be given for any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by reason of the
breach)
19.Rules regarding determination of amount of damages – Restoration of parties to a position where

they would have been if the contract had been performed and not where they would have been if they
never made the contract• Damages are recoverable in 2 cases – When they arise naturally in the usual
course of things from such breach. – Loss or damage which the parties knew, when they made the
contract is likely to result from the breach of it.
Damages for breach by either party may be liquidated in the agreement but only at an amount that is
reasonable in light of the anticipated or actual harm caused by the breach.
“Liquidated damages”, in its true sense, means compensation in terms of money for the loss suffered by
one party due to the breach of contract by the other side.
Damages
The term ‘liquidated damages' should not be misunderstood with the term ‘penalty'. Penalty is awarded
by a competent Court, in case one of the parties takes action against the other.
21.The well-known rule of Handley Vs. Baxendale 1854

“where two parties have made a contract which one of them has broken, the damages which the other
party ought to receive in respect of such a breach of contract should be such as may fairly and reasonably
be considered either arising naturally, i.e, according to the usual cause of things, from such breach of
contract itself, or such as may reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both parties,
at the time they made the contract, as the probable result of the breach of it.” (broken crankshaft )
First, that in usual course of things the profit of the mill would cease for want of the shelf. But this would
not be the normal occurrence, for the plaintiffs might well have had a spare shelf in reserve. Secondly,
that the special circumstances were so fully disclosed that the inevitable loss of profit was made apparent
to the defendant. Therefore, the defendant was not liable for loss of profit during the period of delay.
In special circumstances, outside Ordinary course of things, notice of special circumstances is important.
22.Madras Railway Co. vs. Govinda Rau 1898
The tailor is not entitled to damages for the loss of profits nor for his expenses incidental to the journey to
that place and back, as such damages could not have been in the contemplation of the parties when they
made the contract, nor can they be said to have naturally arisen in the usual course of things from the
breach.
23.Simpson vs. London & North Western Railway Company 1876

The plaintiff, a manufacturer, was in the habit of sending specimens of his goods for exhibition to
agricultural shows. After exhibition in a show at Bedford, he entrusted some of his samples to an agent of
the defendant company for carriage to a showground at Newcastle. On the consignment note he wrote:
"Must be at Newcastle Monday certain." Owing to a default on the part of the Railway Company, the
samples arrived later for the Newcastle show. The plaintiff therefore claimed damages for his loss of
profits at the show.
It was held that the company was liable. The company's agent had knowledge of the special
circumstances, that the goods were to be exhibited at the Newcastle show, and so should have
contemplated that a delay in delivery might result in this loss.
24.Remoteness of Damage
The remoteness of Damage means that there must be a causal link between the breach and the losses
sustained.
It will not be presumed that the defendant (who breached the contract) will be liable for all losses arising
out of the breach. The losses must be arisen direct from the breach. Losses not direct consequences of the
breach must be being regarded as “too remote”.
25.Maung Gat Chaw and one vs. Daw Shwe Hman 1961
It was held that although the appellants had, by their failure to convey the goods to Ela committed a
breach of contract, the respondent by her refusal to take over the goods and sell them away had omitted to
take as possible means to mitigate the loss as enjoined in the explanation to Section 73 of the Contract
Act for estimating the loss of damage arising from a breach of contract and that therefore she is not
entitled to the damage claimed.
26.Compensation for Failure to discharge the Obligation Resembling those created by Contract
Section 73 (3) provides for breach of quasi contracts provides that:-“When an obligation resembling
those created by contract has been incurred and has not been discharged, any person injured by the failure
to discharge it is entitled to receive the same compensation from the party in default as if such person had
contracted to discharge it and had broken his contract.”
27.Party Rightfully Rescinding Contract entitled to Compensation

Section 75
“A person who rightfully rescinds a contract is entitled to compensation for any damage which he has
sustained through the non-fulfillment of the contract.”
28.• Quantum Meruit means as much as earned.

• Right to Quantum Meruit : Right to claim the compensation for the work already done.
A right to sue on a quantum meruit arises when a contract, partly performed by one party,has been
discharged by breach of contract by the other party.
This right is performed not on original contract but on implied promise by other party for what has been
done.
29."Quantum Meruit”
means as much as he has earned. Where one person has expressly or impliedly requested another to
render him a service specifying any remuneration, but the circumstances of the request imply that the
service is to be paid for, there is implied promise to pay "quantum meruit" that is so much as the party
doing the service deserves.
30.SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE
In certain cases of breach of contract damages are not an adequate remedy. The court may, in such cases,
direct the party in breach to carry out his promise according to terms of the contract.
This is a direction by the court for specific performance of the contract at the suit of the party not in
breach
Cases for specific performance to be enforced

1)when the act agreed to be done is such that compensation is not adequate relief.
2)when there is no standard for ascertaining the actual damage (when the court can supervise the
execution of the contract)
3)when it is probable that compensation cannot be agreed to be done (when the contract is certain, fair
and just).
31.INJUNCTION
When a party is in breech of a negative term of contract the court may,by issuing an order,restrain him by
doing what he promised him not to do. Such an order of the court is called injunction.
Court refuses grant of injunction
[1] whereby a promisor undertakes not to do something
[2] which is negative in substance though not in form
32.•Suit for Injunction

• Preventive relief
• This is an order of the court restraining the wrong doer from doing or continuing the wrongful act
complained of.
• Usually granted to enforce negative stipulations in cases where damages are not adequate relief.
33.Specific Contracts (Chapter 8)

Indemnity (Section 124)
A contract by which one party promises to another to save him from loss caused to him by the conduct of
the promisor himself , or by the conduct of any other person is called a contract of indemnity.
34.BAILMENT Sec 148

The word Bailment is derived from the French word “ballier” which means “to deliver” . Bailment means
delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose ,upon a contract ,that they shall ,when the
purpose is accomplished ,be returned or otherwise disposed of according to the instructions of the person
delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called the ‘bailor’ and the person to whom they are
delivered is called the ‘bailee’.
35.Essentials of bailment
There are two persons namely Bailor and Bailee.Bailor means the person delivering the goods, Bailee
means the person to whom the goods are delivered.
Their must be delivery of goods .
The goods must be in deliverable condition.
Only the goods are delivered but not the ownership of goods, their must be purpose.
Bailey can use the goods.
Goods must be returned or disposed off after the purpose is accomplished.
36.Duties and rights of Bailor and Bailee

Duties of bailor.
To disclose known faults.
To bear extraordinary expenses of bailment.
To indemnify bailee for loss in case of pre mature termination of gratuitous bailment.
To receive back the goods.
To indemnify the bailee.
Rights of bailor
Enforcement of rights.
Avoidance of contract. (Sec153)
Return of goods lent gratuitously. (Sec 159)
Compensation from a wrong –doer. (Sec 180)
Rights of bailee
Delivery of goods to one of several joint bailor of goods. (Sec 165).
Delivery of goods to bailor without title. (Sec 166).
Right to apply to court to stop delivery. (Sec 167)
Right to action against trespassers. (Sec 180)
Bailee’ s lien.
37.. Express the definition of proposal?
Under section 2 (a) of the Contract Act 1872, a Proposal is an act when one person signifies to another his
willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to
such act or abstinence.
A mere statement of intention or offer will not constitute a proposal through acted upon by the party to
whom it was made.
Therefore we can explain a proposal as definite statement of intention by one person signifying his
willingness to do or to abstain from doing something with the expectation that the person doing to whom
such intention is conveyed will do or abstain from doing some other thing in return.
38. What is the meaning of coercion?

Under section 15 of the Contract Act 1872, a “Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to commit, any
act forbidden by the Penal Code, or the unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain, any property, to the
prejudice of any person whatever, with the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement.”
39. When proposal can be revoked?

Under section 5 of the Contract Act 1872, the proposal can be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards.
40. U Mg Mg, being entitled to an estate for the life of U Aung Aung, agrees to sell it to U Phyu. U
Aung Aung was dead at the time of the agreement, but both parties were ignorant of the fact. Is the
agreement is void or valid?
According to the given problem, U Mg Mg, being entitled to an estate for the life of U Aung Aung, agrees
to sell it to U Phyu. U Aung Aung was dead at the time of the agreement, but both parties were ignorant
of the fact. The agreement is void.
To be referred to the case of Daw Ohn Sein and three others vs. U Ba Tint, a sale of land was made
believing by both parties that the land was owned by the vendor. In fact it was owned by the vendor. It
was held that the contract was void ab initio since there was mutual mistake and therefore the vendor
cannot claim for the agree sum.
That's why, according to the given case, the agreement is void.
41. Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says
nothing to U Phyu about the horse's unsoundness. Is this fraud or not in Mg Mg ?
According to the given problem, Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be
unsound. Mg Mg says nothing to U Phyu about the horse's unsoundness. This is not fraud in Mg Mg. The
definition of fraud in Section 17 of the Contract Act 1872 requires: (1) either an intent to deceive or to
induce another to enter into a contract by a false suggestion knowing it to be false or, (2) the active
concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact which is his duty to disclose.
Fraud is committed whether one man causes another to act on a false belief by a representation which he
does not himself believe to be true. In fraud, malice is one factor to be considered.
That's why this is not fraud in Mg Mg.

42. What is the free consent?
ANSWER:
In order to be a valid contract, the agreement must have been made with free consent of the parties.
In section 13
“Consent” is defined as “Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the same thing in
the same sense”.
The word 'the same thing' must obviously be taken as the whole contents of the agreement, whether it
consists, wholly or in part, of delivery of material
objects, or payment, or other executed acts or promises.
In section 14
Consent is said to be free when it is no caused by;-
(1) coercion, as defined in section 15, or
(2) undue influence, as defined in section 16, or
(3) fraud, as defined in section 17, or
(4) misrepresentation, as defined in section 18, or
(5) mistake, subject to the provisions of section 20,22 and 22 .
Consent is said to be so caused when each would not have been given but for the existence of such
coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake.
43. Express the definition of proposal?

ANSWER:
A Proposal is an act when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing
anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence said under section 2
(a) of the Contract Act 1872,.
whom it was made.
44. Define the term acceptance.

ANSWER:
A contract is formed by acceptance of a proposal. An agreement comes into existence when a proposal is
accepted.
Section 2(b) of the Contract Act 1872 defines acceptance as that “when the person to whom the proposal
is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted”. A proposal, when accepted,
becomes a promise.
Acceptance of a proposal may be made in one or other of the following
ways:
(a) oral
(b) written and
(c) conduct
45. What is the meaning of consideration?
ANSWER:
Consideration is an important element in the formation of a contract. A promise without consideration is
said to be nudum pactum1 and is not enforceable by law.
Section 2 (d) of the Contract Act defines the term “ Consideration” as "when, at the desire of the
promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstain from
doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a
consideration for the promise"
Let us consider the different parts of the above definition of consideration.

ANSWER:
47. Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says

This is not fraud in Mg Mg because section 17 of Contract Act provides illustrations which reads as
follows:
(a) A sells, by auction, to B, a horse which A knows to be unsound. A says nothing to B about the house's
unsoundness. This is not fraud in A.
The agreement is void because of Section 20 of the Contract Act. Illustration (c) reads as follows:
(c) A being entitled to an estate for the life of B, agrees to sell it to C. B was dead at the time of the
agreement, but both parties were ignorant of the fact. The agreement is void.
whom it was made.
51. When proposal can be revoked?

Under section 5 of the Contract Act 1872, the proposal can be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards.
According to the given problem, U Mg Mg, being entitled to an estate for the life of U Aung Aung, agrees
to sell it to U Phyu. U Aung Aung was dead at the time of the agreement, but both parties were ignorant
of the fact. The agreement is void.
To be referred to the case of Daw OhnSein and three others vs. U Ba Tint, a sale of land was made
believing by both parties that the land was owned by the vendor. In fact it was owned by the vendor. It
was held that the contract was void ab initio since there was mutual mistake and therefore the vendor
cannot claim for the agree sum.
53.That's why, according to the given case, the agreement is void.. Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U
Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says nothing to U Phyu about the horse's
unsoundness. Is this fraud or not in Mg Mg ?
According to the given problem, MgMg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be
unsound. Mg Mg says nothing to U Phyu about the horse's unsoundness. This is not fraud in Mg Mg. The
definition of fraud in Section 17 of the Contract Act 1872 requires: (1) either an intent to deceive or to
induce another to enter into a contract by a false suggestion knowing it to be false or, (2) the active
concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact which is his duty to disclose.
Fraud is committed whether one man causes another to act on a false belief by a representation which he
does not himself believe to be true. In fraud, malice is one factor to be considered.
That's why this is not fraud in Mg Mg.
A proposal is not a mere declaration or intention to make an offer. There must be request to accept his
offer.
A proposal must be made with an intention to create legal relation.
The terms of a proposal must be certain.

A proposal ( offer) may be general or specific.
Every offer must be communicated. Unless the acceptor has the knowledge of the offer, there can be no
acceptance and consequently no contract.
Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be no contract.
A proposal takes the form of continuous offer is called 'standing offer'.
55.. Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says

Mg Mg sells, by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says nothing to

U Phyu about the horse's unsoundness. This is not fraud in Mg Mg.
56. What is undue influence?
A contract is said to have been induced by "undue influence" where the relations subsisting between the
parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of the other and uses that
position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other.
Thus, sub section (1) gives the element of undue influence as:
(1) one of the parties must be in a position to dominate the will of the other and,
(2) he or she must use that position to obtain an unfair advantage.
Undue influence is ordinarily presumed in relationship, such as-(a) parent and child
(b) guardian and ward
(c) trustee and beneficiary
(d) solicitor and client
(e) doctor and patient
(f) spiritual adviser and disciple
But the relation of master and servant, creditor and debtor, husband and
wife does not itself raise a presumption of undue influence.
“Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to commit, any act forbidden by the Penal Code, or the
unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain, any property, to the prejudice of any person whatever, with
the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement.”
To establish coercion, there must be-
(1) an act or threat to commit an act forbidden by the Penal Code (or)
(2) there must be an unlawful detention (or)
(3) threat to unlawfully detain any property and it must be proved that the
consent of the promisor was caused by such conduct.
58.. Mg Mg finds Phyu Phyu's purse and gives it to her. Phyu Phyu's promises to give Mg Mg Kyats
5000. Is this a contract or not?
Mg Mg finds Phyu Phyu's purse and gives it to her. Phyu Phyu's promises to give Mg Mg Kyats 5000.
This is a contract.
Short questions
59. Define the term promise.
In Section 2(b) of Contract Act, when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent
thereto, the proposal is said to be 'accepted' A proposal, when accepted.( As to when communication of
acceptance becomes complete) becomes a "promise".

Section 2(d) of Contract Act, provides that
When, at the desire of the "Promisor", the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing,
or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or
abstinence or promise is called a "consideration" for the promise.

62.Define the term acceptance.

Section 2(b) of the Contract Act 1872 defines acceptance as that “when the person to whom the proposal
is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted”. A proposal, when accepted,
become a promise.
63. How many kinds of consideration?

Section 2(d) of Contract Act, provides that when, at the desire of the "Promisor", the promisee or any
other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to
abstain from doing, something ,such act or abstinence or promise is called a "consideration" for the
promise.
A Consideration may be Past, Present and Future.
(a)Past Consideration
(b)Present Consideration
(c)Future Consideration
64. What is the meaning of revocation of proposal?
Section 5 of the Contract Act states that a proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication
of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards.
65. What is the meaning of revocation of acceptance?

An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the acceptance is complete as
against the acceptor, but not afterwards in Section 5 of the Contract Act.
66.What are the basic factors to constitute a valid contract?

There are the basic factors which are essentials to constitute a valid contract, such as;-
1. Agreement
2. Consent which is free
3. Capacity to make a contract
4. Lawful consideration and Lawful object
5. Void agreement
6. Where writing, attestation or registration in accordance with Law
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides that "A Contract is an agreement enforceable by
law".
67.What is the free consent?
In Section 14 of the Contract Act 1872
consent is said to be free when it is no caused by;-
(a)coercion, as defined in section 15 , or 25
(b)undue influence, as defined in section 16, or
(c )fraud, as defined in section 17 ,or
(d)misrepresentation, as defined in section 18, or
(e)mistake, subject to the provisions of section 20,22 and 22.
1
A proposal when accepted becomes a promise. Section 2(b)] The person making the proposal is
called the "promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is called the " promisee". A proposal
becomes a promise when the proposal accepted by the person whom it is made. This acceptance
must be absolute and unqualified. [Section 7 (1) ] A qualified acceptance is ineffective.
2. Define the meaning of obligations of parties to perform contracts.
Section 37
"The Parties to a contrcat must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective promises, unless
such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of this Act, or of any other
law."
3. Define the term disqualification to contract.
A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her own law to which he or she is subject.
For example , in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority of her
husband.
4. Define the term "price". What are the different modes of determination of price?
The Price
In respectt of sale, the first rule is that no sale can take place without a price. The price of goods is
the important element of a valid sale. There can be no valid sale of goods without the price. The term
price is defined in seciton 2(10) of the Sale of Goods Act, which reads as under: The price means
the money consideration for a sale of goods. In other words, the money. The money here means the
legal tender, i.e., the money in circulation (currency of the country).

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Section 21
"A contrct is not voidable because it was caused by a mistake as to any law in force in the Union of
Myanmar, but a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union of Myanmar has the same effect as a
mistake of fact? . (mistake of foreign law)
6. Describe the rules as to appropriation of payment.
(1) Where debt to be discharged is indicated . [S.59]
(2) Where such debt is not indicated. [S.60]
(3) Where neither party appropriated. [S.61]
7. Define the term promise to compensate for voluntary service.
Section 25(2)
"An agreement without consideration is void unless; -
when it is a promise to compensate wholly or in part a person who has already volunatarily done
something for the promisor, of something which the promisor was legally compellable to do ".
8. Define the term acceptance.
Section 2(b) of the Contract Act 1872 defines acceptance as that "when the person to whom
the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted ". A proposal, when
accepted , become a promise.
9. Define the term agreement in restraint of legal proceedings?
Agreement in restraint of legal proceeding is void.

3
Section 28
"Every agreements by which any party thereto is restricted absolutely from enforcing his right under
or in respect of any contract, by the usual legal procedings in the ordinary tribunals, or which limits the time
within which he may thus enforces his rights, is void to that extent."
10. Define the term death of promisers with illustration ?
Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promisors before
performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Illustration
(a) A promises to feliver good to B on a certain day on payment of Ks1,000. A dies before the
day described. A's representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is bound to pay the Ks 1,000 to
A's representatives.
But when personal skill qualification is involved in the performance of the contract, the contractual
relations are put an end by the death of promisor.
11. Define the meaning of damages ?
In every breach of contract the injured party is entitled to damages. Damages are given by way of
restitution and compensation only, but not as a punishment, the agreed party can , therfore , recover the
actual loss caused to him.
12. Do you agree " an agreement without consideration is void " ? Explain with example.
Section 25(2)
" An agreement without consideration is void unless; -
When it is a promise to compensate wholly or in part a person who has already voluntraily done
something for the promisor , of something which the promisor was legally compellable to do"
4
13. Express the defintion of proposal ?
Under section 2 (a) of the Contract Act 1872, a Proposal is an act when one person signifies to
another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a viewe to obtaining the assent
of that other to such act or abstinence.
A mere statement of intention or offer will not constitute a proposal through acted upon by
the party to whom it was made. Therefore we can explain a proposal as definite statement of
intention by one person signifying his willingness to do or to abstain from doing something with the
expectation that the person doing to whom such intention is conveyed will do or abstain from doing
some other thing in return.
14. How many kinds of consideration are there ? Express.
Now we come to another important element in the formation of a contract namely " Consideration".
A promise without consideration is sid to be nudum pactunl and is not enforceable by law.
Executory Consideration
The Consideration is said to be executory when it is a promise given for a promise. An executory
consideration is a promise made by one prty in return for a promise made by the other. Thus, whene
an act which is completely performed by the one side upon the promise of the other side such
performed act is said to be executed consideration.
15. How many kinds of misrepresentation ? Express.
"Misrepresentation" means and includes -
(1) the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by information of the person making it, of that
which is not true, though he belives it to be true;
(2) any breach of duty which, without an intent not deceive, gains an advantage to the person
5
committing it, or any one claiming under him, by misleading another to his prejudice or to the
prejudice of any one claiming under him.
(3) causing, however innocently, a party to a agreement to make a mistake as to the substance of the
thing which is the subject of the agreement.
16. How many kinds of requirements are there for quantum meruit ? Express.
It means that the rights and liabilities to an implied (quasi) contract are the same as if they entered
into contract themselves. The principle of Quantum meruit is closely associated with the law relating to
quasi-contract. Where a building contractor does "extra work" over and above the work mentioned in the
contract, he would be entitled to be paid at the maket rate for such extra work.
17. How many types of promise are there ? Define the term implied promised.
There are two type of promise, they are Express and Implied Promise.
implied promised
In so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be
implied. [Section 9]
18. How many rules as to appropriation of payments? Express.
(1) Where debt to be discharged is indicated . [S.59]
(2) Where such debt is not indicated. [S.60]
(3) Where neither party appropriated. [S.61]

6
19. How many kinds of requirements are there for quantum meruit ? Express.
It means that the rights and liabilities to an implied (quasi) contract are the same as if they entered
into contract themselves. The principle of Quantum meruit is closely associated with the law relating to
quasi-contract. Where a building contractor does "extra work" over and above the work mentioned in the
contract, he would be entitled to be paid at the market rate for such extra work.
20. How many types of promise are there ? Define the term implied promised.
There are two type of promise, they are Express and implied promise.
implied promised
implied. [Section 9]
21. "Ni Ni " agrees to buy a picture by a dead printer and tow rare China vases, and "Phyu Phyu" also
agree to sell them. May "Ni Ni" compel "B"?
No, "Ni Ni" may not compel "B". A dead painter promises to paint a picture for Ni Ni by a certain
representative or by Ni Ni.
For Phyu Phyu , Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such
promisors before performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract. So, "Ni Ni"
may not compel "B"/
22. Mg Mg finds Phyu Phyu's purse and gives it to her. Phyu Phyu's promises to give Mg Mg Kyats
5000. Is this a contract or not?
This is a contract. Phyu Phyu's promises to give Mg Mg Kyats 5000.

7
23. " Maung Maung" contract to to take in cargo for Aung Aung at a foreign port. Maung Maung's
Government afterwards declares war against the country in which the port is situated. The contract
becomes ------------- when war is declared.
valid
24. Mg Mg sells , by auction, to U Phyu a horse which Mg Mg knows to be unsound. Mg Mg says
nothing to U Phyu about the horse's unsoundness. Is this fraud or not in Mg Mg?
25. Maung Maung contracts to pay Aung Aung a sum of money when Aung Aung marries Phyu Phyu.
Phyu Phyu dies without being married to Aung Aung. Is the contract become void or valid?
The contract is become void. The law relating to void agreements prescribed in the Contract Act is in
the different parts.
A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her own law to which he or she is
subject. For example, in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority
of her husband.
26. Maung Maung without Mi Mi's authority leads Mi Mi's money to Thu Thu. Afterwards Mi Mi
accepts intersts on the money from Thu Thu. Can Mi Mi's conduct implies a reatification of the
loan" ?.
Yes, Mi Mi's conduct can implies a reatification of the loan, Section 199, "A person reatifying any
unauthoried act done on his behalf ratifies the whole of the transaction of which such act formed a
part."
So, Mi Mi's conduct can implies a ratification of the loan.

8
27. U Ba promises to deliver good to U Mya on a certain day on payment of Ks 1,00000. U Ba dies
before the day described. U Ba's representatives are bound to deliver the good to U Mya, and Does
U Mya bound to pay the Ks 1,00000 to U Ba's representative?
U Mya bound to pay the Ks 1,00000 to U Ba's representatives. Because Promises bind the
representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promisors before performance, unless a
contrary intention appears from the contract.
Thus , U Mya bound to apay the Ks.100000 to U Ba's representatives.
28. U Maung Maung supplies the wife and children of U Aung Aung, a lunatic, with necessaries
suitable to their condition in life. Can U Maung Muang entitle to be reimburesed from U Aung's
property?
Yes, U Maung Maung can entile to be reimbursed form U Aung's property. Because , U Maung
Maung supplies the wirfe and children of U Aung Aung, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their
condition in life U Maung Maung is entitled to be reimbursed from U Aung Aung's property.
Claim for necessaries supplied to persons incapable of contracting, or on his account.
Reimbursement of person paying money due by another in payment of which he is interested. Thus,
U Maung Maung can entitle to be reimbursed from U Aung's property.
29. Under Section 2(h) of Contract Act, 1872 how many distinct parts are required ? Express.
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides that " A Contract is an agreement enforceable
by law " . equences of all lawful acts done by such agent in the exercise of the authority conferred upon him.
"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract,
for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be
9
void. Noting here in contained shall affect any law in force in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar,
by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law
relating to the registration of documents".
30. U Phyu accepts U Ni's proposal by a letter sent by post. Is the communication of the acceptance
complete or not ?
Yes , the communictation of the acceptance complete .
31. What are the future goods?
These are the goods which are not in existence at the time of contract of sale. The seller acquires
such goods after the making of the contract of sale. Thus, the future goods are those which are to be
acquired or produced by the seller after the contract of sale is made [Section 2(6)]. A contract for the
sale of future goods operates as an 'agreement to sell', not sale [section. 6 3].
32. Who is an upaid seller ?
The seller of goods is deemed to be an "unpaid seller" within the meaning of this Act:
(a) When the whole of the price has not been paid or tendered;
(b) when a bill of exchnge or other negotiable instrument has been received as conditional payment,
and the condition on which it was received has not been fulfilled by reason of the dishonour of the
instrument or otherwise.
33. What is the meaning of revocation of acceptance ?
An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the acceptance is complete
as aginst the proposer, but not afterwards. [Section 5]
34. Write about how stoppage in transit is effected.
The unpaid seller may exercise his right of stoppage in transit either by taking actual
possession of the goods, or by giving notice of his claim to the carrier or other bailee in whole
possession the goods or to his principal. In the latter case the notice, to be effectual, shall be given at
10
such time and in such circumstances that the principle, by the exercise of reasonable dilligence,
may communication it to the servant or agent in time to prevent a delivery to the buyer.
When notice of stoppage in transit is given by the seller to the carrier or other bailee in
possession of the goods, he shall re-dilvered the goods to , or according to the directions of , the
seller. The expenses of such re-delivery shall be borne by the seller.
35 What is the right of stoppage in transit ?
Subject to the provisions of this Act, when the buyer of goods becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller
who has parted with the possession of the goods as long as they are in course of transit, and may
retain thenm until payment or tender of the price.
36. What are the unpaid seller's rights?
Subject to the provisions of this Act and of any law for the time begin in force, notwithstanding that
the property in the goods may has passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller of goods, as such, has by
implication of law.
(a) a lien on the goods for the price while he is in possession of them;
(b) in case of the insolvency of the buyer a right of stopping the goos in transit after he has parted
with the possession of them;
(c) a right of resale as limited by this Act
37. What are the contingent good?
These are the goods which are also not in existence at the time of contract of sale. The contingent
goods are a type of future goods. In this case, the acquisition of the goods by the seller depends upon
the uncertain contingencies, i.e, upon uncertain events which may not happen.
38. What is undue influence ?
Section 16
"(1) A contrct is said to have been induced by "undue influence" where the relations subsisting
11
between the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of the other ans
uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other.
Thus, sub section (1) gives the element of undue influence as:
(1) one of the parties must be in a position to dominate the will of the other and,
(2) he or she must use that position to obtain n unfair advantage.
This sub-section 2 shows the different forms of influence.
Undue influence is orginarily presumed in relationship, such as -
(a) parent and child
(b) guardian and ward
(c) trustee and beneficiary
(d) solicitor and client
(e) doctor and patient
(f) spiritual adviser and disciple
But the relation of master and servant, creditor and debtor, husband and wife does not itself raise a
presumption of undue influence.
39. What is the meaning of Unenforceable contract ?
An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not
at the option of the other or others , is a voidable contract. (Section 2 (i)}
40. What is the meaning of valid contract ?
"A Contract is an agreement enforce able by law". Section 10 of the said Act adds further
qualification to the agreement as follows:-

12
"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to
contract for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to
be void. Nothing here in contained shall affect any law in force in the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or
any law relating to the registration of documents."
"Misrepresentation" means and includes -
(1) the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by information of the person making it, of that
which is not true, though he believes it to be true;
42. What is the definition of contingent contract ?
Section 37
"The Parties to contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective promises, unless
such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of this Act, or of any other
law."
43. What are the basic factors to constitute a valid contracr ?
There are the basic factors which are essentials to constitute a valid contrct, such as;-
1. Agreement
5. Void agreement which are 14 in numbers

13
6. Where writting , attestation or registration is necessary, shall be made in accordance with Law.
44. What is the meaning of executed consideration ?
Section 2 (d) of the Contract Act defines the term"Consideration" as"when , at the desire of the
promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or obstained from doing, or does or obstain from doing,
or promises to do or abstain from doing something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a considration
for the promise"
45. What do you understand by the term the mistake of fact ? Express with conditions.
Agreement is void where both parties are under mistake as to matter of fact esenential to the
agreement.
Explanation;
An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing which forms the subject-matter of the agreement is
not to be deemed a mistake as to a matter of fact. (S20)
46. What do you understand by the term disqualification to contract ?
A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or herown law to which he or she is subject.
For example, in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority of her husband.
47. Wht is the meaning of silence ?
The proposor cannot impose upon the acceptor the penalty that in the event of his silence, he would
be deemed to have accepted.
" Omission" would include such conduct or forbearance on one's part that the other peron takes it as
his willingness or assent. Omission would not mean silence.

14
48. What do you understand by the term the thing must be done lawfully ?
There are three conditions to establish a right of action under this section , such as:-
(i) The thing must be done lawfully
(ii) The perfson who did it must not have intend to act gratuitosly: and,
(iii) The person for whom the act is done must enjoy the benefit of it.
Section 70 provides for the third kind of quasi - contract as follow:-
"Where a person lawfully does anything for another person, or delivers anything to him, not
intending to do so gratuitosly , and such other person enjoys the benefit there of , the latter is bound to make
compensation to the former in respect of , or to restore , the thing so done or delivered ."
49. What are the liabilities of finder of goods?
According to the Section 168 of the Contract Act, a person who finds goods belong to another and
take them into his custody is entitled to retain the goods against the owner until, he receives such
compensation for trouble and expenses voluntarily incurred by him to perserve the goods and find out the
owner, but he has no right to sue.
He can, however sue the owner where the owner has offred a specific reward for return of the goods lost and
may retain the goods until he receives it.
Moreover, he is entitled to its possession as against everyone except the true owner.
6103 Short Question
A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.[Section
1. 2(b)]
The person making the proposal is called the
"promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is called
the "promised".

Section 2 (d) of the Contract Act defines the term “
Consideration” as "when, at the desire of the promisor, the
promisee or any other person has done or abstained from
doing, or does or abstain from doing, or promises to do or
abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or
promise is called a consideration for the promise"
3.Express the definition of proposal?

When one person signified to another his willingness
to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to
obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence,
he is said to make a 'proposal'.[ Section 2 (a)]
4.Define the term acceptance.

Section 2(b) of the Contract Act 1872 defines
acceptance as that “when the person to whom the proposal
is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to
be accepted”. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.
5. How many kinds of consideration? Express.

6.What is the meaning of communication?

In order to become an agreement, there must be
communication of proposal and acceptance.
According to the definition of the proposal and
acceptance under the Contract Act 1972, it was mentioned
as:-
Section 2 (a) when one person signifies to another his
willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a
view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or
abstinence, he is said to make a 'proposal'.
7.What is the meaning of any act or conduct from modes of communication?

"The communication of proposals, the acceptance of
proposals, and the revocation of proposals and acceptances,
respectively, are deemed to be made by any act or omission
of the party proposing, accepting or revoking by which he
intends to communicate such proposal, acceptance or
revocation, or which has the effect of communicating it".
[Section (3)]
This section provides two general modes of
communication, namely: by-
(ii) (ii) omission
By the above two modes it is intending to communicate
to the other
The first mode “any act” would include any “words”
or “conduct”. ”words” may be oral or written. "written”
would include letters, telephones, telex, advertisements etc.
8. What is omission from modes of communication?

"Omission" would include such conduct or forbearance
on one's part that the other person takes it as his willingness
or assent. Omission would not mean silence.
9. Express the modes of revocation of proposal.
A proposal is revoked:-
(1) by the communication of notice of revocation by the
proposerto the other party;
(2) by the lapse of the time prescribed in such proposal for

its acceptance, or if no time is so prescribed, by the lapse of
reasonable time, without communication of the acceptance;
(3) by the death or insanity of the proposer, if the fact of his

death or insanity comes to the knowledge of the acceptor
before acceptance.

A proposal may be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as against the
proposer, but not afterwards. [Section 5]

An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the
communication of the acceptance is complete as against the
acceptor, but not afterwards.[Section 5 ]
12. Describe the competency or capacity of the parties.

Section 11 of the Contract Act lays down about the
capacity as follows:-
"Every person is competent to contract who is of the
age of majority according to the law to which he is subject,
and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from
contracting by any law to which he is subject."
This section deals with the capacity of the parties in
three parts. Every person is competent to contract who,
(i) has attained the age of majority
(ii) (ii) is of sound mind and
(iii) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to
which he is subject.
13. Express the capacity of age.

In Myanmar, attaining the age of major ity was
provided in the Section 3 of the Majority Act that, “Every
person shall be deemed to have attained his majority when
he shall have completed the age of eighteen years and not
before”.
Therefore, a person who domiciled in Myanmar is
competent to make a contract at the completion of the age of
eighteen.
However, the ward under a guardian appointed by the court
may be majority after attaining 21 years of age. The ward may not
attest the agreement before reaching majority age. The parents of
the minor may not attest and the guardian only may contract on
14.What is meant by fraud in the Contract Act?
Section 17
(1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by
one who does not believe it to be true.
(2) the active concealment of a fact by one having
knowledge or belief of the fact,
(3) a promise made without any intention of performing it;
(4) any other act fitted to deceive;
(5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares
to be fraudulent.
15. What is the mistake of fact?

Agreement is void where both parties are under
mistake as to matter of fact essential to the agreement.
Explanation
An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing
which forms the subject-matter of the agreement is not to be
deemed a mistake as to a matter of fact.
16. What is the mistake of law?
Section 21
“A contract is not voidable because it was caused by a
mistake as to any law in force in the Union of Myanmar, but
a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union of Myanmar
has the same effect as a mistake of fact”.(mistake of foreign
law)
Illustration
A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief
that a particular debt is barred by the law of limitation, the
contract is not voidable.
17. What is the free consent?

Free Consent Section 14
Consent is said to be free when it is no caused by; -
(a)coercion, as defined in section 15 , or
(e)mistake, subject to the provisions of section 20,21 and
22.
Section 15
“Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to
commit, any act forbidden by the Penal Code, or the
unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain, any property, to
the prejudice of any person whatever, with the intention of
causing any person to enter into an agreement.”
19. What is undue influence?
Section 16
A contract is said to have been induced by "undue
influence" where the relations subsisting between the parties
are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate
the will of the other and uses that position to obtain an
unfair advantage over the other.
(a)where he holds a real or apparent authority over the
other, or where he stands in a fiduciary relation to the other,
or
(b)where he makes a contract with a person whose mental
capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason
of age, illness, or mental or bodily distress.”
20. Express the discharge by breach.

When one party to a contract commits a breach of that
contract by refusing to perform, or by disabling himself
from performing his promise in its entirely, and the other
party accepts the breach the contract is discharged. [S. 39]
.
21. What kinds of remedies are there for breach of contract? Namely.
There are mainly three kinds of remedies for breach of
contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(ii) A degree for specific performance, or
(iii) An injunction
22. Express the parties to perform the contract.
Section 40 of the Contract Act enunciates the rule which
applies usually and in ordinary cases. It says:-
“If it appears from the name of the case that it was the
intention of the parties to any contract that any promise
contained in it should be performed by the promisor himself,
In other cases, the promisor or his representatives may
employ a competent person to perform it.”
23. Describe the right of joint promisor.

The later part or Section 43 prescribes for the right of a
joint promisor who has been made of pay the whole amount.
It says:-
“Each of two or more joint promisors may compel
every other joint promisors to contribute equally with
himself to the performance of the promise, unless a contrary
intention appears from the contract.”

The rules as to appropriation of payments are laid
down under Section 56 to 61.
intimation or under circumstances implying that payment is
to be applied to the discharge of some particular debt, the
25.Write is the right of finder of goods?

According to the Section 168 of the Contract Act, a person
who finds goods belonging to another and take them into his
custody is entitled to retain the goods against the owner until, he
receives such compensation for trouble and expenses voluntarily
incurred by him to preserve the goods and find out the owner,
but he has no right to sue.
He can, however sue the owner where the owner has
offered a specific reward for return of the goods lost and may
retain the goods until he receives it.
Moreover, he is entitled to its possession as against every
one except the true owner.
26.. What are the liabilities of finder of goods?
Liabilities of Finder of Goods mean that he is subject to the
responsibility of a bailee to take due care of the goods and to try
and find out the owner.
27. What a short note on quasi-contract?
Section 68 to 72 of the Contract Act deals with certain
transactions which could not strictly be called contracts but
which created obligations which are known as Quasi-contract.
Quasi-contracts are obligations which though not contracts
technically, give rise to relations which resemble those created
by contracts. Though no contract has been made by the parties,
law makes out a contract for them, and such a contract is termed
a contract implied by law.
28. What are the kinds of conditions to establish a right of action?
There are three conditions to establish a right of action
under this section, such as:-
(ii) The person who did it must not have intended to act
gratuitously: and,
(iii) The person for whom the act is done must enjoy the
benefit of it.
29. What is the meaning of “quantum meruit”.
The principle of Quantum Meruit is closely associated with

the law relating to quasi-contract. Where a building contractor
does "extra work" over and above the work mentioned in the
contract, he would be entitled to be paid at the market rate for
such extra work.
30. What are the remedies for breach of contract?

contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(iii) An injunction
31. What is the specific performance?
Specific performance is an order of the Court ordering
the breached party to perform the contract. The law
regarding the specific performance and injunction are
regulated by sections 12 to 30 of the Specific Relief Act.
Specific performance can be granted only when the damages
are-
(1) an inadequate remedy, or
(2)when the court can supervise the execution of the
contract, or
(3) when the contract is certain, fair and just.
32. What is injunction?
Injunction is used as a means of enforcing a contract or
a promise to forbear, where a contract is about to be broken
by a party to the contract. Injunctions are of two kinds,
namely, temporary or perpetual.
(i) Temporary injunctions (ii) A perpetual injunction
are governed by Sections 54 to 57 of the Specific Relief Act.
33. What are the damages for breach of contract?

is to sue for damages. In a claim for damages, two issues
arise:
The measure of damages for breach of contract is
governed by the principles laid down in Section 73 of the
Contract Act that “When a contract has been broken, the
party who suffers by such breach is entitled to receive, from
the party who has broken the contract, compensation for
any loss or damage caused to him thereby..”
34. What is the measure of damages in an anticipatory breach of contract?

In an event of anticipatory breach, the innocent party
may either:-
(i) accept the repudiation, treating the contract as an
end, and enforce the appropriate remedy at once, without
further performing his part of the contract, or
(ii) ignore the repudiation and wait until the time for
performance arrive.
(iii) If the innocent party accept the repudiation he is
entitled to damages
35. What are the penalty and liquidated damages?
"Penalty" and "Liquidated Damages"
Where the parties to a contact anticipate possibility of

a breach it is usual to specify a particular amount to be paid
to the injured party. If the sum so specified is a moderated
estimate of this is likely to result from the breach it is called
a liquidated damages. If the sum so specified is so high as it
was intended to prevent or panelize a breach, i t is called a
penalty.
36. What is the meaning of agent?

Section 182
"Agent" and "Principal"
“An Agent" is a person employed to do any act for
another, or to represent another, in dealing with third
persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so
represented, is called the “principal”.”
37. Describe the contract of guarantee.
Section 126 defines
of his default.
38. Describe the bailee’s rights.
Section 170
“Where the bailee has, in according with the purpose
of the bailment, rendered any service involving the exercise
of labour or skill in respect of the goods bailed, he has in the
absence of a contract to the contrary, a right to retain such
goods until he receives due remuneration for the services he
has rendered in respect of them.”
39. Express the authority of agent.

Authority of Agent
Section 186
The authority of agent may be express or implied.
Section 187
“An authority is said to be express when it is given by
words spoken or written. An authority is said to be implied
when it is to be inferred from the circumstances of the case;
and things spoken or written, or the ordinary course of
dealing, may be accounted circumstances of the case.”
Illustration
A owns a shop in Mandalay, living himself in Yangon
and visiting the shop occasionally. The shop is managed by
B, and he is in the habit of ordering goods from C in the
name of A for the purposes of the shop, and of paying for
them out of A's funds with A's knowledge. B has an implied
authority from A to order goods from C in the name of A for
the purposes of the shop.
Section 188
“An agent having an authority to carry on a business
has authority to do every lawful thing necessary for the
purpose, or usually done in the course of conducting such
business.”
Illustration
A constitutes B, his agent to carry on his business of a
ship-builder. B may purchase timer and other materials, and
hire workmen for the purpose of carrying on the business.
Section 189
“An agent has authority, in an emergency, to do all
such acts for purpose of protecting his principal from loss as
would be done by a person of ordinary prudence, in his own
case, under similar circumstances.”
Illustration
(b) A consigns provisions to B at Yangon, with direction
to send them immediately to C at Mawlamyine. B may sell
the provisions at Yangon, if they will not bear the journey to
Mawlamyine without spoiling.
40. Describe the termination of agency.
Section 201 of the Contract Act enumerates four ways

in which an agency can terminate.
(a) The principal revoking the agent's authority.
(b) The agent renouncing the business of the agency; or
(c) The completion of the business of agency
(d) death, insolvency or insanity of either the principal

or agent, dissolution of an incorporated company,
Under section 202 An agency cannot be terminated,

where the agent has himself an interest in the property
which forms the subject- matter of the agency , in the
absence of the express contract .
41. Express the agreement in restraint of trade.

Agreement in restraint of trade is void.
Section 27
"Every agreement by which any one is restrained from
exercising a lawful profession, trade or business of any kind is
to that extent void"
Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public
policy and therefore void.
Exception 1
One who sells the goodwill of a business may agree with
the buyer to refrain from carrying on a similar business, within
specified local limits, so long as the buyer, or any person
deriving title to the goodwill from him, carries on a like
business therein: Provided that such limits appear to the Court
reasonable, regard being had to the nature of the business.
42. Express the agreement in restraint of marriage.

Agreement in restraint of marriage is void.
Section 26
"Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any
person, other than a minor, is void.”
43. Describe the agreement contingent on an event happening.

Section 32
"Contingent Contracts to do or not to do anything if an
uncertain future event happens cannot be enforced by law
unless and until that event has happened. If the event becomes
impossible, such contract become void."
(ii)Agreement Contingent on an Impossible Event
"Agreement Contingent on an impossible event is void".
Section 36
"Contingent agreement to do or not to do anything, if an
impossible event happens are void, whether the impossible of
the event is known or not to know the parties to the agreement
at the time when it is made."
Illustration
(a) A agrees to pay B Kyats 10,000 if two straight lines should
enclose a space. The agreement is void.
(b) A agrees to pay B Kyats 10,00,00 if B will marry A's
daughter C. C was dead at the time of the agreement. The
agreement is void.
44. What are the void agreements?
(1) Agreements by incompetent persons [Section 11]
(2) Agreements under mistake of fact [Section 20, 22] or
mistake of law [S.21]
(3) Agreements of which consideration or object is unlawful
[Section 23] and
in part [Section 24]
45. Describe the uncertain agreement with one illustration.
”Uncertain agreements are void”
Section 29
"Agreements, the meaning of which is not certain, or
capable of being made certain, are void".
Illustration
(a)A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is
nothing whatever to show what kind of oil was intended. The
agreement is void for uncertainty.
(b)A agrees to sell to B one hundred tons of oil of a specified

description, known as an article of commerce. There is no
uncertainty here to make the agreement void.
(c) A, who is a dealer in coconut-oil only, agrees to sell to B

"one hundred tons of oil". The nature of A's trade affords an
indication of the meaning of the words, and A has entered into
a contract for the sale of one hundred tons of coconut -oil.
(d) A agrees to sell to B "all the grain in my granary at

Promise." There is no uncertainty here to make the agreement
void.
(e)A agrees to sell to B "one Thousand pounds of rice at a

price to be fixed by C. "As the price is capable of being made
certain, there is no uncertainty here to make the agreement
void.
(f)A agrees to sell to B "my white horse for Kyats 50000 or

Kyats 100000 ". There is nothing to show which of the two
prices was to be given. The agreement is void.
Law of Jort Chapter 1
46. What is the purpose of a civil proceeding?

Section 2 of the Contract Act 1872 defines the
important terms relating to Contract.
(a)Offer
(b)Invitation to offer
(c)Acceptance
(d) Promise
(e)Promisor
(f)Promisee
(g)Consideration
(h)Agreement
(i)Void agreement
(j)Contract
(k)Voidable agreement
47. Define a tort.

Tort has been made to define tort but not in success. Dr. Ba
Han, alearned person and a former Professor Emeritus of Law,
Yangon University, defined "tort" as:
Tort is the name of civil wrongs (not being merely breaches of
contract) for which there is a remedy by action in courts of common
law jurisdiction. Underhill, defined "tort" as: An act or omission which
independent of contract is authorized by law and results either in the
infringement of same absolute right, to which another is entitled or in the infliction
upon him of some substantial loss of money, health
or material comfort…….. beyond that suffered by the rest of the
public, and which infringement or infliction of loss is remediable by
action for damages.

49. What are the void agreements?
50. Describe the uncertain agreement with one illustration.
51. Express the definition of wrong.
There must be an infringement of a legal right. As there are

many legally protected interests, anyone who infringes such a right
will be liable in an action for tort. The duty is concerned with the right under the
law of tort and to abstain from inflicting harm to
other's person, property, reputation, etc. 'Wrong' means crooked or twisted
conduct, as opposed to
which is straight or right for individuals who suffer personal injury,
death or physical damage to or loss of property caused by an act or
omission which might be intentional, accidental or caused by
negligence.
52. What are the basic factors to constitute a tort?

The basic factors to constitute a tort are-
(1) Damage
(2) Malice
(3) Intention
(4) Motive
53. What is the meaning of “damage”?

In studying the law of tort, we should know the difference
between the terms "damage" and "damages"
"Damage" means the loss or grief or harm suffered by the
plaintiff. It can be seen clearly that "a person who on purpose or
carelessly injuries another contrary to law in his life, body, health,
freedom, property, or other right is liable to compensate that other
for the resulting damage". 24
54. Describe the meaning of “damages”?
"Damages" on the other hand means such compensation

awarded by the court for the pecuniary loss suffered by the plaintiff.
An award of damages may serve to compensate the plaintiff and to
deter the defendant and other from similar conduct in the future.
55. Describe the definition of “intention”.

The third point to be considered as basic factor in tort is that
of "Intention". There is the maxim "Every man is presumed to intend
and to know the natural and ordinary consequences of his acts". So
wrongful acts done intentionally to damage a particular person and
which actually damaging him is obviously actionable. A violation of
a legal right committed knowingly is a cause of action.
56. What are the ingredients to constitute a tort?
To constitute a tort there are three ingredients:
(1) Legal wrong
(2) Legal damage
(3) Legal remedy
57. What is meant by motive in tort?
The last factor to be considered in tort is motive. It means that

which makes a person act in particular way. It signifies the reason
for conduct. Thus, motive can be properly used to describe the
emotion which prompts the defendant to commit the act; for
example, rage, hatred or jealousy.
In the case of Mayor of Bradford v. Pickles, (1895) A.C., 587it
has been decided that if a man has the misfortune to lose his spring
by his neighbour digging a well, he must dig his own well deeper.
58.What are theinvasions of interests in person?

(Trespass to the person)
(i)Battery
(ii)Assault
(iii)False imprisonment
59. Define an assault.
There are obvious reasons why in dealing with security of the
person, assault is an act of the defendant which causes to the plaintiff
reasonableapprehension of the infliction of a battery on him by the
defendant. So anassault may be defined as an attempted battery. To throw water at
a person is an assault but if any drops fall
uponhim, it is battery. To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is
probably an assault, but when he falls to the ground it becomes a
battery.
Pointing a loaded pistol is an assault. But if the pistol is not
loaded, it would be no assault. To shake a fist under a person’s nose, or to curse
him in
athreatening manner, or to aim a blow at him is an assault. So where
thedefendant by his act intends to commit a battery and the
defendantapprehends it, there is an assault. In fact, assault and battery are crimes as
well as torts.In the
case Sulaiman vs. The king1, it was decided that if thecommon
intention of the accused and his associates by committing an assault
was not to cause injury known to be likely to cause death, but
tocause grievous hurt, thought the combined effect of the injuries
actuallycaused was likely to cause death, the accused is guilty of the
offence ofcausing grievous hurt and not of culpable homicide not
amounting tomurder. To provisions of sections 350 and 351, of the Penal Code of
CriminalLaw of Myanmar clearly shows, when and how such assault
and battery (Criminal force) can be effected and punishment for such
crimes are laiddown in Section 352.
60. What is the meaning of battery?
Battery is the intentional application of force to another person.
He whoshoots and wounds another unintentionally may be liable in
trespass, though he commits no felony. To throw water at a person is an assault but
if any drops fall
uponhim, it is battery. To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is
battery.
There is no battery unless there is an act by the defendant and
thatthere can be no battery unless there contact with the
plaintiff.Battery is a special kind of tort which protects not only the
interest infreedom from insult. Battery is actionable per se. i.e.
without proof ofdamage. If such a tort is proved, the injured party is
entitled to damages.
61. Express the trespass to movable property.
As regards trespass to movable property it can be inflicted in three
ways: -
(1) Trespass to goods.
(2) (2) Trespass to conversion.
(3) Tort of detinue
62. What are the defences to an action for trespass?

The defences to an action for trespass are: -
(1) Prescription
(2) Leave and licence
(3) Authority of Law
(4) Distress
(5) Act of necessity
(6) Self-defence
(7) Re-entry on land
(8) Retaking of goods
(9) Abating a nuisance
63. What is the meaning of self-defence?
A trespass may be excused as having been done in selfdefence.
Hence noone can be held liable for trespass if he entered
another's property actingunder self-defence.
64.What kinds of work are the subjects of copyright?

The following works are the subject of copyright:-
(1) Literacy work
(2) Dramatic work
(3) Artistic work
(4) Work of sculpture
(5) Architectural work of art
(6) Engravings
(7) Photograph
(8) Cinematograph
(9) Plate
(10) Lecture
65. What are the necessary points to take action for libel?
Anything communicated in a form of a permanent character
and visible tothe eye is libel, such as books, newspapers, pictures,
waxwork effigy orstatues, mark or sign exposed to view. Moreover,
broadcasting, both radioand television and theatrical performances
which are treated aspublication in permanent form, i.e. as libel. To take action for
libel, the following points must be proved.
(1) The statement is false.
(2) It is written
(3) It is defamatory
(4) It is published.
66.How many kinds of defaation? Express.
67. Define “Negligence”.
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use

of ordinary care or skill towards a person or his property.
Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary prudence
taking care.
68. Explain the maxim “causacausata”.
1. The defendant has duties to exercise was negligent a

reasonable care and skill.
2. The defendant had a duty to the plaintiff.
3. The defendant breached that duty by failing to conform to

the required standardof conduct.
4. The defendant's negligent conduct was the cause of the harm

to thePlaintiff.
5. The plaintiff was, in fact, harmed or damaged due to the

failure ofperformance the duties.
69. Express the meaning of Latin Maxim “volenti non fit injuria” with case.
The Latin Maxim "Volentinonfitinjuria" which means "no

injury is done to one who consents"
Dann v Hamilton [1939] 1 KB 509

The Plaintiff accepted a lift from the Defendant knowing
that he was very intoxicated. The Defendant crashed causing the
Plaintiff a lot of damage. She was said to have given clear consent
because the dangers were very obvious.
70. Describe the meaning of Latin Maxim “resispa loquitur” with case.
The maxim Resipsaloquitur means "the thing speaks for
itself".
Byrne V. Boadle (1863) 2 H. &. C. 722.Byrne (P) was
struck by a barrel falling from a window as he walked past
Boadle’s (D) flour shop and sustained serious personal injuries. A
witness testified that he saw the barrelfall from Boadle’s window
but had not seen the cause. Byrne did not present any other
evidence of negligence by Boadle or his employees. Boadle
moved for a non-suit on the grounds that Byrne had presented no
evidence of negligence. The court granted the motion and plaintiff
obtained a rule nisi. The Court of Exchequer found in favor of
Byrne and reversed. Boadle appealed.
Liability for negligence can lie solely on account of the type
of accident that occurred, without direct evidence of negligence. Stone V.Bolton
(1949) 2 All.E.R. 851.On 9 August 1947,
during a game of cricket against the Cheetham 2nd XI at
Cheetham Cricket Ground in Manchester, a batsman from the
visiting team hit the ball for six. The ballflew out of the ground,
hitting the claimant, Miss Stone, who was standing outside her
house in Cheetham Hill Road, approximately 100 yards (91 m)
from the batsman. The club had been playing cricket at the ground
since 1864, before the road was built in 1910.
However, the court held that an accident of this sort called
for an explanation, and that the defendants were aware of the
potential risk. On that basis, applying the legal maxim of resipsa
loquitur, the defendants were found negligent. The defendants
appealed to the House of Lords. The House of Lords found that
there was no negligence, although most considered it a close call
based on whether the reasonable person would foresee this as
anything more than an extremely remote risk. Stansbie v. Troman [1948] 2 K.B.
48, 51-52, a decorator
failed to secure a household he was decorating, resulting in a
burglary while he was absent; it was found he owed a duty to the
house hold owner to adequately secure the premises in his
absence. Austin V. Great Western Railway (1867) 2.Q.B.442.A
travelling case, decided in 1867, the defendant company was held
liable in respect of injuries caused to a child over the age of three
years while travelling with its mother, who had omitted to take a
ticket for it. The defendant company appealed on the ground that
the plaintiff was not lawfully a passenger, it being alleged that
there had been concealment equivalent to fraud.
71. What kinds of nuisance are there?
Nuisance can be divided into two categories:
(1) Public Nuisance

(2) Private Nuisance
Public Nuisance
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar,5 defines

public nuisance as follows:
action, in respect of a public nuisance:-
72. Write a note on public nuisance.
(1) Public Nuisance

Public Nuisance
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar,5 defines
"A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act

or is guilty of illegal omission which causes any common
injury, danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in general who dwell or
occupy property in the vicinity, or which
must necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger or
annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any
public right. A common nuisance is not excused on the ground that it
causes some convenience or advantage." Section 133 to 144 of the Criminal
Procedure Code of
Myanmar6, therefore provide for the actions to be taken by the
judicial authorities to,remove such public nuisances. If there be any kind of
nuisance at a public place, which
include also property belonging to the State, camping grounds,
and grounds left unoccupied for sanitary or recreative
purposes, actions can be taken by the State and in disobedience
will be liable for penalties provided in the Penal Code. i.e.
Sec, 269-294 (A).
In order that an individual may have a right to take civil

(1) The plaintiff must show that he has suffered a particular

injury or damage beyond that which is suffered by the public
at large. (2) Such injury must be direct. If a certain way is obstructed,
but another is left open, then there will be no cause of action.
(3) The injury must be of a substantial character.
Section 91 of the Civil Procedure Code of Myanmar7

provides for the suits relating to public matters, especially with
regard to public nuisance as follows:
"In the case of a public nuisance the Attorney-General, or

two or more persons having obtained the consent in writing of
the Attorney-General: may institute a suit though no special
damage has been caused: for a declaration and injunction or
for such other relief as may be appropriate to the
circumstances of the case.8
In the case of Soltau v. De Held,9 the nuisance was that

of the noise. The plaintiff resided in a house next to a Roman
Catholic Chapel of which the defendant was the priest and the Chapel bell was
rung at all hours of day and night. It was held
that the ringing was a public nuisance, and the plaintiff was
held entitled to an injunction.
In another leading case of the Mortgage Bank of India vs.

AhmedbhoyHabibbhoy, 10 the plaintiffs were the owners of a
building containing a large number of rooms which are
supposed to be rented. But, because the defendants who were
the owners of an adjacent cotton mill have created such a mill,
certain rooms in the building remained unlit, because of the
noise and smoke of the mill.
73. Express the meaning of private nuisance.
Private nuisance is not only limited to servitude, but also to the

wrongful acts causing or allowing the escape of deleterious things
into another's land , for example, water, smoke, smell, fumes, gas ,
noise, heat, vibrations, electricity, disease-gems, animals and
vegetation.
In NgaMyatHmwe vs. Nga Yi &MiKywe Case,4 the

storage of water for the agricultural land of the appellant was
led out by the respondents and in consequence the appellant's
agricultural land has been totally destroyed. There was no
evidence as to the total destroy of that land was due to the lack
of water. But the Court held that the respondents have actually
infringed the legal right of the appellant and therefore liable to
pay K.40, as damages.
74. What are the remedies for nuisance?

The remedies for nuisance are:-
(1) Abatement of nuisance
(2)Damages and
(3) Injunction
75.Enumerate the persons who cannot sue in tort.
To deal with those persons who cannot sue, such
persons may be mentioned as follows: -
(1) Convict
(2) Alien enemy
(3) Married women
(4) Corporation
(5) Child
(6) Bankrupt
76.. Who are the persons who cannot be sued in tort?

Now, in dealing with those persons who cannot be sued
in tort, it may be mentioned as follows:-
(1) Sovereign
(2) Ambassadors
(3) Public Officials
(4) Infant and lunatic
(5) Married Women
(6) Corporation
77. What is meant by infants and lunatics in tort?

Infants and lunatics are regarded as incapable of being
reasoning properly. So they are usually exempted from,
legal liabilities. Generally, infancy is no bar to a suit for
damages claiming against an infant. But when the intention,
knowledge, malice or some other condition of the state of
mind of the wrong doer is essential, extreme youth may
afford a defense.
As regards the acts done by the lunatics, unsoundness
of mind is not in itself a ground of exemption of liability in
tort.
78. Describe the liability of master for servant.

The doctrine of liability of the master for the acts of his
servant is entirely based on the maxims:
(1) respondeat superior (let the principal be liable)
(2) quifacitperaliumfacitperse. (He who does an act through
(1) another is deemed in law to do it himself.)
The Master would be completely liable for the wrongs done
by his servants or slaves; such idea was changed when that idea of
liability only where there has been command or consent on the
(1) part of the master of the servant's wrong.
A servant may be defined as any person employed by
another to do work for him on the terms that he, the servant is to
be subject to the control and directions of his employer in respect
(1) of the manner in which his work is to be done .3
As an example, in Daw Aye May's Case,13 while a
workman was about to leave the premises of his employer after
the going for the stoppage of work, he died of the injury occurred
by the falling of the bale of paper which was unloading in that
premise. The Court held that the death of the workman was
occurred within the course of employment and the claim for
compensation was admitted. So under to the Workmen's
Compensation Act, if personal injury is caused to a workman by
accident arising out of and in the course of employment his
(1) employer shall be held liable to pay compensation.
79. Describe the liability of infants and lunatics.
80. What is the meaning of “vicarious liability”?

Vicarious Liability means that one person takes or supplies
the place of another so far as liability is concerned .1 It can be said
that vicarious liability is based on the social convenience and
through justice,2 and therefore based on public policy.
A person may be liable in respect of wrongful act or
commission of another in three ways:-
(1) By ratifying or authorizing a particular act of another
(2) The presence of particular relationship
(3) By abetting the tortious acts committed by the others.
81. What are the particular relationship regarding vicarious liability?

The followings are the particular relationships of each other
(1) Master and Servant
(2) Employer and Independent Contractor
(3) Principal and Agent
(4) Company and Director
(5) Firms and Partner
(6) Guardian and Ward
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1. Explain the terms "promise" and "consideration" with cases. Your answer must be no less than
250 words.(Contract-Chapter 1)
Promise
A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.[Section 2(b)]
The person making the proposal is called the "promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is
called the "promised".
Express and Implied Promise
(i)Express Promise
In so far as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, is said to be express.
[Section 9]
(ii)Implied Promise
implied.[Section 9]
Consideration
In Daw Po and other vs. U Po Hmyin and others 1940 R.L.R 239 case, it was held that a
stranger to a contract can sue upon it (a) where a party to the contract agrees with the stranger to pay
him direct or becomes estopped from denying his liability to pay him personally, (b) where the
contract creates a trust in his favour.
Then in the later case" Burma (Government Security) Insurance Co.Ltd. vs. Daw Saw Hla"
1953 B.L.R.H.C 350, it was held that there is nothing in the Contract Act which prevents the
recognition of a right in a third party to enforce a contract made by other which contains a provision
for his benefit.
1. U Hla supplies the wife and children of U Mya, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their
lives, the children are minors. Is U Hla entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies? If so, from
whom and out of what? You must write it between 100-200 words. (Contract-Chapter 5)
U Hla supplies the wife and children of U Mya, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their lives, the
children are minors. U Hla is entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies.
Given the problem, according to Section 68, contract Act, If a person, incapable of entering into a
contract, or any one whom he is legally bound to support, is supplied by another person with
necessaries suited his condition in life, the person who furnished such supplies is entitled to
reimbursed from the property of such incapable person.
So, U Hla is entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies.
Example
(a) A supplies B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to his condition in life. A is entitled to be
reimbursed from B's property.
(b) A supplies the wife and children of B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their condition in life
A is entitled to be reimbursed from B's property.
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(a) When can the proposal or acceptance be revoked?

(b) What are the modes of revocation of a proposal? Your answer must be no less than 150 words.
(Contract-Chapter 2)
(a) Revocation of Proposal and Acceptance
(A) Revocation of Proposal
A proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication of its acceptance is complete as
against the proposer, but not afterwards. [Section 5]
(B) Revocation of Acceptance
An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the acceptance is complete
as against the acceptor, but not afterwards.[Section 5 ]
Illustration
A proposes, by a letter sent by post, to sell his house to
B.B accepts the proposal by a letter sent by post.
A may revoke his proposal at any time before or at the moment when B posts his letter of
acceptance, but not afterwards.
B may revoke his acceptance at any time before or at the moment when the letter communicating it
reaches A, but not afterwards.
(b) Modes of Revocation of a Proposal

(1) by the communication of notice of revocation by the proposerto the other party;
(2) by the lapse of the time prescribed in such proposal for its acceptance, or if no time is so
prescribed, by the lapse of reasonable time, without communication of the acceptance;
(3) by the death or insanity of the proposer, if the fact of his death or insanity comes to the
knowledge of the acceptor before acceptance.
1. Describe about the completion of communication. Your discussion must be no more than 400
words. (Contract-Chapter 2)
In respect of communication there is an important point which is “ when does the action of
communication be completed”.
Completion of Communication of Proposal is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the
person to whom it is made. Section 4
e.g ( 1 ) A proposes by letter to sell a house to B at a certain price. In this case, the communication of
the proposal is complete when B receives the letter ( A’s letter ).
Completion of Communication of an acceptance is completed; (i) as against the proposor, when it is
put in a course of transmission to him, so as to be out of the power of the acceptor.(ii) as against the
acceptor when it come to the knowledge of the proposer. Section 4
Example
( 2 ) In the case of the example ( 1 ) B accepts A’s proposal by a letter sent by post. The
communication of the acceptance is complete;
(a) As against A, when the letter is posted;
(b) As against B, when the letter is received by A.
The communication of a revocation is complete;

(i) As against the person who makes it, when it is put into a course of
transmission to the person to whom it is made, so as to be out of the power of the person who
makes it.
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(ii) As against the person to whom it is made, when it comes to his

knowledge. Section 4
Example
In the above example (1) A revokes his proposal by telegram. The revocation is complete as against
A when the telegram is dispatched. It is complete as against B when B receives it. B revokes his
acceptance by telegram. B’s revocation is complete as against B when the telegram is dispatched,
and as against A when it reaches him.
Revocation of Proposal- A proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication of its
acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards. Section 5
Revocation of Acceptance- An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of
the acceptance is complete as against the acceptor, but not afterwards. Section 5
Illustration- A proposes, by a letter sent by post, to sell his house to B. B accepts the proposal by a
letter sent by post. A may revoke his proposal at any time before or at the moment when B post his
letter of acceptance, but not afterwards. B may revoke his acceptance at any time before or at the
moment when the letter communicating it reaches A, but not afterwards.
1. Explain the terms "promise" and "consideration" with cases. Your answer must be no less than
250 words.(Contract-Chapter 1)
Promise
A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.[Section 2(b)]
"promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is called the "promised".
(i)Express Promise
In so far as the proposal or acceptance of any promise
is made in words, is said to be express. [Section 9]
(ii)Implied Promise
implied.[Section 9]
Consideration
In Daw Po and other vs. U Po Hmyin and others 1940 R.L.R 239 case, it was held that a stranger to a
contract can sue upon it (a) where a party to the contract agrees with the stranger to pay him
direct or becomes estopped from denying his liability to pay him personally, (b) where the contract
creates a trust in his favour.
Then in the later case" Burma (Government Security) Insurance Co.Ltd. vs. Daw Saw Hla"
1953 B.L.R.H.C 350, it was held that there is nothing in the Contract Act which prevents the
recognition of a right in a third party to enforce a contract made by other which contains a provision
for his benefit.
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1. Describe about the completion of communication. Your discussion must be no more than 400
In respect of communication there is an important point which is “when does the action of
communication be completed.”
Completion of Communication of Proposal The communication of a proposal is complete when it

comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made.
[Section 4]
E.g. (1) A proposes by letter, to sell a house to B at a certain price. In this case, the communication
of the proposal is complete when B receives the letter A’s letter .
Completion of Communication of Acceptance

The communication of an acceptance is completed: -
(i) as against the proposor, when it is put in a course of transmission to him, so as to be out of the
power of the acceptor, (ii) as against the acceptor , when it come to the knowledge of the proposer.
[Section 4]
Example
(2) In the case of the example (1):- B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The
communication of the acceptance is complete:-
(a) as against A, when the letter is posted;
(b) as against B, when the letter is received by A.
1. What are the main points to become a valid 'proposal' or 'offer'? Explain with examples.
You must answer it between 300-350 words. (Contract- Chapter 1)
Definition of Proposal
Under section 2 (a) of the Contract Act 1872, a Proposal is an act when one person signifies to
another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent
of that other to such act or abstinence.
The Salient Points of a valid "Proposal" or "Offer"
(1) A proposal is not a mere declaration or intention to make an offer but it is offer that is made with
the idea the person to whom the offer has been made will act in response to his offer: there must be
request to accept his offer.
Example
"proposal".
Example
Example
offer.
invitation to the purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for the book seller to accept
it or not.
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1. What is meant by "undue influence" as mentioned in the Contract Act? Explain briefly. You must
write it between 300-500 words. (Contract-Chapter 3)
Undue Influence- Section 16 -A contract is said to have been induced by “ undue influence”
where the relations subsisting between the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to
dominate the will of the other and uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other.
(a) Where he holds a real or apparent authority over the other, or where he stands in a fiduciary
relation to the other, or
(b) Where he makes a contract with a person whose mental capacity is temporarily or
permanently affected by reason of age, illness, or mental or bodily distress.”
This Sub-Section 2 shows the different forms of influence. Undue influence is ordinarily presumed
in relationship, such as-
(a) Parent and child
(b) Guardian and ward
(c) Trustee and beneficiary
(d) Solicitor and client
(e) Doctor and patient
(f) Spiritual adviser and disciple
Illustration-(1) A having advanced money to his son, B, during has minority, upon B’s coming of age
obtains, by misuse of parental influence, a bond from B for a greater amount than the sum due in
respect of the advance. A employs undue influence. (2) A, a man enfeebled by disease or age is
induced, by B’s influence over him as his medical attendant, to agree to pay B an unreasonable sum
for his professional services. B employs undue influence. (3) A applies to a banker for a loan at a
time when there is stringency in the money market. The banker declines to make the loan except at
an unusually high rate of interest. A accepts the loan on these terms. This is a transaction in the
ordinary course of business and the contract is not induced by undue influence.
It was also held that since there was no position of influence, it was necessary to consider whether
undue influence was used or not.
Section 16- (1) Where a person, who is in a position to dominate the will of another, enters into a
contract with him, in the transaction appears, on the face of it on the evidence adduced, to be
unconscionable, the burden of proving the said contract was not induced by undue influence shall lie
upon the person in a position to dominate the will of the other. Nothing in this sub-section shall
affect the provisions of section 111 of the Evidence Act.
Illustration- A being in debt to B, the money-lender of his village, contracts a fresh loan on terms
which appear to be unconscionable. It lies on B to prove that the contract was not induced by undue
influence.
Section 19- “When consent to an agreement is caused by undue influence, the agreement is a
contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused. Any such contract may be
set aside either absolutely or, if the party who was entitled to avoid it has received any benefit
thereunder, upon such terms and conditions as to the Court may seem just.”
1. State briefly the provisions of the Contract Act as regards the time, place and manner of
performance. You must write it between 300-500 words. (Contract-Chapter 4)
There are six different rules applicable to the law as to time, place and manner of performance. These
are: -
Section 47
Time is specified and application to be made, “when a promise is to be performed on a certain day,
and the promisor has undertaken to perform it at any time during the usual hours of business on such
day and at the place at which the promise ought to be performed.”
Section 48
“When a promise is to be performed on a certain day, and the promisor has not undertaken to
perform it without application by the promisee, it is the duty of the promisee to apply for
performance at 'a proper place' and within the usual house of business.”
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Section 49
“When a promise is to be performed without application by the promisee, and no place is fixed for
the performance of it, is the duty of the promisor to apply to the promisee to appoint "a reasonable
place" for the performance of the promise, and to perform it at such place.”
(2) Performance in manner or at time prescribed by Promisee
Section 50
“The performance of any promise may be made in any manner, or at any time, which the promisee
prescribes or sanctions.”
(3). When time is to the essence of contract
Section 55(First paragraph)
“When a party the a contract promises to do a certain thing at or before a specified time, or certain
things at or before specified times, and fails to do any such thing at or before the specified time, the
contract, or so much of it as has not been performed, becomes avoidable at the option of the
promisee, if the intention of the parties was that time should be of the essence of the contract.”
(4).When time is not essential
Section 55 (Second paragraph)
“If it was not the intention of the parties that time should be of the essence of the contract, the
contract does not become voidable by the failure to do such thing at or before the specified time; but
the promisee is entitled to compensation from the promisor for any loss occasioned to
him by such failure.”
(5). Effect of Acceptance of performance at time other than that agreed upon
Section 55 (Third paragraph)
“If, in case of a contract voidable on account of the promisor's failure to perform his promise at the
time agreed, the promisee accepts performance of such promise at any time other than that agreed,
the promisee cannot claim compensation for any loss occasioned by the nonperformance of the
promise at the time agreed, unless, at the time of such acceptance he gives notice to the promisor of
his intention to do so.”
1. What are the kinds of agreement expressly declared to be void? Specify it of 300 words or less.
In order to be a valid contract, the agreement must not be expressly declared to be void. There are
fourteen kinds of agreement which the Contract Act has expressly declared to be void. They are;-
(1)Agreements made by incompetent persons: [Section 11]
(2) Agreements made under mutual mistake as to a matter of fact [Section 20] or Law[Section 21]
(3) Agreements of which consideration or object is unlawful, [Section 23]
(4) Agreements of which consideration or object is unlawful in part[Section 24]
(5) Agreements without consideration [Section 25]
(6) Agreements in restraint of marriage [Section 26]
(7) Agreements in restraint of trade [Section 27]
(8) Agreements in restraint of legal proceedings [Section 28]
(9) Agreements the meaning of which is uncertain or not capable of being made certain [Section 29]
(10) Agreements by way of wager [Section 30]
(11) Agreements contingent on an event happening, and the event becomes impossible [Sections 32 ,
36]
(12) Where the agreement is to do an act which subsequently becomes impossible or unlawful
[Section 56]
(13) Agreement to do an act afterwards becoming Impossible or Unlawful. [Section 56]
(14) Where persons reciprocally promise firstly, to do something which are legal, and secondly,
under specified circumstances, to do certain other things which are illegal,
the second set of promises is a void agreement [Section 57]
Contracts which require being in writing under section 25 are-
(1) Contract out of natural love and affection [Section25(1)]
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(2) Promise to compensate for voluntary services [Section 25(2)]

(1) Promise to pay time-barred debt [Section 25(3)]
1. What is meant by "undue influence" as mentioned in the Contract Act? Explain briefly. You must
write it between 300-500 words. (Contract-Chapter 3)
Section 16
A contract is said to have been induced by "undue influence" where the relations subsisting between
the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of the other and uses
that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other.
(a)where he holds a real or apparent authority over the other, or where he stands in a fiduciary
relation to the other, or (b)where he makes a contract with a person whose mental
capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason of age, illness, or mental or bodily
distress.”
This Sub-Section 2 shows the different forms of influence.
Undue influence is ordinarily presumed in relationship, such as-
(b)guardian and ward
(c)trustee and beneficiary
(d)solicitor and client
(e)doctor and patient
(f)spiritual adviser and disciple
It was held that even though the deceased U Ah Choine was ill, it could not be considered to
be influenced by his wife and sons since he was to be able to bring himself up until to be a rich man.
It was also held that since there was no position of influence, it was necessary to consider
whether undue influence was used or not.
Section 16
(1)" Where a person, who is in a position to dominate the will of another, enters into a contract with
him, in the transaction appears, on the face of it on the evidence adduced, to be unconscionable, the
burden of proving the said contract was not induced by undue influence shall lie upon the person in a
position to dominate the will of the other.”
Nothing in this sub-section shall affect the provisions of section 111 of the Evidence Act.
Section 19
"When consent to an agreement is caused by undue influence, the agreement is a contract voidable at
the option of the party whose consent was so caused.
Any such contract may be set aside either absolutely or, if the party who was entitled to avoid
it has received any benefit thereunder, upon such terms and conditions as to the Court may seem
just."
1. Summarise the rules laid down in the Contract Act as to the appropriation of payment made by
debtor. Your answer must be no less than 250 words. (Contract-Chapter 4)
Rules as to Appropriation of Payments
Section 59
“Where a debtor, owing several distinct debts to one person, makes a payment to him, either with
express intimation or under circumstances implying that payment is to be applied to the discharge of
some particular debt, the payment, if accepted, must be applied accordingly.”
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Section 60
“Where the debtor has omitted to intimate and there are no other circumstances indicating to which
debt the payment is to be applied, the creditor may apply it at his discretion to any lawful debt
actually due and payable to him from the debtor, whether its recovery is or is not barred by the law in
(4) Neither party appropriate
Section 61
“Where neither party any appropriation the payment shall be applied in discharge of the debts in
order of time, whether they are or are not barred by the law of limitation of suits. If the debts are of
equal standing, the payment shall be applied in discharge of each proportionately.”
1. (a)What is meant by "fraud" as mentioned in the Contract Act?

(b)When does "silence" amount to fraud? State your discussion must be no more than 300 words.
Fraud
Section 17
(1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be true.
(2) the active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact,
(5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent.
(1) a duty to speak or
(2) unless it is equivalent to speech.
Examples
A sells by auction to B a horse which is A knows to be unsound. A says nothing to B about the
horse's unsoundness.
This is not fraud in A.
(b) B says to A "if you do not deny it, I shall assume that the horse is sound". A says nothing. Here
A's silence is equivalent to speech. Here, the relation between the parties is that A's duty to tell B if
the horse is unsound.
Effect of misrepresentation
Section 19A
“When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion, fraud or misrepresentation, the agreement is a
contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused.”
Exception
If such consent was so caused by misrepresentation or by silence, fraudulent within the meaning of
section 17, the contract, nevertheless, is not voidable, if the party whose consent was so caused had
the means of discovering the truth with ordinary diligence.
1. (a)Define consent.
(b)When is consent said to be free?
(c)Define coercion with illustration. Your answer must be no less than 250 words.
(a) Consent
Section 13
“Consent” is defined as “Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the same
thing in the same sense”.
(b) Free Consent Section 14
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22. (a)Coercion
(c) According to contract Act Section 15,
“Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to commit, any act forbidden by the Penal Code, or the
unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain, any property, to the prejudice of any person whatever,
with the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement.”
Explanation
It is immaterial whether the Penal Code is or is not in force in the place where the coercion is
employed.
In the case of Ma Ain Yu vs. Dr. Miss A. G. D. Netto and others, 1952 B.L.R.S.C. 65, it was held
that torture is an act forbidden by the Penal Code. A threat to commit such an act would come within
the purview of Section 15 of the Contract Act.
Illustration
A, on board an English ship on the high seas, caused B to enter into an agreement by an act
amounting to criminal intimidation under the Penal Code.
1. Discuss the statement "lawful consideration and lawful objects". Your discussion must be
no more than 300 words. (Contract-Chapter 3)
The next ingredient of a valid contract is that its consideration and object must be Lawful.
Section 23
Lawful considerations and objects are shown as follows:-
The consideration or objects of an agreement is
Lawful, unless-
(a) it is forbidden by law (or)
(b) it is of such a nature that, if permitted, it would defeat the provisions of any law (or)
(b) it is fraudulent (or)
(c) it involves or implies injury to the person or property of another (or)
(d) the court regards it as immoral, or opposed to public policy.
Section 57
“Where persons reciprocally promise, firstly, to do
certain things which are legal, and secondly, under specified
circumstances, to do certain other things which are illegal,
the first set of promises is a contract, but the second is a
void agreement.”
Illustration
A and B agree that A "shall sell B a house for kyats 100,000, but that, if B uses it as a gambling
house, he shall pay A Kyats 50,000 for it.
The first set of reciprocal promises, namely, to sell the house and to pay Kyats 100,000 for it, is a
contract. The second set is for an unlawful object namely, that B may use the house as a gambling
house, and is a void agreement.
Section 58
“In the case of an alternative promise, one branch of which is legal and the other illegal, the legal
branch alone can be enforced.”
Illustration
A and B agree that A shall pay B Kyats 100,000 for which B shall afterwards deliver to A either rice
or smuggled opium. This is a valid contract to deliver rice and void agreement as to the opium.
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1. (a) What a short note on quasi-contract?

(b) What are the kinds of quasi-contract under Contract Act? Your answer must be no more
than 250 words. (Contract-Chapter 5)
(a) Quasi-contracts are obligations which though not contracts technically, give rise to relations
which resemble those created by contracts. Though no contract has been made by the parties, law
makes out a contract for them, and such a contract is termed a contract implied by law.
There are five kinds of this situation recognized by contract Act. Under Section 68 to 72
(b) If a person, incapable of entering into a contract, or any one whom he is legally bound to support,
is supplied by another person with necessaries suited his condition in life, the person who furnished
such supplies is entitled to reimbursed from the property of such incapable person. (Section 68)
“A person who is interested in the payment of money which another is bound by law to pay,
and who therefore pays it, is entitled to be reimbursed by the other.” (Section 69)
“Where a person lawfully does anything for another person, or delivers anything to him, not
intending to do so gratuitously, and such other person enjoys the benefit there of, the latter is bound
to make compensation to the former in respect of , or to restore, the thing so done or delivered.”
(Section 70)
A person who finds goods belonging to another and take them into his custody is subject to
the same responsibility as a bailee.
Section 72 of the Act is that “a person to whom money has been paid, or anything delivered
by mistake or under coercion must repay or return it.”
1. Enumerate the modes under which a contract is discharged. Explain briefly. You must write
it between 300-500 words.
There are Eleven ways in which a contract may be discharged under the Contract Act. Such as-
(1) Discharge by performance [S.37]
(2) Dispensed with or excused by any law [S.37]
(3) By refusing tender of performance [S.38]
(4) Discharge by breach [S.39]
(5) By impossibility or unlawfulness of the act to be performed [S.56]
(6) By novation, rescission or alteration of contract [S.62]
(7) By waiver [S.63]
(8) By Accord and satisfaction
(9) By rescission of a voidable contract. [S.64]
(10) By neglect of promisee to afford promisor, reasonable facilities for performance
(11) By operation of law
Discharge by Performance
If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to do under the contract, the
contract is discharged.
Dispensed with or Excused by any Law
Where the performance of the contract is dispensed with or excused by any law other than the
Contract Act, the contract is discharged. [S.37]
Thus insolvency of a party to a contract discharges the contract. E.g An insolvent is released from
paying his debt.
By Refusing Tender of Performance
Refusal to accept an offer of performance discharges the party making the offer from liability under
the contract. [S.38]
Discharge by Breach
When one party to a contract commits a breach of that contract by refusing to perform, or by
disabling himself from performing his promise in its entirely, and the other party accepts the breach
the contract is discharged. [S. 39]
By Impossibility or Unlawfulness of the act to be
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Performed
A contract may be discharged by impossibility. Impossibility which arises from the non-existence of
the subject matter at the time of the contract is also void because both the parties to an agreement are
under mistakes as to a matter of fact essential to the agreement. [S.56]
By Novation, Rescission or Alternation of Contract
Section 62 deals with the effect of rescission or alternation of a contract which says:-
If the parties to a contract agree to substitute a new contract for it, or to rescind or alter it the original
contract need not be performed.
By Waiver
A contract may be discharged by way of "waiver". Section 63 deals with this principle as such;-
Every promise may-
(i) dispense with or,
(ii) remit, wholly or in part, the performance of the promise made to him, or may
(iii) extend the time for such performance, or may.
(iv) accept instead of it any satisfaction which he thinks fit.
By "Accord and Satisfaction"
When one of the parties to a contract in order to obtain release agrees to do something other
than what he was bound to do by the contract, and when he has discharged the obligation, and has
been set free, the contract is said to have been discharged by accord and satisfaction. The new
agreement is the accord, and the performance is the satisfaction.
By Rescission of a Voidable Contract
Section 64
When a person at whose option a contract is voidable rescinds it, the other party thereto need not
perform any promise therein contained in which he is promisor. The party rescinding avoidable
contract shall, if he has received any benefit there from another party to such contract, restore such
benefit, so far as may be, to the person from whom it was received.
By Neglect of Promisee to Afford Promisor Reasonable Facilities for Performance
Section 67 Provides that:-
If any promisee neglects or refuses to afford the promisor reasonable facilities for the performance of
his promise, the promisor is excused by such neglect or refusal as to any non-performance caused
thereby.
By Operation of Law
This may occur in there ways under the following circumstances:-
(i) By merger-acceptance of a higher security in place of a lower. If a higher security is accepted is
place of the law, the lower security is said to be merged or extinguished in the higher security.
(ii) By alternation of a written contract [S.62]
(iii) By insolvency or bankruptcy. Insolvency of a party to a
1. U Hla supplies the wife and children of U Mya, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their
lives, the children are minors. Is U Hla entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies? If so, from
whom and out of what? You must write it between 100-200 words. (Contract-Chapter 5)
U Hla supplies the wife and children of U Mya, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their lives, the
children are minors. They are incapable of entering into a contract. Therefore, U Hla is entitled to be
reimbursed from U Mya property.
Given the problem, according to Section 68, contract Act, If a person, incapable of entering into a
contract, or any one whom he is legally bound to support, is supplied by another person with
necessaries suited his condition in life, the person who furnished such supplies is entitled to
reimbursed from the property of such incapable person.
So, U Hla is entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies.
Example
(a) A supplies B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to his condition in life. A is entitled to be
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(b) A supplies the wife and children of B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their condition in life
A is entitled to be reimbursed from B's property.
1. What are the remedies for breach of contract? Explain. You must write it between 300-500
There are mainly three kinds of remedies for breach of contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(iii) An injunction
(1) Damages
In every breach of contract the injured party is entitled to damages. Damages are given by way of
restitution and compensation only, but not as a punishment, the agreed party can, therefore, recover
the actual loss caused to him.
The damages which can be taken are not exemplary damages which can recover only in case of a
breach of promise of marriage. The law as to damages for the breach of contract and the measure of
damages are laid down in Sections 73 to 75 of the Contract Act, 1872.
(2) Specific Performance
Specific performance is an order of the Court ordering the breached party to perform the contract.
The law regarding the specific performance and injunction are regulated by sections 12 to 30 of the
Specific Relief Act. Specific performance can be granted only when the damages are-
contract, or
For example
"A" agrees to buy a picture by a dead painter and two rare China vases, and "B" also agree to sell
them. "A" may compel "B" specifically to perform the contract for there is no standard ascertaining
the actual damage which would be caused by B’s non- performance.
"A" a singer, contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sing at his theater for one year, and to
abstain from singing at other theatres during this period. Although “A” made absent herself, “B”
cannot compel "A" to sing at his theatre, but he may sue her for an injunction restraining her from
singing at other theatres.
Thus, personal contracts are contracts which have to be performed by a person himself, but no one
else, cannot be specifically enforced.
(3) Injunction
Injunction is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to forbear, where a contract is
about to be broken by a party to the contract. Injunctions are of two kinds, namely, temporary or
perpetual.
(i) Temporary injunctions (ii) A perpetual injunction are governed by Sections 54 to 57 of the
Specific Relief Act.
1. State briefly the rules governing the measure of damages. Your discussion must be no more
than 300 words. (Contract-Chapter 6)
Where there is a breach of contract, the usual remedy is to sue for damages. In a claim for damages,
two issues arise:
The measure of damages for breach of contract is governed by the principles laid down in Section 73
of the Contract Act that “When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such breach is
entitled to receive, from the party who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or damage
caused to him thereby..”
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Section 73
"When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such breach is entitled to receive, from
the party who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him thereby,
which naturally arose in the usual course of things from such breach or which the parties
knew, when they made the contract, to be likely to result from the breach of it.
Such compensation is not to be given for any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by
reason of the breach.”
In the case of of Handley vs. Baxendale1 The plaintiff’s mill had ceased working because of
the broken crankshaft. The plaintiffs engaged the defendant carriers to transport the shaft to the
manufacturers. The defendants were negligent in their delivery of the shaft beyond a reasonable time,
as a result the operation of the mill being shut down for longer period than would have been
necessary had there been no delay. In a suit, the plaintiffs claimed for their increased loss of profits
caused by the delay.
(ii) Remoteness of Damage
The losses must be arisen direct for the breach. Losses not direct consequences of the breach must be
being regarded as “too remote”.
In measuring remoteness of damages, there are two limbs;-
(1)Damage arising naturally, i.e., from such breach of contract itself.
(2)Losses which is special and abnormal.
1. What are the rights and liabilities of finder of goods? Your answer must be no more than 250
A person who finds goods belonging to another and take them into his custody is subject to
the same responsibility as a bailee.
Right of Finder of Goods
According to the Section 168 of the Contract Act, a person who finds goods belonging to
another and take them into his custody is entitled to retain the goods against the owner until, he
receives such compensation for trouble and expenses voluntarily incurred by him to preserve the
goods and find out the owner, but he has no right to sue.
He can, however sue the owner where the owner has offered a specific reward for return of the goods
lost and may retain the goods until he receives it.
Moreover, he is entitled to its possession as against every one except the true owner.
Liabilities of Finder of Goods
Liabilities of Finder of Goods mean that he is subject to the responsibility of a bailee to take due care
of the goods and to try and find out the owner.
1. Enumerate the modes under which a contract is discharged. Explain briefly. You must write it
between 300-500 words.
1. Explain the agent's duties with illustrations. You must write it between 300-500 words.(Contract-
Chapter 7)
An agent is bound to conduct the business of his principal according to the directions given by the
principal, or in the absence of any such directions, according to the custom which prevails in doing
business of the same kind at the place where the agent conducts such business. When the agent acts
otherwise, if any loss be sustained he must make it good to his principal and, if any profit occurs, he
must account for it. [S.211]
An agent is bound to conduct the business of the agency with as much skill as is generally possessed
by persons engaged in similar business, unless the principal has notice of his want of skill. The agent
is always bound to act with reasonable diligence, and to use such skill as the possesses; and to make
compensation to his principal in respect of the direct consequences of his own neglect, want of skill
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or misconduct, but not in respect of loss or damage which are indirectly or remotely caused by such
neglect, want of skill or misconduct. [S.212]
An agent is bound to render proper accounts to his principal on demand. [S.213]
It is the duty of an agent, in cases of difficulty, to use all reasonable diligence in communicating with
his principal, and in seeking to obtain his instructions. [S.214]
If an agent deals on his own account in the business of the agency, without first obtaining the consent
of his principal and acquainting him with all material circumstances which have come to his own
knowledge on the subject, the principal may repudiate the transaction, if the case shows either that
any material fact has been dishonestly concealed from him by the agent, or that the dealings of the
agent have been disadvantageous to him.[S.215]
A directs B to sell A's estate. B on locking over the estate before selling it, finds a mine on the estate
which is unknown to A. B informs A that he wishes to buy the estate for himself, but conceals the
discovery of the mine. A allows B to buy in ignorance of existence of the mine. A, on discovering
that B knew of the mine at
the time he bought the estate, may either repudiate or adopt the sale at his option.
If an agent, without the knowledge of his principal, deals in the business of the agency on his own
account instead of on account of his principal, the principal is
entitled to claim from the agent any benefit which may have resulted to him from the transaction.
[216]
Illustration
A directs B, his agent, to buy a certain house for him.B tells A it cannot be bought, and buys the
house for himself: A may, on discovering that B has bought the house,compel him to sell it to A at
the price he gave for it.
1. Enumerate the agent's rights and explain briefly. Your discussion must be no more than 500
Right to retain
An agent may retain, out of any sums received on account of the principal in the business of the
agency, all moneys due to himself in respect of advances made or expense properly incurred by him
in conducting such business, and also such remuneration as may be payable to him for acting as
agent. [S.217]
Subject to such deductions, the agent is bound to pay to his principal all sums received on his
account. [S.218]
In the absence of any special contract, payment for the performance of any act is not due to
the agent until the completion of such act; but an agent may detain moneys received by him on
account of goods sold, although the whole of the goods consigned to him for sale may not have been
sold, or although the sale may not be actually complete. [S.219]
In the absence of any contract to the contrary an agent is entitled to retain goods, papers and
other property, whether movable or immovable, of the principal received by him, until the amount
due to himself for commission, disbursements and services in respect of the same has been paid or
accounted for to him. [S.221]
Right to remuneration
An agent is entitled to his commission only when he has carried out the object of agency, unless, of
course, there is contract to the contrary. For his remuneration he may detain money received by him
on account of goods sold, although the whole of the goods consigned to him for sale may not have
been sold, or although the sale may not be actually complete [S.219]
But an agent who is guilty of misconduct in the business of the agency is not entitled to any
remuneration in respect of that part of the business which he has misconduct. [S.220]
Right to lien
In the absence of any contract to the contrary, an agent is entitled to retain goods, papers and other
property, whether movable or immovable, of the principal received by him, until the amount due to
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himself for commission, disbursements and services in respect of the same has been paid or
accounted for to him [S.221]
Right to indemnity
An agent has a right to be indemnified against the following two consequences „
(1) Consequences of all lawful acts done by such agent in the exercise of the authority conferred
upon him . [S.222]
(2) Consequences of the acts done in goods faith during the course of the agency, when such acts an
injury to the rights of third person. [S.223]
Right to compensation
An agent is entitled to compensation for any loss or injury caused to him by the principal's neglect or
want of skill. But he cannot claim compensation if the injury resulted from his own negligence or
acquiescence after knowledge of the risk of the agency, for the agent is presumed to undertake
ordinary consequences of the risk incidental to the nature of the agency. [S.225]
1. Discuss the following statements. (a) Acts when can be ratified. (b)Acts when cannot be
ratified. Your dicussion must be no more than 300 words. (Contract-Chapter 7)
(i) Acts which can be ratified
Section 196
“Where acts are done by one person on behalf of another, but without his knowledge or authority, he
may elect to ratify of to disown such acts. If he ratify them, the same effects will follows as if they
had been performed by his authority.”
Section 197 of the Act states that “Ratification may be expressed or may be implied in the conduct of
the person on whose behalf the acts are done.”
Illustration
(b) A without B's authority lends B's money to C. Afterwards B accepts interests on the money from
C. B's conduct implies a ratification of the loan.
Section 199
“A person ratifying any unauthorized act done on his behalf ratifies the whole of the transaction of
which such act formed a part.”
(ii) Acts which cannot be ratified
The following two cases will not be allowed to ratified.
(1) No valid ratification can be made by a person whose knowledge of the facts of the case is
materially defective. [S.198]
(2) An act done by one person behalf of another without such other person's authority, which, if done
with authority, would have the effect of subjecting a third person to damages or of termination any
right or interest of a third person, cannot by ratification, be made to have such effect.[S.200]
Illustration
(b) A holds a lease from B, terminable on three months notice. C, an unauthorized person, gives
notice of termination to A. The notice cannot be ratified by B, so as to be binding on A.
1. Explain about contract of agency. State your discussion in 500 words or more. (Contract-
Chapter 7)
Appointment of Agents
Section 182
“An Agent" is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent another, in dealing with
third persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called the
“principal”.”
"Principal" is the person who employs another person to do an act for him, or to represent for him, in
Section 183
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“Any person who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of
sound mind, may employ an agent.”
Section 184
“As between the principal and third person any person may become an agent, but no person who is
not the age of majority and of sound mind can become an agent so to be responsible to his principal.”
Therefore a minor or a person of unsound mind is possible to be appointed as an agent, but he is not
responsible to his principal.
In the Contract concerning Agency consideration is not necessary [S.185]
(2)Authority of Agent
Section 186
Section 187
“An authority is said to be express when it is given by words spoken or written. An authority is said
to be implied when it is to be inferred from the circumstances of the case; and things spoken or
written, or the ordinary course of dealing, may be accounted circumstances of the case.”
Section 188
“An agent having an authority to carry on a business has authority to do every lawful thing necessary
for the purpose, or usually done in the course of conducting such business.”
Section 189
“An agent has authority, in an emergency, to do all such acts for purpose of protecting his principal
from loss as would be done by a person of ordinary prudence, in his own case, under similar
circumstances.”
Sub-Agents
(a) Delegation by agent
Section 190
"An agent cannot lawfully employ another to employ another to perform acts which he has expressly
or impliedly undertaken to perform personally, unless by the ordinary
custom of trade a sub-agent may, or, from the nature of the agency, a sub-agent must, be employed."
(c) Representation of principal by sub-agent
Section 192
“Where a sub-agent is properly appointed, the principal is, so far as regards third persons,
represented by the sub-agent, and is bound by and is responsible for his acts as if he were an agent
originally appointed by the principal.”
Section 193
Where an agent, without having authority to do so, has appointed a person to act as a sub-agent, the
principal is not represent by or responsible for the acts of the person so employed, nor is that person
responsible to the principal.
(c) Substituted agent
Section 194
“Where an agent, holding an expresses or implied authority to name another person to act for the
principal in the business of the agency, has named another person accordingly, such person is not a
sub-agent, but an agent of the principal for such part of the business of the agency as is entrusted to
him.”
1. Describes the bailee's liabilities.You must write it between 200-300 words.(Contract-Chapter

7)
Section 151
“In all cases of Bailment, the bailee is bound to take as much care of the goods bailed to him as a
man of ordinary prudence would under similar circumstances, take of his own goods of the same
bulk, quality and value as the goods bailed.”
Section 152
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“The bailee, in the absence of any special contract, is not responsible for the loss, destruction or
deterioration of the thing bailed if he is taken the amount of care of it described in section 151.”
Section 160
“It is the duty of bailee to return, or deliver according to the bailor's directions, the goods bailed,
without demand, as soon as the time for which they were bailed has expired, or the purpose for
which they were bailed has been accomplished.”
Section 161
“If, by the default of the bailee, the goods are not returned, delivered or tendered at the proper time,
he is responsible to the bailor for any loss, destruction or deterioration of the goods from that time.”
Section 163
“In the absence of any contract to the contrary, the bailee is bound to deliver to the bailor, or
according to his directions, any increase or profit which may have accrued from the goods bailed.”
Section 167
“If a person, other than the bailor, clamis goods bailed, he may apply to the Court to stop the delivery
of the goods to the bailor, and to decide the title to the goods.”
1. Discuss the following statements. (a)Acts when can be ratified. (b)Acts when cannot be ratified.
Your dicussion must be no more than 300 words. (Contract-Chapter 7)
1. Describes the bailee's liabilities.You must write it between 200-300 words.(Contract-Chapter 7)
1. What are the specific contracts? Explain contract of indemnity and contract of
guarantee.State your discussion in 200 or less. (Contract-Chapter 7)
Section 126 defines
A "Contract of Guarantee" is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the liability of a third
person in case of his default.
The person who gives the guarantee is called the "surety". The person in respect of whose default the
grantee is given is called the "principal debtor", and the person in to whom the grantee is given is
called the "creditor". A guarantee may be either oral or written.”
Contract concerning Bailment
Section 148
“A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose upon a contract that
they shall, when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise disposed of according to the
directions of the person delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called the "bailor". The
person to whom they are delivered is called the bailee .”
Explanation
If a person already in possession of the goods of another contracts to hold them as s bailee, he
thereby becomes the bailee, and the owner becomes the bailor, of such goods although they may not
have been delivered by way of bailment.
1. Give fine distinction between "tort" and "crime". State your discussion in 400 words or
more. (Tort-Chapter 1)
A tort is quite different from a crime.
The first difference can be seen in the nature of committing a wrongful act. A tort is an infringement
of legal rights of a person, which he has the right to enjoy them privately.
Whereas a crime is a breach of public rights and duties affect the community as a whole. In fact, the
function of criminal law is to protect the interests of the public at large or the state.
Secondly, the wrongdoer is to compensate the injured party, i.e., he has to pay damages for the injury
he has done. A crime is a wrong, the sanction of which involves punishment.
The courts in giving punishment used to give death penalty, imprisonment, pecuniary fines or
otherwise as the law permits. Thirdly, in tort, the action is brought by the injured party, whereas in
crime, proceedings are conducted by the State.
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Lastly, in tort, the courts in enforcing the rights claimed by the plaintiff usually do not consider the
intention of the wrongdoer. But, in crime, the Courts always consider the intention or mensrea of the
accused in the enforcement of punishment.
Very often, we can see that the same wrong is civil as well as criminal assault, libel, theft and
malicious injury to property, are wrongs of this kind. In such cases, the civil and criminal remedies
are not alternative, but concurrent, each being independent of the other. The wrongdoer may be
punished criminally or by a civil action.
Example:
If A steals B’s coat, there is (i) a crime of theft, and (ii)
trespass to goods
(a tort) and conversion (also a tort).
If X assault Y, there is both a crime and a tort.
Finally, in Tort, the Court would not take into consideration the intention ofthe wrongdoer,i.e.,
whether the wrong is done intentionally or not, ifthere is an invasion of a legal right, the Court
will give remedy to theinjured party.
In Crime to make wrongdoer responsible for the wrong committed by him, the Court will consider
the mensrea of the accused.
1. Explain about legal damage with cases. State your discussion in 500 words or more. (Tort-
Chapter 2)
It is not for every injury that a person may sustain in the course of everyday life that he or she can
recover compensation. It can only be recovered if that injury is due to the fault of somebody who
owes a duty to that person. Only when such damage is recognized as legal then the plaintiff will be
successful.
The real significance of legal damage is illustrated by two maxims;
(1) Injuria sine damno
(2) Damnum sine injuria
(1) "Injuria sine damno" (Wrong without damage)
In Ashby vs. White case (**MarzettiV.Williams, (1830) 1B &AD, 415) the defendant, a returning
officer, wrongfully refused to register a duty tendered vote of the plaintiff, a legally qualified voter,
and the candidate for whom, the vote was tendered was elected. So, there was no loss or damage
suffered by the plaintiff, by such rejection of the vote. But still, the Court held that an action lay. We
can see that in this case the returning officer had acted maliciously. But where a returning officer
although there was no practice of malice or improper motive on his part, honesty refused to receive
the vote of a person entitled to vote at an election, it was held that no action lay.
Thus in Marzetti v. Williams case (Ashby v. White (1708) 2Ld.Raym, 938,955) an action will lie
against a banker, having sufficient funds in his hands belonging to a customer, for refusing to honour
his Cheque; although the customer did not thereby sustain actual loss or damage. So if there be an
infringement of a legal right, without actual damage, the person whose right has been infringed can
bring a suit under the provisions of section (42) of the Specific Relief Act. Hence, whenever a person
sustained of a legal wrong, he may bring an action without being under necessity of proving special
damage.
In MaungThitsa (Appellant) v. Maung Nat (Respondent) case (MaungThit Sa V. Maung Nat, 1
B.L.T., 146), a leading case, the appellant and respondent were lessees of adjoining fisheries. The
respondent erected certain akese which had
the effect of obstructing the passage, of fish to the appellant's fishery. The plaintiff-appellant has
claimed Rs. 1,320 for damages. The appellant's suit was decreed in the trial Court, but was dismissed
in the Appellate Court on the ground of there being no proof of special damage. Held that, the
respondent had infringed the right of the appellant by obstructing the free passage of fish to his
fishery; where there has been an infringement of a legal right an action for damages will lie without
proof of special damage. The appeal was allowed.
(2) Damnum sine injuria (Damage without wrong)
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In Gloucester Grammar School Case, (*Per Hankford. J. in Gloueester Grammar School, (1410) Y.B. 11
Hen IV for.27 p1.21,22.) the plaintiff complained that he had to reduce his fees at his school because of
the competition of the defendant, who set up a rival school, was held to have no remedy. This is
because English Law has accepted fundamental doctrine of free competition. Competition or other
acts damaging a man in his business are tortious only if, the act causing damage is deemed unlawful
or wrongful.
In Mogul Steamship Co. case, there is apparent conflict of two rights that are equally
regarded by the law: the right of the plaintiffs to be protected in the legitimate exercise of their trade,
and the right of the defendants to carry on their business as seem best to them, provided they commit
no wrong to others.
The defendants are a number of ship-owners who formed themselves into a League or
Conference for the purpose of ultimately keeping in their own hands of the control of the carriage
from certain Chinese ports, and for the purpose of driving the plaintiffs and other competitors from
the field. The right of competition exists even when the means adopted are "unfair".
1. State the circumstances in which an agreement made without consideration is valid? Specify
it of 300 words or less. (Contract-Chapter 8)
In Myanmar, an agreement without consideration is void, but there are three exceptions to this rule.
They are laid down in Section 25 as follows -
“An agreement made without consideration is void unless;-
(1) It is expressed in writing and registered under the law for the time being in force for the
registration of documents, and is made on account of natural love and affection between parties
standing in a near relation to each other: or unless.
(2) It is a promise to compensate wholly or in part , a person who has already voluntarily done
something for the promisor, or something which the promisor was legally compellable to
do or unless.
(3) It is a promise, made in writing and signed by the person to be charged therewith, or by his agent
generally or specially authorized in the that behalf, to pay wholly or in part a debt ofwhich the
creditor might have enforced payment but for the limitation of suits.
Excepting these three cases, every agreement, in order to be enforceable by law, must
supported by consideration. The circumstances in which an agreement made without consideration is
valid are (1) Contract out of natural love and affection [S.25(1)]
(2) Promise to compensate for voluntary service and, [ S.25(2)]
(3) Promise to pay time-barred debt [S.25(3)]
Explanation (1)
Nothing in this section shall affect the validity, as between the donor and donee, of any gift actually
made.
Explanation (2)
An agreement to which the consent of the promisor is freely given is not void merely because the
consideration is inadequate; but the inadequacy of the consideration may be taken into account by
the Court in determining the question whether the consent of the promisor was freely given.
1. What are the basic factors to constitute a tort ?Explain briefly. Your discussion must be no
more than 500 words. (Tort-Chapter 2)
(1) Damage
(2) Malice
(3) Intention
(4) Motive
Damage
In studying the law of tort, we should know the difference between the terms "damage" and
"damages"
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"Damage" means the loss or grief or harm suffered by the plaintiff. It can be seen clearly that "a
person who on purpose or carelessly injuries another contrary to law in his life, body, health,
freedom, property, or other right is liable to compensate that other for the resulting damage".
"Damages" on the other hand means such compensation awarded by the court for the pecuniary loss
suffered by the plaintiff.
An award of damages may serve to compensate the plaintiff and to deter the defendant and other
from similar conduct in the future.
Malice
It is the intentional doing of a wrongful act, without just cause or excuse. It is not an act dictated by
angry feelings of vindictive motive. If a man gives a perfect stranger a blow likely to produce death,
he does it intentionally and without just cause or excuse. If a man main cattle without knowing
whose they are or that if he poison a fishery, without knowing of the owner, he has done it of malice,
because it is a wrongful act and done intentionally. This implied malice which is malice in law is
also an express malice depending on the circumstances of the case.
Malice is of two kinds:
(1) Express Malice
(2) Implied Malice
(1) Defamation.
(2) Malicious Prosecution.
(3) Willful and Malicious damage to property.
(4) Slander of title
(5) Maintenance.
Intention
The third point to be considered as basic factor in tort is that of "Intention". There is the maxim
"Every man is presumed to intend and to know the natural and ordinary consequences of his acts".
So wrongful acts done intentionally to damage a particular person and which actually damaging him
is obviously actionable. A violation of a legal right committed knowingly is a cause of action.
Motive
The last factor to be considered in tort is motive. It means that which makes a person act in particular
way. It signifies the reason for conduct. Thus, motive can be properly used to describe the emotion
which prompts the defendant to commit the act; for example, rage, hatred or jealousy.
In the case of Mayor of Bradford v. Pickles, (1895) A.C., 587it has been decided that if a man has
the misfortune to lose his spring by his neighbour digging a well, he must dig his own well deeper.
What is the law regarding wagering contracts under the Contract Act? You must write it
between 200-400 words. (Contract-Chapter 8)
Section 30
Agreements by way of wager are void: and to suit shall be brought for recovering anything alleged to
be won on any wager, or entrusted to any person to abide the result of any game or other uncertain
event on which any wager is made".
This section shall not be deemed to render unlawful a subscription or contribution, or
agreement to subscribe or contribute, made or enter into for or toward any plate, price or sum of
money, of the value or amount of kyats 50000 or upwards, to be awarded to the winner or winners of
any horse race.
Nothing in this section shall be deemed to legalize any transaction connected with horse-
racing to which the provision of section 294 A of the Penal Code apply.
'Wager' is defined by Sir Willian Ansons as "a promise to give money or money's worth upon
the determination or ascertainment of an uncertain event.
As the effect on collateral agreement, it was held in the case of Khairthi vs. Lal Din (a)
Maung Ba Thein and two others1 that-
"An agreement to share in the prize before a winning Treble Tote ticket was purchased is a
collateral agreement to a wagering contract and there is no law which declares such collateral
agreement to be void".
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1. What are the remedies available for the person whose land is trespassed? State your discussion in
200 words or less. (Tort-Chapter 3)
Where a person has entered upon land under a license given by law subsequently abuses it, he
becomes a trespasser ab initio, his misconduct relating back so as to make is original entry tortuous.
In fact the term ab initio means from the very beginning. The rule applies only to acts done in
pursuance of an entry, authority, or licence given by the law, and not given by the property.
The doctrine of trespass ab initio enables this to be done in the important area of a man’s person,
goods and land against the abuse of official power.
The person whose land is trespassed upon may-
(1)bring an action for trespass against the trespasser.
(2) forcibly defend his possession against a trespasser.
(3) forcibly eject him.
1. Explain how action can be maintained for trespass by animals. Your discussion must be no
Liability is imposed on the keeper, i.e. the person who is head of the household of which a
minor owns the animal or has it is his possession. So, ordinary trespass can be committed by means
of animals.
Liability for animals also includes liability of a person in possession of livestock, which stray
on to another's land. "Livestock" means cattle, horses, mules, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry and also
deer not in the wild state.
There was a case of injury by horse. In that case, the defendant's horse injured the plaintiff's
mare by biting and kicking her through an iron fence, belonging to the defendant which separated the
defendant's landform the plaintiff's, it was held that there was a trespass by the act of the defendant's
horse for which the defendant was liable apart from any question of negligence.
In Maung Ngwe Sein vs. Mg Hla Pe Case4, a young colt belonging to the respondent
trespassed into the stables of a brood. A mare (young horse) in an advanced stage of pregnancy
belonging to the appellant, has been kicked several times on the stomach and with a result that it
brought about an abortion of seven months old foal (young-horse). The appellant won the case in the
Township Court, having K. 820 as damages although he claimedK.1000. The Respondent appealed
in the District Court, where the decree of the Township Court was set aside on the ground that there
was no proof of vicious nature of the colt. The appellant put up the case to the High Court, where the
judgment of the District Court was reversed on a clear ground that the owner of the cattle which stay
or trespass on to the property of another person is liable for the damage.
Animals suffering from a contagious disease are likely if they escape, to infect other animals
with which they may come into contact and their owner therefore, if he knows that they are so
diseased, is bound to keep them in at all hazards.
4 1959.B.L.R.37.(H.C)
1. Explain how the law protects the right of a trader to require a right to trademark. Your
discussion must be no more than 750 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
The law protects a man's interest in earning his living. Hence it is the rightof every
trader to require a right to trade mark.
At Common Law, the use of trade name or mark which has beenadopted by making it, appear that
the goods sold under it are the goods ofthat other. In Myanmar, there is no system of registration of
Trade-
Marks, nor for a statutory title to a Trade-Mark.
So, the right of parties setting up claims to ownership of a trade-mark must be determined
inaccordance with the principles of Common Law. The right to Trade-Marks in Myanmar is
therefore dependent upon the general principles of Commercial Law.
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The fundamental rule is that, "one man has no right to put off hisgood for sale as the goods of a rival
trader.
The law restricts unfair competition inthe affairs of trade business. Thus whoever commits the tort of
"Passingoff" will be liable not only to pay damages, but also an injunction will be lieto prevent the
apprehended wrong.
"Passing off" may be committed in the following ways:
(1) Marketing a product as that of the plaintiff.
(2) Using plaintiff's name
(3) Using plaintiff's trade-name
(4)Using plaintiff's Trade-Mark.
(5)Imitating appearance of plaintiff's goods.
(6)Selling inferior goods of plaintiff, there by misleading purchasers.
(7)False advertising.
The term "Trade-Mark" is defined in Section 478 of the Penal Codeof Myanmar as follows:
A mark used for denoting that goods are the manufacture ormerchandise of a particular person is
called a Trade-Mark".
The period of limitation prescribed by Section 15 of the MyanmarMerchandise Act ,3 for
prosecuting an offender under the Penal Code forthe use of false Trade-Mark is three years from the
date of the commissionof the offence charged or one year from the date of discovery by
theprosecutor of the offence charged, whichever is less.
In the case of Aung Gwan Chawn of B.Y.C. Soap factory,in which the Court held that, although the
appellant plaintiff had used theSinger Machine Manufacturers V. Wilson, 1877. 3 App Case. 376
especially at P.391-2.per LordCairus L.C. (H.L).Trade-Mark in dispute which is "Bandoola" long
before the formation ofthe B.Y.C.
Company, but with his own consent, it has been permitted to beused by that company up to the time
of its dissolution without anyinterruption for (9) years. That simply amounts to waiver of such right
touse the Trade-Mark. Hence, B.Y.C. Company will be entitled to the right touse it as its own
property. In other words it will be taken as the property ofthe firm under section (14) of the
Partnership Act.
Secondly in the case of Johny Walker & Sons Ltd. vs. U ThanShwe5 in which case the Court
considered the point that whether anowner of a Trade-Mark in respect of a particular
commodity has a right toprohibit or prevent other persons from the use of such mark in
connectionwith goods of a totally different character.
The appellant is the owner of the Trade-Mark JOHNNIE WALKER(words) and the JONNIE
WALKER striding figure representations whichhave been used on bottles of whisky sole by him in
Myanmar. Therespondent used the words" Burmese JOHANNIE WALKER" with thestriding figure
of JOHNNIE WALKER, on his blood Tonic bottles. TheCourt found out that the goods are of
different in character and class.Hence the appeal was dismissed.
We must also note that the action maintainable even though no damage is proved, i.e. by way of –
(1) an injunction.
(2) either damages or an account of profits at the plaintiff's option.
The first remedy is often the most important to the plaintiff. If thedefendant's conduct is calculated to
divert customers even though no saleas occurred, an injunction will still lie to prevent the
apprehended wrong.
As to the second form of remedy, the plaintiff will recover damagesfor the loss of profit which he
has sustained in consequence of customer'sbeing diverted from him to the defendant. In addition he
may recover forloss of business reputation and good-will of the business.
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1. Explain how the law protects the right of a trader to require a right to trademark. Your discussion
must be no more than 750 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
Briefly mention how torts can be classified and explain how "assault" and "battery" can be taken in
action for tort in relation to the invasion of interest in person. Your answer must be no less than 400
words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
Invasion of Interests in Person
(i)Battery
(ii)Assault
Assault
There are obvious reasons why in dealing with security of the person, assault is an act of the
defendant which causes to the plaintiff reasonableapprehension of the infliction of a battery on him
by the defendant. So anassault may be defined as an attempted battery.
To throw water at a person is an assault but if any drops fall uponhim, it is battery.
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is probably an assault, but when he falls to the
ground it becomes a battery.
Pointing a loaded pistol is an assault. But if the pistol is not loaded, it would be no assault.
To shake a fist under a person’s nose, or to curse him in athreatening manner, or to aim a
blow at him is an assault. So where thedefendant by his act intends to commit a battery and the
defendantapprehends it, there is an assault.
In fact, assault and battery are crimes as well as torts.In the case Sulaiman vs. The king1, it
was decided that if thecommon intention of the accused and his associates by committing an assault
was not to cause injury known to be likely to cause death, but tocause grievous hurt, thought the
combined effect of the injuries actuallycaused was likely to cause death, the accused is guilty of the
offence ofcausing grievous hurt and not of culpable homicide not amounting tomurder.
To provisions of sections 350 and 351, of the Penal Code of CriminalLaw of Myanmar
clearly shows, when and how such assault and battery (Criminal force) can be effected and
punishment for such crimes are laiddown in Section 352.
Battery
Battery is the intentional application of force to another person. He whoshoots and wounds another
unintentionally may be liable in trespass, though he commits no felony.
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is probably an assault, but when he
falls to the ground it becomes a battery.
There is no battery unless there is an act by the defendant and thatthere can be no battery
unless there contact with the plaintiff.Battery is a special kind of tort which protects not only the
interest infreedom from insult. Battery is actionable per se. i.e. without proof ofdamage. If such a tort
is proved, the injured party is entitled to damages.
1. Briefly mention how torts can be classified and explain how "assault" and "battery" can be
taken in action for tort in relation to the invasion of interest in person. Your answer must be no
less than 400 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
Torts can be classified into three different categories.
a. Invasion of interests in person.
b. Invasion of interests in
c. Invasion of interests in reputation.
(i)Battery
(ii)Assault
Assault
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defendant which causes to the plaintiff reasonable apprehension of the infliction of a battery on him
by the defendant. So an assault may be defined as an attempted battery.
To throw water at a person is an assault but if any drops fall upon him, it is battery.
Battery
Battery is the intentional application of force to another person. He who shoots and wounds
another unintentionally may be liable in trespass, though he commits no felony.
False Imprisonment
A false imprisonment is complete deprivation of liberty for the time being without any lawful cause.
Invasion of Interests in Reputation
Every man has an absolute right to protect his reputation. It is a right inrem. The wrong of
defamation includes the publication of thought and ideas in terms of words, pictures, gestures, music
or statues. But, basically we see that there are only two kinds of defamation:-
(1) Libel
(2) Slander
Libel
Anything communicated in a form of a permanent character and visible to the eye is libel,
such as books, newspapers, pictures, waxwork effigy or statues, mark or sign exposed to view.
Moreover, broadcasting, both radio and television and theatrical performances which are treated as
publication in permanent form, i.e. as libel.
To take action for libel, the following points must be proved.
(2) It is written
False Statement
There is no responsibility for the plaintiff to establish the defendant's statement is untrue. What
plaintiff must prove is that the statement is defamatory to him ,i.e., he has to prove that the defendant
communicated to the third party (but not just to his wife) words which were likely to lower the
plaintiff in the estimation of right thinking people. Defamation of a person is taken to be false until it
is proved to be true. He also needs not prove any damage.
However if he wants to get heavy damages, he should only try to prove some loss occurred to
him.
Written
The term 'libel' actually indicates something printed or written, but also includes any
scandalous painting, waxwork effigy, or symbol. A gallows at the doorway of some person out of
hatred may be a libel upon him. In Jefferies vs. Duncombe case, the plaintiff recovered damages
against the defendant for keeping in front of the plaintiff's house, a lamp burning during the daytime,
there by intending to make out the dwelling house of the plaintiff as a bawdy house i.e. (brothel
house).
Defamatory
It is already pointed out that to be a defamatory the words must tend to lower the plaintiff’s
reputation in the estimation of right thinking members of the society.
Publication
Publication is the communication of the words to at least one person other than the person defamed.
Publication of the defamatory statement is an essential element of the cause of action.
Communication to the plaint if himself is not enough, for defamation is an injury to one's reputation
and reputation is what other people think of a man, and not his own opinion of himself; in other
words, you cannot publish a libel of a man to himself .It is the publication, not the composition of a
libel which is the actionable wrong. Therefore publication need not be intentional.
Newspaper Libel
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In often, there arises question in relation to charges which appears in newspaper against
public men. If such a thing happens, the proprietor, the editor, the printer and the publisher are liable
to be sued for defamation, either separately or jointly.
Slander
If a false and defamatory statement is conveyed by spoken words or gestures it is slander.
Just as in the case of a libel, it must be proved that the words complained of are:
(1)false
(2) defamatory
(3) publication
(4) special damage
Generally, slander is actionable only on proof of special damage. Hence we say that slander is not
actionable per se. The plaintiff must prove and plead that he has suffered special damage as the
natural and probable consequence of the publication of the defamatory statement.
Criminal Offences
Spoken words are actionable if they impute a crime. But there must be the direct imputation of the
offence, and must not be a mere suggestion or statement of suspicion.
Vulgar Abuse
Damages may be recovered for mere vulgar abuse, i.e. using verbal abuse, without proof of
special damage. There is a difference between an abusive language and that of insulting language
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1. What are the respective points to be proved to take an action for libel? Specify it of 200 words or
less. (Tort-Chapter 3)
(2) It is written
(1) False Statement
There is no responsibility for the plaintiff to establish the defendant's statement is untrue. What
plaintiff must prove is that the statement is defamatory to him.
(2) Written
The term 'libel' actually indicates something printed or written, but alsoincludes any
scandalous painting, waxwork effigy, or symbol. A gallows atthe doorway of some person out of
hatred may be a libel upon him. In Jefferies vs. Duncombe case, the plaintiff recovered damages
against the defendant for keeping in front of the plaintiff's house, a lampburning during the daytime,
there by intending to make out the dwellinghouseof the plaintiff as a bawdy house i.e. (brothel
house).
(3) Defamatory
It is already pointed out that to be a defamatory the words must tend tolower the plaintiff’s reputation
in the estimation of right thinking membersof the society
(4) Publication
Publication is the communication of the words to at least one person otherthan the person defamed.
Publication of the defamatory statement is anessential element of the cause of action.
Communication to the plaintif himself is not enough, for defamation

is an injury to one's reputation andreputation is what other people
think of a man, and not his own opinion ofhimself; in other words,
you cannot publish a libel of a man to himself .Itis the publication, not the composition of a libel
which is the actionablewrong.
Therefore publication need not be intentional.
1. Briefly mention how torts can be classified and explain how "assault" and "battery" can be taken
in action for tort in relation to the invasion of interest in person. Your answer must be no less than
400 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
(i)Battery
(ii)Assault
Assault
defendant which causes to the plaintiff reasonable apprehension of the infliction of a battery on him
by the defendant. So an assault may be defined as an attempted battery.
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is probably an assault, but when he
falls to the ground it becomes a battery.
Pointing a loaded pistol is an assault. But if the pistol is not loaded, it would be no assault.
To shake a fist under a person’s nose, or to curse him in threatening manner, or to aim a blow
at him is an assault. So where the defendant by his act intends to commit a battery and the defendant
apprehends it, there is an assault.
In fact, assault and battery are crimes as well as torts. In the case Suleiman vs. The king1, it
was decided that if the common intention of the accused and his associates by committing an assault
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was not to cause injury known to be likely to cause death, but to cause grievous hurt, thought the
combined effect of the injuries actually caused was likely to cause death, the accused is guilty of the
offence of causing grievous hurt and not of culpable homicide not amounting to murder.
To provisions of sections 350 and 351, of the Penal Code of Criminal Law of Myanmar
clearly shows, when and how such assault and battery (Criminal force) can be effected and
punishment for such crimes are laid down in Section 352.
Battery
Battery is the intentional application of force to another person. He who shoots and wounds another
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is probably an assault, but when he falls to the
ground it becomes a battery.
There is no battery unless there is an act by the defendant and that there can be no battery
unless there contact with the plaintiff. Battery is a special kind of tort which protects not only the
interest in freedom from insult. Battery is actionable per se. i.e. without proof of damage. If such a
tort is proved, the injured party is entitled to damages.
1. Explain how action can be maintained for trespass by animals. Your discussion must be no
Liability is imposed on the keeper, i.e. the person who is head of the household of which a minor
owns the animal or has it is his possession. So, ordinary trespass can be committed by means of
animals.
Liability for animals also includes liability of a person in possession of livestock, which stray
on to another's land. "Livestock" means cattle, horses, mules, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry and also
deer not in the wild state.
There was a case of injury by horse. In that case, the defendant's horse injured the plaintiff's
mare by biting and kicking her through an iron fence, belonging to the defendant which separated the
defendant's land from the plaintiff's, it was held that there was a trespass by the act of the defendant's
horse for which the defendant was liable apart from any question of negligence.
In Maung Ngwe Sein vs. Mg Hla Pe Case4, a young colt belonging to the respondent
trespassed into the stables of a brood. A mare (young horse) in an advanced stage of pregnancy
belonging to the appellant, has been kicked several times on the stomach and with a result that it
brought about an abortion of seven months old foal (young-horse). The appellant won the case in the
Township Court, having K. 820 as damages although he claimedK.1000. The Respondent appealed
in the District Court, where the decree of the Township Court was set aside on the ground that there
was no proofof vicious nature of the colt. The appellant put up the case to the High Court, where the
judgment of the District Court was reversed on a clear ground that the owner of the cattle which stay
or trespass on to the property of another person is liable for the damage. Animals suffering from a
contagious disease are likely if they escape, to infect other animals with which they may come into
contact and their owner therefore, if he knows that they are so diseased, is bound to keep them in at
all hazards.
1. Give brief statement on the standard of care. State yout discussion in 300 words or more.
(Tort-Chapter 4)
Standard of Care
As to the standard of care, the defendant owes a duty of care which an ordinary mean of
prudence should consider best.
There was also Maung Kyaw Dun vs. Ma Kyin & Marayanan Chetty Case,occurred in
Myanmar. The plaintiff failed in his action for claiming damages, for the injury done by the
defendant's elephant.
The facts of the case were that the plaintiff's elephant was kicked to deathby the defendant's
elephant. The inferior Court decided, he was not entitled to get2Standard of care* Mg Kyaw Dun v.
6103
Ma Kyin & Narayanan Chetty, 2 U.B.R., 570.damages. Thus this appeal follows. The Appellate
Court pointed out that, inclaiming damages, the plaintiff must prove the negligence of the defendant.
Inconsidering the essential factor, the Court pointed out that the plaintiff must provethat the
defendant knew that his elephant was dangerous. The Court held that thereis no breach of duty on the
part of the defendant andthe plaintiff failed.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff must
prove that:
1. The defendant has duties to exercise was negligent a reasonable care and skill.
3. The defendant breached that duty by failing to conform to the required standardof conduct.
4. The defendant's negligent conduct was the cause of the harm to thePlaintiff.
5. The plaintiff was, in fact, harmed or damaged due to the failure ofperformance the duties.
The plaintiff must therefore prove on a balance of probabilities. There is aBacon's Maxim:
CausaCausans (the immediate cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing is the cause of
the effect), which means "he does the firstwrong shall answer for all consequential damages" and
"the damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the wrongful act". There are three kinds of
damage, namely, injury to the person, damage to property and pure financial loss. The mere fact that
the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not relieve the defendant of liability if his conduct
was unreasonable.
There are two competing views as to the test of remoteness of consequence:
1. Consequences are too remote if a reasonable man would not have foreseen them.
2. The defendant will be liable for all the direct consequences of his act, suffered by the plaintiff
whether a reasonable man would have foreseen them or not.
1. What are the public nuisances in which an individual may have a right to take civil action?
Specify it of 500 words or less. (Tort-Chapter 5)
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar, defines public nuisance as follows:
"A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of illegal omission
which causes any common injury, danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in general who
dwell or occupy property in the vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger
or annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right.
A common nuisance is not excused on the ground that it causes some convenience or
advantage."
Section 133 to 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Myanmar6, therefore provide for the
actions to be taken by the judicial authorities to, remove such public nuisances.
If there be any kind of nuisance at a public place, which include also property belonging to
the State, camping grounds, and grounds left unoccupied for sanitary or recreative purposes, actions
can be taken by the State and in disobedience will be liable for penalties provided in the Penal Code.
i.e. Sec, 269-294 (A).
In order that an individual may have a right to take civil action, in respect of a public
nuisance:-
(1) The plaintiff must show that he has suffered a particular injury or damage beyond that which is
suffered by the public at large.
(2) Such injury must be direct. If a certain way is obstructed, but another is left open, then there will
be no cause of action.
Section 91 of the Civil Procedure Code of Myanmar provides for the suits relating to public matters,
especially with regard to public nuisance as follows:
"In the case of a public nuisance the Attorney-General, or two or more persons having
obtained the consent in writing of the Attorney-General: may institute a suit though no special
damage has been caused: for a declaration and injunction or for such other relief as may be
appropriate to the circumstances of the case.8
6103
In the case of Soltau v. De Held, the nuisance was that of the noise. The plaintiff resided in a
house next to a Roman Catholic Chapel of which the defendant was the priest and the Chapel bell
was rung at all hours of day and night. It was held that the ringing was a public nuisance, and the
plaintiff was held entitled to an injunction.
In another leading case of the Mortgage Bank of India vs. AhmedbhoyHabibbhoy, 10 the
plaintiffs were the owners of a building containing a large number of rooms which are supposed to
be rented. But, because the defendants who were the owners of an adjacent cotton mill have created
such a mill, certain rooms in the building remained unlit, because of the noise and smoke of the mill.
1. What are the differences between "libel and slander"? Specify it of 200 words or less. (Tort-
Chapter 3)
A libel is a written or a printed defamation. A slander is a spoken defamation.
(1) Libel is not merely a civil wrong, but also a criminaloffence for it tends to breach the
peace. Whereas slander is a civil wrongonly, although sometimes the words are
blasphemous, seditious or obscene,or which tends to commit a crime, or contempt of Court
will amount tocriminal liability.
(2) Libel is actionable per se. i.e. actionable without proof ofspecial damage, whereas
slander, subject to certain exceptions is onlyactionable only on proof of actual damage.
(3) Libel ျဖင့္လ်ွ င္ သူတစ္ပါး၏ အခြင့္အေရးကို ခ်ိဳးေဖာက္ျခင္းျဖစ္သျဖင့္ တရားစဲြအေရးယူအတြက္
အမွန္တကယ္ျဖစ္ေပၚေသာ နစ္နာမႈကို သက္ေသျပရန္မလိုေပ။
(4) In general, the original maker of a statement is not liablefor its republication by
another, but that other will responsible even thoughhe expressly states that he is merely
reproducing what he has been toldfrom a specified source.
1. Define "Negligence" and explain briefly the ingredients to constitute negligence. Your
answer must be no less than 200 words. (Tort-Chapter 4)
As to the standard of care, the defendant owes a duty of care which an ordinary mean of prudence should consider best.
There was also Maung Kyaw Dun vs. Ma Kyin & Marayanan Chetty Case,occurred in Myanmar. The plaintiff failed in
his action for claiming damages, for the injury done by the defendant's elephant.
The facts of the case were that the plaintiff's elephant was kicked to deathby the defendant's elephant. The
inferior Court decided, he was not entitled to get2Standard of care* Mg Kyaw Dun v. Ma Kyin & Narayanan Chetty,
U.B.R., 570.damages. Thus this appeal follows. The Appellate Court pointed out that, inclaiming damages, the plaintiff
must prove the negligence of the defendant. Inconsidering the essential factor, the Court pointed out that the plaintiff
must provethat the defendant knew that his elephant was dangerous. The Court held that thereis no breach of duty on the
part of the defendant andthe plaintiff failed.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff must prove that:
The plaintiff must therefore prove on a balance of probabilities. There is aBacon's Maxim: CausaCausans (the immediate
cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing is the cause of the effect), which means "he does the firstwrong
shall answer for all consequential damages" and "the damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the wrongful
act". There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to the person, damage to property and pure financial loss. The mere
fact that the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not relieve the defendant of liability if his conduct was
unreasonable.
2. The defendant will be liable for all the direct consequences of his act, suffered by the plaintiff whether a reasonable
man would have foreseen them or not.
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1. What is "Res ipsa loquitur"? Give your answer with leading cases. You must write it
between 200-400 words. (Tort-Chapter 4)
The maxim Resipsaloquitur means "the thing speaks for itself".
Byrne V. Boadle (1863) 2 H. &. C. 722.Byrne (P) was struck by a barrel falling from a window as he
walked past Boadle’s (D) flour shop and sustained serious personal injuries. A witness testified that
he saw the barrelfall from Boadle’s window but had not seen the cause. Byrne did not present any
other evidence of negligence by Boadle or his employees. Boadle moved for a non-suit on the
grounds that Byrne had presented no evidence of negligence. The court granted the motion and
plaintiff obtained a rule nisi. The Court of Exchequer found in favor of Byrne and reversed. Boadle
appealed.
Liability for negligence can lie solely on account of the type of accident that occurred, without direct
evidence of negligence.
Stone V.Bolton (1949) 2 All.E.R. 851.On 9 August 1947, during a game of cricket against the
Cheetham 2nd XI at Cheetham Cricket Ground in Manchester, a batsman from the visiting team hit
the ball for six. The ballflew out of the ground, hitting the claimant, Miss Stone, who was standing
outside her house in Cheetham Hill Road, approximately 100 yards (91 m) from the batsman. The
club had been playing cricket at the ground since 1864, before the road was built in 1910.
However, the court held that an accident of this sort called for an explanation, and that the
defendants were aware of the potential risk. On that basis, applying the legal maxim of resipsa
loquitur, the defendants were found negligent. The defendants appealed to the House of Lords. The
House of Lords found that there was no negligence, although most considered it a close call based on
whether the reasonable person would foresee this as anything more than an extremely remote risk.
Stansbie v. Troman [1948] 2 K.B. 48, 51-52, a decorator failed to secure a household he was
decorating, resulting in a burglary while he was absent; it was found he owed a duty to the house
hold owner to adequately secure the premises in his absence.
Austin V. Great Western Railway (1867) 2.Q.B.442.A travelling case, decided in 1867, the
defendant company was held liable in respect of injuries caused to a child over the age of three years
while travelling with its mother, who had omitted to take a ticket for it. The defendant company
appealed on the ground that the plaintiff was not lawfully a passenger, it being alleged that there had
been concealment equivalent to fraud.
1. Explain briefly "public nuisance" with relevant cases. Your discussion must be no more than 500
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar,5 defines public nuisance as follows:
"A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of illegal omission which
causes any common injury, danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in general who dwell
or occupy property in the vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger or
annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right.
A common nuisance is not excused on the ground that it causes some convenience or
advantage."
Section 133 to 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Myanmar6, therefore provide for the actions
to be taken by the judicial authorities to,remove such public nuisances.
If there be any kind of nuisance at a public place, which include also property belonging to the State,
camping grounds, and grounds left unoccupied for sanitary or recreative purposes, actions can be
taken by the State and in disobedience will be liable for penalties provided in the Penal Code. i.e.
Sec, 269-294 (A).
In order that an individual may have a right to take civil action, in respect of a public nuisance:-
(1) The plaintiff must show that he has suffered a particular injury or damage beyond that which is
suffered by the public at large.
(2) Such injury must be direct. If a certain way is obstructed, but another is left open, then there will
be no cause of action.
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Section 91 of the Civil Procedure Code of Myanmar7 provides for the suits relating to public
matters, especially with regard to public nuisance as follows:
"In the case of a public nuisance the Attorney-General, or two or more persons having obtained the
consent in writing of the Attorney-General: may institute a suit though no special damage has been
caused: for a declaration and injunction or for such other relief as may be appropriate to the
circumstances of the case.8
In the case of Soltau v. De Held,9 the nuisance was that of the noise. The plaintiff resided in a house
next to a Roman Catholic Chapel of which the defendant was the priest and the Chapel bell was rung
at all hours of day and night. It was held that the ringing was a public nuisance, and the plaintiff was
In another leading case of the Mortgage Bank of India vs. AhmedbhoyHabibbhoy, 10 the plaintiffs
were the owners of a building containing a large number of rooms which are supposed to be rented.
But, because the defendants who were the owners of an adjacent cotton mill have created such a mill,
certain rooms in the building remained unlit, because of the noise and smoke of the mill.
6103
Define "Negligence" and explain briefly the ingredients to constitute negligence. Your answer
must be no less than 200 words. (Tort-Chapter 4)
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or skill
towards a person or his property. Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary
prudence taking care.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff must prove that:
The plaintiff must therefore prove on a balance of probabilities. There is aBacon's Maxim: CausaCausans (the immediate
cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing is the cause of the effect), which means "he does the firstwrong
shall answer for all consequential damages" and "the damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the wrongful
act". There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to the person, damage to property and pure financial loss. The mere
fact that the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not relieve the defendant of liability if his conduct was
unreasonable.
2. The defendant will be liable for all the direct consequences of his act, suffered by the plaintiff whether a reasonable
man would have foreseen them or not.
1. How many vicarious liability defined under the following relationships?Write briefly. (a)
Principal and Agent (b)Company and Directors (c) Guardian and Ward. Specify it of 300
words or less. (Tort-Chapter 7)
Principal and Agent
(1)Those employed to perform services in connection with the affairs of the employer, and over
whom the employer has control in the performance of those services.
(2)Those who do work for another but who are not controlled by the employers in their conduct in
the performance of that work. Usually such work will be carried out in pursuance of a contract, and
such persons in tort are styled "Independent Contractor".
An employer may be vicarious liable for the torts committed by his servants, but he is not liable for
the acts of those who are his independent contractors.
Hence so as to make principal liable for the acts done by the agent two conditions must be fulfilled.
(1) The wrong done by the agent must be within the course of employment.
(2) If such a wrong is occurred by using the excuse authority empowered on the agent, and that such
an act has been subsequently ratified the employer.
Company and Directors
The principles of the law of agency apply to companies, which are consequently liable for the
wrongs done by their servants in their course of employment. Note only Directors are personally
liable for any tort committed by themselves, but also for the torts committed by others under their
direction or supervision.
Guardian and Ward
Guardians are not personally liable for the tortious acts done by their minors under their charge. But
they can sue for personal injuries done to the minors by the third parties on their behalf.
1. How many vicarious liability defined under the following relationships?Write briefly. (a) Principal
and Agent (b)Company and Directors (c) Guardian and Ward. Specify it of 300 words or less. (Tort-
Chapter 7)
(a) Principal and Agent
(1)Those employed to perform services in connection with the affairs of the employer, and over
whom the employer has control in the performance of those services.
(2)Those who do work for another but who are not controlled by the employers in their conduct in
the performance of that work. Usually such work will be carried out in pursuance of a contract, and
such persons in tort are styled "Independent Contractor".
6103
An employer may be vicarious liable for the torts committed by his servants, but he is not liable for
the acts of those who are his independent contractors.
Hence so as to make principal liable for the acts done by the agent two conditions must be fulfilled.
(1) The wrong done by the agent must be within the course of employment.
(2) If such a wrong is occurred by using the excuse authority empowered on the agent, and that such
an act has been subsequently ratified the employer.
(b) Company and Directors
Guardian and Ward
What do you understand by the statement "who cannot sue"? Explain briefly. Your answer
must be no less than 300 words. (Tort-Chapter 6)
To deal with those persons who cannot sue, such persons may be mentioned as follows: -
(1) Convict
(2) Alien enemy
(3) Married women
(4) Corporation
(5) Child
(6) Bankrupt
Convict
One must aware of the fact that a convict when undergoing a sentence, cannot sue for an injury to his
property, or for recovery of debt.3 At Common Law, a convict has the right to sue for any personal
wrongs done to him, such as assaults, or slander.
Alien Enemy
An alien enemy cannot sue in his own right. An alien enemy is one whose State or sovereign is at
war with the sovereign of other, or one who, whatever his nationality is voluntarily resident or carries
on business in an enemy's country.
In England, an alien enemy, unless he resides in England by the licence of the Queen, cannot sue in
Queen's Courts. He can, however, be sued and can defend an action and, if the decision goes against
him, he will have the right to appeal.
In India, also alien enemies residing in India with the Government's permission, can use. In
Myanmar, under the provision of section 83 of the Code of Civil Procedure, such an alien enemy can
sue only with the permission given by the Head of the State .4
Married Women
In the eye of law, husband and wife are taken to be oneself. Thus neither spouse can sue for tort
against themselves.
In the olden days in England, a married woman could not sue for tort to her property, unless her
husband was joined as plaintiff, but at present the Law Reform Married Women and Tort-feasors Act
1935 and the Law Reform (Husband and Wife) Act 1962 put married women in almost exactly the
same position as their unmarried sisters.
Although, the wife cannot sue her husband for tort, she can sue husband relatives.
In Smith v. Moss Case,5 the husband after attending a party drove back to home, but dropped mother
first at her house and then to his home. In putting the car into the garage, which is next door to his
house, and with his negligence, accident has occurred and the wife was injured. For that she sued her
mother-in-law, for damages on the ground that the mother-in-law was the owner of the car and her
husband as the agent. The Court decreed her damages.
Corporation
6103
Although a corporation may sue for libel, it is affecting property of business, but not affecting
personal reputation. Therefore it cannot file a suit for libel charging the corporation with corruption,
because it is only the individuals who can be guilty of such an offence and not the corporation in its
corporate capacity.
Child
Whether a minor can sue in respect of a pre-natal injury to himself, there is a decision made in the
Irish Case.6 In that case the mother of that child was injured in a railway accident, and the child was
born deformed. The infant claimed £ 1,030 for damages, but the Court held that for such injury the
infant could not maintain an action .
Bankrupt
A right of action in respect of a tort which results in injuries mainly to the person of the bankrupt
does not pass to the trustee. But in case of right of action which results in injuries mainly to the estate
of the bankrupt passes to the trustee.
1. What are the particular relationship regarding vicarious liability? Discuss on relationship between
master and servant. Your discussion must be no more than 300 words. (Tort-Chapter 7)
Master and Servant
The doctrine of liability of the master for the acts of his servant is entirely based on the maxims:
(2) quifacitperaliumfacitperse. (He who does an act through another is deemed in law to do it himself.)
The Master would be completely liable for the wrongs done by his servants or slaves; such idea was changed when that
idea of liability only where there has been command or consent on the part of the master of the servant's wrong.
A servant may be defined as any person employed by another to do work for him on the terms that he, the servant is to be
subject to the control and directions of his employer in respect of the manner in which his work is to be done .
As an example, in Daw Aye May's Case,13 while a workman was about to leave the premises of his employer after the
going for the stoppage of work, he died of the injury occurred by the falling of the bale of paper which was unloading in
that premise. The Court held that the death of the workman was occurred within the course of employment and the claim
for compensation was admitted. So under to the Workmen's Compensation Act, if personal injury is caused to a workman
by accident arising out of and in the course of employment his employer shall be held liable to pay compensation.
What do you understand by the statement "who cannot be sued"? Explain briefly. You must
write it between 400-700 words. (Tort-Chapter 6)
Now, in dealing with those persons who cannot be sued in tort, it may be mentioned as follows:-
(1) Sovereign
(2) Ambassadors
(5) Married Women
(6) Corporation
Sovereign
There is an English maxim, that "the king can do no wrong”, so that the Crown or the sovereign is always exempted to be
sued in tort as well as in criminal matters.
But in the year 1947, when the Crown Proceedings Act came into force, this immunity in tort was put to an end. So that,
snow the Crown shall be liable in tort committed by itself or be liable for the torts committed by its servants.
Ambassadors
An ambassador who is acting as the Head of State to which he represents, enjoys diplomatic immunities, unless he
waives his privilege, he cannot be sued in tort. This privilege therefore prevails only to the extent of the term of his
employment. So, when his office has been terminated, he will become liable. This immunity extends also to his family
member as well as to the servants or suits.
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Public Officials
Public officials are not liable to be sued in tort in their representative character for torts committed by them or by their
subordinates.
Infants and Lunatics
Infants and lunatics are regarded as incapable of being reasoning properly. So they are usually exempted from, legal
liabilities. Generally, infancy is no bar to a suit for damages claiming against an infant. But when the intention,
knowledge, malice or some other condition of the state of mind of the wrong doer is essential, extreme youth may afford
a defense.
As regards the acts done by the lunatics, unsoundness of mind is not in itself a ground of exemption of liability in tort.
Married Women
At Common Law, a husband was liable to be joined with his wife in all actions for torts committed by her during the
subsistence of the marriage. This liability still exists in the Married Women's Property Act 1882.
This injustice has been abolished by the enactment of the 1935 Law Reform (Married Women and Tort-feasors Act).
Section 3 of this Act provides that the husband of married women is not, by reason only of his being her husband, 15
liable in respect of any such tort.
According to the Married Women's Property Act, 1882, when spouses embark litigation with each other in order to settle
disputes arising out of the property, particularly upon the breakup of their marriage, if necessary the husband may be
required to vacate or leave the matrimonial home. (Law Reform (Married Women and Tortfeasors) Act, 1935. )
Under our Myanmar Customary Law the property rights of a Myanmar Buddhist Couple is based on the
principle of tenants in Common and not that of joint tenants. Thus, when a spouse dies the other spouse inherits the
whole estate of the deceased spouse.19 They are not to be taken as partners when conducting business separately. But,
when certain loan has been taken for the benefit of the joint family business, the wife will be liable for the debt
contracted by her husband . (Married Women's Property Act, 1882. )
The wife cannot sue her husband for partition of property which they attain during the substance of their
marriage, i.e (LetthetPwa Property ), when their marriage tie still subsist.
1. How many vicarious liability defined under the following relationships? (a)Company and
Directors (b)Firm and Partners (c) Guardian and Ward . You must write it between 100-300 words.
(Tort-Chapter 7)
(a) Company and Directors
(b) Firm and Partners

Under Section 18 of Partnership Act (1932) each and every partner of the firm is the agent of each
other and is jointly and severally liable for the acts of the firm done by them. Although they can
make agreement in limiting their liabilities and rights, but they cannot escape from giving
compensation to the third party, arising out of the fraud of any partner.
(c) Guardian and Ward

DL-6103 - Law Of Contract and Tort
Q
What are the main points to become a valid 'proposal' or 'offer'? Explain with examples. You must answer
it between 300-350 words. (Contract- Chapter 1)
A
The main points to become a valid 'proposal' or 'offer'
Under section 2 (a) of the Contract Act 1872, a

Proposal is an act when one person signifies to another his
abstinence.
(1)A proposal is not a mere declaration or intention to

Example
(2)A proposal must be made with an intention to create

legal relation.
Example
(3)The terms of a proposal or an offer must be certain.
(4) A proposal (offer) may be general or specific.
Example
(6)Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be no

contract.
Sometimes a proposal takes the form of continuous

offer, which is called 'standing offer'. A proposal takes the
An invitation to traders to make tenders, display of

goods for sale in shop windows, and advertising auction
sales are instances of invitation to the other to make offer to
buy or sell as the case may be.
Thus, for example, a book seller's catalogue with prices

stated against the names of the books is an invitation to the
purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for
the book seller to accept it or not.
Code Display
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std000366
Your answer is Corret

Q
Summarise the rules laid down in the Contract Act as to the appropriation of payment made by debtor.
Your answer must be no less than 250 words. (Contract-Chapter 4)
A
Section 59
intimation or under circumstances implying that payment is
to be applied to the discharge of some particular debt, the
Section 60
“Where the debtor has omitted to intimate and there
are no other circumstances indicating to which debt the
payment is to be applied, the creditor may apply it at his
discretion to any lawful debt actually due and payable to
him from the debtor, whether its recovery is or is not barred
by the law in force for the time being as to the limitation of
suits.”
Section 61
“Where neither party any appropriation the payment
shall be applied in discharge of the debts in order of time,
whether they are or are not barred by the law of limitation of
suits. If the debts are of equal standing, the payment shall be
applied in discharge of each proportionately.”
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std000366
Your Answer is Corret

Q
What are the remedies for breach of contract? Explain. You must write it between 300-500 words.
A
There are mainly three kinds of remedies for breach of contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(iii) An injunction
(1) Damages
In every breach of contract the injured party is entitled
to damages. Damages are given by way of restitution and
compensation only, but not as a punishment , the agreed
party can, therefore, recover the actual loss caused to him.
The damages which can be taken are not exemplary
damages which can recover only in case of a breach of
promise of marriage. The law as to damages for the breach
of contract and the measure of damages are laid down in
Sections 73 to 75 of the Contract Act, 1872.

are-
(2)when the court can supervise the execution of the contract, or
For example
"A" agrees to buy a picture by a dead painter and two
rare China vases, and "B" also agrees to sell them. "A" may
compel "B" specifically to perform the contract for there is
no standard ascertaining the actual damage which would be
caused by B’s non- performance.
"A" a singer, contract with B, the manager of a theatre,

to sing at his theater for one year, and to abstain from
singing at other theatres during this period. Although “A”
made absent herself, “B” cannot compel "A" to sing at his
theatre, but he may sue her for an injunction restraining her
from singing at other theatres.
Thus, personal contracts are contracts which have to be

performed by a person himself, but no one else, cannot be
specifically enforced.
(3) Injunction

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std000366

Q
Enumerate the agent's rights and explain briefly. Your discussion must be no more than 500 words.
A
Agent's Rights
(1) Right to retain
An agent may retain, out of any sums received on

account of the principal in the business of the agency, all
moneys due to himself in respect of advances made or
expense properly incurred by him in conducting such
business, and also such remuneration as may be payable to
him for acting as agent. [S.217]Subject to such deductions, the agent is bound to pay
to his principal all sums received on his account. [S.218]
In the absence of any special contract, payment for the

performance of any act is not due to the agent until the
completion of such act; but an agent may detain moneys
received by him on account of goods sold, although the
whole of the goods consigned to him for sale may not have
been sold, or although the sale may not be actually
complete. [S.219]
In the absence of any contract to the contrary an agent

is entitled to retain goods, papers and other property,
whether movable or immovable, of the principal received by
him, until the amount due to himself for commission,disbursements and services in respect of
the same has been
paid or accounted for to him. [S.221]
(2) Right to remuneration
An agent is entitled to his commission only when he

has carried out the object of agency, unless, of course, there
is contract to the contrary. For his remuneration he may
detain money received by him on account of goods sold,
although the whole of the goods consigned to him for sale
may not have been sold, or although the sale may not be
actually complete [S.219]
(3) Right to lien
In the absence of any contract to the contrary, an agent

him, until the amount due to himself for commission,
disbursements and services in respect of the same has been
paid or accounted for to him [S.221]
Right to indemnity
An agent has a right to be indemnified against the

following two consequences –
(1) Consequences of all lawful acts done by such agent in
the exercise of the authority conferred upon him. [S.222]
(2) Consequences of the acts done in goods faith during

the course of the agency, when such acts an injury to the
rights of third person. [S.223]
(4) Right to compensation
An agent is entitled to compensation for any loss or

injury caused to him by the principal's neglect or want of
skill. But he cannot claim compensation if the injury
resulted from his own negligence or acquiescence after
knowledge of the risk of the agency, for the agent is
presumed to undertake ordinary consequences of the risk
incidental to the nature of the agency. [S.225]
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std000366

Q
What are the ingredients to constitute a tort?Give brief explanation. You must write it between 300- 500
A
(1) Legal wrong
(2) Legal damage
(3) Legal remedy
(1) Legal wrong
There must be an infringement of a legal right. As there are many legally protected
interests, anyone who infringes such a right
will be liable in an action for tort. The duty is concerned with theright under the law of tort and
to abstain from inflicting harm to other's person, property, reputation, etc.
'Wrong' means crooked or twisted conduct, as opposed to which is straight or right for
individuals who suffer personal injury, death or physical damage to or loss of property caused
by an act or omission which might be intentional, accidental or caused by negligence.
Therefore, for every wrongful act which the law recognizes as legal, an injured party may
have the right to compensate for the damage done to him.
(2) Legal damage
It is not for every injury that a person may sustain in the course of everyday life that he or
she can recover compensation. It can only be recovered if that injury is due to the fault of
somebody who owes a duty to that person. 2 Only when such damage is recognized as legal
then the plaintiff will be successful.
In Ashby vs. White case 3 the defendant, a returning officer, wrongfully refused to
register a duty tendered vote of the plaintiff, a legally qualified voter, and the candidate for
whom, the vote was tendered was elected. So, there was no loss or damage suffered by the
plaintiff, by such rejection of the vote. But still, the Court held that an action lay. We can see
that in this case the returning officer had acted maliciously. But where a returning officer
although there was no practice of malice or improper motive on his part, honesty refused to
receive the vote of a person entitled to vote at an election, it was held that no action lay.
In Gloucester Grammar School Case, 12 the plaintiff complained that he had to reduce his
fees at his school because of the competition of the defendant, who set up a rival school, was
held to have no remedy. This is because English Law has accepted fundamental doctrine of free
competition. Competition or other acts damaging a man in his business are tortious only if, the
act causing damage is deemed unlawful or wrongful.
Conference for the purpose of ultimately keeping in their own hands of the control of the
carriage from certain Chinese ports, and for the purpose of driving the plaintiffs and other
competitors from the field. The right of competition exists even when the means adopted are
"unfair".
(3) Legal remedy
The third and the last ingredient of tort is that the plaintiff must have entitled to get a legal
remedy. In fact, the law of tort is to be a development of the maxim:
(1) ubijusibiremedium, which means that there is no wrong without a remedy.
(2) Where there is no legal remedy there is no legal wrong.
In the Irish case of Hegarty vs. Shine,22 the plaintiff was infected by her paramour with
a venereal disease, the existence of which he concealed. She sued him for assault, but her action
was dismissed, partly on the ground that mere concealment was not such a fraud as to vitiate
consent and party because extrupicausanonorituraction23 (public policy).
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std000366

Q
Enumerate the importance of publication in an action for libel. You must write it between 300-500 words.
(Tort-Chapter 3)
A
Publication is the communication of the words to at least one person otherthan the person
defamed. Publication of the defamatory statement is anessential element of the cause of action
.Communication to the plaintif himself is not enough, for defamation is an injury to one's
reputation andreputation is what other people think of a man, and not his own opinion
ofhimself; in other words, you cannot publish a libel of a man to himself .Itis the publication,not
the composition of a libel which is the actionablewrong. Therefore publication need not be
intentional.
In Cook v. Ward Case6, the plaintiff told some friends a ludicrous eventwhich is a humorous
story about himself, and the defendant published it inhis newspaper, simply for the purpose of
amusing his readers and believingthat the plaintiff would not object the defendant was held
liable.
A business communication containing defamatory statementsconcerning the plaintiff is

communicated by the defendant to his clerks in reasonable and ordinary course of business.
This will not amount to publication.But if a statement is false to the knowledge of the
defendant, then there isno privilege, and publication of such statement to his clerk will not
beprotected. Ordinary negligence is no defence in publication. A personcannot excuse himself
on the ground that he published the libel by accident,or mistake or injustice. Out of joke, or with
an honest belief in its truth. Inlibel, there is a presumption of publication, and this liability for
negligencecan be rebutted if the defendant can prove the following.
(1) He did not know that it contained a libel.

(2) His ignorance was not due to any negligence on hispart.
(3) He did not know and had no reason to suppose that it was likely tocontain defamatory matter
.However publication will be justified if it isdone in accordance of business practice.
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std000366
Your answer is ccorret

Q
Give brief statement on the standard of care. State yout discussion in 300 words or more. (Tort-Chapter 4)
A
As to the standard of care, the defendant owes a duty of care which an ordinary mean of
prudence should consider best.
There was also Maung Kyaw Dun vs. Ma Kyin & Marayanan Chetty Case,occurred in
Myanmar. The plaintiff failed in his action for claiming damages, for the injury done by the
defendant's elephant.The facts of the case were that the plaintiff's elephant was kicked to
deathby the defendant's elephant. The inferior Court decided, he was not entitled to
get2Standard of care* Mg Kyaw Dun v. Ma Kyin & Narayanan Chetty, 2 U.B.R., 570.damages.
Thus this appeal follows. The Appellate Court pointed out that, inclaiming damages, the
plaintiff must prove the negligence of the defendant. Inconsidering the essential factor, the
Court pointed out that the plaintiff must provethat the defendant knew that his elephant was
dangerous. The Court held that thereis no breach of duty on the part of the defendant andthe
plaintiff failed.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff must
prove that:
The plaintiff must therefore prove on a balance of probabilities. There is aBacon's

Maxim: CausaCausans (the immediate cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing
is the cause of the effect), which means "he does the
firstwrong shall answer for all consequential damages" and "the damages must be thelegal and
natural consequence of the wrongful act". There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to
the person, damage to property and pure financial loss. The mere fact that the damage suffered
was unlikely to occur does not relieve the defendant of liability if his conduct was unreasonable.
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std000366

Q
How many vicarious liability defined under the following relationships? (a)Company and Directors (b)Firm
and Partners (c) Guardian and Ward . You must write it between 100-300 words. (Tort-Chapter 7)
A
(a)Company and Directors
The principles of the law of agency apply to companies, which are consequently liable
for the wrongs done by their servants in their course of employment. Note only Directors are
personally liable for any tort committed by themselves, but also for the torts committed by
others under their direction or supervision.
(b)Firm and Partners
Under Section 18 of Partnership Act (1932) each and every partner of the firm is the
agent of each other and is jointly and severally liable for the acts of the firm done by them.
Although they can make agreement in limiting their liabilities and rights, but they cannot escape
from giving compensation to the third party, arising out of the fraud of any partner.
(c) Guardian and Ward
Guardians are not personally liable for the tortious acts done by their minors under their
charge. But they can sue for personal injuries done to the minors by the third parties on their
behalf.
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std000366
Explain the terms "promise" and "consideration" with cases. Your answer must be no less than 250
words.(Contract-Chapter 1) experied Date
(a)What is meant by "fraud" as mentioned in the Contract Act?
(b)When does "silence" amount to fraud? State your discussion must be no more than 300 words. (Contract-
Chapter 3)
A
(a) Fraud
Section 17
(1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be true.
(2) the active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact,
(5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent.
Examples
A sells by auction to B a horse which is A knows to be unsound. A says nothing to B about the
horse's unsoundness.
(b) B says to A "if you do not deny it, I shall assume that the horse is sound". A says nothing.
Here A's silence is equivalent to speech. Here, the relation between the parties is that A's duty to
tell B if the horse is unsound.
(b) Effect of misrepresentation
Section 19A
“When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion, fraud or misrepresentation, the
agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused.”
Exception
If such consent was so caused by misrepresentation or by silence, fraudulent within the meaning
of section 17, the contract, nevertheless, is not voidable, if the party whose consent was so
caused had the means of discovering the truth with ordinary diligence
aw of Contract and Tort
Assignment No-2.
Your answer is correct. But, you don't need to answer about the effect of
misrepresentation.

Q
Enumerate the modes under which a contract is discharged. Explain briefly. You must write it between 300-
500 words.
A
There are Eleven ways in which a contract may be discharged under the Contract Act. Such as-
(5) By impossibility or unlawfulness of the act to be performed [S.56]
(10) By neglect of promisee to afford promisor, reasonable facilities for performance
Discharge by Performance
If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to do under the contract, the
contract is discharged.
Dispensed with or Excused by any Law
Where the performance of the contract is dispensed with or excused by any law other than the
Contract Act, the contract is discharged. [S.37]
Thus insolvency of a party to a contract discharges the contract. E.g An insolvent is released
from paying his debt.
By Refusing Tender of Performance
Refusal to accept an offer of performance discharges the party making the offer from liability
under the contract. [S.38]
Discharge by Breach
When one party to a contract commits a breach of that contract by refusing to perform, or by
disabling himself from performing his promise in its entirely, and the other party accepts the
breach the contract is discharged. [S. 39]
By Impossibility or Unlawfulness of the act to be
Performed
A contract may be discharged by impossibility. Impossibility which arises from the non-
existence of the subject matter at the time of the contract is also void because both the parties to
an agreement are under mistakes as to a matter of fact essential to the agreement. [S.56]
By Novation, Rescission or Alternation of Contract
Section 62 deals with the effect of rescission or alternation of a contract which says:-
If the parties to a contract agree to substitute a new contract for it, or to rescind or alter it the
original contract need not be performed.
By Waiver
A contract may be discharged by way of "waiver". Section 63 deals with this principle as such;-
Every promise may-
(i) dispense with or,
(ii) remit, wholly or in part, the performance of the promise made to him, or may
(iv) accept instead of it any satisfaction which he thinks fit.
By "Accord and Satisfaction"
When one of the parties to a contract in order to obtain release agrees to do something other
than what he was bound to do by the contract, and when he has discharged the obligation, and
has been set free, the contract is said to have been discharged by accord and satisfaction. The
new agreement is the accord, and the performance is the satisfaction.
By Rescission of a Voidable Contract
Section 64
When a person at whose option a contract is voidable rescinds it, the other party thereto need
not perform any promise therein contained in which he is promisor. The party rescinding
avoidable contract shall, if he has received any benefit there from another party to such contract,
restore such benefit, so far as may be, to the person from whom it was received.
By Neglect of Promisee to Afford Promisor Reasonable Facilities for Performance
If any promisee neglects or refuses to afford the promisor reasonable facilities for the
performance of his promise, the promisor is excused by such neglect or refusal as to any non-
performance caused thereby.
By Operation of Law
This may occur in there ways under the following circumstances:-
(i) By merger-acceptance of a higher security in place of a lower. If a higher security is accepted
is place of the law, the lower security is said to be merged or extinguished in the higher security.
(iii) By insolvency or bankruptcy.
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Q
Describes the bailee's liabilities.You must write it between 200-300 words.(Contract-Chapter 7)
A
Section 151
“In all cases of Bailment, the bailee is bound to take as much care of the goods bailed to him as
a man of ordinary prudence would under similar circumstances, take of his own goods of the
same bulk, quality and value as the goods bailed.”
Section 152
“The bailee, in the absence of any special contract, is not responsible for the loss, destruction or
deterioration of the thing bailed if he is taken the amount of care of it described in section 151.”
Section 160
“It is the duty of bailee to return, or deliver according to the bailor's directions, the goods bailed,
without demand, as soon as the time for which they were bailed has expired, or the purpose for
which they were bailed has been accomplished.”
Section 161
“If, by the default of the bailee, the goods are not returned, delivered or tendered at the proper
time, he is responsible to the bailor for any loss, destruction or deterioration of the goods from
that time.”
Section 163
“In the absence of any contract to the contrary, the bailee is bound to deliver to the bailor, or
according to his directions, any increase or profit which may have accrued from the goods
bailed.”
Section 167
“If a person, other than the bailor, clamis goods bailed, he may apply to the Court to stop the
delivery of the goods to the bailor, and to decide the title to the goods.”
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Q
Explain about legal damage with cases. State your discussion in 500 words or more. (Tort-Chapter 2)
A
It is not for every injury that a person may sustain in the course of everyday life that he or she
can recover compensation. It can only be recovered if that injury is due to the fault of somebody
who owes a duty to that person. Only when such damage is recognized as legal then the plaintiff
will be successful.
In Ashby vs. White case (**MarzettiV.Williams, (1830) 1B &AD, 415) the defendant, a
returning officer, wrongfully refused to register a duty tendered vote of the plaintiff, a legally
qualified voter, and the candidate for whom, the vote was tendered was elected. So, there was
no loss or damage suffered by the plaintiff, by such rejection of the vote. But still, the Court
held that an action lay. We can see that in this case the returning officer had acted maliciously.
But where a returning officer although there was no practice of malice or improper motive on
his part, honesty refused to receive the vote of a person entitled to vote at an election, it was
held that no action lay.
Thus in Marzetti v. Williams case (Ashby v. White (1708) 2Ld.Raym, 938,955) an action
will lie against a banker, having sufficient funds in his hands belonging to a customer, for
refusing to honour his Cheque; although the customer did not thereby sustain actual loss or
damage. So if there be an infringement of a legal right, without actual damage, the person
whose right has been infringed can bring a suit under the provisions of section (42) of the
Specific Relief Act. Hence, whenever a person sustained of a legal wrong, he may bring an
action without being under necessity of proving special damage.
In MaungThitsa (Appellant) v. Maung Nat (Respondent) case (MaungThit Sa V. Maung Nat,
1 B.L.T., 146), a leading case, the appellant and respondent were lessees of adjoining fisheries.
The respondent erected certain akese which had
the effect of obstructing the passage, of fish to the appellant's fishery. The plaintiff-appellant
has claimed Rs. 1,320 for damages. The appellant's suit was decreed in the trial Court, but was
dismissed in the Appellate Court on the ground of there being no proof of special damage. Held
that, the respondent had infringed the right of the appellant by obstructing the free passage of
fish to his fishery; where there has been an infringement of a legal right an action for damages
will lie without proof of special damage. The appeal was allowed.
In Gloucester Grammar School Case, (*Per Hankford. J. in Gloueester Grammar School,
(1410) Y.B. 11 Hen IV for.27 p1.21,22.) the plaintiff complained that he had to reduce his fees
at his school because of the competition of the defendant, who set up a rival school, was held to
have no remedy. This is because English Law has accepted fundamental doctrine of free
regarded by the law: the right of the plaintiffs to be protected in the legitimate exercise of their
trade, and the right of the defendants to carry on their business as seem best to them, provided
they commit no wrong to others.
"unfair".
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Q
Explain how the law protects the right of a trader to require a right to trademark. Your discussion must be
no more than 750 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
A
The law protects a man's interest in earning his living. Hence it is the rightof every trader to
require a right to trade mark.
At Common Law, the use of trade name or mark which has beenadopted by making it, appear
that the goods sold under it are the goods ofthat other. In Myanmar, there is no system of
registration of Trade-
The fundamental rule is that, "one man has no right to put off hisgood for sale as the goods of a
rival trader.
The law restricts unfair competition inthe affairs of trade business. Thus whoever commits the
tort of "Passingoff" will be liable not only to pay damages, but also an injunction will be lieto
prevent the apprehended wrong.
A mark used for denoting that goods are the manufacture ormerchandise of a particular person
is called a Trade-Mark".
prosecuting an offender under the Penal Code forthe use of false Trade-Mark is three years from
the date of the commissionof the offence charged or one year from the date of discovery by
In the case of Aung Gwan Chawn of B.Y.C. Soap factory,in which the Court held that, although
the appellant plaintiff had used theSinger Machine Manufacturers V. Wilson, 1877. 3 App Case.
376 especially at P.391-2.per LordCairus L.C. (H.L).Trade-Mark in dispute which is
"Bandoola" long before the formation ofthe B.Y.C.
Company, but with his own consent, it has been permitted to beused by that company up to the
time of its dissolution without anyinterruption for (9) years. That simply amounts to waiver of
such right touse the Trade-Mark. Hence, B.Y.C. Company will be entitled to the right touse it as
its own property. In other words it will be taken as the property ofthe firm under section (14) of
the Partnership Act.
WALKER striding figure representations whichhave been used on bottles of whisky sole by
him in Myanmar. Therespondent used the words" Burmese JOHANNIE WALKER" with
thestriding figure of JOHNNIE WALKER, on his blood Tonic bottles. TheCourt found out that
the goods are of different in character and class.Hence the appeal was dismissed.
We must also note that the action maintainable even though no damage is proved, i.e. by way of
–
(1) an injunction.
The first remedy is often the most important to the plaintiff. If thedefendant's conduct is
calculated to divert customers even though no saleas occurred, an injunction will still lie to
As to the second form of remedy, the plaintiff will recover damagesfor the loss of profit which
he has sustained in consequence of customer'sbeing diverted from him to the defendant. In
addition he may recover forloss of business reputation and good-will of the business.
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Q
Define "Negligence" and explain briefly the ingredients to constitute negligence. Your answer must be no
A
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or skill towards a
person or his property. Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary prudence taking care.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff
must prove that:
CausaCausans (the immediate cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing is the
cause of the effect), which means "he does the firstwrong shall answer for all consequential
damages" and "the damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the wrongful act".
There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to the person, damage to property and pure
financial loss. The mere fact that the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not relieve the
defendant of liability if his conduct was unreasonable.
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Law of Contract and Tort

Assignment No-7. Your answer is correct and incomplete. You have to add the following points in
brief.(4.2, 4.3 and 4.4)

Q
Explain about legal damage with cases. State your discussion in 500 words or more. (Tort-Chapter 2)
A
It is not for every injury that a person may sustain in the course of everyday life that he or she
can recover compensation. It can only be recovered if that injury is due to the fault of somebody
who owes a duty to that person. Only when such damage is recognized as legal then the plaintiff
will be successful.
In Ashby vs. White case (**MarzettiV.Williams, (1830) 1B &AD, 415) the defendant, a
returning officer, wrongfully refused to register a duty tendered vote of the plaintiff, a legally
qualified voter, and the candidate for whom, the vote was tendered was elected. So, there was
no loss or damage suffered by the plaintiff, by such rejection of the vote. But still, the Court
held that an action lay. We can see that in this case the returning officer had acted maliciously.
But where a returning officer although there was no practice of malice or improper motive on
his part, honesty refused to receive the vote of a person entitled to vote at an election, it was
held that no action lay.
Thus in Marzetti v. Williams case (Ashby v. White (1708) 2Ld.Raym, 938,955) an action
will lie against a banker, having sufficient funds in his hands belonging to a customer, for
refusing to honour his Cheque; although the customer did not thereby sustain actual loss or
damage. So if there be an infringement of a legal right, without actual damage, the person
whose right has been infringed can bring a suit under the provisions of section (42) of the
Specific Relief Act. Hence, whenever a person sustained of a legal wrong, he may bring an
action without being under necessity of proving special damage.
In MaungThitsa (Appellant) v. Maung Nat (Respondent) case (MaungThit Sa V. Maung Nat,
1 B.L.T., 146), a leading case, the appellant and respondent were lessees of adjoining fisheries.
The respondent erected certain akese which had
the effect of obstructing the passage, of fish to the appellant's fishery. The plaintiff-appellant
has claimed Rs. 1,320 for damages. The appellant's suit was decreed in the trial Court, but was
dismissed in the Appellate Court on the ground of there being no proof of special damage. Held
that, the respondent had infringed the right of the appellant by obstructing the free passage of
fish to his fishery; where there has been an infringement of a legal right an action for damages
In Gloucester Grammar School Case, (*Per Hankford. J. in Gloueester Grammar School,
(1410) Y.B. 11 Hen IV for.27 p1.21,22.) the plaintiff complained that he had to reduce his fees
at his school because of the competition of the defendant, who set up a rival school, was held to
have no remedy. This is because English Law has accepted fundamental doctrine of free
regarded by the law: the right of the plaintiffs to be protected in the legitimate exercise of their
trade, and the right of the defendants to carry on their business as seem best to them, provided
they commit no wrong to others.
"unfair".
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Q
Explain how the law protects the right of a trader to require a right to trademark. Your discussion must be
no more than 750 words. (Tort-Chapter 3)
A
The law protects a man's interest in earning his living. Hence it is the rightof every trader to
require a right to trade mark.
At Common Law, the use of trade name or mark which has beenadopted by making it, appear
that the goods sold under it are the goods ofthat other. In Myanmar, there is no system of
registration of Trade-
The fundamental rule is that, "one man has no right to put off hisgood for sale as the goods of a
rival trader.
The law restricts unfair competition inthe affairs of trade business. Thus whoever commits the
tort of "Passingoff" will be liable not only to pay damages, but also an injunction will be lieto
A mark used for denoting that goods are the manufacture ormerchandise of a particular person
is called a Trade-Mark".
prosecuting an offender under the Penal Code forthe use of false Trade-Mark is three years from
the date of the commissionof the offence charged or one year from the date of discovery by
In the case of Aung Gwan Chawn of B.Y.C. Soap factory,in which the Court held that, although
the appellant plaintiff had used theSinger Machine Manufacturers V. Wilson, 1877. 3 App Case.
376 especially at P.391-2.per LordCairus L.C. (H.L).Trade-Mark in dispute which is
"Bandoola" long before the formation ofthe B.Y.C.
Company, but with his own consent, it has been permitted to beused by that company up to the
time of its dissolution without anyinterruption for (9) years. That simply amounts to waiver of
such right touse the Trade-Mark. Hence, B.Y.C. Company will be entitled to the right touse it as
its own property. In other words it will be taken as the property ofthe firm under section (14) of
the Partnership Act.
WALKER striding figure representations whichhave been used on bottles of whisky sole by
him in Myanmar. Therespondent used the words" Burmese JOHANNIE WALKER" with
thestriding figure of JOHNNIE WALKER, on his blood Tonic bottles. TheCourt found out that
the goods are of different in character and class.Hence the appeal was dismissed.
We must also note that the action maintainable even though no damage is proved, i.e. by way of
–
(1) an injunction.
The first remedy is often the most important to the plaintiff. If thedefendant's conduct is
calculated to divert customers even though no saleas occurred, an injunction will still lie to
As to the second form of remedy, the plaintiff will recover damagesfor the loss of profit which
he has sustained in consequence of customer'sbeing diverted from him to the defendant. In
addition he may recover forloss of business reputation and good-will of the business.
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Q
Define "Negligence" and explain briefly the ingredients to constitute negligence. Your answer must be no
A
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or skill towards a
person or his property. Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary prudence taking care.
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under the law of torts, a plaintiff
must prove that:
CausaCausans (the immediate cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing causing is the
cause of the effect), which means "he does the firstwrong shall answer for all consequential
damages" and "the damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the wrongful act".
There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to the person, damage to property and pure
financial loss. The mere fact that the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not relieve the
defendant of liability if his conduct was unreasonable.
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Law of Contract and Tort

Assignment No-7. Your answer is correct and incomplete. You have to add the following points in
brief.(4.2, 4.3 and 4.4)

Q
What do you understand by the statement "who cannot be sued"?Explain briefly. You must write it between
400-700 words. (Tort-Chapter 6)
A
Now, in dealing with those persons who cannot be sued in tort, it may be mentioned as follows:-
(1) Sovereign
(2) Ambassadors
(5) Married Women
(6) Corporation
Sovereign
There is an English maxim, that "the king can do no wrong”, so that the Crown or the sovereign
is always exempted to be sued in tort as well as in criminal matters.
But in the year 1947, when the Crown Proceedings Act came into force, this immunity in tort
was put to an end. So that, snow the Crown shall be liable in tort committed by itself or be liable
for the torts committed by its servants.
Ambassadors
An ambassador who is acting as the Head of State to which he represents, enjoys diplomatic
immunities, unless he waives his privilege, he cannot be sued in tort. This privilege therefore
prevails only to the extent of the term of his employment. So, when his office has been
terminated, he will become liable. This immunity extends also to his family member as well as
to the servants or suits.
Public Officials
Public officials are not liable to be sued in tort in their representative character for torts
committed by them or by their subordinates.
Infants and Lunatics
Infants and lunatics are regarded as incapable of being reasoning properly. So they are usually
exempted from, legal liabilities. Generally, infancy is no bar to a suit for damages claiming
against an infant. But when the intention, knowledge, malice or some other condition of the
state of mind of the wrong doer is essential, extreme youth may afford a defense.
As regards the acts done by the lunatics, unsoundness of mind is not in itself a ground of
exemption of liability in tort.
Married Women
At Common Law, a husband was liable to be joined with his wife in all actions for torts
committed by her during the subsistence of the marriage. This liability still exists in the Married
Women's Property Act 1882.
This injustice has been abolished by the enactment of the 1935 Law Reform (Married Women
and Tort-feasors Act). Section 3 of this Act provides that the husband of married women is not,
by reason only of his being her husband, 15 liable in respect of any such tort.
According to the Married Women's Property Act, 1882, when spouses embark litigation with
each other in order to settle disputes arising out of the property, particularly upon the breakup of
their marriage, if necessary the husband may be required to vacate or leave the matrimonial
home. (Law Reform (Married Women and Tortfeasors) Act, 1935. )
Under our Myanmar Customary Law the property rights of a Myanmar Buddhist Couple is
based on the principle of tenants in Common and not that of joint tenants. Thus, when a spouse
dies the other spouse inherits the whole estate of the deceased spouse.19 They are not to be
taken as partners when conducting business separately. But, when certain loan has been taken
for the benefit of the joint family business, the wife will be liable for the debt contracted by her
husband . (Married Women's Property Act, 1882. )
The wife cannot sue her husband for partition of property which they attain during the
substance of their marriage, i.e (LetthetPwa Property ), when their marriage tie still subsist.
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1
Chapter 1
Definitions and Terms of Contract
1.1Definition of the Terms of a Contract 2
1.2 Definition of Proposal 7
1.3 The Salient Points of a valid "Proposal" or "Offer" 8
1.4 Definition of Acceptance 11
1.5 The Conditions of acceptance lead to promise 12
1.6 Promise 19
1.7 Consideration 21
Key Terms 23
Questions 24
2
Chapter 1
Definitions and Terms of Contract
ပဋိညာဉ်၏သဘောသောဝ
1.1Definition of the Terms of a Contract
ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ခုနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍စကားရပ်များ၏အဓိပ္ပယ်ဘော်ပပချက်
Section 2 of the Contract Act 1872 defines the
important terms relating to Contract.
ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ခုပပုလုပ်ရာတွင် ဘအာက်ပါ ဘဝါဟာရများနှင့် ယင်းတို ့၏
ဥပဘေသ များသည် အဘရးပါအရာဘရာက်လှဘပသည်။
(a)Offer ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်
(b)Invitation to offer ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုေိတ်ဘခါ်ပခင်း။
(c)Acceptance လက်ခံပခင်း။
(d) Promiseကတိ။
(e)Promisor ကတိပပုသူ။
(f)Promiseeကတိရသူ။
(g)Considerationအဘပးအယူ(သို ့)ကတိနှင့်ညီညွတ်သည့်
အေိုးစားနား။
(h)Agreementသဘောတူညီချက်။
(i)Void agreementပျက်ပပယ်သည့် သဘောတူညီချက်။
(j)Contract ပဋိညာဉ်။
(k)Voidable agreementပျက်ပပယ်နိုင်ခွင့်ရှိဘသာပဋိညာဉ်။
3
Section 2
In this Act the following words and expressions
are used in the following senses, unless a contrary intention
appears from the context:-
ဤအက် ဥ ပဘေတွ င ် ဘရှ ့ဘနာက် စ ကားရပ် တ ိ ု ့၌ဆန က ့် ျင် က ွ ဲ လ ွ ဲ ဘ သာရ
ည် ရ ွ ယ ်
ချက် မဘပါ်ဘပါက် လ ျှင် ဘ အာက် ပ ါဘဝါဟာရများကိ ု ဘ ော် ပ ပပါအတိ ု င ် း အဓိ ပ ္ပ ာ
ယ် ဘကာက် ယ ူ ရ မည် ။ (ပု ေ ် မ ၂)
Proposal စကားကမ်းလှမ်းချက်
When one person signified to another his willingness
to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to
obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence,
he is said to make a 'proposal'.
[ Section 2 (a)]
လူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဘယာက်ကအပခားလူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဘယာက်အားမိမိပပုလုပ်လုိ
သည့် (သို ့မဟုတ)် မိမိမပပုလုပ်လုသ

ိ ည့် ကိစ္စကိုအပခားလူထံမှ သဘောတူညီမှု
ရရှိလိုသည့် ရည်ရွယခ
် ျက်ပေင့် ဘပပာဆိုပါကထိုသူက စကားကမ်းလှမ်း
ချက်ပပုသည် မည်၏။
(ပုေ်မ ၂-က)
4
Promise ကတိ
When the person to whom the proposal is made
signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be
'accepted' A proposal, when accepted. (As to when
communication of acceptance becomes complete) becomes a
"promise".
[Section 2(b)]
လူတစ်ဘယာက်က ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်တစ်ရပ်ပပုလုပ်သည်ကို အပခားသူ
တစ်ဘယာက်က ယင်းကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို လက်ခံလုက

ိ ်လျှင် ကတိတစ်ရပ်
ပေစ်လာသည်။ [ ပုေ်မ ၂(ခ)]
Promisor and promise
ကတိပပုသူနှင့် ကတိရသူ
"Promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is called
the "promisee". [ Section 2(c)]
ကမ်းလှမ်းသူကို ကတိပပုသူဟုဘခါ်သည်။ ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို
လက်ခံသူကိုကတိလက်ခံသူ (သို ့) ကတိရသူဟုဘခါ်သည်။ [ပုေ်မ ၂(ဂ)]
Consideration အေိုးစားနား
When, at the desire of the "Promisor", the promisee or
any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does
or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from

5
doing, something ,such act or abstinence or promise is
called a "consideration" for the promise. [Section 2 (d)]
ကတိပပုသူ၏ ဆန္ဒအရကတိရသူ (သို ့) အပခားသူတစ်ဘယာက်က
တစ်စုံတစ်ခု ဘသာကိစ္စကို (၁) ပပုပပီး (သို ့) ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်ပပီးပေစ်လျှင် (သို ့) (၂)
ပပုသည် (သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်သည်ပေစ်လျှင် (သို ့) (၃) ပပုမည် (သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်
မည်ကိုကတိပပုလျှင် ယင်းပပုလုပ်မှု (သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်မှု (သို ့)
ကတိကိုကတိပပုသူ၏ ကတိအတွက် အေိုးစားနားဟုဘခါ်သည်။ ပုေ်မ ၂(ဃ)
Agreement
သဘောတူညီချက်
Every promise and every set of promises, forming the
consideration for each other, is an "agreement". [Section 2
(c)]
ကတိပပုချက်တိုင်းသည် တစ်ခုနှင့်တစ်ခု အေိုးစားနားပေင့်ပပုလုပ်လျှင်
သဘောတူညီချက် ပေစ်သည်။ ပုေ်မ ၂(ဂ)
Reciprocal promises
အပပန်အလှန်ကတိပပုချက်များ
Promises which form the consideration or part of the
consideration for each other are called "reciprocal
promises". [Section 2 (f)]

6
ကတိများသည် တစ်ခုအတွက် တစ်ခုကအပပန် အလှန်အေိုး
စားနားပေစ်လျှင် (သို ့) အေိုးစားနား၏ အစိတ်အပိုင်းပေစ်လျှင် အပပန်
အလှန်ကတိများဟုဘခါ်သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၂-စ)
Void Agreement
ပျက်ပပယ်ဘသာသဘောတူညီချက်
An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be
void.
[ Section 2 (g)]
ဥပဘေအရ အဘရးယူအတည်မပပုနိုင်ဘသာ သဘောတူညီချက်သည်
ပျက်ပပယ်ဘသာ သဘောတူညီချက်ပေစ်သည်။ ပျက်ပပယ်ဘသာ

၂
သဘောတူညီချက် [ပုေ်မ-၂(ဆ)]
contract.ပဋိညာဉ်
An agreement enforceable by law is a contract.
[Section 2 (h) ]
ပဋိညာဉ်ဆိုသည်မှာ တရားဥပဘေအရ အဘရးယူအတည်
ပပုနိုင်ဘသာ သဘောတူညီချက်ပေစ်သည်။ [ပုေ်မ-၂(ဇ)]
Voidable contract ပျက်ပပယ်နိုင်ခွင့်ရှိဘသာပဋိညာဉ်များ
An agreement which is enforceable by law at the
option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the
option of the other or others, is a voidable contract.
၂
void agreement.
7
[Section 2 (i)]
ပျက်ပပယ်နိုင်ခွင့်ရှိသည်ဆိုရာ၌ ပဋိညာဉ်ပပုသူတစ်ဦးက ယင်း
ပဋိညာဉ်ကို မေျက်သိမ်းသဘရွ ့ ကာလပတ်လံးု သာပဋိညာဉ်သည်ရပ်တည်၏။
တစ်ေက်၏ ဆန္ဒအဘလျာက်သာလျှင် ပဋိညာဉ်ကိုအတည်ပပု ဘဆာင်ရွက်
ဘစနိုင်ပပီးကျန်တစ်ေက်၏ သဘောဆန္ဒအရ အတည်ပပုဘဆာင်ရွက်ပခင်း
မပပုဘစနိုင်လျှင် ထိပ
ု ဋိညာဉ်ကိုပဋိညာဉ်ပပုသူနှစ်ဦးနှစ်ေက် အနက် တစ်ေက်
ဘသာ ပဋိညာဉ်ပပုသူကသာေျက်သိမ်းနိုင်ခွင့်ရှိသပေင့် ထိပ

ု ဋိညာဉ် သည်
ပျက်ပပယ်နိုင်ခွင့် ရှိဘသာပဋိညာဉ်ပေစ်၏။[ပုေ်မ-၂(ဈ)]
Void ပျက် ပ ပယ် သ ည့ ်
A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law
becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable.
[Section 2 (j)]
ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ခုသည်ဥပဘေအရအတည်ပပုနိုင်ပခင်းမှ ရပ်စဲသွားဘသာ
အခါတွင် ပျက် ပပယ်သည်။[ပုေ်မ-၂(ည)]
1.2 Definition of Proposal ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်၏အဓိပ္ပယ်
Under section 2 (a) of the Contract Act 1872, a
Proposal is an act when one person signifies to another his
willingness to do or to abstain from doing anythi ng, with a
abstinence.
8
လူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဘယာက်ကအပခားလူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဘယာက်အားမိမိပပုလုပ်လုိ
သည့် (သို ့မဟုတ)် မိမိမပပုလုပ်လုသ

ိ ည့် ကိစ္စကိုအပခားလူ ထံမှသဘောတူညီမှု
ရရှိလိုသည့် ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ပေင့် ဘပပာဆိုပါကထိသ

ု က
ူ စကားကမ်းလှမ်း ချက်ပပု
သည် မည်၏။
(ပုေ်မ ၂-က)
1.3 The Salient Points of a valid "Proposal" or "Offer"
(1) A proposal is not a mere declaration or intention to
(၁)ကမ်းလှမ်းချက် ပေစ်ဘပမာက်ရန်အတွက် လူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဘယာက်က
အပခားသူတစ်ဦးအားမိမိပပုလုပ်လုသ
ိ ည့် (သို ့မဟုတ)် မပပုလုပ်လုသ
ိ ည့်
မိမိဆန္ဒကိုဘပပာကကားရုံနှင့်မပပီးေဲမိမိ၏ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုအပခားတစ်ေက်မှ
လက်ခံရန် ဘတာင်းခံချက်လည်းပါရှိရမည်။
Example
ဘအကေီအားမိမိပိုင်ဆိုင်သည့်အိမ်ကိုဘရာင်းလိဘ
ု ကကာင်းဘပပာရုံပေင့်ကမ်း
လှမ်းချက်မဘပမာက်၊ ေီကိုဝယ်ဘစလိုဘသာဆန္ဒဘတာင်းခံမှုဘပါ်လွင်ဘစရမည်။
(2) A proposal must be made with an intention to create
legal relation.
9
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်တွင် ဥပဘေသဘောအရအဘနှာင်အေွဲ ့အဆက်အသွယ်ပါရှိရမည်။
Example
ဘမာင်ပေူကဘမာင်မဲအားထမင်းစားေိတ်ရာတွင် ဘမာင်မဲမလာဘရာက်
*
သပေင့် ဘမာင်ပေူကဘမာင်မဲအား တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်ဘပ။ ဥပဘေအရ အဘနှာင်
အေွဲ ့မရှိပါဘသာဘကကာင့် ပေစ်၏။
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်သည်တိကျမှုရှိရမည်။
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်သည်ဘယေုယျသို ့မဟုတသ
် းီ ပခားပေစ်ရမည်။
Example
ဘပျာက် ဆ ု ံ း သွ ာ းဘသာဘခွ း ကိ ု ဘတွ ့ရှ ိ သ ူ အ ားဆု ဘငွဘ ပးမည် ဟ ု သ တင် း
စာတွ င ် ဘကကာ် ပ ငာပခင် း သည် ဘ ယေု ယ ျကျဘသာကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် ပ ေစ် သ ည် ။
ကမ်းလှမ်:ချက်ကိုအပခားတစ်ေက်မှသိဘစရန် ဆက်သွယ်ဘပပာကကားမှု
ပပီးဘပမာက်မသ
ှ ာလျှင် ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်အထဘပမာက်သည်။
(6)Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be no
contract.
*
KalaiHaldar V, Sheikh, W.R, 217.
10
ဆက်သွယ်ချက်မရှိဘသာကမ်းလှမ်းချက်သည် ပဋိညာဉ်မပေစ်ဘပ။
Sometimes a proposal takes the form of continuous
offer, which is called 'standing offer'. A proposal takes the
တစ် ခ ါတစ် ရ ံ တ ွ င ် ကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် က ိ ု ဆ က် တ ိ ု က ် ပ ပုလု ပ ် သ ည် ။
ထိ ု သ ိ ု ့ ပပုလု ပ ် လ ျှင် ၎င် း ကိ ု ဆ က် လ က် တည် ပ မဲ ဘ နဘသာ စကားကမ် း လှ မ ် း
ချက် ဟု ဘ ခါ်သည် ။
An invitation to traders to make tenders, display of
goods for sale in shop windows, and advertising auctio n
sales are instances of invitation to the other to make offer to
buy or sell as the case may be.
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုေတ
ိ ်ဘခါ်ပခင်းမှာသတင်းစာတွင်ပါရှိဘသာတင်ေါဘခါ်ပခ
င်းမျိုးသည်ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်မဟုတ်ဘပ။ အဆိုပပုရန်(သို ့မဟုတ)် ကမ်းလှမ်းရန်
တစ်ေက်အားေိတ်ဘခါ်ပခင်းသာပေစ်သည်။ တင်ေါသွင်းသူကသာလျှင်
ကမ်းလှမ်းသူ ပေစ်ပပီး ယင်းကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို ေိတ်ဘခါ်သူကလက်ခံလုမ

ိ ှ
သာလျှင်လက်ခံနိုင်၏။
Thus, for example, a book seller's catalogue with prices
stated against the names of the books is an invitation to the
purchasers. The purchasers are to make an offer and it is for
the book seller to accept it or not.

11
ဆိုငမ
် ျားတွင်ချိတ်ဆွဲထားဘသာ ပစ္စည်းများတွင် တန်ေိုးကို
ကပ်ထားပခင်းမှာ ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို ေိတ်ဘခါ်ပခင်းသာပေစ်သည်။
ဝယ်ယူလိုသူက ယင်းတန်ေိုးအတိုင်းဝယ်ယူပါမည်ဟု ဘပပာဆိုချက်မာှ
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်သာပေစ်၍ဆိုငရ
် ှင်ကယင်းကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုလက်ခံလုမ
ိ ှသာဘရာ
င်းချမည်ပေစ်ပပီးလက်မခံလုက
ိ ဘရာင်းချရန် ပငင်းပယ်နိုင်သည်။
1.4 Definition of Acceptance
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုလက်ခံပခင်း၏အဓိပ္ပယ်
Section 2(b) of the Contract Act 1872 defines
acceptance as that “when the person to whom the proposal
is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is sa id to
be accepted”. A proposal, when accepted, become a
promise.
ကမ်းလှမ်းပခင်းခံရသူသည် ကမ်းလှမ်းသူ၏ ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို
လက်ခံသဘောတူဘကကာင်း တစ်ေက်သို ့သိသာရန် အထိမ်းအမှတ်ပပုသည်နှင့်
တစ်ပပိုင်နက် ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုလက်ခံသည်မည်၏။ (ပုေ်မ ၂-ခ)
Acceptance of a proposal may be made in one or other
of the following ways:
(a)oral
(b)written and
(c)conduct
12
အထိမ်းအမှတ်ဆိုသည်မှာနှုတ်ပေင့်ပေစ်ဘစ၊စာပေင့်ပေစ်ဘစ၊အမူအရာပေင့်ပေ
စ်ဘစလက်ခံဘကကာင်းပပသရန်ပေစ်သည်။
1.5 The Conditions of Acceptance Lead to promise
In order to convert a proposal into a promise
acceptance must be:-
တရားဝင်လက်ခံပခင်းပေစ်ဘပမာက်ရန်အတွက်
ဘအာက်ပါစည်းကမ်းချက်များပေင့်ညီညွတ်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၂)
(1)The acceptance must be absolute and unqualified.
[Section 7(1)]
လက်ခံချက်တွင် ချွင်းချက်မပါရှိဘစရ။ ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်အတိုင်း
လက်ခံမှသာလျှင် လက်ခံချက်ဘပမာက်သည်။
In an English Case "Hyde vs. Wrench" 1840.3 Beav.334 the

th
defendant on June 6 offered to sell an estate to the plaintiff for
£100000. On June 8th in reply, the plaintiff made an offer of

th
£95000, which was refused by the defendant on June 27 .
th
Finally, on June 29 the plaintiff wrote that he was now prepared
to pay £100000.
th
Held: no contract was existed. By his letter of June 8 the
plaintiff had rejected the original offer and he was no longer able
13
to revive it by changing his mind and tendering a subsequent
acceptance.
*
အမှုတစ်မှုတွင် ဘအက ၄င်းပိုင်ဘပမကို ၁၀၀၀၀၀ ဘပါင်ပေင့်
ဘရာင်းမည်ဟုေီအားကမ်းလှမ်းရာတွင် ေီက ၉၅၀၀၀ ဘပါင်ပေင့်
ဝယ်မည်ဟုဘပပာသည်။ ဘအကလက်မခံဘပ။ ဘနာက်မေ

ှ ီက၁၀၀၀၀၀ဘပါင်ပေင့်
ဝယ်ပါမည်ဟုဘပပာသည့အ
် ခါဘအက မဘရာင်းဟုပငင်းသည်။ ဘအ၏မူလ
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုေီကပငင်းပပီး၍ဘအကအသစ်တစ်ေန်ကမ်းလှမ်းပခင်းမရှိေဲေီ
ကလက်မခံနိုင်ဘပ။
In Myanmar we have got a case SasoonEzekialSolom vs.
Burma Whaf and Warehouse Co.Ltd.B.L.R.364 which followed
the above decision. In that case it was said that in order to
constitute a promise, a proposal must be accepted absolutely
according to section 7 of the Contract Act. If there is an
amendment or different statement in acceptance, it is only counter
proposal.
ယင်းအမှုကိုလိုက်နာဘသာ အမှုတစ်မှုတွင် ဆုံးပေတ်ထားသည်မှာ
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို ပဋိညာဉ်ဥပဘေပုေ်မ (၇) နှင့်အညီအကကင်းမဲ့
စည်းကမ်းသတ် မှတ်ချက်မရှိေဲ လက်ခံမှကတိပေစ်လာသည်။ လက်မခံမချင်း
ညှိနှိုင်းဆဲ အဘပခအဘန၌ ရှိဘသးသည်။ လက်ခံသည့အ

် ခါ၌
*
Hyde V Wrench, 5, Beav, 334

SasoonEzekial Solomon v. Burma Wharf and WarchouseCo.Ltd., 11 B.L.R. 364.
14
ပပင်ဆင်ချက်(သို ့မဟုတ)် ကွဲလဲစ

ွ ွာဘော်ပပချက်နင
ှ ့်လက်ခပ
ံ ါမှတန်ပပန်ကမ်းလှမ်း
ချက်မျှသာပေစ်သည်။
(2)Acceptances must be made in accordance with the
prescribed manner. If the proposer does not prescribe any
specific method, the acceptor has to follow usual and
reasonable mode.
{ Section . 7(2) of the Contract Act 1872 }
ကမ်းလှမ်းသူက သတ်မှတ်ပပဋ္ဌာန်းဘသာ နည်းလမ်းအတိုင်း
လက်ခံရမည်။ ထိသ
ု ုိ ့ပပဋ္ဌာန်းထားပခင်း မရှိမှသာလျှင် လုပ်ရးို လုပ်စဉ်
သင့်ဘတာ်ဘသာ နည်းလမ်းအတိုင်းလက်ခံနိုင်သည်။
Example
If the proposor prescribes that the acceptance must be
made through the medium of post office, there is no
acceptance if it is done by oral (words of mouth).
စာပေင့်ပပန်ကကားပါဟုဘပပာဆိုရာတွင်စာပေင့်လက်ခဘ
ံ ကကာင်းဘရးသားမှလ
က်ခပံ ခင်းဘပမာက်၏။နှုတ်ပေင့်ဘပပာကကားပခင်း၊ဘကကးနန်းပေင့်ပပန်ကကားပခင်းသည်
လက်ခံပခင်းမဘပမာက်ဘပ။
(3)The proposor cannot impose upon the acceptor the
penalty that in the event of his silence, he would be deemed
to have accepted.
15
လက်ခံပခင်းနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ ပငင်းပယ်ရန်တာဝန်ကို လက်ခံမည့်သူ
အဘပါ်မဘပးနိုင်။
(4)Acceptance must be communicated to the person
who made the offer.
လက် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း သည် က မ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် ပ ပုလု ပ ် ဘ သာသူ န ှ င ့ ် ဆ က် သ ွ ယ ် ခ ျ
က် ရ ှ ိ ရ မည် ။
Mental or uncommunicated consent does not amount to
acceptance. A contract is formed only when the acceptor has
done something to signify his intention to accept and not
when he has only made up his mind to do so.
စိတ်ပေင့်လက်မခံနိုင်။ တစ်ေက်မှကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို ကိုယ်နှုတ်
အမူအရာပေင့် လက်ခံမှသာလက်ခံပခင်းဘပမာက်၏။ မိမိ၏စိတ်အတွင်းမှ
လက်ခံ၍မရဘပ။
Thus in Felthouse vs. Bindley11.C.B.Ns 869, Felthouse
offered by letter to buy his nephew's horse for a certain sum
mensioning "If I here no more about it I shall consider the horse is
mime for that price." No answer was given to that letter, but the
nephew told Bindley, an auctioneer, to keep the horse out of
auction, as it was sold to his uncle. Bindley sold the horse by
mistake and Felthouse sued him for sale of his property.

16
Held: the nephew had never signified to Felthouse his
acceptance of the offer, there was no contract of sale, between
Felthouse and his nephew, and the horse did not belong to
Felthouse at the time of auction sale.
အမှုတစ်မှုတွင်ဘအက ၄င်း၏တူ ေီ၏ပမင်းစီကိုဘပါင် ၃၀ ပေင့်
ဝယ်မည်။ ေီထမ
ံ ှ မည်သုိ ့မျှ အဘကကာင်းမပပန်ကပမင်းစီကို
ကျွန်ုပ်ပိုင်ပပီဟုယူဆမည်ဟူ၍ စာဘရးသည်။ ေီကမည်သို ့မျှ အဘကကာင်းမပပန်ေဲ
၄င်း၏ ဘလလံတင်ဘရာင်းချသူေီကိုပမင်းစီထည့်၍ ဘလလံမပစ်ရန်
ဘပပာကကားသည်။ သို ့ဘသာ်ေီကမှားယွင်း၍ စီကိုဘလလံထတ

ဲ ွင် ထည့်၍
ဘရာင်းချလိက
ု ်သည့အ
် ခါ ဘအကေီကတရားစွဲသည်။ ထိအ
ု မှုတွင်
ေီကဘအထံမည်သုိ ့မျှ အဘကကာင်းမပပန်ကကားေဲဆိတဆ

် ိတဘ
် နပခင်းသည် ဘအ
၏ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုေီကလက်ခရ
ံ ာမဘရာက်ဟုဆုံးပေတ်သည်။
(5) Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance
of all the terms.
ကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် က ိ ု လ က် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း သည် စ ည် း ကမ် း ချက် အ ားလု ံ း ကိ ု လ
က် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း ပေစ် သ ည် ။
(6) Whether the proposal of special terms has been
effectually communicated or not is a question of fact.
အထူ း စည် း ကမ် း ချက် မ ျားပေင့ ် ကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် က ိ ု ထိဘ ရာက် စ ွ ာ
ဆက် သ ွ ယ ် ခ ျက် ပ ပုလု ပ ် သ ည် သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် မ ပပုလု ပ ် သ ည် မ ှ ာ အဘကကာင် း ပခင် း
ရာပပဿနာပေစ် သ ည် ။

Felthouse v. Bindley, H.C.B (N.S); 869
17
In Richardson vs. Rowntree,1894 AC.217, the passenger
sued for injuries sustained by the negligence of a steam-ship Co.
The Company defended to limit its liability by a clause on the
back of the ticket printed in small type and obscured by words
stamped across it in ink.Held: the company was liable.
အမှုတစ်မှုတွင်သဘေောစီးခရီးသည်တွင် သဘေောကုမ္ပ ီ၏
ဘပါ့ဆမှုဘကကာင့် ထိခိုက်နာကျင်မှုရရှိသပေင့်သဘေောကုမ္ပ ီထံမှ ဘလျာ်ဘကကးရလို
ဘကကာင်း တရားစွဲဆိုသည်။ ခရီးသည်နှင့်သဘေောကုမ္ပ ီတို ့ အကကားတွင်
သက်ဘသခံပစ္စည်းမှာသဘေောကုမ္ပ ီကထုတ်ဘပးဘသာသဘေောလက်မှတ်တစ်ခု
တည်းသာရှိသည်။ သဘေောလက်မှတ်ဘနာက်ဘကျာေက်တွင် သဘေော
ကုမ္ပ ီအား ဘလျာ်ဘကကးမဘပးရဘလဘအာင် အကာအကွယ်ဘပးသည့်
စည်းကမ်းချက်များကို အလွန်ဘသးငယ်သည့်စာလုံးများပေင့် ရိုက်နှိပ်ထား
သည့အ
် ပပင် ယင်းစာလုးံ များအဘပါ်တွင်လည်း ကနလ ့် နပေတ်
့် လျက်မှင်နီပေင့်
စာတမ်းများ ရိုက်နှိပ်ထားသည့်အတွက် စာလုံးများကိုေတ်၍မရနိုင်ဘပ။
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ေတ်၍မရနိုင်ဘလာက်ဘအာင် ဘသးငယ်လှဘသာ စာလုးံ များပေင့်
ရိုက်နှိပ်ထားသည့်အပပင်မှင်နီပေင့်ကနလ ့် နပေတ်
့် မျဉ်းသားထားချက်တို ့ဘကကာင့်ခ
ရီးသည်အဘနပေင့် စည်းကမ်းချက်မန
ှ ်းမသိသည့အ
် တွက် ယင်းစည်း
ကမ်းချက်များအတိုင်း လိက
ု ်နာရန် တာဝန်မရှိဘပ။
သဘေောကုမ္ပ ီကခရီးသည်အား ဘလျာ်ဘကကးဘပးရဘပသည်။

Richardson v. Rountree, (1894) A.C., 217
18
(7) Performance of the conditions of a proposal, or the
acceptance of any consideration for reciprocal promise
which may be offered with a proposal, is an acceptance of
the proposal. [Section 8]
စကားကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် ပ ါ စည် း ကမ် း ချက် မ ျားကိ ု ဘဆာင် ရ ွ က ် ပ ခင် း ၊
သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် စကားကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက် တ ွ င ် ပါသည့ ် အ ပပန် အ လှ န ် က တိ အ တွ က ်
ဘပးဘသာအဘပးအယူ က ိ ု လ က် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း သည် စ ကားကမ် း လှ မ ် း ပခင် း ကိ ု လ က် ခ
ံပခင် း ပေစ် သ ည် ။ (ပု ေ ် မ ၈)
Acceptance by conduct was considered by the English Court
of Appeal in Carlill V.Carbolic Smoke Ball Co 1893 I.Q.B 256 1,
the Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. offered by advertisement to pay
£100 to anyone who should contract influenza or colds after
having used the ball as directed. MrsCarlill used the ball as
directed and caught influenza and sued the Co. for the promised
reward.
Held: as this was a general offer, there need be no
acceptance of the offer other than the performance of the
condition and she was entitled to recover £100 as a contract by the
company.
19
အမှုတစ်မှုတွင်ဘဆးကုမ္ပ ီတစ်ခု၏ဘကကာ်ပငာတွင်၄င်းတို ့၏ဘဆးကိုအ
ညွှန်းအတိုင်းဘသာက်ပါကတုတ်ဘကွးဘရာဂါမှကာကွယ်သည်။အကယ်၍ဘဆးဘ
ောက်ပပီးတုတ်ဘကွးပေစ်ကဘပါင်၁၀၀ဘလျာ်မည်ဟုပါရှိသည်။စီကဘကကာ်ပငာအ
တိုင်းဘဆးကိုဘသာက်ဘသာ်လည်းတုတ်ဘကွးပေစ်သပေင့်ဘလျာ်ဘကကးဘတာင်းသည့်
အခါစီ၏ဘဆာင်ရွက်မှုသည်ကုမ္ပ ီ၏ ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကိုလက်ခံပခင်းဘပမာက်
သပေင့် ကုမ္ပ ီကဘလျာ်ဘကကးဘပးရ၏။
Therefore acceptance may be made by;
(a)Word of mouth.
(b)Written and
(c)Conduct or performance of parties.
(8)An act done by a person in ignorance of offer does
not amount to performance of the condition of the proposal.
ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ပါစည်းကမ်းများကို လက်ခံသူကမသိ
နားမလည်ပခင်းသည် လက်ခံရာဘရာက်မဘရာက် ဟူဘသာအချက်သည်
အဘကကာင်းပခင်းရာ အဘပါ် မူတည်သည်။
1.6 Promise ကတိ
A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.[Section
2(b)]

Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co., (1893) 1 Q.B. 256
20
"promisor" and the person accepting the proposal is called
the "promised".
လူတစ်ဘယာက်က ကမ်းလှမ်းချက်တစ်ရပ် ပပုလုပ်သည်ကို
အပခားသူတစ်ဘယာက်က ယင်းကမ်းလှမ်းချက်ကို လက်ခံလုက

ိ ်လျှင်
ကတိတစ်ရပ်ပေစ်လာသည်။ [ပုေ်မ ၂(၁)]
အတိအလင်းကတိနှင့် သဘောသက်ဘရာက်ဘသာကတိ
(i)Express Promise အတိအလင်းကတိ
In so far as the proposal or acceptance of any promise
is made in words, is said to be express. [Section 9]
ကတိ န ှ င ့ ် ပ တ် သ က် ဘ သာ စကားကမ် း လှ မ ် း ပခင် း သိ ု ့မဟု တ ်
လက် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း ကိ ု ပ ေစ် ဘ စနှု တ ် ပ ေင့ ် ပေစ် ဘ စပပုလု ပ ် လ ျှက် ထိ ု က တိ သ ည်
"အတိ အ လင် း ကတိ " မည် သ ည် ။
[ပုေ်မ ၉]
(ii)Implied Promiseသဘောသက်ဘရာက်ဘသာကတိ
In so far as such proposal or acceptance is made
otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be
implied.[Section 9]
21
စာပေင့ ် န ှု တ ် ပ ေင့ ် မ ဟု တ ် ေ ဲ အ ပခားနည် း ပေင့ ် ပ ပုလု ပ ် လ ျှင် သဘောသက်
ဘရာက် ဘ သာကတိ မည် သ ည် ။ [ပုေ်မ ၉]
1.7 Consideration အေိုးစားနား
promisee or any other person has done or abstained from
doing, or does or abstain from doing, or promises to do or
abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or
promise is called a consideration for the promise"
ကတိပပုသူ၏ ဆန္ဒအရကတိရသူ(သို ့) အပခားသူတစ်ဘယာက်က
တစ်စုံတစ်ခုဘသာကိစ္စကို(၁)ပပုပပီး(သို ့)ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်ပပီးပေစ်လျှင်(သို ့)(၂) ပပုသည်
(သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်သည်ပေစ်လျှင် (သို ့) (၃) ပပုမည် (သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်
မည်ကိုကတိပပုလျှင် ယင်းပပုလုပ်မှု (သိ)ု ဘရှာင်ကကဉ်မှု (သို ့)
ကတိကိုကတိပပုသူ၏ ကတိအတွက် အေိုးစားနားဟုဘခါ်သည်။
ပုေ်မ ၂(ဃ)
In Daw Po and other vs. U Po Hmyin and others 1940 R.L.R 239
case, it was held that a stranger to a contract can sue upon it (a)
where a party to the contract agrees with the stranger to pay him
direct or becomes estopped from denying his liability to pay him
personally, (b) where the contract creates a trust in his favour.

22
**
အမှုတစ်မှုတွင် ဦးေိုးမျှင်နှင့် ဘေါ်ကံပေူပိုင် လယ်များကို ၁၉၃၃/၃၄
ခုနှစ်အတွက် ဘမာင်ယဉ်ဘမွှးနှင့်အဘပါင်းပါများကို သီးစားချထားရာ
သီးစားခမဘပး၍ တရားစွဲဆို၏။ ဘမာင်ယဉ်ဘမွှးတို ့က လယ်များသည်
ဦးေိုးမျှင်၏ လယ်များမဟုတ၊် ပိုင်ရှင်အစစ်မှာ ဦးေိတ်နှင့်ဘေါ်ပိတ

ု ို ့ပေစ်သပေင့်
ယင်းလယ်များကိုဦးေိတ်နှင့် ဘေါ်ပိုတို ့ကို လွှဘ

ဲ ပးမှသာ သီးစားခ
ဘပးမည်ဟုရးုံ ၌ဘချပ၏။ ထိအ

ု ခါ ဘေါ်ပိုကလယ်များပပန်ဘပးရန် ဦးေိုးမျှင်ကို
တရားစွဲရာတရားရုံးကလက်ခံလုက
ိ ်၏။ အေယ်ဘကကာင့်ဆိုဘသာ်မူလ
ပဋိညာဉ်ပပုသူမှာ ဦးေိုးမျှင်နှင့်ဘမာင်ယဉ်ဘမွှးတို ့သာ ပေစ်သည်မှန်ဘသာ်လည်း
ဘေါ်ပိုသည်ယင်းပဋိညာဉ်ကိုအမှီပပု၍ပဋိညာဉ်အကျိုးသက်ဘရာက်သူပေစ်သပေင့်
တရားစွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်ခွင့်ရှိသည်ဟုဆုံးပေတ်ခဲ့သည်။
Then in the later case" Burma (Government Security)
Insurance Co.Ltd. vs. Daw Saw Hla" 1953 B.L.R.H.C 350, it was
held that there is nothing in the Contract Act which prevents the
recognition of a right in a third party to enforce a contract made
by other which contains a provision for his benefit.
တတိယလူတစ်ဘယာက်သည် မိမိ၏အကျိုးအတွက် အပခားသူ
တစ်ဘယာက်က ပပုလုပ်ထားဘသာ ပဋိညာဉ်အရအကျိုးခံစားခွင့်ရရှိရန်

*
တရားစွဲဆိုအတည်ပပုနိုင်သည်။
**
Daw Po & others v. U Po Hmyin& another, 1940 R.L.R, 237
*
The Burma (Government Security) Insurance Co. Ltd. v. Daw Saw Hla, 1953 B.L.R (H.C) 350
23
အေိုးစားနားကိုအ တိ တ ် ၊ ပစ္စ ု ပ္ပ န ် ၊ အနာဂတ် ဟ ူ ၍ ခွ ဲ န ိ ု င ် သ ည် ။
အတိ တ ် အဘပးအယူ
ပစ္စ ု ပ္ပ န ် အဘပးအယူ
အနာဂတ် အဘပးအယူ
Key Terms
Contract=ပဋိ ည ာဉ်
Agreement=သဘောတူ ည ီ ခ ျက်
Promise=ကတိ
Proposal or offer=ကမ် း လှ မ ် း ချက်
Promissor=ကတိ ပ ပုသူ
Promisee=ကတိ ရ သူ
Acceptance=လက် ခ ံ ပ ခင် း
Consideration=အေိ ု း စားနား
24
Questions
1. What are the main points to become a valid “proposal” or
“offer”? Explain with examples. (Assignment)
2. Explain the conditions of acceptance in order to convert a
proposal into a promise.(Assignment)
3. Explain the terms “promise” and “consideration” with
cases.(Assignment)
4 Define the term promise.(Short Question)
5 What is the meaning of consideration?(Short Question)
6 Express the definition of proposal?(Short Question)
7 Define the term acceptance.(Short Question)
8 How many kinds of consideration? Express.
(Short Question)
9 What is the meaning of communication? (Short Question)
10 What is the meaning of any act or conduct from modes of
communication? (Short Question)
11 What is omission from modes of communication?
(Short Question)
12 Express the modes of revocation of proposal.
(Short Question)
1
Chapter-2
Communication
2.1 Communication 3
2.2 Modes of Communication 4
2.3 Completion of Communication 7
2.3.1 Completion of Communication of Proposal 8
2.3.2 Completion of Communication of Acceptance 8
2.4 Communication of Revocation 10
2.5 Revocation of Proposal and Acceptance 12
2.6 Modes of Revocation of a Proposal 13
Key Terms 14
Questions 15
2
Chapter-2
Communication
In order to constitute a contract, there must be steps to
be taken by both side of the proposor or offeror and
accepter.
First, there must be a proposal by the side of proposor
or offeror. And secondly, there must be acceptance by the
side of the offeree of accepter.
In this step of transaction the element of
“communication” is an important factor to be considered to
constitute a valid proposal or offer and a valid acceptance

3
Therefore, to be a valid contract, there must be a valid
communication of offer and a valid communication of
acceptance.
2.1 Communication
In order to become an agreement, there must be
communication of proposal and acceptance.
According to the definition of the proposal and
acceptance under the Contract Act 1972, it was mentioned
as:-
၁၉၇၂
Section 2 (a) when one person signifies to another his
abstinence, he is said to make a 'proposal'.

4
၂-
Section 2(b) when the person to whom the proposal is
made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be
'accepted'.
၂-
2.2 Modes of Communication
"The communication of proposals, the acceptance of
[Section (3)]
5
This section provides two general modes of
communication, namely: by-
(ii) omission
By the above two modes it is intending to communicate
to the other
The first mode “any act” would include any “words”
or “conduct”. ”words” may be oral or written. "written”
would include letters, telephones, telex, advertisements etc.

6
‘Any conduct' would include positive acts or sings so
that the other person understands what the person acting or
making sign means to say.
၏ပ ြောဆိ ု ရ န်
The instances of communicating by conduct are:-
1. Delivery of goods by the seller to a buyer who has offered
to buy them for a certain price.
2. Steps into a public bus.
(ii) "Omission" would include such conduct or forbearance
on one's part that the other person takes it as his willingness
or assent. Omission would not mean silence.

7
၏ဆန္ဒ သိ ု ့မဟု တ ်
သပော ြင့ ် ပဆာင် ရ ွ က ် သ ည့ ် အ ြေိ ု င ် း တွ င ် ထိ ု သ ူ ၏ အဆိ ု ြေ ါပဆာင် ရ ွ က ် မ ှု
သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် ြေျက် က ွ က ် မ ှု တ ိ ု ့ ြေါဝင် သ ည် ။ ြေျက် က ွ က ် မ ှု သ ည် ဆိ တ ် ဆ ိ တ ်
ပန ြင် း ကိ ု မ ဆိ ု လ ိ ု ။
Communicating to an authorized agent also amounts to
communication by means of the word of "which has the
effect of communicating it".
2.3 Completion of Communication
In respect of communication there is an important
point which is “when does the action of communication be
completed.”
8
2.3.1 Completion of Communication of Proposal
The communication of a proposal is complete when it
comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made.
[Section 4]
E.g. (1) A proposes by letter, to sell a house to B at a
certain price. In this case, the communication of the
proposal is complete when B receives the letter A’s letter .
2.3.2 Completion of Communication of Acceptance
The communication of an acceptance is completed: -
(i) as against the proposor, when it is put in a course of
transmission to him, so as to be out of the power of the
acceptor,
9
(ii) as against the acceptor , when it come to the
knowledge of the proposer. [Section 4]
Example
(2) In the case of the example (1):- B accepts A's proposal
by a letter sent by post. The communication of the
acceptance is complete:-
(a) as against A, when the letter is posted;
(b) as against B, when the letter is received by A.
၂
10
2.4 Communication of Revocation
The communication of a revocation is complete:-
(i) as against the person who makes it , when it is put into a
course of transmission to the person to whom it is made, so
as to be out of the power of the person who makes it;
(ii)as against the person to whom it is made, when it com es
to his knowledge.[Section 4 ]
၂
11
Example
In the above example (1): A revokes his proposal by
telegram. The revocation is complete as against A when the
telegram is dispatched. It is complete as against B when B
receives it.
B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is
complete as against B when the telegram is dispatched, and
as against A when it reaches him.
၂
12
2.5 Revocation of Proposal and Acceptance
(A) Revocation of Proposal
A proposal may be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as against the
proposer, but not afterwards. [Section 5]
(B) Revocation of Acceptance
An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the
communication of the acceptance is complete as against the
acceptor, but not afterwards.[Section 5 ]

13
Illustration
A proposes, by a letter sent by post, to sell his house to
B.B accepts the proposal by a letter sent by post.
A may revoke his proposal at any time before or at the
moment when B posts his letter of acceptance, but not
afterwards.
B may revoke his acceptance at any time before or at
the moment when the letter communicating it reaches A, but
not afterwards.
14
2.6 Modes of Revocation of a Proposal
(1) by the communication of notice of revocation by the
proposerto the other party;
(2) by the lapse of the time prescribed in such proposal for
its acceptance, or if no time is so prescribed, by the lapse of
reasonable time, without communication of the acceptance;
(3) by the death or insanity of the proposer, if the fact of his
death or insanity comes to the knowledge of the acceptor
before acceptance.
(ဂ
15
Key Terms
Communication=
Revocation =
Completion=
Omission=
Conduct =
Oral =
Forebearance =
The lapse of the time =
Questions
1. Describe about the completion of communication
(a)When can the proposal or acceptance be revoked?
(b)What are the modes of revocation of a proposal?
(Assignment)
(Short Question)
(Short Question)
4 Describe the competency or capacity of the parties.
(Short Question)
16
5 Express the capacity of age. (Short Question)
6 What is meant by fraud in the Contract Act?
(Short Question)
7 What is the mistake of fact? (Short Question)
8 What is the mistake of law? (Short Question)

1
Chapter 3
Essentials of Valid Contract
3.1 Proposal and Acceptance 5
3.2 Competency or Capacity of the Parties 6
3.2.1 Capacity of Age 7
3.2.2 of sound mind 9
3.2.3 Disqualification to Contract 11
3.3 Consent 12
3.4 Lawful Consideration and Lawful Objects 31
3.5. The Agreement expressly declared to be Void 34
3.5.1 Contracts out of natural love and affection 38
3.5.2 Promise to Compensate for Voluntary Service 38
Key Terms 40
Exercise Questions 41
2
Chapter 3
Essentials of Valid Contract
There are the basic factors which are essentials to
constitute a valid contract, such as;-
1. Agreement
5. Void agreement
6. Where writing, attestation or registration in accordance
with Law
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides
that "A Contract is an agreement enforceable by law".

3
-၂(ဇ)
Section 10 of the said Act adds further qualification to
the agreement as follows:-
"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the
free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful
consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby
expressly declared to be void. Nothing here in contained
shall affect any law in force in the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, by which any contract is required to be made in
writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating
to the registration of documents.”
( )
Thus, the followings are the essential elements to form
a valid contract:-
4
(1) Proposal or offer;
(2) Acceptance of such proposal or offer;
(3) The contracting parties must be competent to contract;
(4) Free consent of the contracting parties;
(5) Lawful consideration and lawful object;
(6)The agreement must not be expressly declared to be void;
(7) In writing if so required by law; and

5
3.1 Proposal and Acceptance
To form a Contract:-
The first essential element is a proposal which is made
by one person and accepted by another.
( )
( ၂- )
The second essential element is an acceptance by
which the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his
assent to such proposal.
( ၂- )
Thus, when a proposal made by one person to another
and it is accepted by that another person, it becomes a
“promise”.
၂( )]
6
Every promise or every set of promises forming the
consideration for each other is an “agreement”. An
agreement enforceable by law is a contract.
-၂(ဂ)]
Therefore, proposal and acceptance are the two basic
elements of a contract.
3.2 Competency or Capacity of the Parties
Section 11 of the Contract Act lays down about the
capacity as follows:-
( )
"Every person is competent to contract who is of the
age of majority according to the law to which he is subject,
and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from
contracting by any law to which he is subject."

7
This section deals with the capacity of the parties in
three parts. Every person is competent to contract who,
(i) has attained the age of majority
(ii) is of sound mind and
(iii) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to
which he is subject.
3.2.1 Capacity of Age
In Myanmar, attaining the age of majority was
provided in the Section 3 of the Majority Act that, “Every
person shall be deemed to have attained his majority when
he shall have completed the age of eighteen years and not
before”.
8
( )
Therefore, a person who domiciled in Myanmar is
competent to make a contract at the completion of the age of
eighteen.
( )
However, the ward under a guardian appointed by the court
may be majority after attaining 21 years of age. The ward may not
attest the agreement before reaching majority age. The parents of
the minor may not attest and the guardian only may contract on
(၂ )
9
3.2.2 Of Sound Mind
Section 12
“A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose
of making a contract if, at the time when he makes it, he is
capable of understanding it and forming a rational judgment
as to its effect upon his interests.”
( ၂)
(a) A person who is usually of unsound mind by
occasionally of sound mind may make a contract when he is
of sound mind.
10
(b)A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally
of unsound mind, may not make a contact when he is of
unsound mind.
Illustration
A sane man, who is delirious from fever or who is so
drunk that he cannot understand the terms of a contract or
from a rational judgment as to its effect on his interests,
cannot contract whilst such delirium or drunkenness lasts.
ဂ ဂ
( )
A person of unsound mind is incompetent to contract.
The law as regard to minors is equally applicable to persons
of unsound mind.
11
3.2.3 Disqualification to Contract
A person may be disqualified from contracting by his
or her own law to which he or she is subject. For example,
in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract
without the authority of her husband.
( )
For example:
(1) A statutory company cannot enter into a contract out of
its memorandum
*
Michelle v.Sultan of Johore, (1894) 1 Q.B., 149.
12
In Myanmar, the capacity of a woman to contract is
not affected by her marriage either under Myanmar
Customary Law.It is also the same in Hindu or
Mohammedan Law.
3.3 Consent
Section 13
“Consent” is defined as “Two or more persons are said to
consent when they agree upon the same thing in the same
sense”.
13
( )
Free Consent Section 14
( )
( ၅)
ဇ ( ၆)
( ၇)
( )
22.
( ၂ ၂ ၂၂)
(a)Coercion
14
Section 15
“Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to
commit, any act forbidden by the Penal Code, or the
unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain, any property, to
the prejudice of any person whatever, with the intention of
causing any person to enter into an agreement.”
( ) ( )
*
( )
( )
( )
Explanation
It is immaterial whether the Penal Code is or is not in
force in the place where the coercion is employed.
In the case of Ma Ain Yu vs. Dr. Miss A. G. D. Netto
and others, 1952 B.L.R.S.C. 65, it was held that torture is an
*
Ma Ain Yu v. Miss A.G.D. Netto, 1952, B.L.R. (S.C) 65.
15
act forbidden by the Penal Code. A threat to commit such an
act would come within the purview of Section 15 of the
Contract Act.
Illustration
A, on board an English ship on the high seas, caused B
to enter into an agreement by an act amounting to criminal
intimidation under the Penal Code.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
16
(b)Undue Influence
Section 16
A contract is said to have been induced by "undue
influence" where the relations subsisting between the parties
are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate
the will of the other and uses that position to obtain an
unfair advantage over the other.
ဇ ( ၆)
(a)where he holds a real or apparent authority over the
other, or where he stands in a fiduciary relation to the other,
or
( ) ဇ
( )
17
(b)where he makes a contract with a person whose mental
capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason
of age, illness, or mental or bodily distress.”
( )
( )
This Sub-Section 2 shows the different forms of
influence.
Undue influence is ordinarily presumed in relationship, such
as-
(b)guardian and ward
(c)trustee and beneficiary
(d)solicitor and client

18
(e)doctor and patient
(f)spiritual adviser and disciple
Illustration
(1) A having advanced money to his son, B, during has
minority, upon B's coming of age obtains, by misuse of
parental influence, a bond from B for a greater amount than
the sum due in respect of the advance. A employs undue
influence.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ဇ
( ) ( ) ဇ
(2) A, a man enfeebled by disease or age, is induced, by
B's influence over him as his medical attendant, to agree to
pay B an unreasonable sum for his professional services. B
employs undue influence.
ဂ ( )
( ) ဇ
19
( )
( ) ဇ
(3) A applies to a banker for a loan at a time when there is
stringency in the money market. The banker declines to
make the loan except at an unusually high rate of interest. A
accepts the loan on these terms. This is a transaction in the
ordinary course of business and the contract is not induced
by undue influence.
( )
( )
In the case of Daw Maw Nwee and seven others vs. L.
Ahnin (a) U Par and three others 1962, B.L.R.C.C. 232 , it
was contented that appellants Daw Maw Nwee, wife of the
deceased and, U Ah Kee and U Ah Lone, who were sons of
the deceased used undue influence to make a contract of gift
and so that the contact was void.

20
It was held that even though the deceased U Ah Choine
was ill, it could not be considered to be influenced by his
wife and sons since he was to be able to bring himself up
until to be a rich man.

*
ဇ ဇ
It was also held that since there was no position of
influence, it was necessary to consider whether undue
influence was used or not.
*
- ( ) ( ) - ၉၆၂ ( ) -၂ ၂
21
ဇ ဇ
Section 16
(1)" Where a person, who is in a position to dominate the
will of another, enters into a contract with him, in the
transaction appears, on the face of it on the evidence
adduced, to be unconscionable, the burden of proving the
said contract was not induced by undue influence shall lie
upon the person in a position to dominate the will of the
other.”
Nothing in this sub-section shall affect the provisions
of section 111 of the Evidence Act.

22
Illustration
A, being in debt to B, the money-lender of his village ,
contracts a fresh loan on terms which appear to be
unconscionable . It lies on B to prove that the contract was
not induced by undue influence.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ဇ ( )
Section 19
"When consent to an agreement is caused by undue
influence, the agreement is a contract voidable at the option
of the party whose consent was so caused.
( )
23
Any such contract may be set aside either absolutely
or, if the party who was entitled to avoid it has received any
benefit thereunder, upon such terms and conditions as to the
Court may seem just."
( ) ( ) (၂)
(c) Fraud
Section 17
( )
fraud
24
( - ၇)
(1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by
one who does not believe it to be true.
(2) the active concealment of a fact by one having
knowledge or belief of the fact,
( )
(5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares
to be fraudulent.
( )
( - ၇)
25
Mere silence is not fraud unless there is-
( )
Examples
A sells by auction to B a horse which is A knows to be
unsound. A says nothing to B about the horse's unsoundness.
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(b) B says to A "if you do not deny it, I shall assume
that the horse is sound". A says nothing. Here A's silence is
equivalent to speech. Here, the relation between the parties
is that A's duty to tell B if the horse is unsound.
( ) ( )
( )
26
( )
(d) Misrepresentation
Section 18
"Misrepresentation" means and includes-
(1)the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by
information of the person making it, of that which is not
true, though he believes it to be true;
( )]
(2)any breach of duty which, without an intent not deceive,
gains an advantage to the person committing it, or any one
claiming under him, by misleading another to his prejudice
or to the prejudice of any one claiming under him.
( )
( )
27
(3) causing, however innocently, a party to an agreement
to make a mistake as to the substance of the thing
which is the subject of the agreement.
Effect of misrepresentation
Section 19A
“ When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion,
fraud or misrepresentation, the agreement is a contract
voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so
caused.”
( ၉)
Exception
If such consent was so caused by misrepresentation or
by silence, fraudulent within the meaning of section 17, the
contract, nevertheless, is not voidable, if the party whose

28
consent was so caused had the means of discovering the
truth with ordinary diligence.
၉- )
(e) Mistake
(i)Mistake of Fact
Agreement is void where both parties are under
mistake as to matter of fact essential to the agreement.
( ၂ )
Explanation
An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing
which forms the subject-matter of the agreement is not to be
deemed a mistake as to a matter of fact.

29
(ii)Mistake of Law
Section 21
“A contract is not voidable because it was caused by a
mistake as to any law in force in the Union of Myanmar, but
a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union o f Myanmar
has the same effect as a mistake of fact”.(mistake of foreign
law)
( ၂ )
Illustration
A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief
that a particular debt is barred by the law of limitation, the
contract is not voidable.

30
( ) ( )
In the case of Haji Abdul Rahman Allerakhia vs. The
Bombay and Persia Steam Navication Co. ,the plaintiffs
chartered a steamer from the defendants to sail from Jedda

th
on the 10 August 1892 (15 days after the Haj), in order to
convey pilgrims returning to Bombay. The plaintiffs

th
believed that "the 10 August 1892" corresponded with the
fifteenth day after the Haj, but the defendants had on belief
on the subject, and contracted only with respect to English

th th
date. The 19 July 1892, and not the 10 August 1892, in
fact corresponded with the fifteenth day after the Haj. On
finding out the mistake the plaintiffs sued the defendants for
ratification of the charter party
၉၂- ဂ
( )
ဂ ( ) aj ( ၅)
ဂ
31
၏ ယုံ
th
It was held that the agreement was one for the 10
August 1892, that the mistake was not mutual, but on the
plaintiff’s part only, and therefore there can be no
ratification."
၉၂- ဂ ( )
3.4 Lawful Consideration and Lawful Objects
The next ingredient of a valid contract is that its
consideration and object must be Lawful.
Section 23
Lawful considerations and objects are shown as
follows:-
32
( )
၂ )
The consideration or objects of an agreement is
Lawful, unless-
(a) it is forbidden by law (or)
(b) it is of such a nature that, if permitted, it would defeat
the provisions of any law (or)
(b) it is fraudulent (or)
(c) it involves or implies injury to the person or property
of another (or)
(d) the court regards it as immoral, or opposed to public
policy.
33
( )
Section 57
“Where persons reciprocally promise, firstly, to do
certain things which are legal, and secondly, under specified
the first set of promises is a contract, but the second is a
void agreement.”
Illustration
A and B agree that A "shall sell B a house for kyats
100,000, but that, if B uses it as a gambling house, he shall
pay A Kyats 50,000 for it.
The first set of reciprocal promises, namely, to sell the
house and to pay Kyats 100,000 for it, is a contract. The

34
second set is for an unlawful object namely, that B may use
the house as a gambling house, and is a void agreement.
( ) ၏ ( )
( )
၅ /
Section 58
“In the case of an alternative promise, one branch of
which is legal and the other illegal, the legal branch alone
can be enforced.”
Illustration
A and B agree that A shall pay B Kyats 100,000 for
which B shall afterwards deliver to A either rice or
smuggled opium. This is a valid contract to deliver rice and
void agreement as to the opium.

35
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3.5. The Agreement expressly declared to be void
In order to be a valid contract, the agreement must not
be expressly declared to be void. There are fourteen kinds of
agreement which the Contract Act has expressly declar ed to
be void. They are;-
(1)Agreements made by incompetent persons: [Section 11]
( )
(2) Agreements made under mutual mistake as to a matter of
fact [Section 20] or Law[Section 21]

36
( ၂ ၂ ၂၂)
(3) Agreements of which consideration or object is
unlawful, [Section 23]
( ၂ )
in part[Section 24]
( )
( ၂ )
(5) Agreements without consideration [Section 25]
( ၂၅
(6) Agreements in restraint of marriage [Section 26]
( ၂၆)
(7) Agreements in restraint of trade [Section 27]
( ၂၇)
(8) Agreements in restraint of legal proceedings [Section 28]
( ၂ )
37
(9) Agreements the meaning of which is uncertain or not
capable of being made certain [Section 29]
( )
( ၂၉)
(10) Agreements by way of wager [Section 30]
( )
(11) Agreements contingent on an event happening, and the
event becomes impossible [Sections 32 , 36]
( ၂ ၆)
(12) Where the agreement is to do an act which
subsequently becomes impossible or unlawful [Section 56]
( ၅၆)
(13) Agreement to do an act afterwards becoming
Impossible or Unlawful. [Section 56]
( )
( ၅၆)
(14) Where persons reciprocally promise firstly, to do
something which are legal, and secondly, under specified

38
the second set of promises is a void agreement [Section 57]
( ၅၇)
Contracts which require being in writing under section
25 are-
(1) Contract out of natural love and affection
[Section25(1)]
(2) Promise to compensate for voluntary services
[Section 25(2)]
(1) Promise to pay time-barred debt [Section 25(3)]

39
3.5.1Contracts out of natural love and affection
Section 25
"An agreement made without consideration is void unless -
(1) It is expressed in writing and registered under the law
for the time being in force for the registration of documents
and is made on account of natural love and affection
between parties standing in a near relation to each other"
( )
( ၂၅)
3.5.2 Promise to Compensate for Voluntary Service
Section 25(2)
"An agreement without consideration is void unless;
when it is a promise to compensate wholly or in part a
person who has already voluntarily done something for the
promisor, of something which the promisor was legally
compellable to do"
40
Section 25(3)
"An agreement made without consideration is void
unless-when it is a promise made in writing and signed by
the person to be charged there with or by his agent generally
or specially authorized in that behalf, to pay wholly or in
part a debt of which the creditor might have enforced
payment but for the law for the limitation of suits"
Section 28 Exception (2), that "Nor shall this section
render illegal any contract in writing by which two or more
persons agree to refer to arbitration any question between
them which has already arisen, or affect any provision of

41
any law enforce for the time being as to references to
arbitration ."
(၂)
Key Terms
Valid contract=
Agreement=
Agreement enforceable by law=
Free consent=
Coercion=
Undue influence= ဇ
Capacity to make a contract=
Age of majority=
Unsound mind=
Disqualification=
42
Consideration=
Lawful consideration=
Unlawful consideration=
Lawful object=
Void agreements=
Immoral agreement=
Agreement without consideration =
Questions
1. State the essentials of a valid contract and explain briefly.
(Assignment)
2. Who are competent to contract?
(a)Define consent.
(b)When is consent said to be free?
(c)Define coercion with illustration. (Assignment)
3. What is meant by “undue influence” as mentioned in the
Contract Act? Explain briefly. (Assignment)
4. (a)What is meant by “fraud” as mentioned in the Contract
Act?
(b)When does “silence” amount to fraud? (Assignment)

43
5. Discuss the statement “lawful consideration and lawful
objects” (Assignment)
6. What are the kinds of agreement expressly declared to be
void? (Assignment)
7 Explain about the performance of reciprocal promises.
(Assignment)
8 Express the modes of discharge of contract. (Assignment)
9 What are the basic factors to constitute a valid control?
(Short Question)
10 What is the free consent? (Short Question)
11 What is the meaning of coercion? (Short Question)
12 What is undue influence? (Short Question)

1
Chapter 4
Performance of Contract
4.1 Obligations of Parties to Perform Contracts 3
4.1.1 Death of Promisors 3
4.1.2 Effect of Refusal to Accept Offer of Performances 5
4.1.3 Effect of Refusal to Perform Promise Wholly 5
4.2 Parties to Perform the Contract 7
4.2.1 Devolution of Joint Liabilities 8
4.2.2 Right of Joints Promisor 10
4.2.3 Devolution of Joint Right 11
4.3 Time, Place and Manner of Performance 13
4.4 Performance of Reciprocal Promises 19
4.5 Performance of Alternative Promises 21
4.6 Rules as to Appropriation of Payments 22
4.7 Modes of Discharge of Contract 25
4.7.1 Discharge by Performance 26
4.7.2 Dispensed with or Excused by any Law 27
4.7.3 By Refusing Tender of Performance 28
4.7.4 Discharge by Breach 28

2
4.7.5 By Impossibility or Unlawfulness of the act to be
Performed 28
4.7.6 By Novation, Rescission or Alternation of Contract 29
4.7.7 By Waiver 30
4.7.8 By "Accord and Satisfaction" 31
4.7.9 By Rescission of a Voidable Contract 31
4.7.10 By Neglect of Promisee to afford promisor 32
Reasonable Facilities for Performance
4.7. 11 By Operation of Law 33
Key Terms 34
Questions 35
3
Chapter 4
Performance of Contract
ပဋိညာဉ်များကို ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်း
4.1 Obligations of Parties to Perform Contracts
ပဋိညာဉ်ြျုပ်ေိုသူများ၏ တာဝန်
Section 37
“The Parties to a contract must either perform, or offer
to perform, their respective promises, unless such
performance is dispensed with or excused under the
provisions of this Act, or of any other law.”
ဤအက်ဥပဆေ သို ့မဟုတ် အခြားဥပဆေတစ်ရပ်ရပ်က ကင်းလွတ်ြွင့်
မခပုလျှင် ပဋိညာဉ်ြျုပ်ေိုသမ
ူ ျားသည် ၄င်းတို ့ခပုလုပ်ထားဆသာ ကတိများ
အတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်၊ သို ့မဟုတ် ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ကမ်းလှမ်းရမည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၃၇)
4.1.1 Death of Promisors
ကတိခပုသူ ဆသေုံးခြင်း
Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in
case of the death of such promisors before performance,
unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.

4
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ေနက ့် ျင်ဘက် ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မဆပ်လလွင်ပကက ကတိခပုသူ
ဆသေုံးသွားလျှင် ၄င်း၏ကိုယစ
် ားလှယ်က ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၃၇)
Illustration
(a) A promises to deliver good to B on a certain day on
payment of Ks.100, 000. A dies before the day described. A's
representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is
bound to pay the Ks.100, 000 to A's representatives.
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) သည် (ဘီ) အား သတ်မှတ်ထားဆသာဆန ့တွင်
ကုနဆ
် ပးအပ်ရန်နှင့် (ဘီ) က ကုန်ဖိုးဆငွဆပးဆြျရန် ကတိခပုကကသည်။
သတ်မှတ်ထားသည့်ရက် မတိုင်မီ (ဆအ) ဆသေုံးလျှင် (ဆအ) ၏ ကိုယ်စားလှယ်
(စီ) က ထိုဆန ့တွင် (ဘီ) အားကုန်ဆပးအပ်ရမည်။ (ဘီ) က (စီ) အား ကုနဖ

် ိုး
ဆငွဆပးဆြျရမည်။
But when personal skill qualification is involved in the
performance of the contract, the contractual relations are put
an end by the death of promisor.
သို ့ရာတွင်ကတိခပုသူ၏ ကိုယ်ပိုင်အရည်အြျင်းနှင့် ကျွမ်းကျင်မှုတို ့ခဖင့်
ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့်ကတိတွင် ကတိခပုသူဆသေုံးပကက ပဋိညာဉ်ပပီးေုံးခြင်းသို ့
ဆရာက် သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၃၇)
(b) A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a
certain price. A dies before the day, the contract cannot be
enforced by A's representative or by B.

5
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) သည် (ဘီ) အတွက် ပန်းြျီကားတစ်ြျပ်ဆရး
ေွဲဆပးရန် နှင့် (ဘီ) က ပန်းြျီကားအတွက် ဆငွဆပးဆြျရန် ကတိခပုကကသည်။
ပန်းြျီကားဆရးေွဲမပပီး မီ (ဆအ) ဆသေုံးသည့အ

် ြက (ဆအ) ၏ ကိုယ်စားလှယ်က
(ဆအ)ကဲ့သုိ ့ ပန်းြျီေွဲတတ်သူ မဟုတသ

် ည့အ
် တွက် ၄င်းပဋိညာဉ်ကို မည်သူ ကမျှ
ေက်လက်ဆောင်ရွက် နိုင်ဆတာ့မည် မဟုတဆ

် ပ။
4.1.2 Effect of Refusal to Accept Offer of Performances
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင်ပကဝင်သူတစ်ဦးကကမ်းလှမ်းခြင်းကိုလက်ြံရန် ခငင်းေို ခြင်း
၏အကျိုးသက်ဆရာက်မ။ှု
Section 38
“Where a promisor has made an offer of performance to
the promisee, and the offer has not been accepted, the
promisor is not responsible for non-performance, nor does he
thereby lose his rights under the contract.”
ပဋိညာဉ်အတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ကတိခပုသူက ကမ်းလှမ်းြျက်နင

ှ ့်
ကတိရသူက လက်ြံရန် ခငင်းေိုလျှင် ကတိခပုသူသည် (၁) ပဋိညာဉ်ပျက်
ကွက်မှုအတွက်တာဝန်မရှိ၊ သို ့ဆသာ် (၂) ပဋိညာဉ်အရ ၄င်းရရှိမည့်အြွင့်
အဆရးများ မေုံးရှုံးဆစရ။ (ပုေ်မ ၃၈)
Every such offer (tender) must fulfill the following
conditions:-
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ကမ်းလှမ်းြျက်တွင် ဆအာက်ပကအြျက်သးုံ ြျက်နင

ှ ့် ခပည့စ
် ုံရ မည်။
6
(a) offer must be unconditional
(က) ကမ်းလှမ်းြျက်တွင် စည်းကမ်းြျက်မပကဆစရ။
(b) offer must be made at proper time and place
(ြ) ကမ်းလှမ်းြျက်ကို သင့်ဆလျာ်ဆသာ အြျိန်နှင့်ဆနရာတွင် ခပုလုပ် ရမည်။
4.1.3 Effect of Refusal to Perform Promise Wholly
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင်ပကဝင်သူတစ်ဦးကကတိတစ်ရပ်လံးု ကိုဆောင်ရွက်ရန်
ခငင်းေိုခြင်း၏အကျိုးသက်ဆရာက်မှု။
Section 39 deals with the effect of breach of contract
willfully caused by a party thereto.
“When a party to a contract has refused to perform, or
disabled himself from performing, his promise in its entirely,
the promisee may put an end to the contract, unless he has
signified, by words or conduct, his acquiescence in its
continuance.”
ပဋိညာဉ်ဝင်သူတစ်ဦးက ကတိတစ်ရပ်လံးု ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ခငင်းေို
လျှင်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ မိမိကိုယ်ကို မဆောင်ရွက်နိုင်ဆအာင် ခပုလုပ်ထားလျှင်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊
ကတိရသူသည် ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဖျက်သိမ်းနိုင်သည် (သို ့မဟုတ)် ပဋိညာဉ်ကို
ေက်လက်တည်ဆစရန် နှုတ်ခဖင့်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ အမူအရာခဖင့်ခဖစ်ဆစ ခပေိုနုင

ိ ်သည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၃၉)
7
Illustration
A, a singer, enters into a contract with B, the manager of a
theatre, to sing at his theater, to sing at his theatre two nights
in every week during the next two months, and B engages to
pay her Ks. 100,000 for each night's performance. On the
sixth night A willfully absents herself from the theatre. B is a
liberty to put an end to the contract.
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) က (ဘီ) ၏ ဇာတ်ရတ

ုံ ွင် နှစ်လကခပရန်နှင့်
တစ်ညလျှင် ၁ဝ၀၀၀ဝိ/- ဆပးရန် ပဋိညာဉ်ခပုသည်။ ေဋ္ဌမညဉ့်တွင် ကခပရန်
ပျက်ကွက်သည့်အြက (ဘီ) က ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ရပ်စဲနိုင်သည်။ အကယ်၍ သတ္တ မ
ညဉ့်တွင် (ဆအ) ေက်လက်ကခပသည်ကို (ဘီ) က လက်ြံလျှင် ပဋိညာဉ်
ေက်လက်တည်ဆစလိုဆကကာင်း ခပသခြင်းခဖစ်သည်။
4.2 Parties to Perform the Contract
ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့်သူများ။
Section 40 of the Contract Act enunciates the rule which
applies usually and in ordinary cases. It says:-
“If it appears from the name of the case that it was the
intention of the parties to any contract that any promise
contained in it should be performed by the promisor himself,

8
In other cases, the promisor or his representatives may employ
a competent person to perform it.”
အလုပ်ကိစ္စအမျိုးအစားကို ဆထာက်ရှုခြင်းအားခဖင့် ကတိတစ်ရပ်ကို
ကတိခပုသူ ကိုယတ
် ိုင်ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ပကဝင်သမ
ူ ျားက ရည်ရွယ်
ဆကကာင်း ထင်ရှားလျှင် ကတိခပုသူကိုယ်တိုင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၀)
4.2.1 Devolution of Joint Liabilities
တွဲဘက်တာဝန်များကို ေက်ြံခြင်း
Section 42
“When two or more persons have made a joint promise,
then, unless a contrary intention appears by the contract, all
such persons during their joint lives, and after the death of
any of them his representative jointly with the survivor or
survivors, and after the death of the last survivor the
representatives of all jointly, must fulfill the promise.”
နှစ်ဦး သို ့မဟုတ် ထို ့ထက်များသူတို ့က ပူးတွဲ၍ ကတိတစ်ြုကို ခပုကကလျှင်
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် အခြားေနက ့် ျင်ဆသာ ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မဆပ်လလွင်ပကက (က) ကတိခပု
သူ အားလုံး အသက်ရှင်ဆနသမျှ ကာလအတွင်း အားလုံးက ဆောင်ရွက် ရမည်။
(ြ) ကတိခပုသူတစ်ဆယာက် ဆသေုံးလျှင် ထိသ

ု က
ူ ို ေက်ြံ သူနှင့်
ကျန်ကတိခပုသူများ တွဲဘက်၍ ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ဂ) ကတိခပုသူ အားလုံး

9
ဆသေုံးကကလျှင် ၄င်းတို ့အသီးသီးကို ေက်ြံသူများက တွဲဘက်၍
ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၂)
Section 43
“When two or more persons make a joint promise, the
promisee may, in the absence of express agreement to the
contrary, compel any one or more of such joint promisors to
perform the whole of the promise.”
နှစ်ဦး သို ့မဟုတ် ထို ့ထက်များသူတို ့ကပူးတွဲ၍ ကတိတစ်ြုခပုလျှင်
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် အခြားေနက ့် ျင်ဆသာ ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မဆပ်လလွင်ပကက ကတိရသူ
သည် ကတိခပုသူများအနက် တစ်ဦးတည်းကိုခဖစ်ဆစ၊ တစ်ဦးထက် ပိုသူများ
ကိုခဖစ်ဆစ ကတိတစ်ြုလံးု ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ဆပးရန် ဆတာင်းေိုနုင

ိ ်သည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၄၃)
Illustration
A, B and C jointly promise of pay D Ks.300,000, D may
compel either A or B or C to pay him 300,000 Kyats.
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) (ဘီ) (စီ) တို ့ သုံးဦးပူးတွဲ၍ (ေီ) ထံမှ ဆငွ ၃၀၀ဝဝဝိ/-
ဆြျးယူထားသည်။ (ေီ) က ၄င်းတို ့သုံးဦးထဲမှ တစ်ဦးထံမှ ဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း၊
နှစ်ဦးထံမှဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း ဆငွအားလုံးကိုဆပးရန် ဆတာင်းေိုနုင

ိ ်သည်။
10
4.2.2 Right of Joints Promisor
ပူ း တွ ဲ က တိ ခ ပုသူ မ ျား၏အြွ င ့ ် အဆရး
The later part or Section 43 prescribes for the right of a
joint promisor who has been made of pay the whole amount. It
says:-
“Each of two or more joint promisors may compel every
other joint promisors to contribute equally with himself to the
performance of the promise, unless a contrary intention
appears from the contract.”
နှစ်ဦး သို ့မဟုတ် ထို ့ထက်များသူတို ့က ပူးတွဲ၍ ကတိတစ်ြုခပုလျှင်
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် အခြားေနက ့် ျင်ဆသာ ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မဆပ်လလွင်ပကက ကတိရသူ
သည် ကတိခပုသူများအနက် တစ်ဦးတည်ကိုခဖစ်ဆစ၊ တစ်ဦးထက်ပိုသူများ
ကိုခဖစ်ဆစ ကတိတစ်ြုလံးု ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ဆပးရန် ဆတာင်းေိုနုင

ိ ်သည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၄၃)
Illustration
A, B and C are under a joint promise to pay D Ks
300,000. C is unable to pay anything, and A is compelled to
pay the whole. A is entitled to receive Ks. 150,000 from B.
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) (ဘီ) (စီ) တို ့ သုံးဦးပူးတွဲ၍ (ေီ) ထံမှ ဆငွ
၃၀၀ဝဝဝိ/- ဆြျးယူထားသည်။ (ေီ) က ၄င်းတို ့သုံးဦးထဲမှ တစ်ဦးထံမှ

11
ဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း၊ နှစ်ဦးထံမှဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း ဆငွအားလုးံ ကို ဆပးရန်
ဆတာင်းေိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။
4.2.3 Devolution of Joint Right
တွဲဘက်ရပိုင်ြွင့်များကို ေက်ြံခြင်း
Section 45
“When a person has made a promise to more persons
jointly, then, unless a contrary intention appears from the
contract, the right to claim performance rests, as between him
and them, with them during their joint lines and after the
death of any of them with the representative of such deceased
person jointly with the survivor or survivors, and after the
death of the last survivor with the representative of all
jointly.”
လူတစ်ဆယာက်က အခြား လူ ၂-ဆယာက် သို ့မဟုတ် ထို ့ထက်များသူ
တို ့ကိုပူးတွဲ၍ တွဲဘက်ကတိရသူများအခဖစ် ကတိတစ်ြုကို ခပုလျှင် ပဋိညာဉ် တွင်
အခြားေနက ့် ျင်ကွဲလွဲ ဆသာ ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မဆပ်လလွင်ပကက -
(၁) ကတိရသူအားလုံး အသက်ရှင်ဆနစဉ်အတွင်း ပဋိညာဉ်အတိုင်း ဆောင်
ရွက်ဆစရန် ၄င်းတို ့အားလုံးက တွဲဘက်၍ ဆတာင်းြံပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။
(၂) ကတိရသူတစ်ဆယာက် ဆသေုံးပပီးလျှင် ဆသေုံးသူကို ေက်ြံသူနှင့် ကျန်
သူများကတွဲ၍ ဆတာင်းြံပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။
12
(၃) ကတိရသူအားလုံး ဆသေုံးပပီးဆသာအြက ၄င်းတို ့အသီးသီးကို ေက်ြံ
သူများက တွဲဘက်၍ ဆတာင်းြံပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၅)
Illustration
A, in consideration of Ks. 500,000 lent to him by B and
C, promise B and C jointly to repay them that sum with
intention interest on a day specified. B dies. The right to claim
performance rests with B's representative jointly with C
during C's life, and after the death of C with the r epresentative
of B and C jointly.
ဥပမာ။ ။ (ဆအ) နှင့် (ဘီ) တို ့ထံမှ (စီ) က ဆငွ ၅၀၀ဝဝဝိ/- ဆြျးယူ
ထားလျှင် (ဆအ) နှင့် (ဘီ) တို ့ တွဲဘက်၍ (စီ) ထံမှ ဆြျးဆငွကို ဆတာင်းြံ
ြွင့်ရှိသည်။အကယ်၍ (ဆအ) ဆသေုံးသွားလျှင် (ဆအ) ၏ ေက်ြံသူနှင့် (ဘီ)
တို ့တွဲဘက်၍ ဆတာင်းြံပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။ အကယ်၍ (ဆအ) နှင့် (ဘီ) ၂ ဦး
စလုံးဆသေုံးလျှင် (ဆအ) နှင့် (ဘီ) တို ့ကို ေက်ြံသူ အသီးသီးတို ့က တွဲဘက်၍
(စီ) ထံမှ ဆတာင်းြံပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။
မှတ်ြျက်။ ။ တွဲဘက်ကတိရသူများသည် ကတိအတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ဆစရန်
ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ တွဲဘက်ရပိုင်ြွင့်တစ်ြုကို ရရန်အတွက်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ တွဲဘက်ကတိရသူ
အားလုံးတို ့က တရားလိုအခဖစ် ပူးတွဲပကဝင်၍ စွဲေိုရမည်။ ၄င်းတို ့အထဲမှ
တစ်ဆယာက်တည်း ဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း၊ အြျို ့ကဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း တရားစွဲ
ေို၍မရနိုင်။
13
4.3 Time, Place and Manner of Performance
ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့် အြျိန်၊ ဆနရာနှင့် နည်းလမ်းများ။
There are some different rules applicable to the law as to
time, place and manner of performance. These are: -
ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့်အြျိန်၊ ဆနရာနှင့်နည်းလမ်းများနှငပ

့် တ်
သက်၍ နည်းဥပဆေဆခြာက်ြရ
ု ှိသည်။
Section 47
Time is specified and application to be made, “when a
promise is to be performed on a certain day, and the promisor
has undertaken to perform it at any time during the usual
hours of business on such day and at the place at which the
promise ought to be performed.”
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ဆန ့တစ်ဆန ့ သတ်မှတ်ထားလျှင် ၄င်းကတိကို (က)
သတ်မှတ်ဆသာဆန ့တွင် အလုပ်ြျိန်အတွင်း (ြ) သင့်ဆလျာ်ဆသာဆနရာတွင်
ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၇)
Illustration
st
A promise to deliver goods at B's warehouse on the 1 of
January. On the day A brings the goods to B's warehouse, but
after the usual hour for closing it and they are not received. A
has not performed his promise.

14
ဥပမာ။ ။ ဇန်နဝကရီလ (၁) ရက်ဆန ့တွင် (ဆအ) က (ဘီ) ၏ ဂိုဆေကင်သို ့
အဆရာက် ကုနမ
် ျားပို ့ဆပးရန် ကတိခပုသည်။ (ဘီ) ၏ ဂိုဆေကင်ပိတ်ြျိန်လွန်မှ (ဆအ)
ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းသည် ကတိအတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းမဆခမာက်။
Section 48
“When a promise is to be performed on a certain day,
and the promisor has not undertaken to perform it without
application by the promisee, it is the duty of the promisee to
apply for performance at 'a proper place' and within the usual
house of business.”
ကတိခပုသူက ကတိအတိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ရန် (၁) ဆန ့တစ်ဆန ့သတ်မှတ်
ထားပပီး (၂) ကတိရသူက ဆတာင်းေိုမှ ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်ဟု ကတိခပုထားလျှင်
ကတိရသူက (က)သင့်ဆလျာ်ဆသာဆနရာ၌ (၂) အလုပ်လပ

ု ်ဆနကျအြျိန် နာရီ
အတွင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ဆတာင်းေိုရန် တာဝန်ရသ

ှိ ည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၈)
ကတိခပုသူက ကတိအတိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ရန်ဆန ့တစ်ဆန ့သတ်မှတ် ထားပပီး
ကတိရသူကခပုလုပ်ခြင်းမရှိလျှင် ကတိခပုသူက ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်တာဝန်မရှိဆပ။
ကတိရသူက သင့်ဆလျာ်ဆသာဆနရာ၌ အလုပ်လပ

ု ်ဆနကျအြျိန်အတွင်း ဆောင်
ရွက်ရန် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၈)
Section 49
“When a promise is to be performed without application
by the promisee, and no place is fixed for the performance of
it, is the duty of the promisor to apply to the promisee to

15
appoint "a reasonable place" for the performance of the
promise, and to perform it at such place.”
ကတိရသူက ဆတာင်းေိုရန်မလိဘ
ု ဲ ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့် ကတိတစ်ြုကို
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ဆနရာသတ်မှတ်မထားလျှင် ကတိခပုသူက (က) ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်
ဆနရာသတ်မှတ်ဆပးရန် ကတိရသူထံ ဆတာင်းေိုရမည့်အခပင် (ြ) ၄င်း
သတ်မှတ်ဆသာ ဆနရာတွင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၄၉)
Illustration
A undertakes to deliver a thousand pounds of jute to B
on a fixed day. A must apply to B to appoint a reasonable
place for the purpose of receiving it, and must deliver it to
him at such place.
ဥပမာ။ ။ဆန ့တစ်ဆန ့တွင် (ဆအ) က ေန်အိတ် (၁၀၀၀) ကို (ဘီ)
ထံအဆရာက်ပို ့ဆပးရန် တာဝန်ယူသည်။ ေန်အိတ် (၁၀၀၀) ကို လက်ြံ ယူနိုင်မည့်
ဆနရာတစ်ြုကို (ဘီ) က သတ်မှတ်ဆပးရန် (ဆအ) က ဆတာင်းေို ရမည့်အခပင်
ထိဆ
ု နရာအဆရာက် (ဆအ) က ေန်အိတ်များ ပို ့ဆပးရမည်။
(2) Performance in manner or at time prescribed by Promisee
(Section 50)
“The performance of any promise may be made in any
manner, or at any time, which the promisee prescribes or
sanctions.”
16
မည်သည့်ကတိကို မေို ကတိရသူက သတ်မှတ်သည့် သို ့မဟုတ် ြွင့်ခပု
သည့န
် ည်းလမ်း သို ့မဟုတ် အြျိန်ကာလအတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်။(ပုေ်မ ၅၀)
Illustration
(a) A and B are mutually indebted. A and B settle an account
by setting off one item against another, and B pays A the
balance found to be due from him upon such settlement. This
amounts to a payment by A and B, respectively, of the sums
which they owed to each other.
ဥပမာများ။
(က) (ဆအ) နှင့် (ဘီ) တို ့ အခပန်အလှန်ဆငွဆပးေပ်ရန် ရှိကကသည်။ ဆပးရန်၊
ရရန်ဆငွတို ့ကို ြုနှိမ်ပပီးဆသာအြက (ဘီ) က ဆနာက်ထပ်ဆပးရန် ကျန်ဆသာဆငွကို
(ဆအ) သို ့ အဆခပ ဆပးဆြျသည်။ ၄င်းတို ့ တစ်ဦးြျင်းတွင်ရှိဆသာ တာဝန်များကို
ဆောင်ရွက်ပပီး ခဖစ်သည်။
(d) A desires B, who owes him Ks 100,000, to send him a note
for Ks.100,000 by post. The debt is discharged as soon as B
puts into the post a letter containing the note duly addressed
to A.
(ဘီ) က (ဆအ) သို ့ ဆငွ ၁ဝဝ၀၀ဝိ/- ဆပးေပ်ရန်ရှိသည်။ ထိဆ

ု ငွကို
ဆပးေပ်ရန် တာဝန်ရှိဆကကာင်း ဝန်ြံကတိခပုစာတစ်ဆစာင် ဆရးဆပးဆစရန် (ဆအ)
က လိုလား သည့အ
် တိုင်း (ဘီ) ကထိုစာကို စာတိုက်တွင် ထည့်လက
ို ်ြျိန်တွင်
(ဘီ) ၏ တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးသည်။
17
(3). When time is to the essence of contract
Section 55(First paragraph)
“When a party the a contract promises to do a certain
thing at or before a specified time, or certain things at or
before specified times, and fails to do any such thing at or
before the specified time, the contract, or so much of it as has
not been performed, becomes avoidable at the option of the
promisee, if the intention of the parties was that time should
be of the essence of the contract.”
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ပကဝင်သတ
ူ ို ့က အြျိန်သည် ထိပ
ု ဋိညာဉ်တွင် အဓိက
ခဖစ်ဆကကာင်း ရည်ရွယ်ြဲ့ပပီး (၁) ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ပကဝင်သူတစ်ဦးက တစ်စုံတစ်ရာ ကို
သတ်မှတ်ထားဆသာအြျိန်အတွင်း ခပုလုပ်ရန် ကတိခပုပပီး (၂) သတ်မှတ်
ထားဆသာ အြျိန်အတွင်း ထိက

ု ိစ္စကို မခပုလုပ်ပကက ထိုပဋိညာဉ်သည် သို ့မဟုတ်
ထိပ
ု ဋိညာဉ်တွင် မဆောင်ရွက် ရဆသးဆသာ အပိုင်းသည် ကတိရသူ၏
သဆဘာေန္ဒအဆလျာက် ပျက်ခပယ်ဆစနိုင်သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၅)
(4).When time is not essential
Section 55 (Second paragraph)
“If it was not the intention of the parties that time should
be of the essence of the contract, the contract does not become
voidable by the failure to do such thing at or before the
specified time; but the promisee is entitled to compensation

18
from the promisor for any loss occasioned to him by such
failure.”
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ပကဝင်သတ
ူ ို ့က အြျိန်သည် ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် အဓိကခဖစ်
ဆကကာင်းမရည်ရွယ်ြဲ့လျှင် သတ်မှတ်ထားဆသာ အြျိန်အတွင်း ထိက

ု ိစ္စကို
မခပုလုပ်နိုင်ခြင်း ဆကကာင့် ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ပျက်ခပယ်ြွင့်မရနိုင်ဆပ။ သို ့ဆသာ်
ကတိခပုသူက မဆောင်ရွက် နိုင်မှုဆကကာင့် ကတိရသူတွင် နစ်နာေုံးရှုံးသမျှ
ဆလျာ်ဆကကးရပိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၅)
(5). Effect of Acceptance of performance at time other than
that agreed upon
Section 55 (Third paragraph)
“If, in case of a contract voidable on account of the
promisor's failure to perform his promise at the time agreed,
the promisee accepts performance of such promise at any time
other than that agreed, the promisee cannot claim
compensation for any loss occasioned by the non-performance
of the promise at the time agreed, unless, at the time of such
acceptance he gives notice to the promisor of his intention to
do so.”
ကတိခပုသူက သဆဘာတူထားဆသာ အြျိန်အတွင်း မဆောင်ရွက်
ခြင်းဆကကာင့် ပျက်ခပယ်ြွင့်ရနိုင်ဆသာ ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ြုတွင် သဆဘာတူထားဆသာ
အြျိန်မှလဲ၍
ွ အခြားအြျိန်တွင် ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းကိုကတိရသူကလက်ြံ လိက
ု ်ပက
19
က ကတိရသူသည် ကတိခပုသူထံမှ အြျိန်အတွင်း မဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်း ဆကကာင့်
နစ်နာမှုအတွက် ဆလျာ်ဆကကးမဆတာင်းြံနိုင်ဆပ။ အကယ်၍ ဆတာင်းြံ လိလ

ု ျှင်
အခြားအြျိန်ကာလအတွင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းကို လက်ြံရန် သဆဘာတူ သည့်
အြျိန်က ဆလျာ်ဆကကးရလိဆ
ု ကကာင်း ကတိခပုသူကို အသိဆပးရမည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၅)
4.4 Performance of Reciprocal Promises
အခပန် အ လှ န ် က တိ မ ျားကိ ု ဆ ောင် ရ ွ က ် ခ ြင် း
The law as to performance of reciprocal promise is laid down in
Section 51, 54 and 57 of the Act.
အခပန်အလှန်ကတိများကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် နည်းလမ်းငကးြုကို ပဋိညာဉ် ဥပဆေ
ပုေ်မ ၅၁ မှ ၅၄ နှင့် ၅၇ တို ့တွင် ခပဋ္ဌာန်းထားသည်။
Section 51
“When a Contract consists of reciprocal promises to be
simultaneously performed, no promisor need perform his
promise unless the promisee is ready and willing to perform
his reciprocal promise.
တစ်ပပိုင်နက်တည်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့် အခပန်အလှန်ကတိများတွင်
ကတိရသူက၄င်း၏ အခပန်အလှန်ကတိခပုြျက်ကို ဆောင်ရွက်လုဆ

ိ သာစိတ်
ေန္ဒခဖင့် ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် အသင့်ရှိဆနသည်မဟုတ်လျှင် ကတိခပုသူသည် သူ၏
ကတိကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်မလိ။ု (ပုေ်မ ၅၁)

20
Section 53
“When a contract contains reciprocal promises, and one
party to the contract prevents the other from performing his
promise, the contract becomes voidable at the option of the
party so prevented; and he is entitled to compensation from
the other party for any loss which he may sustain in
consequence of the non-performance of the contract.”
အခပန်အလှန်ကတိများပကဆသာ ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ြုတွင် တစ်ဖက်ကသူ၏
ကတိအတိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းကို ကျန်တစ်ဖက်က မဆောင်ရွက်ရန် တားခမစ်
လျှင် တားခမစ်ခြင်း ြံရသူ၏ သဆဘာအဆလျာက် ထိပ

ု ဋိညာဉ်သည် ပျက်ခပယ်
ဆစနိုင်သည့်အခပင် ပဋိညာဉ်မဆောင်ရွက်မှုဆကကာင့် ေုံရံးှု နစ်နာသမျှကို ကျန်
တစ်ဖက်ထမ
ံ ှ ဆလျာ်ဆကကး ဆတာင်းေိုနုင
ိ ်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။(ပုေ်မ ၅၃)
Section 54
“When a contract consists of reciprocal promises, such
that its performance cannot be claimed till the other has been
performed and the promisor of the promise last mentioned
fails to perform it, such promisor cannot claim the
performance of the reciprocal promise, and must make
compensation to the other party to the contract for any loss
which such other party may sustain by the non-performance of
the contract.”
21
ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ြုတွင် အခပန်အလှန်ကတိများခပုထားရာတွင် အခပန်အလှန်
ကတိ တစ်ြုကို မဆောင်ရွက်ဆသးမီ ကျန်အခပန်အလှန်ကတိကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်
မခဖစ်နိုင်ဆသာ သို ့မဟုတ် မဆတာင်းေိုနုိင်ဆသာ အဆခြအဆနတွင် ပထမ
အခပန်အလှန်ကတိကို ကတိခပုသူက ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်ပျက်ပကက ထိက

ု တိခပုသူက
တစ်ဘက်၏အခပန် အလှန်ကတိကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် မဆတာင်းေိုနုိင်သည့်အခပင်
တစ်ဖက်ကေုံးရှုံး သမျှကိုဆလျာ်ဆကကး ဆပးရ မည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၄)
4.5 Performance of Alternative Promises
တစ် ြ ု မ ဟု တ ် အခြားတစ် ြ ု ဆရွ း ြျယ် န ိ ု င ် ဆ သာ ကတိ မ ျားကိ ု ဆောင် ရ ွ က ်
ခြင် း
Section 58
“In a case of alternative promises, one branch of which
is legal and the other illegal, the legal branch alone can be
enforced.”
An alternative promise may be said "which offers the
chance of two things".
တစ်မျိုးကိုလက်မြံလုလ
ိ ျှင် အခြားတစ်မျိုးကို ဆရွးြျယ်ြွင့်ရှိဆသာ
ကတိတွင် တစ်မျိုးကဥပဆေနှင့် ညီညွတ်ပပီးကျန်တစ်မျိုးက ဥပဆေနှင့် ေနက ့် ျင်
ဆနပကကဥပဆေနှင့် ညီညွတ်ဆသာအပိုင်းကိုသာလျှင် ဆောင်ရွက် နိုင်သည်။

22
Illustration
A and B agree that A shall pay B, 100,000 rupees, for
which B shall afterwards deliver to A either rice or smuggled
opium. This is a valid contract to deliver rice, and a void
agreement as to the opium.
(ဆအ) က ဆငွ ၁ဝဝ၀ဝဝ ကျပ်ဆပးသည့် အတွက် (ဘီ) ကေန် သို ့မဟုတ်
ဘိန်းခဖူကို ဆပးအပ်ရန် သဆဘာတူကကသည်၊ ေန်ဆပးရန်ကတိမှာ ပဋိညာဉ်
ဆခမာက်လျက် ဘိန်းခဖူဆပးရန်အပိုင်းမှာပျက်ခပယ်သည်။
4.6 Rules as to Appropriation of Payments
The rules as to appropriation of payments are laid down
under Section 56 to 61.
ဆပးေပ်ဆငွကို တင်ရှိဆသာဆ ကးဆငွအတွက် ြုနှိမ်နည်းများ ပုေ်မ ၅၆ မှ ၆၁
အထိခပဌာန်းထားသည်။
ပမီစားကမည်သည်ဆ ကးဆငွအတွက်ခဖစ်ဆကကာင်းညွှန်ကကားဆသာအြက
ပမီစားကမည်သည့်ဆ ကးဆငွအတွက်ဆပးေပ်ဆကကာင်းမညွှန်ကကားဆသာအြက
မည်သည့်ဆ ကးဆငွအတွက်ဟူ၍ပမီရှင်နှင့်ပမီစားတို ့(၂)ဦးလုံးကမြုနှိမ်သည့်အြက

23
ပမီ စ ားကမည် သ ည့ ် ဆ ကးဆငွ အ တွ က ် ခ ဖစ် ဆကကာင် း ညွှ န ် က ကားဆသာအြက
Section 59
intimation or under circumstances implying that payment is to
be applied to the discharge of some particular debt, the
ပမီစားတစ်ဆယာက်သည် လူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဆယာက်အား သီးခြားခဖစ်ဆသာ
ဆ ကးပမီအများအခပား ဆပးေပ်ရန်ရှိ၍ ထိသ

ု အ
ူ ားဆပးေပ်ဆသာအြျိန်၌ ဖွင့်ဟ
ဆခပာေို၍ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ အခြားအဓိပ္ပာယ်သက်ဆရာက်ဆစဆသာ နည်းခဖင့်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊
ထိဆ
ု ပးေပ် ဆငွသည် သီးခြားဆ ကးဆငွ တစ်ရပ်အတွက် ဆပးေပ်ဆကကာင်း
အသိဆပးလျှင် ထိဆ
ု ပး ဆငွကို လက်ြံလုက
ိ ်ပကက ဆဖာ်ခပပကသီးခြားဆ ကးဆငွ
အတွက်သာအသုံးခပုနိုင်သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၉)
ပမီစားကမည်သည့် ဆ ကးဆငွအတွက် ဆပးေပ်ဆကကာင်း မညွှန်ကကားဆသာ
အြက
Section 60
“Where the debtor has omitted to intimate and there are
no other circumstances indicating to which debt the payment
is to be applied, the creditor may apply it at his discretion to

24
any lawful debt actually due and payable to him from the
debtor, whether its recovery is or is not barred by the law in
ပမီးစားကမည်သည့်ဆ ကးဆငွအတွက် ဆပးေပ်ဆကကာင်း အသိဆပးခြင်း
မခပုသည့အ
် ခပင် မည်သည့်ဆ ကးကိုဆပးေပ်ဆကကာင်း ညွှန်ခပသည့် အခြား
ပတ်ဝန်းကျင်အဆကကာင်းအြျက် မရှလ
ိ ျှင် ပမီရှင်ကကာလစည်းကမ်းသတ်
လွန်သည်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ မလွန်သည်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ ကကိုက်နစ

ှ ်သက်ရာခဖစ်ဆသာ ဥပဆေအရ
ဆပးေပ်ရမည်ခဖစ်၍ ဆပးေပ်ရန် အြျိန်ဆစ့ဆရာက်သည့်မည်သည့် ဆ ကးဆငွ
အတွက်မေို အသုံးြျနိုင်သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၆၀)
အမှု သ ည် က မည် သ ည့ ် ဆ ကးပမီ န ှ င ့ ် မ ျှြု န ှ ိ မ ် မ ထားခြင် း
Section 61
“Where neither party any appropriation the payment
shall be applied in discharge of the debts in order of time,
whether they are or are not barred by the law of limitation of
suits. If the debts are of equal standing, the payment shall be
applied in discharge of each proportionately.”
နှစ်ဦးနှစ်ဘက်လံးု က ဆပးအပ်ဆသာဆငွကို မည်သည့်ဆ ကးပမီ နှင့်မျှ ြုနှိမ်
မထားလျှင် ဆ ကးပမီ တင်ရှိသည့် အြျိန်ကာလအစဉ်အလိုက် အရင်ကျန်
ဆ ကးပမီ နှင့် ြုနှိမ်ရမည်။ ဆ ကးပမီတင်ရှိသည့်ကာလတူညီဆနလျှင် အြျိုးကျ
ြုနှိမ်ရမည်။
25
4.7 Modes of Discharge of Contract
ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးဆစနိုင်ဆသာနည်းလမ်းများ
There are Eleven ways in which a contract may be
discharged under the Contract Act. Such as -
ပဋိညာဉ်အက်ဥပဆေအရ ပဋိညာဉ်များကို ဆအာက်ပကနည်းလမ်းများခဖင့် ပပီးေုံး
ဆစနိုင် သည်။
ပဋိညာဉ်အတိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းခဖင့် ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးဆစခြင်း
ဥပဆေတစ်ရပ်ရပ်ကြွင့်လွှတ်ခြင်း
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်တစ်ဘက်မက
ှ မ်းလှမ်းြျက်ကိုခငင်းပယ်ခြင်း
ြျိုးဆဖာက်ခြင်းခဖင့်ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးဆစခြင်း
(5) By impossibility or unlawfulness of the act to be
performed [S.56]
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်မခဖစ်နိုင်ခြင်း သို ့မဟုတ် ဥပဆေနှင့်မညီခြင်း
အစားထိုးခြင်း၊ ဖျက်သမ
ိ ်းခြင်း၊ (သို ့မဟုတ)် ဆခပာင်းလည်းခပင်ေင်ခြင်း
ခဖင့် မူလ ပဋိညာဉ် ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းခြင်း

26
ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းမှကင်းလွတ်ြွင့်ခပုခြင်း
သဆဘာကိုက်ညီမှုရယူ၍ဆကျနပ်ဆအာင်ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်း
ပျက်ခပယ်ဆစနိုင်သည့်ပဋိညာဉ်ကိုဖျက်သိမ်းခြင်း
(10) By neglect of promisee to afford promisor, reasonable
facilities for performance
ကတိ ခ ပုသူ က ကတိ အ တိ ု င ် း ဆောင် ရ ွ က ် န ိ ု င ် ရ န် အ တွ က ် ကတိ ရ သူ
ကသင့ ် ဆလျာ် ဆ သာ လွ ယ ် က ူ မ ှု မ ျားကိ ု ဆပက့ ေ စွ ာ သိ ု ့မဟု တ ်
တမင် ဆ ောင် ရွ က ် ရ န် ပ ျက် က ွ က ် ခ ြင် း
တရားဥပဆေ၏ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်ခဖင့်ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းခြင်း
4.7.1 Discharge by Performance
ပဋိညာဉ်အတိုင်းဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းခဖင့် ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးဆစခြင်း
If both of the contracting parties have performed what
with agreed to do under the contract, the contract is
discharged.
(a) ပဋိညာဉ်ဝင်သူနှစ်ဦးနှစ်ဘက်လးုံ က ပဋိညာဉ်အရ သဆဘာတူထားဆသာ
တာဝန် အသီးသီးတို ့ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ပပီးစီးလျှင် ပဋိညာဉ်သည် ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၃၇)
27
4.7.2 Dispensed with or Excused by any Law
ဥပဆေတစ်ရပ်ရပ်ကြွင့်လွှတ်ခြင်း
Where the performance of the contract is dispensed with
or excused by any law other than the Contract Act, the
contract is discharged. [S.37]
အြျို ့ဆသာသူများကို သို ့မဟုတ် အြျို ့ဆသာအဆခြအဆနများတွင် ပဋိညာဉ်
အတိုင်း မဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းကို ဥပဆေက ြွင့်လွှတ်သည်။ ထိအ

ု ြကတွင်
ပဋိညာဉ်သည် ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၃၇)
Thus insolvency of a party to a contract discharges the
contract. E.g An insolvent is released from paying his debt.
လူမွဲအခဖစ် ဆကကခငာခြင်းြံရသူသည် ဆ ကးပမီကိုဆပးေပ်ရန်တာဝန်မရှိ။
ဥပဆေက ြွင့်လွှတ်သည်။
4.7.3 By Refusing Tender of Performance
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်တစ်ဘက်မက
ှ မ်းလှမ်းြျက်ကိုခငင်းပယ်ခြင်း
Refusal to accept an offer of performance discharges the
party making the offer from liability under the contract. [S.38]
ပဋိညာဉ်အတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ကတိခပုသူ၏ ကမ်းလှမ်းြျက်ကို
ကျန်တစ်ဖက်က ခငင်းပယ်လျှင် ကတိခပုသူ၏ တာဝန်ကုန်ေုံး၍ ပဋိညာဉ်သည်
ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသည်။
28
4.7.4 Discharge by Breach
ြျိုးဆဖာက်ခြင်းခဖင့်ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်ပပီးေုံးဆစခြင်း
When one party to a contract commits a breach of that
contract by refusing to perform, or by disabling himself from
performing his promise in its entirely, and the other party
accepts the breach the contract is discharged. [S. 39]
ပဋိညာဉ်ဝင်တစ်ဦးက သူ၏ကတိအတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ခငင်းေိုလျှင်
သို ့မဟုတ် မဆောင်ရွက်ဘဲဆနလျှင် ထိသ

ု ုိ ့မဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းကို ကျန်တစ် ဘက်မှ
လက်ြံဆသာအြက ပဋိညာဉ်ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၃၉)
4.7.5 By Impossibility or Unlawfulness of the act to be
Performed
ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်မခဖစ်နိုင်ခြင်း သို ့မဟုတ် ဥပဆေနှင့်မညီခြင်း
A contract may be discharged by impossibility.
Impossibility which arises from the non-existence of the
subject matter at the time of the contract is also void because
both the parties to an agreement are under mistakes as to a
matter of fact essential to the agreement. [S.56]
မူလကပင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် မခဖစ်နိုင်ဆသာ ပဋိညာဉ်နှင့် ဆနာင်အြကကျမှ
မခဖစ်နိုင်ဆသာ သို ့မဟုတ် ဥပဆေနှင့်မညီဆသာ ပဋိညာဉ်သည် ပျက်ခပယ်ြျုပ်ပငိမ်း
သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၅၆)

29
4.7.6 By Novation, Rescission or Alternation of Contract
အစားထိုးခြင်း၊ ဖျက်သိမ်းခြင်း၊ (သို ့မဟုတ်) ဆခပာင်းလည်းခပင်ေင်ခြင်း
ခဖင့် မူလ ပဋိညာဉ် ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းခြင်း
Section 62 deals with the effect of rescission or
alternation of a contract which says:-
If the parties to a contract agree to substitute a new
contract for it, or to rescind or alter it the original contract
need not be performed.
ပဋိညာဉ်ြျုပ်ေိုသတ
ူ ို ့က မူလပဋိညာဉ်ဆနရာတွင် အသစ်တစ်ြု
အစားထိးု ခြင်း (သို ့မဟုတ်) မူလပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဖျက်သိမ်းခြင်း (သို ့မဟုတ)်
မူလပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဆခပာင်းလဲ ခပင်ေင်ခြင်းတို ့ကို နှစ်ဦးသဆဘာတူ ခပုလုပ်ပကက
မူလပဋိညာဉ် ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသည်။
(ပုေ်မ ၆၂)
Illustration
(a) A owes B 100,000 Ks under a contract. B owes C
100,000 Ks. B order A to credit C with 100,000 Ks in his
books, but C does not assent to the arrangement. B still owes
C 100,000 Ks, and no new contract has been entered into.
ပဋိညာဉ်အရ (ဆအ) က (ဘီ) အား ဆငွ ၁၀၀ဝဝဝိ/- ဆပးေပ်ရမည်။ (ဆအ)
၏ ဆနရာ တွင် (စီ) အား ပမီးစားအခဖစ် အစားထည့်ရန် (ဆအ) က (ဘီ) သို ့

30
သဆဘာတူညီကကသည်။ မူလပဋိညာဉ်ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းသွားပပီး (စီ) က (ဘီ) သို ့ ဆငွ
၁၀၀ဝဝဝိ/- ဆပးေပ်ရန် ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ြု ခဖစ်ဆပ်လလာ သည်။
4.7.7 By Waiver
ဆောင် ရ ွ က ် ခ ြင် း မှ ကင် း လွ တ ် ြ ွ င ့ ် ခ ပုခြင် း
A contract may be discharged by way of "waiver".
Section 63 deals with this principle as such;-
Every promise may-
(i) dispense with or, ကတိကိုမဆောင်ရွက်ဘဲဆနရန်ြွင့်ခပုခြင်း
(ii) remit, wholly or in part, the performance of the
promise made to him, or may
လုးံ ဝခဖစ်ဆစ သို ့မဟုတ် တစ်ြျို ့တစ်ဝက်ခဖစ်ဆစ ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းမှ
လွတ်ပငိမ်း ြွငခ့် ပုခြင်း သို ့မဟုတ်
ကတိ အ တိ ု င ် း ဆောင် ရ ွ က ် ရ န် အ ြျိ န ် က ိ ု တ ိ ု း ခမှ င ့ ် ဆ ပးခြင် း သိ ု ့မဟု တ ်
(iv) accept instead of it any satisfaction which he thinks
fit.
ဆောင်ရွက်မည့်အစား အခြားသင့်ဆတာ်မည်ထင်သည့် ဆကျနပ်မှုတစ်ြု ကို
လက်ြံနိုင်သည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၆၃)

31
4.7.8 By "Accord and Satisfaction"
သဆဘာကိုက်ညီမှုရယူ၍ဆကျနပ်ဆအာင်ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်း
When one of the parties to a contract in order to obtain
release agrees to do something other than what he was bound
to do by the contract, and when he has discharged the
obligation, and has been set free, the contract is said to have
been discharged by accord and satisfaction. The new
agreement is the accord, and the performance is the
satisfaction.
ပဋိညာဉ်တွင်ပကဝင်သူ တစ်ဦးသည်ပဋိညာဉ်တွင် ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည့်
တာဝန်တစ်ရပ် အစားအခြားဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်တစ်ရပ်ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ပကမည် ဟူ၍
အခြားတစ်ဘက်နင
ှ ့် သဆဘာကိုက်ညီြျက်ရယူပပီး ၄င်းကတိအတိုင်း ဆောင်ရွက်
ပပီးစီး၍ ပဋိညာဉ်တာဝန်မှ ကင်းလွတ်သာွ းခြင်းခဖင့် ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းဆစနိုင်
သည်။
4.7.9 By Rescission of a Voidable Contract
ပျက်ခပယ်ဆစနိုင်သည့်ပဋိညာဉ်ကိုဖျက်သိမ်းခြင်း
Section 64
When a person at whose option a contract is voidable
rescinds it, the other party thereto need not perform any
promise therein contained in which he is promisor. The party

32
rescinding avoidable contract shall, if he has received any
benefit there from another party to such contract, restore such
benefit, so far as may be, to the person from whom it was
received.
ပဋိညာဉ်တစ်ြုကို မိမိသဆဘာေန္ဒအရ ပျက်ခပယ်ဆစနိုင်ဆသာသူက
ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ဖျက်သမ
ိ ်းဆသာအြက အခြားတစ်ဖက်က ပဋိညာဉ်ပက မည်သည့်
ကတိကိုမျှ ဆောင်ရွက် ရန်မလိ။ု အေိုပကပျက်ခပယ်ဆစနိုင်ဆသာ ပဋိညာဉ်ကို
ဖျက်သိမ်းဆသာသူသည် ပဋိညာဉ် အရ အခြားတစ်ဖက်ထံမှ အကျိုးအခမတ်
တစ်စုံတစ်ရာရရှိထားလျှင် ၄င်းအကျိုး ြံစားြျက်ကို အခြားသူသို ့ ခပန်ဆပးရ
မည်။ (ပုေ်မ ၆၄)
4.7.10 By Neglect of Promisee to Afford Promisor
Reasonable Facilities for Performance
ကတိ ခ ပုသူ က ကတိ အ တိ ု င ် း ဆောင် ရ ွ က ် န ိ ု င ် ရ န် အ တွ က ် ကတိ ရ သူ
ကသင့ ် ဆလျာ် ဆ သာ လွ ယ ် က ူ မ ှု မ ျားကိ ု ဆပက့ ေ စွ ာ သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် တမင် ဆ ောင်
ရွ က ် ရ န် ပ ျက် က ွ က ် ခ ြင် း
If any promisee neglects or refuses to afford the
promisor reasonable facilities for the performance of his
promise, the promisor is excused by such neglect or refusal as
to any non-performance caused thereby.

33
ကတိရသူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဆယာက်သည် ကတိခပုသူအား ကတိအတိုင်း
ဆောင်ရွက်နိုင်ဆစရန် ထိက
ု ်သင့်ဆသာ အကူအညီလယ
ွ ်ကူမှုများကို ဆပက့ေခြင်း
ဆကကာင့်ခဖစ်ဆစ၊ အကူအညီဆပးရန် ခငင်းေိုခြင်းဆကကာင့်ခဖစ်ဆစ ပျက်ကွက်လျှင်
ကတိအတိုင်း မဆောင်ရွက်သည့်အတွက် ကတိခပုသူတွင် တာဝန်မရှိ။
(ပုေ်မ ၆၇)
Illustration
A Contract with B to repair B's house, B neglects or
refuses to point out to A the places in which his house
requires repair.
A is excused for the non-performance of the contract if it
is caused by such neglect or refusal.
(ဆအ) သည် (ဘီ) ၏ အိမ်ကိုခပင်ဆပးရန် ကတိခပုထားသည်။ (ဘီ) သည်
၄င်း၏ အိမ်ကို မည်သည့်ဆနရာတွင် ခပင်ေင်ရန် လိက

ု ်လ၍
ံ ခပသရန် ခငင်းေိုလျှင်
ဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း၊ ဆပက့ေစွာ မခပသဘဲဆနလျှင် ဆသာ်လည်း ဆကာင်း (ဆအ)
သည် ပဋိညာဉ် အတိုင်းဆောင် ရွက်ခြင်းမှ ကင်းလွတ်ြွင့် ရသည်။
4.7.11 By Operation of Law
တရားဥပဆေ၏ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်ခဖင့်ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းခြင်း
This may occur in there ways under the following
circumstances:-
34
ဆအာက်ပကနည်းလမ်းသုံးြုခဖင့် တရားဥပဆေ၏ ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်ခဖင့်
ပဋိညာဉ်ကို ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းဆစနိုင်သည်။
(i) By merger-acceptance of a higher security in place of a
lower. If a higher security is accepted is place of the law, the
lower security is said to be merged or extinguished in the
higher security.
ပူးဆပကင်းခြင်းခဖင့် မူလပဋိညာဉ်ကို ြျုပ်ပငိမ်းဆစသည်။
မူလပဋိညာဉ်သို ့ အစားထိုးခြင်း၊ ဖျက်သိမ်းခြင်းနှင့် ဆခပာင်းလည်းခြင်း၊
အမှတ်စဉ်၆ တွင် ဆဖာ်ခပပပီးခဖစ်သည်။
(iii) By insolvency or bankruptcy. Insolvency of a party to a
လူမွဲအခဖစ်ဆကကညာခြင်းပုေ်မ ၃၇ တွင်ကကည့်ပက
Key Terms
Insolvent= ဆ ကးပမီ မ ျားကိ ု အ ခပည့ ် အ ဝမေပ် န ိ ု င ် သ ူ
Discharge of contract= ပဋိ ည ာဉ် က ိ ု ရ ု ပ ် သ ိ မ ် း ခြင် း
Novation= အစားထိ ု း ခြင် း
Rescission= ဖျက် သ ိ မ ် း ခြင် း
Alteration = ဆခပာင် း လည် း ခြင် း
Waiver= ဆောင် ရ ွ က ် ခ ြင် း မှ က င် း လွ တ ် ြ ွ င ့ ် ခ ပုခြင် း
Voidable contract= ပျက် ပ ျယ် ဆ စနိ ု င ် ဆ သာပဋိ ည ာဉ်
Bankruptcy = လူ မ ွ ဲ အ ခဖစ် ဆကကခငာခြင် း ြံ ရ ခြင် း

35
Questions
1. State briefly the provisions of the Contract Act as regards the
time, place and manner of performance. (Assignment)
2. Summarise the rules laid down in the Contract Act as to
the appropriation of payment made by the debtor.
(Assignment)
3. Enumerate the modes under which a contract is discharged.
Explain briefly. (Assignment)
4. Express the discharge by breach. (Short Question)
5. What kinds of remedies are there for breach of contract?
Namely. (Short Question)
6 Express the parties to perform the contract. (Short Question)
7 Describe the right of joint promisor. (Short Question)
8 Describe the rules as to appropriation of payment.
(Short Question)
1
CHAPTER 5
Certain Relation Resembling
Those Created by Contract
5.1 Claim for necessaries supplied to a person incapable of
contracting or on his account 4
5.2 Reimbursement of person paying money due by another 5
5.3 Obligation of Person Enjoying Benefit of Non - gratuitous
Act 7
5.4 Right and Liabilities of Finder of Goods 9
5.5 Liability of Person to Whom Money is paid, or Thing
delivered, by Mistake or Under Coercion 11
5.6 Compensation for Failure to discharge the Obligation
Resembling those created by Contract 13
Key Terms 14
Questions 14
2
CHAPTER 5
Certain Relation Resembling
Those Created by Contract
Section 68 to 72 of the Contract Act deals with certain
transactions which could not strictly be called contracts but
which created obligations which are known as Quasi-contract.
၆၈ ၇၃ ၊
။ ၄ ၊ "
3
" " "
၁
၄
။" " ။
There are five kinds of this situation recognized by
contract Act. Under Section 68 to 72 namel y-
(1) Claim for necessaries supplied to persons incapable of
contracting, or on his account.
(2) Reimbursement of person paying money due by another in
payment of which he is interested.
(3) Obligation of person enjoying benefit of non - gratuitous
act.
(4) Rights and liabilities of finder of goods.
၁
Quasi Contract
4
(5) Liability of person to whom money is paid, or thing
delivered, by mistake or coercion.
၊ ၊
5.1 Claim for necessaries supplied to a person incapable of
contracting or on his account
Section 68
If a person, incapable of entering into a contract, or any
one whom he is legally bound to support, is supplied by another
person with necessaries suited his condition in life, the person
who furnished such supplies is entitled to reimbursed from the
property of such incapable person.
၊
*
။( ၆၈)
*
Maung Ba Tha, Ma Sein Yin v. Daw Set, 1947 R. L . R. 491
5
Illustrations
(a) A supplies B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to his
condition in life. A is entitled to be reimbursed from B's
property.
(b) A supplies the wife and children of B, a lunatic, with
necessaries suitable to their condition in life A is entitled to be
(၁)
(၂) ၄
5.2 Reimbursement of person paying money due by another
Section 69 provides that:-
“A person who is interested in the payment of money
which another is bound by law to pay, and who therefore pays it,
is entitled to be reimbursed by the other.”
၂။
၄
6
။( ၆၉)
Illustration
B holds land on a lease granted by A. The revenue payable
by A to the Government being in arrear, his land is advert ised
for sale by the Government Under the revenue law, the
consequence of such sale will be the annulment of B' lease. B ,
to prevent the sale and the consequent annulment of his won
lease, pays to the Government the sum due from A. A is bound
to make good to B the amount so paid.
။ ။ ။
In a suit under this section, three are points to be
considered.
7
(1) There must be a person who is bound by law to make a
certain payment.
(2) There must be another person who is interested in such
payment and,
(3) A payment must have been made by the person who has
interest in such payment.
(၁) ။
(၂) ။
(၃)
။ ။
5.3 Obligation of Person Enjoying Benefit of Non - gratuitous
Act
Section 70 provides for the third kind of quasi- contract as
follow:-
“Where a person lawfully does anything for another
person, or delivers anything to him, not intending to do so
gratuitously, and such other person enjoys the benefit there of,
8
the latter is bound to make compensation to the former in respect
of , or to restore, the thing so done or delivered.”
။ (
၇ )
Illustration
(a) A, a tradesman, leaves goods at B's house by mistake. But
treats the goods as his won, he is bound to pay A for them.
(၁)
။ ၄
(b) A saves B's property from fire. A is not entitled to
compensation from B, if the circumstance show that he intended
to act gratuitously.
(၂)
။
9
There are three conditions to establish a right of action
under this section, such as:-
gratuitously: and,
(iii) The person for whom the act is done must enjoy the
benefit of it.
(၁) ။
(၂)
။ ။
*
(၃)
5.4 Right and Liabilities of Finder of Goods
A person who finds goods belonging to another and take
them into his custody is subject to the same responsibility as a
bailee.
*
၂- ၊ ၁၉၆၇ ၊ ၊ ၊ - ၁၆
10
ယာယီ
Right of Finder of Goods
According to the Section 168 of the Contract Act, a person
who finds goods belonging to another and take them into his
custody is entitled to retain the goods against the owner until, he
receives such compensation for trouble and expenses voluntarily
incurred by him to preserve the goods and find out the owner,
but he has no right to sue.
(၁)
He can, however sue the owner where the owner has
offered a specific reward for return of the goods lost and may
retain the goods until he receives it.
(၂)
။ ( ၇၁)
Moreover, he is entitled to its possession as against every
one except the true owner.

11
(၃)
Liabilities of Finder of Goods
Liabilities of Finder of Goods mean that he is subject to the
responsibility of a bailee to take due care of the goods and to try
and find out the owner.
(၁)
။ ( ၁၅၁)
(၂) ။ ( ၇၁)
5.5 Liability of Person to Whom Money is paid, or Thing
delivered, by Mistake or Under Coercion
The fifth and the last kind of quasi-contract mentioned in
Section 72 of the Act is that “a person to whom money has been
paid, or anything delivered by mistake or under coercion must
repay or return it.”
၊ ၊
၄ ၊ ။( ၇၂)
Illustration
12
(a) A and B jointly owe 100 kyats to C. A alone pays the amount
to C, and B, not knowing this fact, pays 100 kyats over again to
C. C is bound to repay the amount to B.
(၁) ၂ ၁ /-
။ ၁ /-
။ ၁ /-
(b) A railway company refuses to deliver up certain goods to the
consignee except upon the payment of an illegal charge for
carriage. This consignee pays the sum charged in order to obtain
the goods. He is entitled to recover so much of the charge as was
illegal excessive.
(၂)
၁ /-
၁ /-
။ ၁ /-
၁ /-
။
13
5.6 Compensation for Failure to discharge the Obligation
Resembling those created by Contract
Section 73 paragraph (3) provides for breach of quasi contracts
provides that:-
“When an obligation resembling those created by contract
has been incurred and has not been discharged, any person
injured by the failure to discharge is entitled to receive the same
compensation from the party in default as if such person had
contracted to discharge it and had broken his contract.”
၇၃ ။
*
။( ၇၃ )
It means that the rights and liabilities to an implied (quasi)
contract are the same as if they entered into contract themselves.
The principle of Quantum meruit is closely associated with
the law relating to quasi-contract. Where a building contractor
does "extra work" over and above the work mentioned in the
*
Maung Gat Chaw and one v. Daw Shwe Hman, 1961 B.L.R. (H.C.) 21
14
contract, he would be entitled to be paid at the market rate for
such extra work.
Key Terms
Quasi contract
Reimbursement
Bona fide
Quantum Meruit
Questions
1. (a)Write a short note on quasi-contract.
(b)What are the kinds of quasi-contract under Contract Act?
(Assignment)
2. U Hla supplies the wife and children of U Mya, a lunatic, with
necessaries suitable to their lives, the children are minors. Is U Hla

15
entitled to be reimbursed for such supplies? If so, from whom and out
of what is he received? (Assignment)
3. Write is the right of finder of goods? (Short Question)
4. What are the liabilities of finder of goods? (Short Question)
5. What a short note on quasi-contract? (Short Question)
6. What are the kinds of conditions to establish a right of action?
(Short Question)
7. What is the meaning of “quantum meruit” (Short Question)

1
CHAPTER 6
The Consequences of Breach of Contract
6.1 Remedies for Breach of Contract 3
6.2 Damages for Breach of Contract 8
6.3 Measure of Damages in an Anticipatory
Breach of Contract 15
6.4 Compensation for Breach of Contract Where
Penalty Stipulated For 16
6.5 Party Rightfully Rescinding Contract entitled to
Compensation 19
Key terms 20
Questions 21
2
CHAPTER 6
The Consequences of Breach of Contract
The consequences of the breach of contract will give
the injured party to be taking his or her remedies. Relating
to the Remedies for breach of contract is provided in
sections 73 to 75 of the Contract Act 1872.
Where a contract is broken, the consequences shall be
followed. The injured party can take actions for the injury
sustain by the breach of contract. The consequences may
be;-
(1)to refuse further performance of contract;
ယ္
(2) to sue on a quantum meruit;
(3) to bring an action for damages;

3
(4) to sue for specific performance;
(5) to sue for injunction.
Among them remedies breach of contract may classify
as three kinds mainly, such as an action for damages, to sue
for the decree for specific performance and t o sue for
injunction. Concerning refusal of further performance of
contract is one of the consequences for breach of contact
that the injured party can treat the contract as a discharged
one and can refuse to proceed further performance of the
contract.
6.1 Remedies for Breach of Contract
contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(iii) An injunction
4
ဓိက
( )
( )
( )
(1) Damages
In every breach of contract the injured party is entitled
to damages. Damages are given by way of restitution and
compensation only, but not as a punishment, the agreed
party can, therefore, recover the actual loss caused to him.
( )
5
The damages which can be taken are not exemplary
damages which can recover only in case of a breach of
promise of marriage. The law as to damages for the breach
of contract and the measure of damages are laid down in
Sections 73 to 75 of the Contract Act, 1872.
are-
contract, or
6
( )
( )
( )
( )
For example
"A" agrees to buy a picture by a dead painter and two
rare China vases, and "B" also agree to sell them. "A" may
compel "B" specifically to perform the contract for there is
no standard ascertaining the actual damage which would be
caused by B’s non- performance.

7
"A" a singer, contract with B, the manager of a theatre,
to sing at his theater for one year, and to abstain from
singing at other theatres during this period. Although “A”
made absent herself, “B” cannot compel "A" to sing at his
theatre, but he may sue her for an injunction restraining her
from singing at other theatres.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Thus, personal contracts are contracts which have to be
performed by a person himself, but no one else, cannot be
specifically enforced.
(3) Injunction
8
( ) ယာယီ ( )
6.2 Damages for Breach of Contract
is to sue for damages. In a claim for damages, two issues
arise:

9
The measure of damages for breach of contract is governed
by the principles laid down in Section 73 of the Contract
Act that “When a contract has been broken, the party who
suffers by such breach is entitled to receive, from the party
who has broken the contract, compensation for any loss or
damage caused to him thereby..”
Section 73
"When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by
such breach is entitled to receive, from the party who has
broken the contract, compensation for any loss or damage
caused to him thereby, which naturally arose in the usual
course of things from such breach or which the parties

10
knew, when they made the contract, to be likely to result
from the breach of it.
။ ( )]
Such compensation is not to be given for any remote
and indirect loss or damage sustained by reason of the
breach.”
( )]
1
In the case of of Handley vs. Baxendale The
plaintiff’s mill had ceased working because of the broken
crankshaft. The plaintiffs engaged the defendant carriers to
transport the shaft to the manufacturers. The defendants
were negligent in their delivery of the shaft beyond a
1
Hadley v Baxendale [1854] EWHC J70.
11
reasonable time, as a result the operation of the mill being
shut down for longer period than would have been
necessary had there been no delay. In a suit, the plaintiffs
claimed for their increased loss of profits caused by the
delay.
**
1
In the case of Madras Railway Co. vs. Govinda Rau
,where a tailor, expecting to made a large profit on the
occasion of a festival that is to be held at a certain place,
delivers a sewing machine and a cloth bundle to a railway
company to be conveyed to that place, and through the fault
**
Hadley v Baxendale [1854] EWHC J70.
Hadley
Baxendale
1
1898, 172ILR 20-21 Mad 478.xxii.
12
of company’s servants they are not delivered until after the
conclusion of the festival. The company had no notice of the
special purpose for which the goods were required. The
tailor is not entitled to damages for the loss of profits no r
for his expenses incidental to the journey to that place and
back.
*
But in the English case Simpson vs. London & North

2
Western Railway Company , It was held that the company
was liable. The company's agent had knowledge of the
special circumstances, that the goods were to be exhibited at
the Newcastle show, and so should have contemplated that a
delay in delivery might result in this loss.
Madras Railway Co. v. Gorind Rau., (1898), 21 Mad. 172

*
2
1876 I.Q.B.D 274
13
impson ew Castle
" ew Castle "
ew Castle
(ii) Remoteness of Damage
The losses must be arisen direct for the breach. Losses not
direct consequences of the breach must be being regarded as
“too remote”.
In measuring remoteness of damages, there are two limbs; -
( ) ။၄င္းတို ့မှာ
(1)Damage arising naturally, i.e., from such breach of
contract itself.
(2)Losses which is special and abnormal.
Simpson v. London & North Western Rly. Co., (1876) I Q. B. D.,

*
374
14
For example
A delivers to B, a common carries machine to be
conveyed without delay to A's mill informing B that his mill
is stopped for want of the machine. B unreasonably delays
the delivery of the machine, and A, in consequence losses a
profitable contract with the government. A is entitled to
receive from B, by way of compensation the average amount
of profit which would have been made by the working of the
mill during the time that delivery of it was delayed, but not
the loss sustained through the loss of the gover nment it was
delayed, but not the loss sustained through the loss of the
government contract, because it is too remote.

15
Explanation
In estimating the loss or damage arising from a breach
of contract means which existed of remedying the
inconvenience caused by the non- performance of the
contract must be taken into account.
6.3 Measure of Damages in an Anticipatory Breach of
Contract
In an event of anticipatory breach, the innocent party
may either:-
16
(i) accept the repudiation, treating the contract as an
end, and enforce the appropriate remedy at once, without
further performing his part of the contract, or
(ii) ignore the repudiation and wait until the time for
performance arrive.
(iii) If the innocent party accept the repudiation he is
entitled to damages
ယ္
6.4 Compensation for Breach of Contract Where Penalty
Stipulated For
Section 74
“When a contract has been broken, if a sum is named
in the contract as the amount to be paid in case of such

17
breach, or if the contract contains any other stipulation by
way of penalty, the party complaining of the breach is
entitled, whether or not actual damage or loss is proved to
have been caused thereby, to receive from the party who has
broken the contract reasonable compensation not exceeding
the amount so named or, as the case may be, the penalty
stipulated for.”
( )
Explanation (1)
A stipulation for increased interest from the date of
default may be a stipulation by way of penalty.

18
"Penalty"and"LiquidatedDamages"
Where the parties to a contact antic ipate possibility of
a breach it is usual to specify a particular amount to be paid
to the injured party. If the sum so specified is a moderated
estimate of this is likely to result from the breach it is called
a liquidated damages. If the sum so specified is so high as it
was intended to prevent or panelize a breach, it is called a
penalty.
liquidated damages.
liquidated damages.
19
6.5 Party Rightfully Rescinding Contract entitled to
Compensation
Section 75
“A person who rightfully rescinds a contract is entitled
to compensation for any damage which he has sustained
through the non-fulfillment of the contract.”
( )
Illustration
A, a singer, contracts with B, the manager of a theatre,
to sing at his theatre for two nights every week during the
next two months, and B engages to pay her 10000 kyats for
each night's performance. On the sixth night A willfully
absents herself from the theatre, and B, in consequence,
rescinds the contract. B is entitled to claim compensation for

20
the damage which he has sustained through the non -
fulfilment of the contract.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Key Terms
Damage
Damages
Specific Contract
Injunction
Compensation
Remedy
Remoteness of damage
Specific contract
21
Questions
1.What are the remedies for breach of contract? Explain?
(Assignment)
2. State briefly the rules governing the measure of damages.
(Assignment)
3. What do you understand by the rule of remoteness of damage?
(Assignment)
4. What are the remedies for breach of contract? (Short Question)
5. What is the specific performance? (Short Question)
6. What is injunction? (Short Question)
7. What are the damages for breach of contract? (Short Question)
8. What is the measure of damages in an anticipatory breach of
contract? (Short Question)
9. What are the penalty and liquidated damages? (Short Question)

1
CHAPTER 7
Specific Contracts
7.1 Contract of Indemnity and Contract of
Guarantee 2
7.1.1 Contract of Indemnity 2
7.1.2 Contract of Guarantee 3
7.1.3 Contract concerning Bailment 4
7.1.3.1 Duties of a Bailor 6
7.1.3.2 Bailors Rights 7
7.1.3.3 Bailee's Liabilities 8
7.1.3.4 Bailees Rights 10
7.1.4 Contract of Agency 12
7.1.4.1 Sub-Agents 17
7.1.4.2 Ratification 20
7.1.4.3Termination of Agency 23
7.1.5 Revocation of Agent's Authority 24
7.1.6 Agent's Duties 26
7.1.7 Agent's Rights 31
7.2 Agent when personally liable 38
Key Terms 43
Questions 43
2
CHAPTER 7
Specific Contracts
In this Chapter, students will study the specific
contracts relating to;-
(1) Contract of Indemnity
(2) Contract of Guarantee
(3) Contract concerning Bailment
ခြင္ း နြ င ့ ္ ပ တ္ သ က္ ေ သာ
(4) Contract of Agency
7.1 Contract of Indemnity and Contract of Guarantee
7.1.1 Contract of Indemnity
Contract of Indemnity is defined by Section 124 as “A
contract by which one party promises of save the other from
loss caused to him by the conduct of the promisor himself or

3
by the conduct of any other person, is called a contract of
indemnity”
ယ္ တ ိ ု င္ ခပုမူ ြ ်က္ ေ ကာင့ ္ ခဖစ္ ေ စ၊ အခြားသူ တ စ္
ေယာက္ ခပုမူ ြ ်က္ ေ ကာင့ ္ ခ ဖစ္ ေ စ ကတိ ရ သူ အ ားဆု ံ း ရှု ံ း မှု မခဖစ္ ေ စရ
ေအာင္ ကာကျ ယ ္ ရ န္ ကတိ ခ ပုခြင္ းသည္
Illustration
A contract to indemnity B against the consequences of
any proceedings which C may take against B in respect of a
certain sum of 200 kyats. This is a contract of indemnity.
7.1.2 Contract of Guarantee
Section 126 defines
of his default.
၄ ၊
4
၁၂၆
၍ ၊
၍ ၊
၍ ။
၊ ၍ ။
7.1.3 Contract concerning Bailment
Section 148
“A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person
to another for some purpose upon a contract that they shall,
when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise
disposed of according to the directions of the person
delivering them. The person delivering the goods is called

5
the "bailor". The person to whom they are delivered is called
the bailee .”
၍ ။
၍ ။
Explanation
If a person already in possession of the goods of
another contracts to hold them as s bailee, he thereby
becomes the bailee, and the owner becomes the bailor, of
such goods although they may not have been delivered by
way of bailment.
။
6
7.1.3.1 Duties of a Bailor
Section 150
“The bailor is bound to disclose to the bailee faul ts in
the good bailed, of which the bailor is aware, and which
materially interfere with the use of them, or expose the
bailee to extra ordinary risks; and if he does not make such
disclosure, he is responsible for damage arising to the bailee
directly from such faults.”
“If the goods are bailed for hire, the bailor is responsible
for such damage, whether he was or was not aware of the
existence of such faults in the goods bailed.”

7
Section 158
Repayment of Bailor
“Where, by the conditions of the baliment, the goods
are to be kept or to be carried, or to have work done upon
them by the bailee for the bailer, and the bailee is to receive
no remuneration, the bail or shall repay to the bailee the
necessary expanses incurred by him for the purpose of the
bailment.”
7.1.3.2 Bailors Rights
Section 153
“A contract of bailment is voidable at the option of the
bailor if the bailee does any act with regard to the goods
bailed inconsistent with the conditions of the bailment.

8
7.1.3.3 Bailee's Liabilities
Section 151
“In all cases of Bailment, the bailee is bound to take as
much care of the goods bailed to him as a man of ordinary
prudence would under similar circumstances, take of his
own goods of the same bulk, quality and value as the goods
bailed.”
Section 152
“The bailee, in the absence of any special contract, is
not responsible for the loss, destruction or deterioration of
the thing bailed if he is taken the amount of care of it
described in section 151.”
။ ၁၅၂
9
Section 160
“It is the duty of bailee to return, or deliver according to
the bailor's directions, the goods bailed, without demand, as
soon as the time for which they were bailed has expired, or
the purpose for which they were bailed has been
accomplished.”
။ ၁၆
Section 161
“If, by the default of the bailee, the goods are not
returned, delivered or tendered at the proper time, he is
responsible to the bailor for any loss, destruction or
deterioration of the goods from that time.”
Section 163
“In the absence of any contract to the contrary, the
bailee is bound to deliver to the bailor, or according to his
directions, any increase or profit which may have accrued
from the goods bailed.”
၌ ၊
၄
10
၊ ၊
၊၄
။ ၁၆၃
Section 167
“If a person, other than the bailor, clamis goods bailed,
he may apply to the Court to stop the delivery of the goods
to the bailor, and to decide the title to the goods.”
။ ၁၆၇
7.1.3.4 Bailees Rights
(i) Particular Lien
Section 170
“Where the bailee has, in according with the purpose
of the bailment, rendered any service involving the exercise
of labour or skill in respect of the goods bailed, he has in the
absence of a contract to the contrary, a right to retain such
goods until he receives due remuneration for the services he
has rendered in respect of them.”

11
(2) General Lien
Section 171
“Bankers, tactors, wharfingers, advocates of the High
Court and policy„brokers may, in the absence of a contract
to the contrary, retain, as a security for a general balance of
account, any goods bailed to them; but no other persons
have a right to retain, as a security for such balance, goods
bailed to them, unless there is an express contract to the
effect.”
၊ ၊
။ ၁၇၁
12
7.1.4 Contract of Agency
Appointment of Agents
Section 182
“An Agent" is a person employed to do any act for
another, or to represent another, in dealing with third
persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so
represented, is called the “principal”.”
။ ၁၈၂
"Principal" is the person who employs another person
to do an act for him, or to represent for him, in dealing with
third persons.
။ ၁၈၂
13
Section 183
“Any person who is of the age of majority according to
the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind,
may employ an agent.”
။ ၁၈၃
Section 184
“As between the principal and third person any person
may become an agent, but no person who is not the age of
majority and of sound mind can become an agent so to be
responsible to his principal.”
။ ၁၈၄
Therefore a minor or a person of unsound mind is
possible to be appointed as an agent, but he is not
responsible to his principal.
။ ။
။ ၊
။
14
၊ ။
In the Contract concerning Agency consideration is not
necessary [S.185]
၁၈၅
(2)Authority of Agent
Section 186
၊ ၍
။ ၁၈၆
Section 187
“An authority is said to be express when it is given by
words spoken or written. An authority is said to be implied
when it is to be inferred from the circumstances of the case;
and things spoken or written, or the ordinary course of
dealing, may be accounted circumstances of the case.”
၍ ၊
၍ ၊
။
15
။ ၁၈၇
Illustration
A owns a shop in Mandalay, living himself in Yangon
and visiting the shop occasionally. The shop is managed by
B, and he is in the habit of ordering goods from C in the
name of A for the purposes of the shop, and of paying for
them out of A's funds with A's knowledge. B has an implied
authority from A to order goods from C in the name of A for
the purposes of the shop.
။ ၄ ၍
၍ ။
။
16
Section 188
“An agent having an authority to carry on a business
has authority to do every lawful thing necessary for the
purpose, or usually done in the course of conducting such
business.”
။ ၁၈၈
Illustration
A constitutes B, his agent to carry on his business of a
ship-builder. B may purchase timer and other materials, and
hire workmen for the purpose of carrying on the business.
။ ။
Section 189
“An agent has authority, in an emergency, to do all
such acts for purpose of protecting his principal from loss as
would be done by a person of ordinary prudence, in his own
case, under similar circumstances.”

17
။ ၁၈၉
Illustration
(b) A consigns provisions to B at Yangon, with direction
to send them immediately to C at Mawlamyine. B may sell
the provisions at Yangon, if they will not bear the journey to
Mawlamyine without spoiling.
။ ။
7.1.4.1 Sub-Agents
(a) Delegation by agent
Section 190
"An agent cannot lawfully employ another to employ
another to perform acts which he has expressly or impliedly
undertaken to perform personally, unless by the ordinary

18
custom of trade a sub-agent may, or, from the nature of the
agency, a sub-agent must, be employed."
၊ ၍
၁၉၀
(c) Representation of principal by sub-agent
Section 192
“Where a sub-agent is properly appointed, the
principal is, so far as regards third persons, represented by
the sub-agent, and is bound by and is responsible for his acts
as if he were an agent originally appointed by the
principal.”
။
19
။ ၁၉၂
Section 193
Where an agent, without having authority to do so, has
appointed a person to act as a sub-agent, the principal is not
represent by or responsible for the acts of the person so
employed, nor is that person responsible to the principal.
။ ၁၉၃
(c) Substituted agent
Section 194
“Where an agent, holding an expresses or implied authority
to name another person to act for the principal in the

20
business of the agency, has named another person
accordingly, such person is not a sub-agent, but an agent of
the principal for such part of the business of the agency as is
entrusted to him.”
၁၉၄
7.1.4.2 Ratification
(i) Acts which can be ratified
Section 196
“Where acts are done by one person on behalf of
another, but without his knowledge or authority, he may
elect to ratify of to disown such acts. If he ratify them, the
same effects will follows as if they had been performed by
his authority.”
21
*
။ ၁၉၆
Section 197 of the Act states that “Ratification may be
expressed or may be implied in the conduct of the person on
whose behalf the acts are done.”
။ ၁၉၇
Illustration
(b) A without B's authority lends B's money to C.
Afterwards B accepts interests on the money from C. B's
conduct implies a ratification of the loan.
။ ။
*
၂၊
၁၉၆၇ ၊ ၊ ၁၂၆။
22
Section 199
“A person ratifying any unauthorized act done on his
behalf ratifies the whole of the transaction of which such act
formed a part.”
။( ၁၉၉)
(ii) Acts which cannot be ratified
The following two cases will not be allowed to ratified.
(1) No valid ratification can be made by a person whose
knowledge of the facts of the case is materially defective.
[S.198]
(2) An act done by one person behalf of another without
such other person's authority, which, if done with authority,
would have the effect of subjecting a third person to
damages or of termination any right or interest of a third
person, cannot by ratification, be made to have such
effect.[S.200]
၊
23
။ ၂၀၀
Illustration
(b) A holds a lease from B, terminable on three months
notice. C, an unauthorized person, gives notice of
termination to A. The notice cannot be ratified by B, so as to
be binding on A.
။ ။ ၍
။ ၍ ။
7.1.4.3Termination of Agency
Section 201 of the Contract Act enumerates four ways
in which an agency can terminate.
(a) The principal revoking the agent's authority.
(b) The agent renouncing the business of the agency; or

24
(c) The completion of the business of agency
(d) death, insolvency or insanity of either the principal
or agent, dissolution of an incorporated company,
၄ ၊
၊ ၊
Under section 202 An agency cannot be terminated,
where the agent has himself an interest in the property
which forms the subject- matter of the agency , in the
absence of the express contract .
၂၀၂
7.1.5 Revocation of Agent's Authority
The principal may revoke the authority given to his
agent at anytime before the authority has been exercised so
as to bind the principal. [S.203]

25
။ ၂၀၃
The principal cannot revoke the authority given to his
agent after the authority has been partly exercised so far as
regards such acts and obligations as arise from acts already
done in the agency [S.204]
။ ၂၀၄
Section 206
“Where there is an express or implied contract that the
agency should be continued for any period of time, the
principal must make compensation to the agent or the agent
to the principal, (as the case may be) for any previous
revocation or remuneration of agency without sufficient
cause.”
၊ ၊
။ ၂ ၆
26
Section 208
“The termination of the authority of an agent does not so far
as regards third persons, before it becomes known to them.”
၄ ။ ၂၀၈
7.1.6 Agent's Duties
An agent is bound to conduct the business of his
principal according to the directions given by the principal,
or in the absence of any such directions, according to the
custom which prevails in doing business o f the same kind at
the place where the agent conducts such business. When the
agent acts otherwise, if any loss be sustained he must make
it good to his principal and, if any profit occurs, he must
account for it. [S.211]
။ ။ ၂၁၁
27
An agent is bound to conduct the business of the
agency with as much skill as is generally possessed by
persons engaged in similar business, unless the principal has
notice of his want of skill. The agent is always bound to act
with reasonable diligence, and to use such skill as the
possesses; and to make compensation to his principal in
respect of the direct consequences of his own neglect, want
of skill or misconduct, but not in respect of loss or damage
which are indirectly or remotely caused by such neglect,
want of skill or misconduct. [S.212]
၍ ။ ၊
၂၁၂
An agent is bound to render proper accounts to his principal
on demand. [S.213]
*
။ ၂၁၃
*
၊
၁၉၆၄ ၊ ၊ ၈၆၉။
28
It is the duty of an agent, in cases of difficulty, to use all
reasonable diligence in communicating with his principal,
and in seeking to obtain his instructions. [S.214]
၊ ၄
။ ၂၁၄
If an agent deals on his own account in the business of
the agency, without first obtaining the consent of his
principal and acquainting him with all material
circumstances which have come to his own knowledge on
the subject, the principal may repudiate the transaction, if
the case shows either that any material fact has been
dishonestly concealed from him by the agent, or that the
dealings of the agent have been disadvantageous to
him.[S.215]
၊
29
။ ၂၁၅
A directs B to sell A's estate. B on locking over the
estate before selling it, finds a mine on the estate which is
unknown to A. B informs A that he wishes to buy the estate
for himself, but conceals the discovery of the mine. A
allows B to buy in ignorance of existence of the mine. A, on
discovering that B knew of the mine at the time he bought
the estate, may either repudiate or adopt the sale at his
option.
။ ။ ၄
If an agent, without the knowledge of his principal,
deals in the business of the agency on his own account
instead of on account of his principal, the principal is

30
entitled to claim from the agent any benefit which may have
resulted to him from the transaction.[216]
၂၁၆
Illustration
A directs B, his agent, to buy a certain house for him.
B tells A it cannot be bought, and buys the house for
himself: A may, on discovering that B has bought the house,
compel him to sell it to A at the price he gave for it.
။ ။ ၄
၍ ၄ ။
။
31
7.1.7 Agent's Rights
(1) Right to retain
An agent may retain, out of any sums received on
account of the principal in the business of the agency, all
moneys due to himself in respect of advances made or
expense properly incurred by him in conducting such
business, and also such remuneration as may be payable to
him for acting as agent. [S.217]
။ ၂၁၇
Subject to such deductions, the agent is bound to pay
to his principal all sums received on his account. [S.218]
။( ၂၁၈)
In the absence of any special contract, payment for the
performance of any act is not due to the agent until t he

32
completion of such act; but an agent may detain moneys
received by him on account of goods sold, although the
whole of the goods consigned to him for sale may not have
been sold, or although the sale may not be actually
complete. [S.219]
။ ၄
။ ၂၁၉
In the absence of any contract to the contrary an agent
paid or accounted for to him. [S.221]
၄ ၊
၊ ၊
33
။ ၂၂၁
(2) Right to remuneration
An agent is entitled to his commission only when he
has carried out the object of agency, unless, of course, there
is contract to the contrary. For his remuneration he may
detain money received by him on account of goods sold,
although the whole of the goods consigned to him for sale
may not have been sold, or although the sale may not be
actually complete [S.219]
။ ၄
။ ၂၁၉
But an agent who is guilty of misconduct in the
business of the agency is not entitled to any remuneration in
respect of that part of the business which he has misconduct.
[S.220]
34
၂၂၀
(3) Right to lien
In the absence of any contract to the contrary, an agent
paid or accounted for to him [S.221]
၄ ၊
၊ ၊
၂၂၁
35
(4) Right to indemnity
An agent has a right to be indemnified against the
following two consequences „
(1) Consequences of all lawful acts done by such agent in
the exercise of the authority conferred upon him . [S.222]
။ ၂၂၂
Illustration
B, at Singapore, under instructions from A of Calcutta,
contracts with C to deliver certain goods to him. A does not
send the goods to B, and C sues B for breach of contract. B
informs A of the suit, and A authorizes him to defend the
suit. B defends the suit, and it compelled to pay damages
and costs, and incurs expenses. A is liable to B for such
damages, costs and expenses.
။ ။
။
36
(2) Consequences of the acts done in goods faith during
the course of the agency, when such acts an injury to the
rights of third person. [S.223]
။ ၂၂၃
Illustration
(a) A, a decree-holder and entitled to execution of B's
goods, requires the officer of the Court to seize ce rtain
goods, representing them to be the goods of B. The officer
seizes the good, and is sued by C, the true owner of the
goods. A is liable to indemnify the officer for the sum which
he is compelled to pay to C, in consequence of obeying A's
directions.
။ ။
37
၍ ။
(5) Right to compensation
An agent is entitled to compensation for any loss or
injury caused to him by the principal's neglect or want of
skill. But he cannot claim compensation if the injury
resulted from his own negligence or acquiescence after
knowledge of the risk of the agency, for the agent is
presumed to undertake ordinary consequences of the risk
incidental to the nature of the agency. [S.225]
၊ ၍
၊ ၍
၂၂၅
38
Illustration
A employs B as a brick layer in building a house, and
puts up the scaffolding himself. The scaffolding is
unskillfully put up, and B is in consequence hurt. A must
make compensation to B.
။ ။
၄ ။
7.2 Agent when personally liable
As a general rule an agent who enters into a contract
on behalf of his principal is not entitled to sue nor is her
personally liable on the contract. Section 230 of the Act runs
as follows:-
"In the absence of any contract to that effect, an agent
cannot personally enforce contracts entered into by him on
behalf of his principal, nor is he personally bound by them".
But such a contract to the contrary shall be presumed
to exist in the following cases:-
(1) Where the contract is made by an agent for sale or
purchase of goods for a merchant resident abroad;

39
(2) Where the agent does not disclose the name of his
principal;
(3) Where the principal, through disclosed cannot be used.
Thus in these three kinds of contracts the agent can
personally sue or can be sued on the contract.
၁။ ၊
၊ ။
၂။
၃။ ၄
။ ၂၃၀
(iii) Contract where Principal is Undisclosed
If an agent make a contract with a person who neither
knows, nor has reason to suspect that he is an agent, his
principal may require the performance of the contract, but
the other contracting party has as against the principal the

40
same rights as he would have had as the agent if the agent
has been principal. [S.231]
Where one man makes a contract with another neither
knowing nor having responsible ground to suspect that the
other is an agent, the principal, if he requires the
performance of the contract, can only obtain such
performance subject to the rights and obligations subsisting
between the agent and the other party to the contract.
[S.232]
41
။ ၂၃၂
(iv) "Holding out" or Liability of pretended agent
။ ၂၃၅
"A person with whom a contract has been entered into
in the character of agent is not entitled to require the

42
performance of it if he was reality acting, not as agent , but
on his own account".
(iv) Agency by Estoppel
Estoppel of a principal is dealt with in Section 237 which
says: - When an agent has, without authority, done acts or
incurred obligations to third persons on behalf of his
principal, the principal is bound by such acts or obligations
if he has by his words or conduct induced such third persons
to believe that such acts and obligations were within the
scope of the agent's authority.
။ ၂၃၇
43
Key Terms
Contract of indemnity
Bailment
Bailor
Bailee
Liability
Sub-agent
Ratification
Termination
Revocation
Remuneration
Estoppels
Questions
1. What are the specific contracts? Explain contract of indemnity
and contract of guarantee. (Assignment)
2. Describes the bailee’s liabilities. (Assignment)
3. Explain about contract of agency. (Assignment)
4. Discuss about sub-agents. (Assignment)
5. Discuss the following statements.
(a) Acts when can be ratified.

44
(b)Acts when cannot be ratified. (Assignment)
6. Explain the agent’s duties with illustrations. (Assignment)
7. Enumerate the agent’s rights and explain briefly. (Assignment)
8. Define the term contract of indemnity. (Short Question)
9. What is the meaning of agent? (Short Question)
10. Describe the contract of guarantee. (Short Question)
11. Describe the bailee’s rights. (Short Question)
12. Express the authority of agent. (Short Question)
13. Describe the termination of agency. (Short Question)

1
Chapter 8
Void Agreements
8.1 Agreement without Consideration 3
8.2 Agreement in Restraint of Marriage 6
8.3 Agreement in Restraint of Trade 6
8.4 Agreement in Restraint of Legal Proceedings 8
8.5 Uncertain Agreement 11
8.6 Agreement by Way of Wager 14
8.7 Contingency of Agreement 16
8.8 Agreement to do an Impossible Act 19
8.9 Reciprocal Promises to do Things Legal and
also other Things Illegal 20
Key Terms 21
Questions 21
2
Chapter 8
Void Agrements
(1) Agreements by incompetent persons [Section 11]
။ ၁၁
(2) Agreements under mistake of fact [Section 20, 22] or
mistake of law [S.21]
။[ ၂၀-၂၁-၂၂]
[Section 23] and
၂၃]
in part [Section 24]
။[ ၂၄]
3
8.1 Agreement without Consideration
In Myanmar, an agreement without consideration is void,
but there are three exceptions to this rule.They are laid down
in Section 25 as follows -
။ ၃ ။ ၂၅
“An agreement made without consideration is void unless;-
(1) It is expressed in writing and registered under the law for
the time being in force for the registration of documents, and
is made on account of natural love and affection between
parties standing in a near relation to each other: or unless.
(2) It is a promise to compensate wholly or in part , a person
who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor,

4
or something which the promisor was legally compellable to
do or unless.
၊ ၀ ၊ ။
(3) It is a promise, made in writing and signed by the person
to be charged therewith, or by his agent generally or specially
authorized in the that behalf, to pay wholly or in part a debt
ofwhich the creditor might have enforced payment but for the
limitation of suits.
၊ ၀
Excepting these three cases, every agreement, in order to
be enforceable by law, must supported by consideration. The
circumstances in which an agreement made without
consideration is valid are-

5
(1) Contract out of natural love and affection
[S.25(1)]
၊ ။
(2) Promise to compensate for voluntary service and,
[ S.25(2)]
(3) Promise to pay time-barred debt [S.25(3)]
Explanation (1)
Nothing in this section shall affect the validity, as
between the donor and donee, of any gift actually made.
Explanation (2)
An agreement to which the consent of the promisor is
freely given is not void merely because the consideration is

6
inadequate; but the inadequacy of the consideration may be
taken into account by the Court in determining the question
whether the consent of the promisor was freely given.
8.2 Agreement in Restraint of Marriage
Agreement in restraint of marriage is void.
Section 26
"Every agreement in restraint of the marriage of any
person, other than a minor, is void.”
။ ၂၆
8.3 Agreement in Restraint of Trade
Agreement in restraint of trade is void.

7
Section 27
"Every agreement by which any one is restrained from
exercising a lawful profession, trade or business of any kind is
to that extent void"
Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public
policy and therefore void.
၊ ၀ ၊
။ ၂၇
၊ ၄ ၂၇
Exception 1
One who sells the goodwill of a business may agree with
the buyer to refrain from carrying on a similar business, within
specified local limits, so long as the buyer, or any person
deriving title to the goodwill from him, carries on a like
business therein: Provided that such limits appe ar to the Court
reasonable, regard being had to the nature of the business.

8
ood ill
၄ ၀
၊၄ ၊
၀ ။
8.4 Agreement in Restraint of Legal Proceedings
Section 28
"Every agreements by which any party thereto is
restricted absolutely from enforcing his rights under or in
respect of any contract, by the usual legal proceedings in the
ordinary tribunals, or which limits the time within which he
may thus enforce his rights, is void to that extent.”
၊ ၊
၀
9
။ ၂၈
Exception (1)
This section shall not render illegal a contract by which
two or more persons agree that any dispute which may arise
between them in respect of any subject or class of subjects
shall be referred to arbitration, and that only the amount
awarded in such arbitration shall be recoverable i n respect of
the dispute so referred.
၊ ၊
When such a contract has been made, a suit may be
brought for its specific performance, and if a suit, other than
for such specific performance, or for the rec overy of the
amount so awarded, is brought by one party to such contract
against any other such party in respect of any subject which

10
they have so agree to refer, the existence of such contract shall
be a bar to the suit.
၀ ၀
Exception (2)
Nor shall this section render illegal any contract in
writing by which two or more persons agree to refer to
arbitration any question between them which has already
arisen, or affect any provision of any law in force for time
being as to references to arbitration.
၄
11
၂၈ ။
This section consists of two parts-
(1)Agreements absolutely restricting the enforcing of the rights
in the ordinary tribunals.
၊ ၀
(2) Agreement limiting the time allowed by the Limitation Act.
8.5 Uncertain Agreement
”Uncertain agreements are void”
Section 29
"Agreements, the meaning of which is not certain, or
capable of being made certain, are void".
။ ၂၉
12
Illustration
(a)A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is
nothing whatever to show what kind of oil was intended. The
agreement is void for uncertainty.
(b)A agrees to sell to B one hundred tons of oil of a specified
description, known as an article of commerce. There is no
uncertainty here to make the agreement void.
(c) A, who is a dealer in coconut-oil only, agrees to sell to B
"one hundred tons of oil". The nature of A's trade affords an
indication of the meaning of the words, and A has entered into
a contract for the sale of one hundred tons of coconut -oil.
၀
13
(d) A agrees to sell to B "all the grain in my granary at
Promise." There is no uncertainty here to make the agreement
void.
၊၄
(e)A agrees to sell to B "one Thousand pounds of rice at a
price to be fixed by C. "As the price is capable of being made
certain, there is no uncertainty here to make the agreement
void.
၄ ။
(f)A agrees to sell to B "my white horse for Kyats 50000 or
Kyats 100000 ". There is nothing to show which of the two
prices was to be given. The agreement is void.

14
၅၀၀၀ -
၁၀၀၀၀ - ၊
8.6 Agreement by Way of Wager
Section 30
Agreements by way of wager are void: and to suit shall
be brought for recovering anything alleged to be won on any
wager, or entrusted to any person to abide the result of any
game or other uncertain event on which any wager is made".
။ ၃၀
This section shall not be deemed to render unlawful a
subscription or contribution, or agreement to subscribe or
contribute, made or enter into for or toward a ny plate, price or
sum of money, of the value or amount of kyats 50000 or

15
upwards, to be awarded to the winner or winners of any horse
race.
၅၀၀၀ - ၊ ၅၀၀၀ -
Nothing in this section shall be deemed to legalize any
transaction connected with horse-racing to which the provision
of section 294 A of the Penal Code apply.
၂၉၄ ါ
'Wager' is defined by Sir Willian Ansons as "a promise to
give money or money's worth upon the determination or
ascertainment of an uncertain event.
ir illiam Anson ။
16
As the effect on collateral agreement, it was held in the
case of Khairthi vs. Lal Din (a) Maung Ba Thein and two
1
others that-
"An agreement to share in the prize before a winning
Treble Tote ticket was purchased is a collateral agreement to a
wagering contract and there is no law which declares such
collateral agreement to be void".
၄ ၀ ၃
၆၁၉၉၃ ၊ ၄
၃ ၀ ၀
ollateral Agreement ၀ ။
8.7 Contingency of Agreement
Contingent contract is defined in Section 31 as "a
contract to do or not to do something if some event, collateral
to such contract, does or does not happen".
1
1954 B.L.R (H.C) 49
17
olleteral vent
၃၁
Illustration
A contract to pay B Ks 10,00,00, if B's house is burnt.
This is a contingent contract.
၁၀၀၀၀ - ၊ ၄
(i)Agreement Contingent on an Event Happening
Section 32
"Contingent Contracts to do or not to do anything if an
uncertain future event happens cannot be enforced by law
unless and until that event has happened. If the event becomes
impossible, such contract become void."
၊၄ ။ ၃၂
18
(ii)Agreement Contingent on an Impossible Event
"Agreement Contingent on an impossible event is void".
Section 36
"Contingent agreement to do or not to do anything, if an
impossible event happens are void, whether the impossible of
the event is known or not to know the parties to the agreement
at the time when it is made."
၊ ၊ ။ ၃၆
Illustration
(a) A agrees to pay B Kyats 10,000 if two straight lines should
enclose a space. The agreement is void.
၁၀၀၀ - ။ ၄
။
19
(b) A agrees to pay B Kyats 10,00,00 if B will marry A's
daughter C. C was dead at the time of the agreement. The
agreement is void.
၁၀၀၀၀ - ။
။၄ ။
8.8 Agreement to do an Impossible Act
Section 56
An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is void .
Illustration
(a)"A" and "B" contract to marry with each other. Before the
time fixed for the marriage, A goes mad. The contract becomes
void.
(b) "A" contract to take in cargo for B at a foreign port. A's
Government afterwards declares war against the country in

20
which the port is situated. The contract becomes void when
war is declared.
။ ၊
(c) A contract to act at a theatre for six months in
consideration of a sum paid in advance by B. On several
occasions A is too ill to act. The contract to act on those
occasions becomes void.
၊ ။
8.9 Reciprocal Promises to do Things Legal and also other
Things Illegal
Section 57
Where persons reciprocally promise, firstly, to do certain
things which are legal and secondly under specified

21
circumstances, to do certain other things which are illegal, the
first set of promises is a contract, but the second is a void
agreement.
Key Terms
Frustration=
oid agreement
agering contract
Uncertain agreement
uantum eriut
Questions
1. State the circumstances in which an agreement made without
consideration is valid? (Assignment)
2. What is the law regarding wagering contracts under the
Contract Act? (Assignment)
3. Express the agreement in restraint of trade. (Short Question)
4. Express the agreement in restraint of marriage.

22
(Short Question)
(Short Question)
6. What are the void agreements? (Short Question)
7. Describe the uncertain agreement with one illustration. (Short
Question)
Law of Contract
Dr Tin May Htun

Professor/ Head
Law Department
YUDE
1
The Contract Act, 1872
• Totally 11 chapters
• (a) General principals of the Law of Contract.
• (b) Special kinds of contracts
2
• The general principals of the Law of Contract
are contained in Sections 1 to 75 of the
Contract Act.
These principles apply to all kinds of contracts
irrespective of their nature.
• Special contracts are contained in Sections

• 124 to 238 of the Contract Act.
• These special contracts are Indemnity, Guaran
• tee, Bailment, pledge and Agency
3
• Offer + acceptance = Promise
• +
• consideration
• =
• Agreement
• +
• enforceability By Law
• = Contract
4
Section 2(h) of the Contract Act, 1872 defines a
contract as an agreement enforceable by law.
Contract = agreement + enforceability
Section 2(e) defines agreement as “every promise

and every set of promises forming consideration for
each other.”
Section 2(b) defines promise in these words: “When

the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his
assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted.
A proposal when accepted, becomes a promise.”

5
The two elements of an agreement are:
(i) offer or a proposal; and
(ii) an acceptance of that offer or proposal.
Agreement 2(e) :- Every promise and set of promises
forming the consideration for each other.
Agreement = offer + acceptance
Only those agreements which are enforceable at law

are contracts.
A contract consists of two elements:

(i) an agreement; and
(ii) legal obligation,
6
Promises are not enforceable at law as there was
no intention to create legal obligations.
Such agreements are social agreements which

do not give rise to legal consequences.
An agreement is a broader term than a contract.
Therefore, a contract is an agreement but an

agreement is not necessarily a contract.
7
Agreements to do an unlawful, immoral or illegal
act,
For example, smuggling or murdering a person,

cannot be enforceable at law.
Besides, certain agreements have been specifically

declared void or unenforceable under the Indian
Contract Act.
For example,
an agreement to bet (Wagering agreement) (S. 30),
an agreement in restraint of trade (S. 27),
8
an agreement to do an impossible act (S. 56).
Some obligations are
1. Torts or civil wrongs;

2. Quasi-contract;
3. Judgments of courts, i.e., Contracts of
Records;
4. Relationship between husband and wife,
trustee and beneficiary, i.e., status obligations.
These obligations are not contractual in nature,

but are enforceable in a court of law.
9
Rights in personam # Rights in rem
Rights in personam = a specific person and not

against the world at large.
Law of contract creates rights in personem
Rights in rem = some property to recover land

in an action of ejectment.
Such rights are available against the whole
world.
10
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A VALID
CONTRACT
Sec 10
All agreements are contracts
if they are made by free consent of parties,

competent to contract,
for a lawful consideration and
with a lawful object and
are not hereby expressly declared to be void
11
1. Agreement.
2. Intention to create legal relationship.
3. Free and genuine consent.
4. Parties competent to contract.
5. Lawful consideration.
6. Lawful object.
7. Agreements not declared void or illegal.
8. Certainty of meaning.
9. Possibility of performance.
10. Necessary Legal Formalities.
12
1 - Agreement
To constitute a contract there must be an agreement.
An agreement is composed of
two elements = offer and acceptance
2- Intention to create legal relationship

There should be an intention on the part of the parties
to the agreement to create a legal relationship
Eg. In case of social agreement there is no intention to

create legal relationship and there is no contract
(Balfour v. Balfour)
13
3 - Free and genuine consent
The consent of the parties to the agreement = free and
genuine.
The consent of the parties should not be obtained by
misrepresentation Sec. 18, fraud Sec. 17, undue influence
Sec.16, coercion Sec.15 or mistake. Sec.20,21,22
4 - Parties competent to contract

The parties to a contract must be competent to enter into a
contract.
According to Section 11, every person is competent to contract
if he (i) is of the age of majority [Majority Act Sec.3 – 18 yrs
old], (ii) is of sound mind [Person of unsound mind can enter
into a contract during his lucid interval.], and (iii) is not
disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is
14
subject. [Insolvent, Alien enemy, Convict]
5. Lawful consideration
The agreement must be supported by consideration on both
sides. The consideration must be real and lawful. [eg.
Immoral, opposed to public policy]
6 - Lawful object
The object of the agreement must be lawful. [ Not to harm
body or property, Not fraudulent object, Not to threaten
purpose of law, Not to be interest of public, agreement to do a
criminal act]
7. Agreements not declared illegal or void

There are certain agreements which have been expressly
declared illegal or void by the law. [ eg. Agreement without
consideration, agreement in restraint of marriage, wagering
15
contract]
8. Certainty of meaning
The meaning of the agreement must be certain or
capable of being made certain. Otherwise the
agreement will not be enforceable at law. [A agreed
to pay $ 100,000 to B for ultra-modern decoration of
his drawing room. The agreement is void because the
meaning of the term “ ultra – modern” is not certain.]
9. Possibility of performance
The terms of the agreement should be capable of
performance. An agreement to do an act impossible
in itself cannot be enforced. [eg. A agrees to B to
discover treasure by magic]
10. Necessary legal formalities
16
A contract may be oral or in writing.
If a particular type of contract is required by
existing law to be in writing and to be
concluded with witnesses and to be registered.
[Need to register if the value of immoveable

property is more than 100000 K under
Registration Act.]
It must comply with the necessary formalities as

to writing, registration and attestation, if
necessary.
17
Contracts may be classified
according to their validity as
(i) valid, (ii) voidable, (iii) void contracts or
agreements, (iv) illegal, or (v) unenforceable.
A contract to constitute a valid contract must have all

the essential elements.
If one or more of these elements is/are missing, the

contract is voidable, void, illegal or unenforceable.
18
Valid contract = An agreement which has all the
essential elements of a contract is called a valid
contract.
Void contract Section 2(g) = A void contract is a
contract which ceases to be enforceable by law.
(opposed to Public Policy, incompetent parties)
An agreement to carry out an illegal act is an example
of a void agreement. For example, a contract between
drug dealers and buyers
void means that a contract does not exist at all.
Neither party can go to court to enforce the contract.
A void agreement is void ab initio, i e from the

19
beginning.
Voidable contract Section 2(i) = An agreement
which is enforceable by law at the option of one or
more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of
other or others, is a voidable contract.
eg. If the essential element of free consent is missing

in a contract. The contract continues to be good and
enforceable unless it is repudiated by the aggrieved
party.
while a voidable contract can be voidable by one or
all of the parties
A voidable contract is not void ab initio, rather, it

20
becomes void later due to some changes in condition.
Illegal contract = A contract is illegal if it is forbidden
by law. Court regards it as immoral or opposed to
public policy. These agreements are punishable by
law.
All illegal agreements are void agreements but all
void agreements are not illegal. Eg.
1- Some agreements may be time limited and be void
due to the expiration of time.
2- Some may be person or firm specific and if the
person or firm no longer exists, the agreement would
be 'void'.
Neither agreement is illegal, just void due to
circumstances.
21
Unenforceable contract = Where a contract is
good in substance but because some technical
defect cannot be enforced by law.
These contracts are neither void nor voidable.
22
METHOD OF CLASSIFYING CONTRACTS
Section 9 Mode of Formation
An express contract
The terms of a contract may be stated in words
(written or spoken).
It is important that the acceptance must be clear,
heard and understood by the offeror.
An implied contract
The terms of a contract may be inferred from the
conduct of the parties or from the circumstances
of the case.
Mode of Performance
Consequently, contracts are: (1) executed, and (2)
executory or (1) unilateral, and (2) bilateral. 23
Method of classifying contracts is in terms of the extent
to which they have been performed.
Accordingly, contracts are: (1) executed, and (2)

executory or (1) unilateral, and (2) bilateral.
Executory or ,future which means that it makes the form

of promise to be performed in the future, e.g., an
engagement to marry someone; or
Executed or present in which it is an act or forbearance

made or suffered for a promise. In other words, the act
constituting consideration is wholly or completely
performed,
24
Every contract involves at least two parties.
A unilateral contract arises when an offer can be

accepted only by the offeree's performance.
A bilateral contract arises when a promise is given

in exchange for a promise in return.
25
Quasi contracts are strictly not contracts as there is
no intention of parties to enter into a contract.
It is legal obligation which is imposed on a party

who is required to perform it.
A quasi contract is based on the principle that

a person shall not be allowed to develop himself at the
expense of another.
For example = Responsibility of finder of goods,
Liability of person to whom money is paid or thing
delivered
26
Quasi Contracts are contracts which are created -
neither by word spoken, nor written, nor by the
conduct of the parties.
But these are created by the law.
Example:
If A leaves his goods at B’s shop by mistake, then it
is for B to return the goods or to compensate the price.
In fact, these contracts depend on the principle that

nobody will be allowed to become rich at the expenses
of the other.
27
Quasi contract
It means a contract which lacks one or more of the

essentials of a contract.
Quasi contract are declared by law as valid contracts

on the basis of principles of equity
i.e. no person shall be allowed to enrich himself at the
expense of another the legal obligations of parties
remains same.
28
Kinds of Quasi contract
Sec. 68 Supply of Necessaries
Sec. 69 Reimbursement of money due
Sec. 70 Obligation to pay for benefit out of non –
gratuitous act
Sec. 71 Responsibility of Finder of Goods
Sec.72 Person receiving goods are money by mistake
29
Misrepresentation Section 18
(i) Innocent misrepresentation

(ii) Fraudulent misrepresentation
Innocent misrepresentation
If a person makes a representation believing what
he says is true he commits innocent
misrepresentation.
The party misled by it can avoid the contract, but
cannot sue for damages in the normal
circumstances.
30
But in the following cases, damages are obtainable:
From a promoter or director who makes innocent
misrepresentation in a company prospectus inviting
the public to subscribe for the shares in the
company.
Fraudulent misrepresentation
Fraud is an untrue statement made knowingly or
without belief in its truth or recklessly, carelessly,
whether it be true or false with the intent to
deceive.
31
But It is immaterial whether the representation
takes effect by false statement or with
concealment.
The party defrauded can avoid the contract and also
claim damages.
Mere silence as to facts likely to affect the
willingness of a person to enter into a contract is
not fraud, unless silence is in itself equivalent to
speech, or where it is the duty of the person
keeping silent to speak as in the cases of contracts
uberrimae fidei - (contracts requiring utmost good
faith).
32
CONTINGENT CONTRACT Section 31
A contingent contract = a contract to do or not to do
something, if some event collateral to such contract,
does or does not happen.
The event is uncertain.
Valid
For example, A contracts to sell cotton for Kyats

20,000,000, if the ship by which they are coming
returns safely. This is a contingent contract.
Eg. Contract of insurance and contracts of indemnity

and guarantee
33
Performance
Section 37
The parties to a contract must either perform or
offer to perform, their respective promises
unless such performance is dispensed with or
excused under the provisions of contract Act, or
of any other law.
34
Promisor – Refuse – Promise – wholly
Promisee can put – can end of the contract or –

he can continue the contract if he has given his
consent either by words or – by conducts in its
continuance.
Result –claim damages or compensation
35
Discharge of a contract
Section 31
Discharge of a contract means termination of

contractual relation between the parties to a contract
in other words a contract is discharged when the rights

and obligations created by it are extinguished (i.e.
comes to an end).
36
Discharge of a contract
1- By performance actual or attempted
2- By mutual agreement (By implied consent)
1. Novation – Sec 62 2. Rescission – Sec 62
3. Alteration – Sec 62 4. Remission – Sec 63
5. Waiver 6. Merger
3. By Operation of law
1. Death 2. Merger
3. Insolvency 4. Unauthorized alteration
4- By lapse of Time
5- By breach of contract
6- By impossibility of performance
37
Remedy means course of action available to an
aggrieved party when other party breaches the
contract.
1. Rescission of contract
2. Suit for damages
3. Suit for specific performance
4. Suit for Injunction
5. Quantum Meruit = as much as is earned
One party preventing the other:- If a party prevents the
other party from completing his obligation under
the contract the aggrieved party may claim
payment on quantum merit for the part of contract
38
already performed by him.
END
39
1
Chapter 1
Law of Tort
1.1. Nature of Tort 3
1.2. Definition of Tort 5
1.3 Differences between Tort and Contract 8
1.4 Differences between Tort and Crime 11
Key Terms 15
Questions 16
2
Chapter 1
Law of Tort
တရားမနစ်နာမှု
Introduction
The Law of torts is concerned with the redress of wrongs or
injuries by means of a civil action brought by the victim. This
redress most commonly takes the form of damages, that is to say,
monetary compensation.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုသည် နစ်နာမှုရရှိသူက တရားမ ကကာင်းဆိုငရ

် ာ အ ရးယူ
ဆာင်ရွက် မှုဖြင့် မှားယွင်းမှု သို ့မဟုတ် နစ်နာမှုများကို ေး ျာ်ဖြင်း
နှင့်သက်ဆိုင်သည်။ ေး ျာ်မှုများသည် အများစုမာှ နစ်နာ ကကး
ေုံစံဖြင့် ဆာင်ရွက်ဖြင်း ဖြစ် သာ ငွ ကကးဆိုင်ရာ ျာ် ကကးဖြစ်သည်။
The word “tort” derives from the Latin tortious, meaning
crooked or twisted, and meaning wrong. The Latin Maxim
'ubjjusibiremedium' is the basic factor to be noted that, it means that
“if thereis a right, then there is a remedy”.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဟူ သာသ ောသည် က်တင်စကားဖြစ် သာ
တရားမနစ်နာမှု ဖမာက် သာစကားမှ (tortuous) ဆင်းသက် ာသည်။
crooked or twisted, wrong သည် က်တင်စကားဖြစ် သာ
'ubjjusibiremedium' ဖြစ်ပေီး ိမ် ည် ှည့ဖ် ြားမှု ရှိ ျှင် ကုစားြွင့် ရှိသည်။

3
But the Law recognizes certain legal rights and legal wrongs
which are capable of being taken action before the Courts of Law.
Therefore although there is an injury, i.e., some wrong has been
done, the injured party will not be able to get redress if the law does
not recognize such wrong as legal.
သို ့ သာ် ဥေ ေကအြျို ့ သာဥေ ေနှင့်ညီ သာ အြွင့်အ ရးများနှင့်
ဥေ ေနှင့်ညီ သာ မှားယွင်းမှုများကို အသိအမှတ်ဖေုထားသည်။ ယင်းဥေ ေသည်
တရားရုံးများဥေ ေ ရှ ့ မှာက်သို ့ ရာက်ရိှ ာ သာ တရားစွဲဆိုမမ

ှု ျားကို
စွမ်း ဆာင်နိုင်သည်။ ထို ့ ကကာင့် နစ်နာမှုရှိ သာ် ည်း (ဥေမာ-
မှားယွင်းမှုဖေု ေ
ု ်ပေီး) ဥေ ေကအဆိုေါမှားယွင်းမှုသည် ဥေ ေနှင့် ညီသကဲ့သုိ ့
အသိအမှတ်ဖေုမထား ျှင် နစ်နာသူသည် ေး ျာ်ဖြင်းကိုမရရှိနိုင် ေ။
1.1 Nature of Tort
တရားနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေ၏သ ောသောဝ
The Law of Tort as administered Myanmar courts is the
English Law of Torts, so far as it is applicable to our own
circumstances. The word "Tort" is derived from the Latin word
Tortum meaning conduct which is crooked or twisted as opposed to that of
rectum which is right or straight.

4
ဖမန်မာတရားရုံးများက သတ်မှတ် သာတရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေမှာ
အ္ဂ ိေတ
် ို ့၏ တရားမ နစ်နာမှုဥေ ေေင်ဖြစ်သည်။ တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေသည်
က်တင်စကား Tortum မှ ဆင်းသက် ာသည်။ ဆို ိုသည်မှာ
မရိုးမ ဖြာင့် သာ သို ့မဟုတ် က ိန်ကကျစ်ဖေု ုေ် သာ အဖေုအမူဖြစ်ပေီး
ဖြာင့်မှန် သာ သို ့မဟုတ် တည့်မတ် မှန်ကန် သာ အမှုစွဲဆိုြရ

ံ ဖြင်းနှင့်
ဆနက ့် ျင်ေက် ဖြစ်သည် ။
A tort is a class of civil wrong or civil injury. A civil wrong
gives rise to a civil proceeding. The purpose of a civil proceeding is
to enforce some rights claimed by the plaintiff as against the
defendant such as:
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေသည် တရားမဆိုငရ

် ာမှားယွင်းမှုသို ့မဟုတ်
တရားမဆိုငရ
် ာ နစ်နာမှု ဖြစ်သည်။ တရားမဆိုငရ
် ာမှားယွင်းမှုသည်
တရားမ ကကာင်း စွဲဆိုမှုကိုဖြစ် စသည်။ တရားမ တရားစွဲဆိုဖြင်း၏
ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မာှ တရားပေိုင်ကို ဆနက ့် ျင်၍ တရား ိုက တာင်းဆို သာ
အြျို ့ သာ အြွင့်အ ရးများကို အ ရးယူ ဆာင်ရွက်ရန်ဖြစ်သည်။
(1) Recovery of debt,
အ ကကးဖေန် ည်ရရှိ ိုမှု
(2) Restitution of property,
ေစ္စည်းဖေန် ည်ရရှိ ိုမှု
(3) Specific performance of contract,

5
ေဋိညာဉ်ကိုသီးဖြား ဆာင်ရွက် ေး စ ိုမှု
(3) Recovery of damages for an injury committed of,
ကျူး ွန်ြဲ့ သာနစ်နာမှုအတွက် ျာ် ကကးဖေန် ည်ရရှိ ိုမှု
(5) To issue injunction for stopping the wrongful conduct.
မှားယွင်း သာအဖေုအမူကိုတားဖမစ်ရန်အတွက်တားဝရမ်းထုတ် ေး စ ိုမှု
1.2. Definition of Tort
တရားမနစ်နာမှု၏အဓိေ္ပာယ်
Tort has been made to define tort but not in success. Dr. Ba
Han, alearned person and a former Professor Emeritus of Law,
Yangon University, defined "tort" as:
Tort is the name of civil wrongs (not being merely breaches of
contract) for which there is a remedy by action in courts of common
law jurisdiction.
Dr. Ba Han က တရားမနစ်နာမှုသည် တရားမ ကကာင်းဆိုငရ

် ာ
မှားယွင်းမှုဖြစ်ပေီး (ေဋိ ညာဉ် ြာက်ြျက်မသ

ှု ာ ျှင်မဟုတ်)
အ္ဂ ိေ်ရးို ရာဥေ ေအရ စီရင်ေိုင်ြွင့်ရှိ သာ တရားစွဲ ဆိုဖြင်းဖြင့်ကုစားမှုရှိသည်။
Underhill, defined "tort" as: An act or omission which
independent of contract is authorized by law and results either in the
infringement of same absolute right, to which another is entitled or

6
in the infliction upon him of some substantial loss of money, health
or material comfort…….. beyond that suffered by the rest of the
public, and which infringement or infliction of loss is remediable by
action for damages.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဆိုသည်မှာ ဥေ ေအရအြွင့်အာဏာ ေးထား သာ
ေဋိညာဉ်နှင့် ကင်း ွတ် န သာ ဖေု ုေ်မှု သို ့မဟုတ် ေျက်ကွက်မှုဖြစ်ပေီး အဖြားသူ
ရသင့် သာအြွင့်အ ရးကို ြျိုး ြာက်မှု သို ့မဟုတ် ငွ၊ ကျန်းမာ ရး ၊သို ့မဟုတ်
ကကီးမား သာအဆင် ဖေမှုကို ထိြိုက် စ သာ ဖေု ုေ်မှုဖြစ်သည်။
ထိဖု ေု ုေ်မှု ကကာင့် ဆုံးရှုံးမှုသည် ျာ် ကကးရရန် တရားစွဲဆိုမဖှု ြင့်
ကုစားနိုင်သည်။
According to Lord Denning, Tort means:
“The Province of tort is to allocate responsibility for injurious
conduct”. According to the definition of the University Oxford
Dictionary, "tort" is “A civil or private wrong”. Tort is not an
enacted law we can therefore say that it is a customary law which is
the outcome of the English common law.
Lord Denning ၏အဆိုအရ တရားမနစ်နာမှုဆိုသည်မှာ
နစ်နာ စ သာအဖေုအမူအတွက် တာဝန်ရှိမသ

ှု တ်မှတ် ေးရန်ဖြစ်သည်။
University Oxford Dictionary က တရားမနစ်နာ မှုသည်
တရားမဆိုငရ
် ာသို ့မဟုတ် ေု္္ဂ က
ိ ဆိုင်ရာမှားယွင်းမှုဖြစ်သည်။
7
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် ဖေဌာန်းထား သာ ဥေ ေမရှိ ေ။ ထို ့ ကကာင့် ကျွနုေ်တို ့သည်
ဓ ့ထံးု တမ်းဆိုငရ
် ာ ဥေ ေဖြစ်ပေီး အ္ဂ ိေ်ရးို ရာဥေ ေမှ
ေါ် ေါ် ာသည်ဟု ဖောကကသည်။
The law of tort therefore is concerned with those situations
where the conduct of one party causes or threatens harm to the
interests of other parties.
ထို ့ ကကာင့် တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေသည် ူတစ် ယာက်၏အဖေုအမူသည်
တဖြား သာ သူများ၏ အကျိုး ကျးဇူးကို အန္တရာယ်ဖြစ် စရန်
ပြိမ်း ဖြာက်မစ
ှု သာ အ ဖြအ နများနှင့် သက်ဆိုင်သည်။
Thus the essential aim of the law of tort is to compensate those
who have suffered harm through the invasion of certain of their
interest occasioned by the conduct of others. In fact tort really
protects the interests of the people at large.
ထို ့ ကကာင့်တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေ၏ မရှိမဖြစ် သာရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မာှ
အဖြားသူတစ် ယာက် ၏အဖေုအမူ ကကာင့် ဖြစ် ာ သာနစ်နာမှုမှတစ်ဆင့်
အန္တရာယ် ြံစားရ သာ သူများကို ျာ် ကကး ေးရန် ဖြစ်သည်။
အမှန်မှာတရားမနစ်နာမှုသည် များဖေား သာ ူများ၏
ကျိုး ကျးဇူးကိုအမှန်တကယ်ကာကွယ် ေးရန်ဖြစ်သည်။

8
1.3 Differences between Tort and Contract
တရားမနစ်နာမှုနှင့် ေဋိညာဉ် ြာက်ြျက်မတ

ှု ို ့၏ ဖြားနားြျက်များ
(1) Not all civil injuries are torts. No civil injury is to be
classified as a tort,
unless the appropriate remedy for an action for damages.
တရားမ ကကာင်းဆိုငရ
် ာ ထိြိုက်မှုများအား းုံ သည် တရားမနစ်နာမှု
မဟုတ် ေ။ တရားမ ကကာင်းဆိုငရ

် ာ ထိြိုက်မှုကို ျာ် ကကးအတွက်
တရားစွဲဆိုမမ
ှု ှာ သင့် တာ် သာ ကုစားမှုမရှိ ျှင် တရားမနစ်နာမှုဟု
အမျိုးအစားမြွဲဖြားြဲ့ ေ။
(2) In tort, the duties are created by operation of law, but the
contractual duty may be said to spring from agreement of the parties.
In other words, in contract,the contracted parties impose terms and
conditions themselves by theiragreement.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် တာဝန်ဝတ္တ ရားရှိမှုကို ဥေ ေတွင် ဖေဋ္ဌာန်းထားသည်။
သို ့ သာ် ေဋိညာဉ်ဆိုင်ရာတာဝန်သည် စာြျုေ်ြျုေ်ဆိုသတ

ူ ို ့၏ သ ောတူညီြျက်မှ
ေါ် ေါက် ာသည်။ တနည်းအားဖြင့် သတ်မှတ် ေးဖြင်းဖြစ်ပေီး ူ ့အြွဲ ့အစည်း
တစ်ရေ် ံးု အ ေါ်တွင် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။ ေဋိညာဉ် စည်းကမ်းြျက်များကို ေဋိညာဉ်
ဖေုသူများ၏ သ ောတူညြ
ီ ျက်ထားရှိသည်အ
့ ျာက် တာဝန်ကို
သတ်မှတ်ထားသည်။
9
(3) In tort, the duties are fixed by law. The aim of contract is
always to protectthe same single interest; i.e., in contract the duty is
towards specific person orpersons. On the other hand, in tort the duty
is always towards persons generally.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် တာဝန်များကိုဥေ ေက သတ်မှတ်ထားသည်။
ေဋိညာဉ်၏ ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်သည်
တူညီ သာတစ်ြုတည်း သာအကျိုးကိုကာကွယ်ရန်ဖြစ်သည်။ ေဋိညာဉ်တွင်
တာဝန်ရှိမှုသည် သီးဖြား ူေု္္ဂို ်တစ်ဦး သို ့မဟုတ် ူေု္္ဂို ်များကို ရှးရှုသည်။
တေက်တွင် တရားမနစ်နာမှု၌ တာဝန်သည် အပမဲတမ်းေင် ူေု္္ဂို ်များ
ေါ်တွင်ကျ ရာက်သည်။
(4) It is often the case however that the same wrong is both a
breach of contract and a tort.
တစ်ြါတစ်ရံတွင် တူညီ သာမှားယွင်မှုရှိပေီး ေဋိညာဉ်ြျိုး ြာက်မှု နှင့်
တရားမ နစ်နာမှု ည်း ဖြစ် စနိုင်သည်။
Example (1): A medical practitioner who negligently treats his
patient may havebroken an implied term in his contract to take
reasonable care to his patient, andat the same time his conduct will
constitute an invasion of a tort protectedinterest,.
ဆးဆရာဝန်တစ် ယာက်သည် သူ၏ ူနာကို ေါ့ဆစွာကုသဖြင်းသည်
ူနာ အ ေါ် ထိုက်သင့် သာ ္ရုစိုက်မှုကို ဖေု ုေ်ရန် သွယ်ဝိုကပ် ေီး

10
သ ောတူထားသည် ေဋိညာဉ်ကို ြျိုး ြာက်ရာ ရာက်သည်။
တစ်ြျိန်တည်းမှာေင် သူ၏အဖေုအမူသည် အကျိုးစီးေွားကို ကာကွယရ

် န်
ေျက်ကွက်၍ တရားမနစ်နာမှုဖြစ် စသည်။
(5) Some people therefore refer tort as the law of damages. But
we must not beconfused with the action for damages in respect of
breach of contract. Breach ofcontract is not a tort.
အြျို ့ သာသူများက တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥေ ေကို နစ်နာ ကကးဥေ ေကဲ့သို ့
ရည်ညွှန်းသည်။ သို ့ သာ် ေဋိညာဉ်ြျိုး ြာက်မန

ှု ှင့် ေတ်သက်၍
နစ်နာ ကကးအတွက် တရားစွဲဆိုမန

ှု ှင့် မရှုေ် ထွး စရ။ ေဋိညာဉ်ြျိုး ြာက်မသ
ှု ည်
တရားမနစ်နာမှုမဟုတ် ေ။
(6) In contract, because of his promise to restore it in due
course was notfulfilled; and in tort, because no one has the right to
detain another's propertywithout special justification.
ေဋိညာဉ်တွင် ထိက
ု ်သင့် သာအ ဖြအ နတွင်
န္ိုအတိင
ု ်းရှိရန်ဆို သာကတိကို မ ဆာင် ရွက်နိုငဖ် ြင်းဖြစ်သည်။
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် မည်သမ
ူ ျှတမှုရှိ ကကာင်း ုံ ာက် သာ အ ထာက်
အထားမရှိေဲနှင့် အဖြားသူတစ်ဦး၏ေစ္စည်းကို ထိန်းသိမ်းထားရန်
အြွင့်အ ရးမရှိ ေ။
Example (2):
11
The same circumstances may give rise to a breach of contract
and a tort. If Ahires a taxi driven by B, and B by dangerous driving
injuries the passenger, A, the latter will have a cause of action for (i)
breach of a contractual duty of care, and (ii) the tort of negligence.
ဥေမာ
တူညီ သာအ ဖြအ နများမှ ေဋိညာဉ်ြျိုး ြာက်မန

ှု ှင့် တရားမနစ်နာမှုများဖြစ် ေါ်
နိုငသ
် ည်။ ( အ) က (ေီ) မာင်းနှင် သာ အငှားကားကိုငှားသည်။ (ေီ) က
အန္တရာယ်ရှိစွာ မာင်းနှင် ဖြင်းဖြင့် ြရီးသည်များကိုထိြိုက် စသည်။ ( အ) သည်
(ေီ) ကို (၁) ္ရုစိုက်ရမည့် တာဝန်ြျိုး ြာက်မှု (၂) ေါ့ဆမှုဆိုင်ရာတရားမှုဖြင့်
တရားစွဲဆိုရန် အ ကကာင်းရှိသည်။
1.4. Differences between Tort and Crime
တရားမနစ်နာမှုနှင့် ဖေစ်မှုဖြားနားြျက်များ။
A tort is quite different from a crime.
The first difference can be seen in the nature of committing a
wrongful act. A tort is an infringement of legal rights of a person,
which he has the right to enjoy them privately.
ေထမဖြားနားြျက်မာှ မှားယွင်း သာ အဖေုအမူတစ်ြုကို
ကျူး န
ွ ်သည့်သောဝကို ဖမင်နိုင်သည်။ တရားမနစ်နာမှုသည်
12
ေု္္ဂ က
ိ အြွင့်အ ရးကို ြံစားြွင့်ရှိ သာ သူတစ် ယာက်၏
ဥေ ေ ရးရာအြွင့်အ ရးကို ထိေါးဖြင်းဖြစ်သည်။
Whereas a crime is a breach of public rights and duties affect
the community as a whole. In fact, the function of criminal law is to
protect the interests of the public at large or the state.
ဖေစ်မှုတွင် အများဖေည်သန
ူ ှင့် သက်ဆိုင် သာအြွင့်အ ရးတစ်ရေ်ကို
ြျိုး ြာက် သည့်အတွက် ူ ့အြွဲ ့အစည်းတစ်ရေ် ံးု ကို ၀တ္တ ရားေျက်ကွက်
ဖြင်းဖြစ်၏။ အမှန်မှာ ဖေစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာ ဥေ ေ၏ ုေ်ငန်းမှာ
နိုင်ငံ တာ်တွင်ရှိ နကက သာ ဖေည်သမ

ူ ျား၏အကျိုးကို ကာကွယ် ရန်ဖြစ်သည်။
Secondly, the wrongdoer is to compensate the injured party,
i.e., he has to pay damages for the injury he has done. A crime is a
wrong, the sanction of which involves punishment.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် အမှားဖေုသူကနစ်နာဖြင်းြံရသူအား
ျာ် ကကး ေးရသည်။ ဖေစ်မှု တွင် နိုင်ငံက ူ ့အြွဲ ့အစည်းတစ်ရေ် ံးု အတွက်
ဖေစ်ေဏ် ေးသည်။
The courts in giving punishment used to give death penalty,
imprisonment, pecuniary fines or otherwise as the law permits.
တရားရုံးများသည် သေဏ်၊ ထာင်ေဏ်၊ ငွေဏ်တို ့ကို ေးရန် သို ့မဟုတ်
ဥေ ေက ြွင့ဖေုထား သာ အဖြားနည်းဖြင့် ဖေစ်ေဏ် ေးနိုင်သည်။

13
Thirdly, in tort, the action is brought by the injured party,
whereas in crime, proceedings are conducted by the State.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် နစ်နာသူကတရား အ
ို ဖြစ် တရားစွဲဆိုသည်။
ဖေစ်မှုတွင် နစ်နာဖြင်းြံရသူက အမှုကိုတိုင်ကကားသူသာဖြစ်ပေီး တရား ိုမှာ
နိုင်ငံအစိုးရဖြစ်၍ ဖေစ်မှု ကျူး ွန်သူအား နိုင်ငံက ဖေစ်ေဏ် ေးသည်။
Lastly, in tort, the courts in enforcing the rights claimed by the
plaintiff usually do not consider the intention of the wrongdoer. But,
in crime, the Courts always consider the intention or mensrea of the
accused in the enforcement of punishment.
တရားရုံးက တရား ို တာင်းဆို သာအြွင့်အ ရးကို
အ ကာင်အထည် ြာ် ဆာင်ရွက် ေးသည်။ အမှားဖေုသူတွင် ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်
ရှ/ိ မရှိဆိုသည့်အြျက်မာှ မစဉ်းစား ေ။ ဖေစ်မှုတွင် တရားရုံးက ဖေစ်မှုအတွက်
ဖေစ်ေဏ်ြျမှတ်ရာတွင် ရည်ရွယ်ြျက် သို ့မဟုတ် အဖေစ်ရှိ သာ စိတ်ကို
အပမဲတမ်းထည်သ
့ င
ွ ်းစဉ်းစားသည်။
Very often, we can see that the same wrong is civil as well as
criminal assault, libel, theft and malicious injury to property, are
wrongs of this kind. In such cases, the civil and criminal remedies
are not alternative, but concurrent, each being independent of the
other. The wrongdoer may be punished criminally or by a civil
action.
14
မကကာြဏဆိုသ ို တူညီ သာမှာယွင်းမှုသည် တရားမမှုဖြစ်ပေီး
ဖေစ်မှု ည်း ဖြစ်သည်။ က် ရာက်မ၊ှု စာနှင့်အသ ရြျက်မ၊ှု ြိုးမှု၊ ေစ္စည်းကို
မသမာ သာစိတ်ဖြင့် တရားမမှုနှင့် ဖေစ်မှုနှစ်ရေ် ံးု
ကျူး ွန်ရာ ရာက် သာအမှုများ ဖြစ်သည်။ ဤကိစ္စတွင် တရားမနစ်နာ စ
ဖြင်းနှင့် ဖေစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာ ကုစားမှုများသည် ဖောင်း ည်း၍မရေဲ အပေိုင်ဖြစ်သည်။
တစ်ြုနှင့် တစ်ြု တ
ွ ် ေ်သည်။ အမှားဖေုသူကိုဖေစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာ အရ
အဖေစ် ေးနိုင်သည်။ သို ့မဟုတ် တရားမ ကကာင်းအရ ည်း စွဲဆိုနိုင်သည်။
Example:
If A steals B’s coat, there is (i) a crime of theft, and (ii)
trespass to goods
(a tort) and conversion (also a tort).
( အ) သည် (ေီ) ၏အက်ျီကို ြိုးယူသည်။ ထိအ

ု ရာသည် (၁)
ြိုးမှုကိုကျူး ွန်ဖြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ (၂)
ေစ္စည်း ကျာ်နင်းမှု (တရားမ) နှင့် တရားမနစ်နာမှု အသွင် ဖောင်း ည်းဖြစ်သည်။
If X assault Y, there is both a crime and a tort.
(အိေ်က်စ်) သည် (ဝိုင်) ကို က် ရာက်မှုကျူး ွန်သည်။ ထိက

ု ျူး ွန်ဖြင်းသည်
ဖေစ်မှုနှင့် တရားမနစ်နာမှု နှစ်မျိုးစ ုံးဖြစ်သည်။
Finally, in Tort, the Court would not take into consideration the
intention ofthe wrongdoer,i.e., whether the wrong is done

15
intentionally or not, ifthere is an invasion of a legal right, the Court
will give remedy to theinjured party.
In Crime to make wrongdoer responsible for the wrong
committed by him, the Court will consider the mensrea of the
accused.
နိ္ုံးြျုေ်အ နဖြင့် တရားမနစ်နာမှု၌ တရားရုံးသည်အမှားဖေုသူ၏
ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်ကို ထည့သ
် င
ွ ်း မစဉ်းစားေဲ မှားယွင်းမှုကိုရည်ရွယ်ြျက်နင
ှ ့်
ုေ်သည်ဖြစ် စ၊ မ ုေ်သည်ဖြစ် စ၊ ဥေ ေအြွင့်အ ရးကိုနစ်နာ စမှုဖြစ် စ ျှင်
တရားရုံးကနစ်နာသူကိုကုစားြွင့် ေးဖြစ်သည်။ ဖေစ်မှု တွင် အမှားဖေုသူ
ကျူး ွန်ြဲ့ သာ အမှားဖေုမှုအတွက် တာဝန်ယူရန် တရားရုံးက အမှားဖေု
သူ၏အဖေစ်ရှိ သာစိတ်ကို ထည့သ

် င
ွ ်းစဉ်းစားသည်။
Key terms
Tort= တရားမနစ်နာမှု
Ubj jus ibiremedium= အြွင့်အ ရးတစ်ရေ် သို ့မဟုတ် အကျိုးြံစားြွင့်တစ်ရေ်
ရှိ ျှင် သက်သာြွင့် ည်းရှိရမည်ဖြစ်သည်။
Remedy= ကုစားြွင့်
Civil injury= တရားမ ကကာင်းဆိုငရ

် ာထိြိုက်မှု
Compensation= ျာ် ကကး
Pecuniary fine= ငွေဏ်

16
Infringement= ြျိုး ြာက်မှု
Invasion= နစ်နာမှု
Wrongdoer= အမှားဖေုသူ
Injured party= နစ်နာ သာအမှုသည်
Concurrent= အပေိုင်ဖြစ် သာ
Enforcement= အ ရးယူ ဆာင်ရွက်ဖြင်း
Punishment= ဖေစ်ေဏ်
Theft= ြိုးမှု
Malicious = မသမာ သာစိတ်
Exercise Questions
1. What are the differences between “tort” and “contract”?

(Assignment)
2. Give fine definitions between “tort” and “crime”. (Assignment)
3. What is the purpose of a civil proceeding? (Short Question)
4. Define a tort. (Short Question)
1
Chapter 2
Ingredients to constitute a Tort
2.1 Legal Wrong 2
2.2 Legal Damage 4
2.3. Legal Remedy 11
2.4 Basic Factors to constitute a Tort 12
2.4.1. Damage 13
2.4.2 Malice 14
2.4.3. Intention 17
2.4.4 Motive 18
Key Terms 19
Questions 20
2
Chapter 2
Ingredients to constitute a Tort
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဖြစ်ရန် လိအ
ု ပ်ချက်များ
အအာက်ပါ အဓိကလိအ
ု ပ်ချက်သံးု ချက်နင
ှ ့် ဖပည့်စုံမှသာလျှင် တရားမ
နစ်နာမှု ဖြစ်သည်။
(1) Legal wrong
ဥပအေကတားဖမစ်ထားအသာအမှားကိုတရားပပိုင်ကဖပုလုပ်ရမည်။
(2) Legal damage
တရားလိုအားဥပအေက အသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာ နစ်နာဖခင်းမျိုးဖြင့်
နစ်နာအစ ရမည်။
(3) Legal remedy
တရားဥပအေအရကုစားခွင့်ရှိရမည်။
2.1 Legal Wrong
ဥပအေကတားဖမစ်ထားအသာအမှားဖပုလုပ်မှု
There must be an infringement of a legal right. As there are
many legally protected interests, anyone who infringes such a right
will be liable in an action for tort. The duty is concerned with the
3
right under the law of tort and to abstain from inflicting harm to
other's person, property, reputation, etc.
ဥပအေအရးရာ အခွင့်အအရးတစ်ရပ်ကို ချိုးအြာက်ဖခင်းဖြစ်ရမည် ယင်းအခွင့်
အအရးကို ဥပအေနှင့်အညီ အကာအကွယ်အပးထားသည်ဖြစ်ရာ အခွင့အ

် အရး
တစ်ရပ် ချိုးအြာက်ခရ
ံ လျှင် ချိုးအြာက်သူအား တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥပအေနှင့်အညီ
အအရးယူခံရမည် ဖြစ်သည်။ တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥပအေအရ အခွင့်အအရးတစ်ရပ်သည်
တာဝန်နှင့် ဆက်နွယ်အနပပီး အဖခားသူတစ်ဦးပစ္စည်းနှင့် အမည်ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
ထိခိုက်အစဖခင်းမှ အရှာင်ကျဉ်ရမည့် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။
'Wrong' means crooked or twisted conduct, as opposed to
which is straight or right for individuals who suffer personal injury,
death or physical damage to or loss of property caused by an act or
omission which might be intentional, accidental or caused by
negligence.
မှားယွင်မှုဆိုသည်မှာ မရိုးမအဖြာင့်သို ့မဟုတ် ကလိန်ကကျစ်ဖပုလုပ်အသာ
အဖပုအမူဖြစ်ပပီး အဖြာင့်မှန်အသာ သို ့မဟုတ် တည့်မတ်မှန်ကန်အသာ အဖပုအမူနှင့်
ဆနက ့် ျင်ဘက် ဖြစ်သည် မှားယွင်းမှုအ ကာင့် လူပုဂ္ဂိုလ်တစ်ဦးချင်း နစ်နာမှု၊
အသဆုံးမှုနှင့် ကိုယခ
် န္ဓာပျက်ဆီးမှု သို ့မဟုတ် ပစ္စည်းဆုံးရှုံးမှုဖြစ်အစအသာ အဖပုအမူ
သို ့မဟုတ် ပျက်ကွက်မှုသည် အပါ့ဆမှုအ ကာင့် ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြင့်၊ အမှတ်မထင်
ဖြစ်အစဖခင်း ဖြစ်သည်။
4
Therefore, for every wrongful act which the law recognizes
as legal, an injured party may have the right to compensate for the
damage done to him.
ထို ့အ ကာင့်ဥပအေကအသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာမှားယွင်းစွာအဆာင်ရွက်မတ
ှု ိုင်း
အတွက်ထခ
ိ ိုက်နစ်နာသူ၏ဆုံးရှုံးမှုအတွက်အလျာ်အ ကးရရန်အခွင့်အအရးရှိသည်။
2.2 Legal Damage
ဥပအေကအသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာနစ်နာဖခင်း
It is not for every injury that a person may sustain in the course
of everyday life that he or she can recover compensation. It can only
be recovered if that injury is due to the fault of somebody who owes

2
a duty to that person. Only when such damage is recognized as
legal then the plaintiff will be successful.
အန ့စဉ် ကုံအတွ အနရသည့

့ ် လူမှုဘဝတွင်ခံစားရအသာ နစ်နာမှုတိုင်းအတွက်
အလျာ်အ ကးရရှိနိုင်မည်မဟုတအ
် ပ။ လူတစ်အယာက်၏ တာဝန်ပျက်ကွက်မှုအ ကာင့်
ဖြစ်အပါ်အသာနစ်နာဆုံးရှုံးမှုကို ဖပန်လည်ရရှိနိုင်ရမ
ုံ ျှသာဖြစ်သည်။ နစ်နာမှုသည်
ဥပအေက အသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာ နစ်နာမှုဖြစ်မှသာလျှင် ဥပအေနှင့်အညီ
တရားလို၏တရားစွဲဆို မှုအအာင်ဖမင်မည်။
The real significance of legal damage is illustrated by two
maxims;
5
တရားဥပအေအ ကာင်းဆိုငရ
် ာနစ်နာမှုကိုအအာက်ပါအဆာင်ပုေ်နှစ်ခုဖြင့်
ခွဲဖခားသတ်မှတ်ထားသည်။
နစ်နာမှုမပါအသာ တရားဥပအေက အသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာ အခွင့်အအရးကို
ချိုးအြာက်မ။ှု
တရားဥပအေအရချိုးအြာက်မမ
ှု ပါအသာနစ်နာမှု။
နစ်နာမှုမပါအသာ တရားဥပအေက အသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာ အခွင့်အအရးကို
ချိုးအြာက်မ။ှု
3
In Ashby vs. White case the defendant, a returning officer,
wrongfully refused to register a duty tendered vote of the plaintiff, a
legally qualified voter, and the candidate for whom, the vote was
tendered was elected. So, there was no loss or damage suffered by
the plaintiff, by such rejection of the vote. But still, the Court held
that an action lay. We can see that in this case the returning officer
had acted maliciously. But where a returning officer although there
was no practice of malice or improper motive on his part, honesty
refused to receive the vote of a person entitled to vote at an election,

4
it was held that no action lay.
6
*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် ဥပအေအရ အရည်အချင်းနှင့်ဖပည့်စုံသူမဲဆန္ဒရှင် တစ်ဦးအား
မဲအပးခွင့်မဖပုသဖြင့် မဲရအ
ုံ ရာရှိအား မဲဆန္ဒရှင်က တရားစွဲဆိုသည်။ ယင်းမဲဆန္ဒရှင်
မဲထည့်လုသ
ိ ူမှာ အနိုင်ရရှိသဖြင့် မဲဆန္ဒရှင်တွင် နစ်နာဖခင်းမရှိအသာ်လည်း
တရားဥပအေအရ ရရှိအသာအခွင့်အအရးကို ဆုံးရှုံးအစသည့်အတွက် မဲရအ

ုံ ရာရှိအား
မဲဆန္ဒရှင်၏အခွင့်အအရးဆုံးရှုံးမှုအတွက် အလျာ်အ ကးအပးအစအလသည်။

7
Thus in Marzetti v. Williams case an action will lie against a
banker, having sufficient funds in his hands belonging to a customer,
for refusing to honour his Cheque; although the customer did not
thereby sustain actual loss or damage. So if there be an infringement
of a legal right, without actual damage, the person whose right has
been infringed can bring a suit under the provisions of section (42)
of the Specific Relief Act. Hence, whenever a person sustained of a
legal wrong, he may bring an action without being under necessity of
proving special damage.

**
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် လည်း တရားလိုသည်ဘဏ်၌ အငွအပ်နှံထားသည်ကို
ထုတ်ရန်အ တွက်ချက်လက်မှတ်တစ်အစာင်အရးအပးလိက
ု ်ရာ ဘဏ်မန်အနဂျာက
အငွထုတ်အပးရန် ဖငင်း ဆိုလက

ို ်သည်။ ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ဖငင်းဆိုလက
ို ်သည့်အတွက်
တရားလိုတွင် နစ်နာမှု မရှိအသာ်လည်း တရားလို၏အငွထတ

ု ်ယူပိုင်ခွင့်
*
Ashby v. White (1708) 2Ld.Raym, 938,955
**
MarzettiV.Williams, (1830) 1B &AD, 415
7
အခွင့်အအရးကို ပိတ်ပင်တားဖမစ် သဖြင့် ဘဏ်မန်အနဂျာအား တရားစွဲ
ဆိုခင
ွ ့်ရှိသည်။
In MaungThitsa (Appellant) v. Maung Nat (Respondent) case,
a leading case, the appellant and respondent were lessees of
adjoining fisheries. The respondent erected certain akese which had
the effect of obstructing the passage, of fish to the appellant's fishery.
The plaintiff-appellant has claimed Rs. 1,320 for damages. The
appellant's suit was decreed in the trial Court, but was dismissed in
the Appellate Court on the ground of there being no proof of special
damage. Held that, the respondent had infringed the right of the
appellant by obstructing the free passage of fish to his fishery; where
there has been an infringement of a legal right an action for damages
*
အမှုတစ်ခု တွင်အယူခံတရားလိုနှင့်တရားပပိုင်တို ့သည်တစ်ဆက်
တည်းဖြစ်အသာ ငါးအင်းကို အငှားလုပ်ကိုင် ကသူများဖြစ် ကသည်။ တရားပပိုင်က
အယူခံတရားလို၏ ငါးအင်းအတွင်းသို ့ ငါးများ၀င်အရာက်ဖခင်း ကိုတားဆီး
အစသည့် ဝါးများစိုက်ထသ
ူ ည့် အတွက် အယူခံတရားလို၏ ငါးအင်းအတွင်းသို ့
ငါးများမဝင်သဖြင့် အယူခံတရားလိုက တရားစွဲဆိုရာ အအာက်ရးုံ က
အယူခံတရားလိုအားအနိုင်အပးခဲ့အသာ်လည်းပထမအယူခံရးုံ က
*
MaungThit Sa V. Maung Nat, 1 B.L.T., 146
8
အထူးနစ်နာမှုရှိအ ကာင်း သက်အသသာဓကမရှိသည့အ

် တွက် အအာက်ရးုံ ၏အမိနက့် ို
ပယ်ြျက်ခ့သ
ဲ ည်။ အယူခံတရားလိုက အအာက်ဖမန်မာနိုင်ငံတရားရုံးချုပ်သို ့
ေုတိယအကကိမ် အထူးအယူခံ၀င်ရာ တရားရုံးချုပ်ကတရားပပိုင်သည် အယူခံ
တရားလို၏ ငါးအင်း အတွင်းသို ့ ငါးများလွတ်လပ်စွာ ၀င်နိုင်သည့်လမ်းအ ကာင်း
ကို ပိတဖ် ခင်းသည် အယူခံတရားလို၏ အခွင့်အအရးကို ချိုးအြာက်ဖခင်းဖြစ်သည်။
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ တရားဥပအေက ခွငဖ့် ပုထားသည့အ

် ခွင့်အအရးကို ချိုးအြာက်သည့်
အခါမျိုးတွင် အထူးနစ်နာမှုများကို သက်အသသာဓကများမဖပဘဲအလျာ်အ ကးရရန်
ိ ်သည်ဟု ဆုံးဖြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
တရားဥပအေအရချိုးအြာက်မမ
12
In Gloucester Grammar School Case, the plaintiff
complained that he had to reduce his fees at his school because of the
competition of the defendant, who set up a rival school, was held to
have no remedy. This is because English Law has accepted
fundamental doctrine of free competition. Competition or other acts
damaging a man in his business are tortious only if, the act causing
damage is deemed unlawful or wrongful.

*
အမှုတစ်ခု တွင် တရားလိုသည် စာသင်အကျာင်းတစ်အကျာင်းကို ြွင့်ထားရာ
ယင်းအကျာင်းနှင့်အနီးတွင်
*
Per Hankford. J. in Gloueester Grammar School, (1410) Y.B. 11 Hen IV for.27 p1.21,22.
9
တရားပပိုင်ကအနာက်ထပ်အကျာင်းတစ်အကျာင်းြွင့်လှစ်ရာ အနာက်ြင
ွ ့်အသာ
တရားပပိုင် ၏အကျာင်းသို ့ တရားလို၏ အကျာင်းမှအကျာင်းသားများ အဖပာင်းအရွ ့
သွား ကသဖြင့် တရားလိုက ၄င်း၏နစ်နာမှုအတွက် တရားပပိုင်အား
တရားစွဲဆိုသည်။ တရားရုံးကတရားပပိုင် အကျာင်းအသစ်ယှဉ်ပပိုင်ြွင့် လှစ်ဖခင်း
သည် တရားဥပအေကို ချိုးအြာက်ဖခင်းမဟုတ် ဥပအေက တရားလိတ

ု စ်ဦးတည်း
ကိုသာ အကျာင်းြွင့်ခွင့်အပးထားဖခင်းမဟုတ။် မည်သမ

ူ ဆို အကျာင်းြွင့်နိုင်ခွင့်
ရှိသည်။ လူတိုင်းတွင် တရားမျှတအသာ ယှဉ်ပပိုင်ခွင့်ရှိသဖြင့် တရားပပိုင်
တွင်လည်း အကျာင်းြွင့်ခွင့်ရှိသည်။ အကယ်၍သာတရားပပိုင်သည် တရားလို၏
အကျာင်းမှ ကအလးများကို အတင်းဆွဲ၍အခါ်ဖခင်း၊ ၄င်း၏အကျာင်းသို ့ အဖပာင်းအရွ ရန်

့
အသွးအဆာင်ဖခင်း၊ တရားလို၏အကျာင်းသို ့ မတက်ရအ

ဲ အာင် အချာက်လှနဖခင် ့် းများ
ဖပုလုပ်မည်ဆိုပါက တရား ဥပအေအရ သူတစ်ပါး၏ အခွင့်အအရးကိုထိခိုက်သဖြင့်
ိ ်မည်။ သာမန် အားဖြင့်မူ တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်ဟုဆုံးဖြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
In Mogul Steamship Co. case, there is apparent conflict of two
rights that are equally regarded by the law: the right of the plaintiffs
to be protected in the legitimate exercise of their trade, and the right
of the defendants to carry on their business as seem best to them,
provided they commit no wrong to others.
ဤအမှုတွင် ဥပအေအရ တူညီစွာ သတ်မှတ်ထားအသာ အခွင့်အအရးနှစ်ခုနှင့်
ပတ်သက်၍ ထင်ရှားအသာအဖငင်းပွားမှုရှိသည်။ တရားလိမ

ု ျား၏အခွင့်အအရးကို
ကုနသ
် ယ
ွ မ
် ှုနှင့် ပတ်သက်အသာတရားဝင် ကျင့်သုံးမှုတွင် အကာအကွယ်အပးထား
10
ခဲ့သည်။ တရားပပိုင်များသည်လည်း သူတို ့၏ စီပွားအရးလုပ်ငန်းများကို
အဆာင်ရွက်ရန် အခွင့်အအရးသည် သူတို ့ကို အအကာင်းဆုံးဖြစ်အစသည်။
The defendants are a number of ship-owners who formed
themselves into a League or Conference for the purpose of ultimately
keeping in their own hands of the control of the carriage from certain
Chinese ports, and for the purpose of driving the plaintiffs and other
competitors from the field. The right of competition exists even
when the means adopted are "unfair".
တရားပပိုင်များသည် သအဘောပိုင်ရှင်များဖြစ် က၍ တရုတ်ဆိပ်ကမ်းမှ
သယ်ယူ ပို ့အဆာင်အရးနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ ထိမ်းချုပ်မှုကို သူတို ့၏လက်ထတ

ဲ ွင်ထားပပီး
အဆုံးစွန်အထိ ထိမ်းသိမ်းရန်ရည်ရွယခ
် ျက်နှင့် ထို ့ဖပင်တရားလိုများနှင့် အဖခား
ယှဉ်ပပိုင်သူများကိုလည်း ယှဉ်ပပိုင်ရန်ရည်ရွယ်ပပီး သအဘောပိုင်ရှင်များ အသင်းကကီး
ကိုြွဲ ့စည်းလိက
ု ်သည်။ ၎င်းယှဉ်ပပိုင်မှုမှာ မျှတမှုမရှိဟု ချမှတ်ခဲ့လျှင်အတာင်မှ
ယှဉ်ပပိုင်မှုအခွင့်အအရးမှာ လူတိုင်းတွင်ရှိသည်။
ဥပမာ။
**
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင်လည်း (အအ)၊ (ဘီ) ၊ (စီ) နှင့် (ေီ) တို ့သည် သအဘောပိုင်ရှင်
များဖြစ် က၍ သအဘောဆိပ်ကမ်းတစ်ခုမှ တစ်ခုသို ့ လက္ဘ အဖခာက်များ တင်ပို ့သည့်
လုပ်ငန်းကို လုပ်ကိုင် ကသူများ ဖြစ် ကသည်။ ၄င်းတို ့အလးဦးပူးအပါင်း၍ ၄င်းတို ့
နှင့် အလားတူ လုပ်ငန်းမျိုးပပိုင်ဘက်လပ

ု ်ကိုင်အသာ (အီး)ကို
**
Mogul Steamship Co.V. Mc. Gregor, Gaw& Co.(1892), A.C., 25
11
လုပ်ငန်းကိုဆက်လက်၍ မလုပ်ကိုင် နိုင်ရန် အြာက်သည်ကုနသ

် ည်များကို
အထူးအစျးနှုန်းများအလျှာ့ချ၍ လက္ဘ အဖခာက်များကို သယ်ယူခွင့်ဖပုသဖြင့် ကုန်သည်
များက (အီး) နှင့် အဆက်အသွယ်ဖြတ် ကသည့် အတွက် (အီး) ၏လုပ်ငန်း
ဆုံးရှုံးသဖြင့် (အီး) က ၄င်း၏ဆုံးရှုံးမှုအတွက် (အအ)၊ (ဘီ)၊ (စီ)၊ (ေီ) အလးဦးကို
တရားစွဲဆိုရာတရားရုံးက (အီး) ၏တရားဥပအေအ ကာင်းဆိုင်ရာ အခွင့်အအရးကို
ချိုးအြာက်ဖခင်းမရှိသဖြင့် တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင် တရားမျှတအသာ ယှဉ်ပပိုင်မှုမှာ
လူတိုင်းတွင် ရှိသဖြင့် တရားစွဲဆိုပုင

ိ ်ခွင့်မရှိ ဟုဆုံးဖြတ် သည်။
2.3. Legal Remedy
တရားဥပအေအရကုစားခွင့်
The third and the last ingredient of tort is that the plaintiff
must have entitled to get a legal remedy. In fact, the law of tort is to
be a development of the maxim:
တရားဥပအေအရ ချိုးအြာက်သည့ဖ် ပစ်မှုများကို တရားဥပအေအရ

1
ကုစားခွင့် ရှိရမည်။ ယင်းအချက်နင
ှ ့်ပတ်သက်၍ အအာက်ပါအဆာင်ပုေ
်နှစ်ပုေ်ရှိသည်။
(1) ubijusibiremedium, which means that there is no wrong without a
remedy.
2
တရား၀င်အခွင့်အအရးရှိလျှင် တရား၀င်ကုစားမှုမှာ ရှိစပမဲဖြစ်သည်။
1
Legal remedy
12
(2) Where there is no legal remedy there is no legal wrong.

3
ကုစားမှုမရှိအသာမှားယွင်းမှု မရှိအချ။
22
In the Irish case of Hegarty vs. Shine, the plaintiff was
infected by her paramour with a venereal disease, the existence of
which he concealed. She sued him for assault, but her action was
dismissed, partly on the ground that mere concealment was not such
a fraud as to vitiate consent and party because

23
extrupicausanonorituraction (public policy).
*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် အမျိုးသမီးတစ်ဦးသည် အမျိုးသားတစ်ဦးနှင့် မထင်မရှား
အပါင်းသင်းရာမှ အမျိုးသားသည် အကျင့်စာရိတ္တ မအကာင်းသူဖြစ်သည့် အတွက်၊
အမျိုးသား ထံမှ အရာဂါများကူးစက်သည်။ ယင်းအတွက် အမျိုးသမီးက
အမျိုးသားထံမှ နစ်နာအ ကး ရလိအ

ု ကာင်း တရားစွဲဆိုသည့အ
် ခါ တရားရုံးက
ယုတ်ညံ့အသာ လူ ့ကျင့်၀တ်နှင့် မညီသည့်ကိစ္စဖြစ်၍ တရားစွဲဆိုခင

ွ ့်မရှိဟု
ဆုံးဖြတ်သည်။
2.4 Basic Factors to constitute a Tort
တရားမနစ်နာမှု၏ အအဖခခံအအ ကာင်းရင်းများ
(1) Damage
2
Ubi jus ibiremedium (When there's a legal right, there's a legal remedy.)
3
There's no wrong without a remedy.
*
HegartyV.Shine (1878), 4 L.R., Ir., 288.
13
နစ်နာမှု
(2) Malice
မသမာစိတ်
(3) Intention
ရည်ရွယ်ချက်
(4) Motive
အစ့အဆာ်စိတ်
2.4.1. Damage
နစ်နာမှု
In studying the law of tort, we should know the difference
between the terms "damage" and "damages"
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥပအေကို အလ့လာဖခင်းဖြင့် ထိခိုက်ပျက်စီးမှုနှင့် အလျာ်အ ကး
စအသာ အဝါဟာရများ၏ကွာဖခားချက်ကိုသိသင့်ပါသည်။
plaintiff. It can be seen clearly that "a person who on purpose or
carelessly injuries another contrary to law in his life, body, health,
freedom, property, or other right is liable to compensate that other

24
for the resulting damage".
14
ထိခိုက်ပျက်စီးမှုသည် တရားလိုခံစားရအသာဆုံးရှုံးမှုသို ့မဟုတ် ပူအဆွး
အသာကဖြစ်မှု သို ့မဟုတ် ထိခိုက်နစ်နာမှုတို ့ဖြစ်သည်။ လူတစ်အယာက်သည်
အဖခားသူတစ်အယာက်အား ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြင့် သို ့မဟုတ် အပါ့ဆစွာဖြင့်
ထိသ
ု ၏
ူ အသက်၊ခန္ဓာကိုယ်၊ ကျမ်းမာအရး၊ လွတ်လပ်မှု၊ ပစ္စည်းသို ့မဟုတ်
အဖခားအခွင့်အအရးကို ဥပအေနှင့်ဆနက ့် ျင်စွာ ထိခိုက် နစ်နာအစလျှင် ဖြစ်လာအသာ
ထိခိုက်ပျက်ဆီးမှုအတွက် အလျာ်အ ကးအပးရန် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။
awarded by the court for the pecuniary loss suffered by the plaintiff.
An award of damages may serve to compensate the plaintiff and to
deter the defendant and other from similar conduct in the future.
အလျာ်အ ကးဆိုသည်မှာ တရားလို၏အငွအ ကးဆိုင်ရာ ဆုံးရှုံးနစ်နာမှုအတွက်
တရားရုံးက ဆုံးဖြတ်အပးသည့အ
် လျာ်အ ကး သို ့မဟုတန
် စ်နာအ ကးဖြစ်သည်။
ထိန
ု စ်နာအ ကး အတွက် ဆုံးဖြတ်ချက်သည် တရားလိုကို အပးအလျာ်ရန်ဖြစ်ပပီး
တရားပပိုင်ကို ဟနတ့် ား ရန်အတွက် အနာင်တွင်အလားတူ အဖပုအမူ
မျိုးမဖြစ်အစရန်ဖြစ်သည်။
2.4.2 Malice
မသမာစိတ်
It is the intentional doing of a wrongful act, without just cause
or excuse. It is not an act dictated by angry feelings of vindictive

15
motive. If a man gives a perfect stranger a blow likely to produce
death, he does it intentionally and without just cause or excuse. If a
man main cattle without knowing whose they are or that if he poison
a fishery, without knowing of the owner, he has done it of malice,
because it is a wrongful act and done intentionally. This implied
malice which is malice in law is also an express malice depending on
the circumstances of the case.
တရားဥပအေက နစ်နာမှုဟူ၍ အသိအမှတ်ဖပုအသာအမှားဖပုလုပ်မှုတွင်
တရားစွဲ ဆိုရာ၌ မသမာစိတ်သည်လုအ

ိ ပ်သည့် အချက်တစ်ခုမဟုတအ
် ချ။
6
မသမာစိတ် ဆိုသည်မှာ လူတစ်ဦးတစ်အယာက်အအပါ်တွင် မအကာင်းအသာစိတ်
ထားရှိဖခင်းဖြစ်သည်။ တရားဥပအေ အရ တရားနည်းလမ်းမကျဘဲ
ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြင့် အမှားဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်း ဖြစ်သည်။ ပုံစံအားဖြင့်
လမ်းအပါ်တွင်အတွ ရှ့ ိသည့် တစ်စိမ်းတရံစာတစ်ဦးအား အသအလာက်အအာင်
လက်သီးနှင ထိးု လျှင် တစိမ်းတရံစာအအပါ်တွင် မည်သည့်ရန် ပငိုးမျှရှိမည်
မဟုတအ
် သာ်လည်း ဥပအေကတားဖမစ်ထားသည့် အဖပုအမူကိုဖပုမူဖခင်း
ဖြစ်သည့်အတွက် တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် အကျုံး၀င်သည်။ အလားတူပင် နွားပိုင်ရှင်
မည်သမ
ူ ည်ဝါဟူ၍ မသိရှိဘဲ နွားကိုရက်စက်စွာဓားဖြင့် ခုတ်ဖခင်းသို ့မဟုတ်
ငါးအမွးသည့် ကန်အတွင်းရှိ ငါးများကို ပိုင်ရှင်မည်သမ

ူ ှန်းမသိဘဲ အဆိပ်ခပ်ဖခင်း
တို ့သည် ပိုင်ရှင်အအပါ်တွင် ရန်ပငိုးမရှိအသာ်လည်း အသအစရန်ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြင့်
6
Ill-will
16
အမှားဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်း ဖြစ်သဖြင့် မသမာစိတ်ဖြင့် ဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်း ပင်ဖြစ်သည်။
နစ်နာမှုဖြစ်အပါ်မည်ကို သိလျက်နင
ှ ့် အမှားဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်းသည် တရားဥပအေ
အရမသမာစိတ်ဖြင့် ဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်း ပင်ဖြစ်သည်။ ယင်းမသမာစိတ်ရှိအ ကာင်းကို
ထိသ
ု ဖူ ပုလုပသ
် ည့် တရားဥပအေကို ချိုးအြာက်ဖခင်းဖပုသည့် အအ ကာင်းဖခင်းရာတို ့မှ
အတွ ရှ့ ိရအပမည်။
Malice is of two kinds:
မသမာစိတ်နှစ်မျိုးနှစ်စားရှိသည်။
(1) Express Malice

1
အတိအလင်းအြာ်ဖပအသာ မသမာစိတ် ။
(2) Implied Malice
တရားဥပအေအရ သအဘာသက်အရာက်အသာ မသမာစိတ် အအာက်ပါ
အမှုကိစ္စများ တွင်သာ မသမာစိတ်ရှိအ ကာင်း အြာ်ဖပရန်လုသ

ိ ည်။
(1) Defamation.
အသအရြျက်မှု။
(2) Malicious Prosecution.
ရန်ပငိုးထား၍ တရားစွဲဆိုမှု
(3) Willful and Malicious damage to property.
မသမာစိတ်နှင့် သူတစ်ပါး၏ပစ္စည်းကို ထိခိုက်နစ်နာအစမှု။
(4) Slander of title
1
Express malice, actual malice or malice in fact.
17
ပစ္စည်းပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့်ကို သံသယရှိအအာင် မဟုတမ

် မှန်အဖပာဆိုမ။ှု
(5) Maintenance.
စားစရိတ်အတာင်းဆိုဖခင်း
2.4.3. Intention
ရည်ရွယ်ချက်။
The third point to be considered as basic factor in tort is that
of "Intention". There is the maxim "Every man is presumed to intend
and to know the natural and ordinary consequences of his acts". So
wrongful acts done intentionally to damage a particular person and
which actually damaging him is obviously actionable. A violation of
a legal right committed knowingly is a cause of action.
တတိယအချက်အဖြစ် တရားမနစ်နာမှုအတွက် အအဖခခံကျအသာ
အချက်သည် ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြစ်သည်။ ဥပအေဆိုရုးိ တစ်ခုတွင် လူတိုင်းသည်
၄င်း၏အဖပုအမူများ၏ သအဘာသဘာဝနှင့် သာမန်အကျိုးသက်အရာက်မမ

ှု ျားကို
ရည်ရွယ်သည်။ သိသည်ဟုမှတ်ယူသည်။ လူတစ်ဦးတစ်အယာက်ကို ထိခိုက်နစ်နာ
အစရန် ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ဖြင့် မှားယွင်းစွာဖပုလုပ်ခဲ့ပပီး အမှန်တကယ်ထုသ

ိ ူအား
ထိခိုက်နစ်နာအစဖခင်းသည် တရားစွဲဆိုအအရးယူနိုင်သည်။ ဥပအေအရးရာ
အခွင့အ
် အရး တစ်ရပ်ကိုသိလျှက်နင
ှ ့် ချိုးအြာက်မသ
ှု ည် အအရးယူရ ဖခင်းအအ ကာင်း
တရားဖြစ်သည်။
18
2.4.4 Motive
အစ့အဆာ်မှု
The last factor to be considered in tort is motive. It means that
which makes a person act in particular way. It signifies the reason
for conduct. Thus, motive can be properly used to describe the
emotion which prompts the defendant to commit the act; for
example, rage, hatred or jealousy.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် အနာက်ဆုံးအချက်သည် အစ့အဆာ်မှုဖြစ်သည်။
အစ့အဆာ်မှု၏အပ္ပာယ်မှာ လူတစ်အယာက်ကိုတိကျအသာ နည်းလမ်းတစ်ခုဖြင့်
ဖပုလုပ်အစ ဖခင်းဖြစ်သည်။ အဖပုအမူအတွက် အအ ကာင်းအရင်း သအဘာ
အဆာင်သည်။ ထို ့အ ကာင့်အစ့အဆာ်မှုသည် တရားပပိုင်အား အဖပုအမူတစ်ခု ဥပမာ
အေါသသူပုန်ထဖခင်း၊ မုန်းတီးဖခင်း သို ့မဟုတ် မနာလိဖု ခင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ဖပုမူရန်
အစ့အဆာ်သည့် ဖပင်းဖပအသာ စိတ်ခံစားမှုကို အြာ်ဖပရန်မှန်မှန်ကန်ကန်
အသုံးဖပုအလ့ရှိသည်။
In the case of Mayor of Bradford v. Pickles, (1895) A.C., 587it
has been decided that if a man has the misfortune to lose his spring
by his neighbour digging a well, he must dig his own well deeper.
*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် (အအ) သည် မိမိပိုင်ဖခံအဖမအပါ်တွင် အရတွင်းတူးရာ
တစ်ဘက်ဖခံအတွင်းရှိ (ဘီ) ၏အရတွင်းမှာအရအ ကာမလွတ်သည့်အတွက်
*
Mayor of Bradford V.Pickles, (1895) A.C., 587
19
ခမ်းအဖခာက်၍ သွားသည်။ ဤအနရာတွင်အအ၏ ဖပုလုပ်အဆာင်ရွက်မှုသည် (ဘီ)
၏ဖခံ၀င်းအတွင်းရှိ အရတွင်းကို ခမ်းအဖခာက်သွားအစရန် အရအ ကာကိုဖြတ်အတာက်
ရာအရာက်အသာ်လည်း မိမိ၏ ဖခံ၀င်းအတွင်းတွင် ဖပုလုပ်အဆာင်ရွက်ချက်
ဖြစ်သည့်အတွက် တရားဥပအေနှင့် မဆနက ့် ျင်အပ။ မိမိ၏အကျိုးအတွက်မဟုတ်ဘဲ
ဖခံချင်းကပ်လျက်ရိအ
ှ သာ (ဘီ) ၏အကျိုးကို ထိခိုက်နစ်နာအစရန် အစ့အဆာ်မှုဖြင့်
လုပ်ကိုင်သည့်တိုင်အအာင် အအ၏ဖပုလုပ်ချက်သည် မိမိ၏အခွင့်အအရးအတွင်း
ဖပုလုပ်ဖခင်းအ ကာင့် တရားဥပအေနှင့် ဆနက ့် ျင်ဖခင်း မရှိသည့်အတွက် (အအ)
က(ဘီ) ၏အအပါ်တွင် တာ၀န်မရှိအပ။
Key Terms
Legal wrong= ဥပအေကတားဖမစ်ထားအသာအမှားဖပုလုပ်မှု
Legal damage= ဥပအေကအသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာနစ်နာဖခင်း
Legal remedy= တရားဥပအေအရကုစားခွင့်
Injuria sine damno= နစ်နာမှုမပါအသာတရားဥပအေက
အသိအမှတ်ဖပုထားအသာ အခွင့်အအရး
Damnum sine injuria=တရားဥပအေအရချိုးအြာက်မမ

Ub jus ibiremedium=တရား၀င်အခွင့်အအရးရှိလျှင်တရား၀င်ကုစားမှု
Ex trupicausa non ortiuracto= ကုစားမှုမရှိအသာမှားယွင်းမှုမရှိအချ
Necessity=လိအ
ု ပ်ချက်
Motive=အစ့အဆာ်စိတ်
20
Malice=မသမာစိတ်
Intention=ရည်ရွယ်ချက်
Forbidden by law=ဥပအေကတားဖမစ်ထားအသာ
Bona fides (good faith)=ရိုးအဖြာင့်အသာသအဘာဖြင့်
Mala fides (bad faith)=မရိုးမအဖြာင့်အသာသအဘာဖြင့်
Exercise Questions
1. What are the ingredients to constitute a tort? Give brief
explanation. (Assignment)
2. Explain about legal damage with cases.(Assignment)
3. What are the basic factors to constitute a tort? Explain briefly.
(Assignment)
4. Express the definition of wrong. (Short Question)
5. What are the basic factors to constitute a tort? (Short Question)
6. What is the meaning of “damage”?(Short Question)
7. Describe the meaning of “damages”?(Short Question)
8. Describe the definition of “intention”.(Short Question)
9. What are the ingredients to constitute a tort? (Short Question)
10. What is meant by motive in tort? (Short Question)

1
Chapter 3
Classification of Torts
3.1. Invasion of Interests in Person 4
3.1.1 Assault 5
3.1.2 Battery 8
3.1.3 False Imprisonment 10
3.2 Invasion of interests in property 10
3.2.1. Trespass to Movable Property 10
3.2.1.1. Trespass to Goods 11
3.2.1.2 Trespass to Conversion 12
3.2.1.3. Trespass in Detinue 13
3.2.1.3.1. Remedies 15
3.2.1.4. Trespass over the Airspace 15
3.2.1.5 Trespass by Joint Owners 19
3.2.1.6 Trespass by Animals 20
3.2.1.7 Trespass ab initio 23
3.2.1.7.1 Remedies 24
2
3.2.1.7.2 Defences 24
3.2.1.7.2.1. Prescription 26
3.2.1.7.2.2 Leave and Licence 27
3.2.1.7.2.3. Authority of Law 28
3.2.1.7.2.4. Distress 29
3.2.1.7.2.5. Act of Necessity 30
3.2.1.7.2.6 Self-defence 31
3.2.1.7.2.7 Re-entry on Land 31
3.2.1.7.2.8 Retaking of Goods 32
3.2.1.7.2.9 Abating a Nuisance 32
3.3. Invasion of Interests in Intangible Property 34
3.3.1. Patent Right 34
3.3.2 Copyright 36
3.3.3. Trade Mark 40
3.4 Inversion of Interest in Reputation 48
3.4.1 Libel 49
3.4.1.1 False Statement 50

3
3.4.1.2 Written 52
3.4.1.3Defamatory 53
3.4.1.4 Death 53
3.4.1.5 Publication 54
3.4.1.6 Newspaper Libel 58
3.4.2 Slander 63
3.4.3 Criminal Offences 65
3.4.4 Imputation of Decease 67
3.4.5. Imputation of Unchasity or Adultery to any
Woman or Girl 67
3.4.6 Vulgar Abuse 69
3.4.7 Remoteness of Damages 71
3.4.8. Distinction between Libel and Slander 72
Key Terms 74
Questions 75
4
Chapter 3
Classification of Torts
တရားမနစ်နာမှုအမျိုးအစားများ
Torts can be classified into three different categories.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုကိုအမျိုးအစားသုံးမျိုးခွဲခခားနိုင်သည်
လူခန္ဓာကိုယ်ကိုနစ်နာစစခခင်း
b. Invasion of interests in
ပစ္စည်းဥစ္စာကိုနစ်နာစစခခင်း
သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းနာမကိုထိပါးပပစ်မှားပြင်း
3.1. Invasion of Interests in Person
(Trespass to the person) လူခန္ဓာကိုယက

် ိုနစ်နာစစခခင်း
(i)Batteryနာကျင်စစမှု
(ii)Assaultလက်စရာက်မှု
(iii)False imprisonmentမှားယွင်းအကျဉ်းချခခင်း
5
3.1.1 Assault လက်စရာက်မှု
There are obvious reasons why in dealing with security of the
person, assault is an act of the defendant which causes to the plaintiff
reasonableapprehension of the infliction of a battery on him by the
defendant. So anassault may be defined as an attempted battery.
လက်စရာက်မသ
ှု ည်လတ
ူ စ်စယာက်၏လုခံ ခုံမှုနှင့် ပတ်သက်စသာစ ကာင့်
ထင်ရှားသည်။ လက်စရာက်မှုဆိုသည်မှာ တရားပပိုင်၏အခပုအမူခြစ်သည်။
ထိအ
ု ခပုအမူ သည် တရားပပိုင်ကသူ ့အစပါ်နာကျင်ထခ
ိ ိုက်စစမှုနှင့် သင့်စတာ်စသာ
စိုးရိမ်မကင်းမှု ကိုခြစ်စစသည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့် လက်စရာက်မှုကို
နာကျင်စစမှုအားထုတ်ခခင်း ကဲ့သုိ ့သတ် မှတ်နိုင်သည်။
To throw water at a person is an assault but if any drops fall
uponhim, it is battery.
လူတစ်စယာက်ကအခခားသူ တစ်စယာက်အား စရနှင့်ပက်ရန်ြလားကို
စခမာက်လက
ို ်သည်။ အခခားသူအား စရမပက်မဘ
ိ ဲစရများ ြိတ်စင်သွားခခင်းသည်
လက်စရာက်မှု ခြစ်သည်။ အကယ်၍ ကံရွယ်သည့်အတိုင်း အခခားသူအား
စရပက်မလ
ိ ျှင် နာကျင်စစမှု ခြစ်သည်။
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is
battery.
6
အခခားသူအားကျီစယ်သည့်သစဘာခြင့်၎င်းထိင
ု ်မည့်ကုလားထိုင်ကို
စနာက်မဆ
ှ ွဲလိုက်သည့်အတွက်အခခားသူ၏ကိုယန
် ှင့် ကမ်းခပင်မထိစသးသည့အ
် ချိန်
တွင်လက်စရာက်မခှု ြစ်၍အခခားသူ၏ကိုယခ
် န္ဓာနှင့် ကမ်းခပင်ထသ
ိ ာွ းသည့အ
် ချိန်သ
ည်နာကျင်စစမှုစခမာက်သည့်အချိန်ခြစ်သည်။
Pointing a loaded pistol is an assault. But if the pistol is not
loaded, it would be no assault.
စသနတ်နှင့်ပစ်မည်စခပာ၍ပစ်ရန်ချိန်ရွယ်ခခင်းသည်လက်စရာက်မခှု ြစ်သည်။
အကယ်၍စသနတ်ကိုပစ်ရန်ချိန်ရွယ်ခခင်းမရှိလျှင်
လက်စရာက်မစ
ှု ရာက်မည်မဟုတ်စပ။
To shake a fist under a person’s nose, or to curse him in
athreatening manner, or to aim a blow at him is an assault. So where
thedefendant by his act intends to commit a battery and the
defendantapprehends it, there is an assault.
လက်စရာက်မန
ှု ှင့် နာကျင်စစမှုမှာတရားမနစ်နာမှုခြစ်သကဲ့သို ့
ခပစ်မှုများလည်း ခြစ်သည်။ လူတစ်ဦး၏နှာစခါင်းအနီးတွင် လက်သီးခြင့်
စ ှ ့ရမ်းခခင်းသည် စခခာက်လှနစ့် သာအခပုအမူကိုခြစ်စစရန်သို ့မဟုတ် ထိးု ရန်
ရည်ရွယ်ခခင်းသည် လက်စရာက်မှုခြစ်သည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့်တရားပပိုင်သည် နာကျင်မှု
ကိုကျူးလွန်ရန် ကံရွယ်စသာအခါနှင့် တရားပပိုင်အား စိုးရိမ်မကင်းခြစ်စစစသာ
အခါ ထိအ
ု ရာသည် လက်စရာက်မခှု ြစ်သည်။
7
In fact, assault and battery are crimes as well as torts.In the

1
case Sulaiman vs. The king , it was decided that if thecommon
intention of the accused and his associates by committing an assault
was not to cause injury known to be likely to cause death, but
tocause grievous hurt, thought the combined effect of the injuries
actuallycaused was likely to cause death, the accused is guilty of the
offence ofcausing grievous hurt and not of culpable homicide not
amounting tomurder.
စူလုင
ိ ်မင်နှင့် ဘုရင်အမှုတွင် ခပစ်မှုကျူးလွန်သ၏
ူ ရည်ရွယ်ချက်နှင့် ၎င်း၏
လက်စရာက်မက
ှု ို ကျူးလွန်ခခင်းတွင် ပူးစပါင်းပါ င်မှုသည် စသစစစလာက်စသာ
ထိခိုက်မှုမခြစ်ခဲ့စပ။ သို ့စသာ်အခပင်းအထန် နာကျင်စစမှုခြစ်ခဲ့သည့် ထိခိုက်မှု
များကို စပါင်းစည်းပပီး ထိခိုက်မှုများသည် အမှန်တကယ်စသစစ စသာ်လည်း
တရားခံကို အခပင်း အထန်နာကျင်စစမှု ခြစ်စစစသာခပစ်မှုအရအစရးယူပပီး
လူစသမှုမခမာက် သကဲ့သို ့ လူသတ်မှုလည်း မစခမာက်စပ။
To provisions of sections 350 and 351, of the Penal Code of
CriminalLaw of Myanmar clearly shows, when and how such assault
and battery (Criminal force) can be effected and punishment for such
crimes are laiddown in Section 352.
1
1941 RLR 258.
8
ခမန်မာနိုင်ငံ၏ခပစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာဥပစေပုေ်မ ၃၅၀နှင့် ၃၅၁တွင်ရှင်းလင်းစွာ
ခပဌာန်းထားသည်။လက်စရာက်မှုနှင့် နာကျင်စစမှုကိုမည်သည့် အချိန်တွင်
မည်ကဲ့သို ့ ကျူးလွန်မှုရှိနိုင်စ ကာင်းပုေ်မ၃၅၂တွင် ခပစ်မှုများနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍
ခပစ်ေဏ်များကို စြာ်ခပထားသည်။
3.1.2 Battery
နာကျင်စစမှု
Battery is the intentional application of force to another person.
He whoshoots and wounds another unintentionally may be liable in
trespass, though he commits no felony.
နာကျင်စစမှုသည်အခခားသူတစ်စယာက်ကို ကံရွယ်၍ခပုလုပ်စသာအင်အား
အသုံးခပုမှုခြစ်သည်။ လူတစ်ဉီးကအခခားသူတစ်ဉီးကို ကံရွယ်ချက်မရှိဘဲ ပစ်ခတ်
ခခင်း၊ ေဏ်ရာ ရစစခခင်းသည် ရာဇ တ်မှုကိုကျူးလွန်သည် မဟုတ်စသာ်လည်း
စကျာ်နင်းမှုကို ကျူးလွန် ရာစရာက်သည်။
To throw water at a person is an assault but if any drops fall
uponhim, it is battery.
လူတစ်စယာက်က အခခားသူတစ်စယာက်အားစရနှင့် ပက်ရန်ြလားကို
စခမာက်လက
ို ်သည်။ အခခားသူအားစရမပက်မိဘဲစရများ ြိတ်စင်သွားခခင်းသည်
လက်စရာက်မခှု ြစ်သည်။ အကယ်၍ ကံရွယ်သည့်အတိုင်း အခခားသူအားစရပက်မိ
လျှင် နာကျင်စစ မှုခြစ်သည်။

9
To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is
battery.
အခခားသူအားကျီစယ်သည့်သစဘာခြင့် ၎င်းထိင
ု ်မည့်ကုလားထိုင်ကို စနာက်
မှ ဆွဲလက
ို ်သည့်အတွက် အခခားသူ၏ကိုယ်ခန္ဓာနှင့် ကမ်းခပင်မထိစသးသည့်
အချိန်တွင် လက်စရာက်မခှု ြစ်၍ အခခားသူ၏ကိုယ်ခန္ဓာနှင့် ကမ်းခပင်ထသ

ိ ာွ းသည့်
အချိန်သည် နာကျင်စစမှုစခမာက်သည့် အချိန်ခြစ်သည်။
There is no battery unless there is an act by the defendant and
thatthere can be no battery unless there contact with the
plaintiff.Battery is a special kind of tort which protects not only the
interest infreedom from insult. Battery is actionable per se. i.e.
without proof ofdamage. If such a tort is proved, the injured party is
entitled to damages.
တရားပပိုင်ကခပုလုပ်မှုမရှိလျှင်နစ်နာမှုမရှိနိုင်ပါ။ တရားလိုနှင့် ဆက်သွယ်
ချက်မရှိ လျှင်လည်းနစ်နာမှုမရှိနိုင်စပ။ နစ်နာမှုသည်တရား မနစ်နာမှုတွင်
အထူးအမျိုးအစားခြစ်ပပီး ထိန
ု စ်နာမှုမှလွတ်လပ်စသာ အကျိုးစကျးဇူးကို
ကာကွယ်စပးသည်မဟုတ်။ နစ်နာမှုကို အထက်ပါအတိုင်း သက်စသခပချက်မရှိဘဲ
ိ ်သည်။ တရားမနစ်နာမှုကိုသက်စသခပခဲ့လျှင် ထိခိုက်မှုအတွက်
စလျာ်စ ကးရစစသည်။
10
3.1.3 False Imprisonment
မှာယွင်းအကျဉ်းချခခင်း
A false imprisonment is complete deprivation of liberty for the
time being without any lawful cause.
မှားယွင်း၍အကျဉ်းချခခင်းဆိုသည်မှာဥပစေနှင့်ညီစသာ အစ ကာင်းခပချက်
မရှိဘဲ အခခားသူတစ်ဉီးကို မည်မျှစလာက်အချိန်တိုစတာင်းသည့်အချိန် ခြစ်စစ
ကာမူထုသ
ိ ၏
ူ လွတ်လပ်ခွင့်ကို တားဆီး ခခင်း ခြစ်သည်။
3.2 Invasion of interests in property
ပစ္စည်းဥစ္စာကိုနစ်နာစစခခင်း
Trespass to property in a legal sense includes movable property
as well asimmovable property and also that of intangible property.
ဥပစေအခမင်အရ ပစ္စည်းဥစ္စာစကျာ်နင်းမှုတွင် မစရွှေ စခပာင်

့ းနိုင်စသာ
ပစ္စည်းကဲ့သုိ ့ စရွှေ စခပာင်

့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလည်းပါ င်သည်။ ကိုင်တွယ်၍ရစသာ
ပစ္စည်းလည်းပါသည်။
3.2.1. Trespass to Movable Property
စရွ စခပာင်
့ းပစ္စည်းကိုစကျာ်နင်းမှု
As regards trespass to movable property it can be inflicted in three
ways: -

11
ပစ္စည်းစကျာ်နင်းမှု
(2) Trespass to conversion.
စခပာင်းလည်းခခင်းဆိုင်ရာစကျာ်နင်းမှု
(3) Tort of detinue
စရွှေ စခပာင်
့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလက်စရာက်ရလိုမှုအတွက်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
3.2.1.1. Trespass to Goods
ပစ္စည်းစကျာ်နင်းမှု
Trespass to goods is a wrongful interference with the
possession of them, with reference to the provision of Sale of Goods
Act 1932. Section 27, themaxim Nemo dat quod non habetwhich
says that no one can give a bettertitle than he himself possesses. But
there is an exception, such as, where aperson who takes in good faith
and for value without notice should get a good title.
ကုနပ
် စ္စည်းစကျာ်နင်းမှုသည် ကုန်စည်စရာင်းချစရးအက်ဥပစေပုေ်မ၂၇ကို
ရည်ညွှေန်း၍ ထိပ
ု စ္စည်းများ၏ပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍မှားယွင်းစသာစနှာက်ယှက်
မှုခြစ်သည်။ မည်သမ
ူ ျှသက
ူ ိုယ်တိုင်ပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုထက်ပို၍ စကာင်းစသာပိုင်ဆိုင်မှု
မစပးနိုင်။ သို ့စသာ်ချွင်းချက်ရိသ

ှ ည်။ လူတစ်ဦးကအသိမစပးဘဲ တန်ြိုးအခြစ်
သစဘာရိုးခြင့် စဆာင်ယူလျှင်စကာင်းမွန်စသာပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုရသင့်သည်။
12
3.2.1.2. Trespass to Conversion
စခပာင်းလဲခခင်းဆိုင်ရာစကျာ်နင်းမှု
Conversion may be defined as any act in relation to the goods
of a person.Conversion involves two concurrent elements.
လူတစ်စယာက်၏ကုန်စည်များနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ခပုလုပ်စသာအခပုအမူကဲ့သို ့
သတ်မှတ်သည်။စခပာင်းလဲခခင်းဆိုငရ
် ာစကျာ်နင်းမှုတွင်အချက်နစ
ှ ်ချက်ရိသ
ှ ည်။
(1) A dealing with goods in a manner inconsistent with the right
ofthe person entitled to them.
ကုနစ
် ည်များကိုရထိက
ု ်စသာသူ၏အခွင့အ
် စရးနှင့မ
် ညီညွတ်စသာ
ကုနစ
် ည်နှင့်ပတ်သက်သည့်အခပုအမူ
(2) An intention in so doing to deny that person's right or to assert
a right which is inconsistent with such right.
လူတစ်စယာက်၏အခွင့်အစရးကို ခငင်းပယ်ရန် သို ့မဟုတ် ထိအ

ု ခွင့်
အစရးနှင့် မကိုက်ညီစသာ အခွငအ

့် စရးတစ်ရပ်ကို စတာင်းဆိုရန် ရည်ရွယ်
ချက်ရိခှ ခင်း။
Conversion may be committed in following ways:-
စခပာင်းလဲခခင်းဆိုငရ
် ာစကျာ်နင်းမှုကို စအာက်ပါနည်းများခြင့် စကျာ်နင်း
မှုခပုနိုင်သည်။
(1) By taking possession of the goods.
ကုနပ
် စ္စည်းများကို လက် ယ်ရယူခခင်း
13
(2) By abusing possession of them when you have already got
it.
ပစ္စည်းများကို ရရှိပပီးစသာအခါ လက် ယ်ရှိမှုကို အလွသ

ဲ ံးု စား
ခပုလုပ်ခခင်း
(3) By denying plaintiff's title to them, although you have
neverhad possession at all, provided your denial is absolute.
ပစ္စည်းအားလုံးလက် ယ်မရှိစသာ်လည်းတရားလိုပိုင်ပစ္စည်းများကို
ခငင်းဆို ခခင်းခြင့် သူ၏ခငင်းဆိုခခင်းသည် ချွင်းချက်မရှခိ ြစ်သည်။
3.2.1.3. Trespass in Detinue
့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလက်စရာက်ရလိမ
ု ှုအတွက်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Detinue means that a form of action which lies for the
recovery, inspecie, of personal chattels from one who acquired
possession of them lawfully but retains it without right, together with
damages for thedetention.
့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလက်စရာက်ရလိုမှုအတွက်စကျာ်နင်းမှုသည်
ဥပစေနှင့် အညီလက် ယ်ရှိမှုကို ရရှိထားစသာသူတစ်စယာက်ထမ

ံ ှ ပုဂ္ဂိုလ်စရး
ဆိုငရ
် ာ စရွှေ စခပာင်
့ းပစ္စည်းအမျိုးမျိုး ခပန်လည်ရရှိရန်အတွက် တည်ရှိစနစသာ
စွဲဆိုမှုပုံစံ ခြစ်သည်။သို ့ရာတွင်ထိန်းသိမ်းရန်အတွက်နစ်နာစ ကးနှင့်အတူ ရနိုင်
စသာ အခွင့်အစရးမရှိဘဲထိန်းသိမ်းထားနိုင်သည်။
14
Possessory action for recovery of personal chattels is unjustly
detained. This kind of action lies for specific recovery of goods
wrongfullydetained from the person entitled to the possession of
them and also for thedamages occasioned by the wrongful detainer.
The defendant is liable indetinue although he has lost the goods
before the demand, unless he provesthat he did not loss them through
his negligence.
ပုဂ္ဂိုလ်စရးဆိုင်ရာ စရွှေ စခပာင်

့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းခပန်လည် ရရှိမှုအတွက်
တရားစွဲဆိုခခင်းသည် တရားမျှတမှုမရှိဘဲထိန်းသိမ်းထားခခင်းစ ကာင့်ခြစ်သည်။
ထိတ
ု ရားစွဲဆိုမအ
ှု မျိုးအစားသည် ထိပ
ု စ္စည်းများကို လက် ယ်ရရှိထားစသာ
သူတစ်စယာက်ထမ
ံ ှ မှားယွင်းစွာ ထိန်းသိမ်းထားခဲ့စသာ ကုန်ပစ္စည်းများသီးခခား
ခပန်လည်ရရှိမှုအတွက် စွဲဆိုခခင်းခြစ်သည်။ မှားယွင်းစွာ ထိန်းသိမ်းထားသူက
စပးရမည့စ
် လျာ်စ ကးအတွက်လည်း ခြစ်သည်။ တရားပပိုင်သည် စတာင်းဆိုမှု
မတိုင်မီ စပျာက်ဆုံးစသာကုန်ပစ္စည်းရှိစသာ်လည်း သူ၏စပါ့ဆမှုစ ကာင့်
ဆုံးရှုံးရခခင်းမဟုတစ
် ကာင်း သက်စသမခပနိုင်လျှင် တရားပပိုင်တွင် စရွှေ စခပာင်
့ း
နိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလက်စရာက်ရလိုမှုအတွက်စကျာ်နင်းမှု စ ကာင့တ
် ာ န်ရှိသည်။
15
3.2.1.3.1. Remedies
ကုစားခွငမ
့် ျား
If the plaintiff succeeds in his case he may take one of the three
forms ofjudgments.
တရားလိုသည်သ၏
ူ အမှုတွင်စအာင်ခမင်ခဲ့လျှင် စအာက်ပါစီရင်ချက်ပုံစံများ
မှ တစ်ခုကိုကုစားခွင့်ရယူနင
ို ်သည်။
(1)For the return of the goods or recovery of its value assessed
and alsofor damages for detention.
ကုနစ
် ည်များ ခပန်လည်ရရှိမှုအတွက် သို ့မဟုတ် ခနမ့် ှန်တန်ြိုးကို
ခပန်လည်ရရှိမှု အတွက်သုိ ့မဟုတ် ထိန်းသိမ်းမှုအတွက် စလျာ်စ ကးရရှိနိုင်သည်။
(2)For return of the goods damages for its detention.
ထိန်းသိမ်းမှုအတွက်
ကုနပ
် စ္စည်းပျက်စီးမှုဆိုငရ
် ာစလျာ်စ ကးအတွက်ခပန်လည်ရရှိရန်
3.2.1.4. Trespass over the Airspace
စလထုစကျာ်နင်းမှု
It is commonly said that the ownership and possession of the
land bring with them the ownership and possession of the column of
the space above the surface of such land. In fact, the owner of the
land has in private law the right to sue for his own purpose, to the
16
exclusion of other, the air-space above it. Once, there was an
accepted view that the invasion of the air-space above a man's land
could not be trespass, unless there was some actual contact with the
land itself.
စခမယာကိုပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုနှင့် လက် ယ်ရှိသူသည်အဆိုပါစခမ၏ အထက်တွင်
ရှိစသာ စလထုကိုပိုင်ဆိုငမ
် ှုနှင့် လက် ယ်ရှိမှုရှိသည်။ အမှန်မှာစခမယာပိုင်ရှင်သည်
ပုဂ္ဂလက
ိ ဆိုင်ရာ ဥပစေ အရ သူ၏ကိုယပ
် ိုင်ရည်ရွယ်ချက်အတွက်၊ အခခားအရာ
များကို ြယ်ရှားရန်အတွက်၊ သူ၏စခမစပါ်ရှိစလထုအတွက် တရားစွဲဆိုရန်
အခွင့်အစရးရှိသည်။တစ်ချိန်ကလက်ခံသည့် သစဘာတစ်ရပ်မှာ လူတစ်စယာက်၏
စခမစပါ်ကို အမှန်တကယ် ထိခိုက်မှုမရှိသ၍ ထိစ

ု ခမကို စကျာ်နင်းသည်
ဟုမဆိုနုင
ိ ်စပ။
But, today it is clear that this is incorrect and inKelsen vs.

2
Imperial Tobacco Co, case , Mc. Nair J., after a full review of the
authorities, held that an advertising sign erected by the defendants on
their own property, which projected into the air-space above the
plaintiff's shop, was trespass over the air-space. Legal rights should
be projected against invasion even if the invasion causes no
damage.In respect of aero planes and other aircraft this matter is now
dealtwith by enacted laws concerned.
2
1946. K. B 374.
17
သို ့စသာ်လည်း ယစန ့စခတ်တွင် ဤအချက်သည်မမှန်ကန်စတာ့စပ။
ကယ်လဆင်နှင့် အင်ပီးရီးရယ်တိုဗယ်ကိုကုမ္ပဏီအမှုတွင် အဆုံးအခြတ်စပးသည့်
အာဏာပိုင်များက သုံးသပ်ခဲ့ ကသည်မှာ တရားပပိုင်များကသူတို ့၏ ကိုယ်ပိုင်
ပစ္စည်းများအတွက် စ ကာ်ခငာဆိုငး် ဘုတ်ကို စိုက်ထူခဲ့ပပီး တရားလို၏ စေးဆိင

ု ်
အထက်ရိှ စလထုထတ
ဲ ွင် စဆာင်ရွက်ခဲ့ ကခခင်းသည် စလထုစကျာ်နင်း
မှုခြစ်ခဲ့သည်။ စကျာ်နင်းမှုစ ကာင့် ပျက်စီးမှုမခြစ်လျှင်စတာင်မှ ဥပစေစရးရာ
အခွင့်အစရးသည် စကျာ်နင်းမှုစ ကာင့် ထိခိုက်ခဲ့သည်။ စလယာဉ်ပျံများ
နှင့်လည်းသက်ဆိုင်သည်။
Section 17 of the Myanmar Aircraft Act 1934 2 provides as
follows:-the flight of aircraft over any property at a height above the
ground which having regard to wind, weather, and all circumstances
of the case is reasonably or by reason only of the ordinary incidents
of such flight."However the provision of section (11) of the Act is
such that whoever willfully flies any aircraft in such a manner as to
cause danger to anyperson or to any property on land or water or in
the air shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to one thousand
kyats, or with both.The above provisions are in fact in compliance
with Conventionrelating to the Regulation, of Aerial Navigation

18
signed at Paris, October 13,1919, with additional protocol signed at
Paris, May 1, 1920 and 1944 Chicago Convention.
Myanmar Aircraft Act 1934 ၏ ပုေ်မ ၁၇ တွင် စအာက်ပါအတိင

ု ်း
ခပဌာန်းထားသည်။ စခမခပင်အထက် အခမင့်၌ ပစ္စည်းတစ်စုံတစ်ရာ အစပါ်စလယာဉ်
ပျံသန်း မှုသည် စလထဲတွင်ရှိစနစသာအခါ စလစ ကာင်း၊ ရာသီဥတု စသည့်
အစခခအစနအားလုံးသည် သင့်စတာ်မှု သို ့မဟုတ် ပျံသန်းမှု အခြစ်အပျက်သာလျှင်
ဟူစသာအစ ကာင်းစ ကာင့် ခြစ်သည်ဟု သတ်မှတ်ရမည်။ သို ့စသာ်လည်း
အက်ဥပစေပုေ်မ ၁၁ တွင် မည်သမ

ူ ဆို လူပုဂ္ဂိုလ်တစ်စယာက်ကို သို ့မဟုတ် စခမ ၊
စရ၊ စလစပါ်တွင်ရှိစသာ ပစ္စည်းတစ်စုံတစ်ရာကို အန္တရာယ်ခြစ်စစရန်
အခပုအမူခြင့်စလယာဉ်တစ်စင်းစင်းသည် ဥပစေကိုမလိက
ု ်နာဘဲ ပျံသန်းလျှင်
စခခာက်လအထိ ခပစ်ေဏ် ချမှတ်ခခင်းခံရမည့်အခပင် ၁၀၀၀၀ ကျပ်ထစ

ိ ငွကို
ချမှတ်ခခင်း ခံရမည်။ သို ့မဟုတ် ခပစ်ေဏ်နှစ်ရပ်လံးု ချမှတ်ခခင်းခံရမည်။ ၁၉၁၉
စအာက်တိုဘာ ၁၃ ရက်တွင် ပဲရစ်ပမို ့၌ လက်မှတ်စရးထိးု ခဲ့စသာ Aerial
Navigation စည်းမျဉ်းများ နှင့်ပတ်သက်စသာ သစဘာတူညီချက်နင

ှ ့် ၁၉၂၀
စမလတွင် ပဲရစ်၌ လက်မတ

ှ ်စရးထိးု ခဲ့စသာ စနာက်ဆက်တွဲစာချုပ် များ၊ ၁၉၉၄
ချီကာဂို သစဘာတူစာချုပ်များနှင့် လိက

ု ်စလျာညီစထွမှုရှိရမည်။
19
3.2.1.5 Trespass by Joint Owners
ပူးတဲပိုင်ရှင်များ၏စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Joint-tenants or tenants-in-common can only sue one another in
trespassfor acts done by one inconsistent with the rights of the other.
ပူးတွဲပိုင်ဆိုင်စသာစခမငှားများ သို ့မဟုတ် အတူပိုင်ဆိုင်စသာ
စခမငှားများသာလျှင် အခခားသူတစ်စယာက်၏ အခွင့်အစရးနှင့် မညီမညွတ်
ခြစ်စသာ သူတစ်စယာက်က ခပုလုပ် စသာ အခပုအမူများအတွက် အခခားသူ
ကိုတရားစွဲနိုင်သည်။
3
In GopeeKishen vs. Hem Chhunder's Case , the Court has
accordingly granted an injunction preventing a tenant-in-common
from erecting a building on the common property without the
consent of his co-shares.
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် ပူးတွဲအစုပိုင်ရှင်၏သစဘာတူညီချက်မရ ဘဲပူးတွဲ
ပိုငဆ
် ိုငသ
် ည့် စခမစပါ်တွင် အစဆာက်အဦးတစ်ခ ုစဆာက်လပ
ု ်ခခင်းအတွက်
တရားရုံးကတား ရမ်းထုတ်၍တားခမစ်ခဲ့ရသည်။
3
1870,13. W.R 322.
20
3.2.1.6 Trespass by Animals
တိရ စ္ဆာန်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Liability is imposed on the keeper, i.e. the person who is head
of the household of which a minor owns the animal or has it is his
possession. So, ordinary trespass can be committed by means of
animals.
တာ န်ရှိမှုသည် ထိန်းသိမ်းသူအစပါ်သို ့ ကျစရာက်စစသည်။ ဥပမာ
လူတစ်စယာက်သည် မိသားစု၏ အကကီးအကဲခြစ်လျှင် အရွယ်မစရာက်စသးသူ
ပိုင်ဆိုင်စသာ တိရ စ္ဆာန်နှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ သို ့မဟုတ် သူ ့တွင်လက် ယ်ရှိမှု
အတွက်တာ န်ရှိသည်။
Liability for animals also includes liability of a person in
possessionof livestock, which stray on to another's land. "Livestock"
means cattle,horses, mules, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry and also
deer notin the wild state.
တိရ စ္ဆာန်များအတွက် တာ န်ရှိမှုများတွင် စမွးခမူစရးလုပ်ငန်းကို
လက် ယ် ရှိစသာ လူတစ်စယာက်၏တိရ စ္ဆာန်များသည် အခခားသူတစ်စယာက်၏
စခမစပါ်တွင်မျက်စစ့လယ် လမ်းမှားခြစ်စနစသာအခါတွင်လည်း တာ န်ရှိသည်။
စမွးခမူစရးလုပ်ငန်းဆိုသည်မှာ ကျွဲ ၊နွား၊ခမင်း၊လား၊ က်၊ ဆိတ၊် ခခံစမွး
သတ္တ ါများနှင့် စတာတွင်မစန ကစသာ သမင်များလည်းပါ င်သည်။

21
There was a case of injury by horse. In that case, the
defendant'shorse injured the plaintiff's mare by biting and kicking
her through an ironfence, belonging to the defendant which separated
the defendant's landfrom the plaintiff's, it was held that there was a
trespass by the act of thedefendant's horse for which the defendant
was liable apart from anyquestion of negligence.
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင်တရားခံ၏ခမင်းတစ်စကာင်က
ခခံချင်းကပ်လျက်သံဆူးကကိုးများကာရံ ထားသည့်ခခံအတွင်းမှ ခမင်းမတစ်စကာင်ကို
သံဆူးကကိုးအစပါက်မှ တိုး၍စခခနှင့်ကန် စ ကာက်သည့အ

် ခပင် ကိုက်သည့်အတွက်
ခမင်းမတွင် ေဏ်ရာများရရှသ
ိ ာွ းသခြင့် တရားခံတွင် တာ န်ရှိစ ကာင်း
တရားရုံးကဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
4
In Maung Ngwe Sein vs. Mg Hla Pe Case , a young colt
belonging to therespondent trespassed into the stables of a brood. A
mare (young horse) inan advanced stage of pregnancy belonging to
the appellant, has been kickedseveral times on the stomach and with
a result that it brought about anabortion of seven months old foal
(young-horse). The appellant won thecase in the Township Court,
having K. 820 as damages although he claimedK.1000. The
Respondent appealed in the District Court, where the decreeof the
4
1959.B.L.R.37.(H.C)
22
Township Court was set aside on the ground that there was no
proofof vicious nature of the colt. The appellant put up the case to
the HighCourt, where the judgment of the District Court was
reversed on a clearground that the owner of the cattle which stay or
trespass on to theproperty of another person is liable for the damage.
Animals suffering from a contagious disease are likely if they
escape,to infect other animals with which they may come into
contact and theirowner therefore, if he knows that they are so
diseased, is bound to keepthem in at all hazards.
ခမန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင်ခြစ်ပွားခဲ့စသာအမှုတစ်ခုတွင်ဆိတ်တစ်စကာင်သည်သတ
ူ စ်
ပါးခခံ စည်းရိုးအတွင်း င်၍ ခမင်းမတစ်စကာင်ကိုခပင်းထန်စွာ စ ှ ့သည့အ

် တွက်
ခမင်းမတွင်ရှိ စသာဇီးပျက်ကျသည်။ ခမင်းရှင်က ဆိတရ

် ှင်ထမ
ံ ှ စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ
၁၀၀ /ိ စတာင်းရာ တရား ရုံးကစလျာ်စ ကးစငွ ၈၂ ိ/ စပးရန် ဆုံးခြတ်သည်။
ယင်းဆုံးခြတ်ချက်ကို ဆိတ်ရှင်ကမစကျနပ်၍ ခရိုင်ရးုံ ၌အယူခံ င်ရာခရိုင်ရးုံ က
ဆိတပ
် ိုင်ရှင်၏စပါ့စလျာ့မှုမရှိစသာစ ကာင့် စလျာ်စ ကးမစပးထိက
ု ်ဟုဆုံးခြတ်ခါ
စအာက်ရးုံ အမိနက ့် ိုပယ်လိုက်သည်။ တစ်ြန်ယင်းအမိနက ့် ိုခမင်းရှင်က မစကျနပ်၍
လွှေတ်စတာ်သို ့အယူခံ င်ရာ လွှေတ်စတာ်ကစပါ့စလျာ့မှုရှိသည်မရှိသည်ခပရန်မလိဘ

ု ဲ
စကျာ်နင်း င်စရာက်သည်မှာ အမှန်တကယ်ခြစ်သည့်အတွက် ခမင်းရှင်အား
စလျာ်စ ကးစပးစစဟူ၍ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
23
3.2.1.7 Trespass ab initio
မူလအစကနဦးကပင်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Where a person has entered upon land under a license given by
lawsubsequently abuses it, he becomes a trespasser ab initio, his
misconductrelating back so as to make is original entry tortuous.
ဥပစေကစပးစသာခွင့်ခပုမိနအ ့် ရစခမစပါ်ကို င်စရာက်လာစသာ
လူတစ်စယာက် သည်စနာက်တစ်ကကိမ် ထိအ

ု ရာကို အလွဲသုံးစားခပုစသာအခါ
ထိသ
ု သ
ူ ည်မူလကတည်းက စကျာ်နင်းမှုခပုသူခြစ်သည်။ သူ၏ယခင်က
မှားယွင်းစသာ အခပုအမူသည် မူလ င်စရာက်စဉ်ကတည်းက ခပစ်မှုခြစ်သည်။
In fact the term ab initio means from the very beginning. The
rule applies only to acts done in pursuance of an entry, authority, or
licence given by the law, and not given by the property.
အမှန်တကယ်တွင် ab initioဟူစသာစ ါဟာရမှာ စတင်ခခင်းမှဟု
ဆိုလသ
ို ည်။ ထိစ
ု ည်းမျဉ်းကို ဥပစေကစပးထားစသာ င်စရာက်ခင
ွ ့် ခွင့်ခပုမိန ့်
၊လုပ်ပိုင်ခွင့် သို ့မဟုတ် လိင

ု ်စင် နှငပ
့် တ်သက်စသာခပုလုပ်ခဲ့သည့် အခပုအမူ
များနှင့သ
် ာလျှငသ
် က်ဆိုငသ
် ည်။ ပစ္စည်းမှစပးအပ်ထားခခင်းမဟုတစ
် ပ။
The doctrine of trespass ab initio enables this to be done in the
important area of a man’s person, goods and land against the abuse
of official power.
24
မူလကတည်းကစကျာ်နင်းမှုမူသစဘာတရားသည်တရား င်လပ
ု ်ပိုင်ခွင့်ကို
ဆနက ့် ျင်အလွသ
ဲ ံးု စားခပုစသာ လူ၊စခမ၊ကုန်စည်တို ့၏ အစရးပါစသာ စနရာများ
တွင် ခပုလုပ်ခဲ့ခခင်းခြစ်သည်။
3.2.1.7.1 Remedies
ကုစားမှုများ
The person whose land is trespassed upon may-
မိမိစခမယာကို စကျာ်နင်းခခင်းခံရသူက စအာက်ပါကုစားမှုများကို ရယူနိုင်သည်။
(1)bring an action for trespass against the trespasser.
စကျာ်နင်းသူ၏အစပါ်တွင် တရားစွဲဆိုအစရးယူနိုင်သည်။
(2) forcibly defend his possession against atrespasser.
မိမိပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့်ကို အတင်းအ ကပ်ကာကွယ်နိုင်သည်။
(3) forcibly eject him.
စကျာ်နင်းသူကို အတင်းအဓမ္မနှင်ထတ
ု ်နိုင်သည်
3.2.1.7.2 Defences
ကာကွယခ
် ုခံမှုများ
စအာက်ပါတို ့မှာစကျာ်နင်းမှုစွဲဆိုခခင်းခံရခခင်းမှကာကွယ်ခုခံနိုင်သည့်အစ ကာင်း
အချက်များခြစ်သည်။
25
(1) Prescription
ပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့်ရစလာက်စအာင် အတန် ကာရှည် လက်ရှိအသုံးခပုလျက်ရှိခခင်း
(2) Leave and licence
ခွင့်ခပုချက်ရရှိခခင်း
တရားဥပစေအရစဆာင်ရွက်ြွယ်ကိစ္စ များကိုစဆာင်ရွက်ရန် င်စရာက်ခခင်း
(4) Distress
စ ကးပမီရရန်ရှိ၍ ပစ္စည်းြမ်းဆီးသိမ်းယူခခင်း။
(5) Act of necessity
လိအ
ု ပ်သည့်အတွက် ၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း။
(6) Self-defence
မိမိကိုယ်ကက
ို ာကွယ်ရန်အတွက် ၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း။
အိမ်စခမယာအတွင်းသို ့ ခပန်လည်၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း
မိမိပိုင်ပစ္စည်းကို၀င်စရာက်ယူခခင်း
စိတ်ပငိုခငင်စနှာက်ယှက်မက
ှု ို ြယ်ရှားခခင်း
26
3.2.1.7.2.1. Prescription
(၁) ပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့်ရစလာက်စအာင် အတန် ကာရှည် လက်ရှိအသုံးခပုလျက်ရှိခခင်း
It is an uninterrupted use as basis of right or title. Thus a
defendant mayplead in defence that he was justified by reason of
prescription, as byshowing a right of common, or right of way over
the land, or that is right ofway was wrongfully obstructed by plaintiff
and trespass was necessary to avoid it.Under section (3) of the
Limitation Act, the plaintiff if he hasdiscontinued his possession of
immovable property, he must sue thedefendant who is in possession
of that property within 12 years from thedate of the discontinuance.
It is also with the same case, where there is aright of way given to
the defendant.
ပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့်ရစလာက်စအာင် အတန် ကာရှည် လက်ရှိအသုံးခပုလျက်

1
ရှိခခင်း သည် စခခခံကျစသာ အခွင့်အစရးသို ့မဟုတ် ပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုကဲ့သို ့
အစနှာက်အယှက်မရှိ အသုံးခပုသည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့် တရားပပိုင်၏
စယဘုယျအခွင့်အစရးကို စြာ်ခပသကဲ့သို ့ပိုင်ဆိုင်ခွင့် ရစလာက် စအာင်
အတန် ကာရှည်လက်ရှိ အသုံးခပုလျက်ရိခှ ခင်းအစ ကာင်းစ ကာင့် သူ ့ကိုတရားမျှတ
မှု ရရှိစစရမည်ဟု စလျာက်လဲနိုင်သည်။ သို ့မဟုတ် စခမစပါ်တွင်လမ်းအသုံးခပုမှု
သို ့မဟုတ် အဆိုပါ လမ်းအသုံးခပုမှုကို တရားပပိုင်က မှားယွင်းစွာ တားဆီးခဲ့လျှင်
1
Prescription
27
ထိအ
ု ရာကို စရှာင်ရှားရန် စကျာ်နင်းမှုလအ
ို ပ်သည်။ ကာလစည်းကမ်းသပ်
အက်ဥပစေပုေ်မ ၃ အရ တရားလိုသည် မစရွှေ မစခပာင်

့ းနိုင်စသာ ပစ္စည်း
လက် ယ်ရှိမှုကို ဆက်လက်မထားနိုင်လျှင် ထိစ

ု န ့မှ ၁၂ နှစ်အတွင်း
ထိပ
ု စ္စည်းပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ တရားစွဲရမည်။အလားတူပင် တရားပပိုင်
ကိုလည်း လမ်းအသုံးခပုခခင်းဆိုငရ
် ာ အခွင့်အစရးစပးထားသည်။
3.2.1.7.2.2 Leave and Licence
ခွင့်ခပုချက်နင
ှ ့်အမိန ့်
A licence is an agreement that it shall be lawful for the licensee
to enterupon the land of the licensor or to do some other act in
relation thereto,which would otherwise be illegal.
ခွင့်ခပုမိနတ့် စ်ခုသည် သစဘာတူညီချက်ခြစ်သည်။ ခွင့်ခပုမိနခပုလု

့် ပ်စပး
သူ၏ စခမစပါ်တွင် ခွင့်ခပုမိနရ့် သူက င်စရာက်စနထိုင်ရန် အတွက် သို ့မဟုတ်
ထိအ
ု ရာနှင့် ဆက်စပ်စနစသာ အခခားအခပုအမူကိုခပုလုပ်ရန် ဥပစေနှင့်အညီ
ခွငခ့် ပုထားသည်။ အခခားနည်း ခြင့်ခပု လျှင်တရားမ င်စပ။
The classical description of a licence wasgiven by Sir John
Vaughan. C.J. in Tomas vs. Sorrell 2 "A dispensation orlicence
property passed no interest, nor alters or transfer property inanything
but only makes an action lawful which without it, would havebeen
unlawful."A man is not trespasser if he is on land with the

28
permission, expressor implied, of the possessor, and it is all that
matters for presentpurposes.
ဤအမှုတွင်အထူးခွင့်ခပုခခင်း သို ့မဟုတ်ခွင့်ခပုမိနရ့် စသာ ပစ္စည်းကို
အကျိုးအခမတ်မရှိဘဲ စပးခခင်းသည် စခပာင်းလဲခခင်း သို ့မဟုတ် လွှေစ

ဲ ခပာင်း
ခခင်းခပု၍မရစသာ်လည်း ဥပစေအရ အစရးယူစဆာင်ရွက်နိုင်သည်။ ခွင့်ခပုမိနမ့် ရှိ
လျှင် ဥပစေနှင့်မညီခြစ်လမ
ိ ့်မည်။ လူတစ်စယာက်သည် ပိုင်ဆိုင်သူ၏
အတိအလင်းစသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ သို ့မဟုတ် သွယ် ိုက်၍စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊
ခွင့်ခပုချက်ခြင့်စခမစပါ်တွင်ရှိလျှင်စကျာ်နင်းမှုခပုသည်မမည်။ ကိစ္စရပ်အားလုံးသည်
လက်ရှိရည်ရွယ်ချက်များအတွက်ခြစ်သည်။
3.2.1.7.2.3. Authority of Law
တရားဥပစေအရစဆာင်ရွက်ြွယ်ကိစ္စ များကိုစဆာင်ရွက်ရန် င်စရာက်ခခင်း
Acts which would otherwise be trespassed whether to land,
goods orpersons၊ are frequently prevented from being if such acts are
done by theauthority of law. There are innumerable cases in which
officers of the laware authorized to enter land to take goods or to
arrest or to restrain aperson. A policeman commits no trespass if he
enters a public-housethrough an open door late at night in order to
investigate a disturbance.A bailiff who enters private premises on

29
civil process (e.g.;-to arrest adebtor on a warrant from the Court),
commits no trespass if he does notgain entry by breaking in.
စခမ၊ ကုန်ပစ္စည်း၊ သို ့မဟုတ် လူနှင့ပ

် တ်သက်၍ အခခားနည်းအားခြင့်
စကျာ်နင်းမှု အခပုအမူများသည် ဥပစေအရအခွင့အ

် ာဏာပိုင်သက
ူ ခပုလုပ်လျှင်
အဆိုပါအခပုအမူများကို မ ကခဏ တားခမစ်ထားသည်။ ဥပစေကို အစကာင်
အထည်စြာ် စဆာင်ရွက်သည့် အရာရှိများသည် ကုန်ပစ္စည်းများကို ရယူရန်
သို ့မဟုတ် လူတစ်စယာက်ကိုြမ်းဆီးရန် သို ့မဟုတ် ထိန်းသိမ်းရန် စခမစပါ်သို ့
င်စရာက်ခင
ွ ရ
့် ှိသည်။ ရဲအရာရှိတစ်စယာက်သည် အများခပည်သဆ
ူ ိုငရ
် ာ
အိမ်တစ်အိမ်ကို ထိအ
ု ိမ်၏တံခါးမှ ဆူပူမှုကိုစုံစမ်းရန်အလို ့ငှာ ညည့န
် က်
အချိန် င်စရာက်ခ့လ
ဲ ျှင်စကျာ်နင်းမှုမမည်။ ခခံပိုင်ရှင်ကစီမံခနခ့် ွဲရန်ခနထ ့် ားသူသည်
တရားမစ ကာင်းအရ ပုဂ္ဂလက

ိ ဥပစာကို င်စရာက်ခ့လ
ဲ ျှင် ထိသ
ု သ
ူ ည်
ြျက်ဆီးခခင်းမရှိဘဲ င်စရာက်ခြစ်လျှင် စကျာ်နင်းမှုမစခမာက်စပ။ (ဥပမာ တရားရုံး
က ရမ်းခြင့် ပမီစားကိုြမ်းရန်)
3.2.1.7.2.4. Distress
စ ကးပမီရရန်ရှိ၍ ပစ္စည်းြမ်းဆီးသိမ်းယူခခင်း
It is one of the most ancient and effectual remedies for the
recovery of rent.Thus if the rent has not been paid, the landlord may
recovery by distressupon any goods or chattel found upon the
demised premises withoutprevious demand being made. But, if such

30
distress being made at the wrongplace or time, or if the manner of
entry be wrongful, or if such goods areprotected by law, then it will
become illegal.
ယင်းနည်းလမ်းမှာ ငှားရမ်းခစ ကးပမီများကို ရရှိရန်အတွက်
စရှးအကျဆုံးနှင့် အထိစရာက်ဆုံးကုစားမှု ခြစ်သည်။ငှားရမ်းခကို မစပးခဲ့လျှင်
စခမပိုင်ရှင်သည် ယခင်က စတာင်းဆိုခခင်းမခပုလုပ်ဘဲနှင့် ဥပစာစပါ်ရှိ ကုနစ

် ည်များ
သို ့မဟုတ် စရွှေ စခပာင်

့ း ပစ္စည်းများ အစပါ်တွင်အန္တရာယ်ကျစရာက် ခခင်းမှ
ခပန်လည်ရယူနိုင်သည်။ အဆိုပါစဘးအန္တရာယ်သည် မှားယွင်း စသာစနရာနှင့်
အချိန်၌ ခပုလုပ်ခဲ့လျှင် သို ့မဟုတ် မှားယွင်းစွာ င်စရာက်စသာ အခပု အမူခြစ်လျှင်
သို ့မဟုတ် အဆိုပါကုနစ

် ည်များကို ဥပစေကတားခမစ်ထားလျှင် ထိအ
ု ရာ
သည်တရားမ င်စပ။
3.2.1.7.2.5. Act of Necessity
လိအ
ု ပ်သည့်အတွက် ၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း။
One may lawfully protect one's person and property (and that
of another)against the threat of harm even though the consequence is
that an innocentperson may suffer loss.
အခပစ်ကင်းမဲ့သူတစ်စယာက် ဆုံးရှုံးမှုခြစ်နိုင်စသာ အကျိုးသက်စရာက်မ
ှုခြစ်လျှင် ခြစ်စပါ်နိုင်သည့် လူပုဂ္ဂိုလ်နှင့် ပစ္စည်းများကို ပခိမ်းစခခာက်မန

ှု ှင့်
ဆနက ့် ျင်၍ ဥပစေနှင့်အညီ အကာအကွယ်စပးနိုင်သည်။

31
3.2.1.7.2.6 Self-defence
မိမိကိုယ်ကိုကာကွယ်ရန်အတွက် ၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း
A trespass may be excused as having been done in self-
defence. Hence noone can be held liable for trespass if he entered
another's property actingunder self-defence.
စကျာ်နင်းမှုတစ်ခုကို မိမိကိုယ်ကိုကာကွယ်ရန်အတွက် င်စရာက်လျှင်
ခွင့်ခပုသည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့် မည်သမ

ူ ျှ ကာကွယခ
် ုခံမှုအရ အခခားသပိုင် ပစ္စည်းကို
င်စရာက်ခ့လ
ဲ ျှင် စကျာ်နင်းမှုအတွက် မည်သမ
ူ ျှတာ န်မရှိစပ။
3.2.1.7.2.7 Re-entry on Land
အိမ်စခမယာအတွင်းသို ့ ခပန်လည်၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း
The person entitled to possession can enter or re-enter the
premises, but hemust do so in a manner, otherwise he will be liable
under a criminal action.As to civil liability, if he uses no more force
than is necessary, he willnot be liable for trespass.
လက် ယ်ရှိမှုရှိစသာလူတစ်စယာက်သည်ဥပစာများကို င်စရာက်နုင

ိ ်သည်
သို ့မဟုတ် ခပန်လည် င်စရာက်နုင

ိ ်သည်။သို ့စသာ် နည်းလမ်းတကျ င်စရာက်ရ
မည်။ သို ့မဟုတလ

် ျှင် ထို င်စရာက်မသ
ှု ည် ခပစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာစရးယစဆာင်ရွက်မှုအရ
တာ န်ရှိစပလိမ့်မည်။ တရားမစ ကာင်းဆိုင်ရာ တာ န်ရှိမအ

ှု စနခြင့် လိအ
ု ပ်
32
သည်ထက်ပို၍ အတင်းအ ကပ်ခပုလုပ်ခခင်းမရှိလျှင်စကျာ်နင်း မှုအတွက်တာ န်
မရှိစပ။
3.2.1.7.2.8 Retaking of Goods
မိမိပိုင်ပစ္စည်းကို၀င်စရာက်ယူခခင်း
If a person takes away another's goods upon his own premises,
he gives theowner of such goods implies authority or licence to enter
for the purpose ofrecaption. But if such goods are on the land of
another through somenegligence or wrongful act of the owner
himself, the owner will have noright of reception.
မိမိပိုငဥ
် ပစာစပါ်တွင်ကို တစ်ပါးသူ၏ပစ္စည်းကို ယူထားလျှင်
ယင်းပစ္စည်းကို ပိုင်ရှင်က ယူထားသူ၏ ပိုင်စခမအတွင်းသို ့ ၀င်စရာက်၍
ခပန်လည်ရယူနိုင်သည့်အခွင့်အာဏာ သို ့မဟုတ် လိင

ု ်စင်ရှိသည်။ သို ့စသာ်ပိုင်ရှင်၏
စပါ့ဆမှုစ ကာင့် ခြစ်စစ၊ မတရားခပုလုပ်မှုစ ကာင့်ခြစ်စစ၊ ပစ္စည်းသည်
သူတစ်ပါး၏စခမစပါ်တွင် စရာက်ရိှ လျှင်မူကား ၀င်စရာက်ယူခွင့်မရှိနိုင်စပ။
3.2.1.7.2.9 Abating a Nuisance
စိတ်ပငိုခငင်စနှာက်ယှက်မက
It is a defence to trespass to land that the act was done to end a
nuisance tothe defendant for which the plaintiff was responsible.Any

33
occupier of the land could lawfully remove those branches of
hisneighbour's tree, which projected above his own land and
interfered withhis own trees or plants. He may also have the right to
remove anyobstruction as to light or flow of a natural stream. We
must always bear inmind that, in abating a nuisance, unnecessary
damage must not be done.
စခမယာအစပါ် စကျာ်နင်းမှုအစပါ် ကာကွယ်ခခင်းခြင့် စိတ်ပငိုခငင်
စနှာက်ယှက်မှုကို ြယ်ရှားခခင်းခြစ်ရာတရားလိုအစနခြင့် ကာကွယ်ရန်တာ န်
ရှိသည်။ အဆိုပါအခပုအမူကို တရားပပိုင်ကို စိတ်ပငိုခငင် စနှာက်ယှက် မှုခြစ်စစရန်
စခမကို သိမ်း ပိုက်ထားသူတစ်ဦးဦးသည် သူ၏စခမစပါ်တွင်ရှိစနစသာ သူ၏
ကိုယ်ပိုင် သစ်ပင်များ သို ့မဟုတ် အပင်များကို အစနှာက်အယှက် ခြစ်စစစသာ
စ ကာင့် အိမ်နီးချင်း၏ သစ်ပင်မှအကိုင်းများကို ဥပစေနှင့်ညီစွာြယ်ရှားနိုင်သည်။
ထိသ
ု သ
ူ ည် အလင်းစရာင် သို ့မဟုတ် စမ်းစချာင်း၏စီးဆင်းမှုကဲ့သို ့
အခွင့်အစရးခံစားမှုကို အတားအဆီးတစ်စုံတစ်ရာ ခြစ်စပါ်စစမှု ြယ်ရှားရန်
အခွင့ရ
် ှိသည်။ မှတ်သားရမည်မှာ စိတ်ပငိုခငင်စနှာက်ယှက်မက
ှု ို ြယ်ရှားခခင်းမှာ
မလိအ
ု ပ်စသာြျက်ဆီးခခင်းကို မလုပ်ရစပ။
34
3.3. Invasion of Interests in Intangible Property
ကိုင်တွယ်၍မရစသာ ပစ္စည်းများကိုနစ်နာမှုများ
The forms of intangible or incorporeal property in our legal
field arepatients, copyright, registered trademarks, and the various
franchises i.e.(Legal rights or privileges) which may be vested in
private persons, such asmarkets and ferries. Clearly, the law to these
matters belongs to the law ofproperty.
ကျွနုပ်တို ့၏ ဥပစေနယ်ပယ်တွင်ရှိစသာ ကိုင်တွယ်၍မရစသာပစ္စည်း
သို ့မဟုတ် ရုပ်ခေပ်မရှိစသာပုံစံများမှာ မှတ်ပုံတင်မူပိုင်ခွင့်၊ စာစပမူပိုင်ခွင့်၊
မှတ်ပုံတင်ထားစသာ ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပမ
် ျားနှင့် အမျိုးမျိုးစသာ မဲဆန္ဒစပးပိုင်ခွင့်
တို ့ခြစ်သည်။ ဥပမာ စစျးနှင့် ကူတို ့များကဲ့သုိ ့ ဥပစေအခွင့်အစရး သို ့မဟုတ်
အထူးအခွင့်အစရးများကို ပုဂ္ဂလက
ိ လူများကိုအပ်နှင်းထားသည်။ ရှင်းလင်းစွာ
စခပာရလျှင် အဆိုပါကိစ္စ များနှင့်ပတ်သက်စသာဥပစေသည် ပစ္စည်းဆိုငရ

် ာ
ဥပစေခြစ်သည်။
3.3.1. Patent Right
မှတ်ပုံတင်မူပိုင်ခွင့်
A patent right is a privilege granted by the sovereign power,
securing to theinventor for a limited time, the exclusive right to
make, use, and vend theinvention. A person to be entitled to a patent

35
must have indented ordiscovered some new and useful art, machine,
manufacture, or compositionof matter, or some new and useful
improvement thereon. In the Republic of the Union ofMyanmar,
suits relating to patents are provided in the Myanmar Patent
andDesigns Act 19452. The term limited in every patent for the
duration thereof shall, have as otherwise expressly provided by the
Act, be (16) years
from it's date.
မှတ်ပုံတင်မူပိုင်ခွင့်ဆိုသည်မှာအချုပ်အချာအာဏာပိုင်များကစပးထားစသာ
အထူးအခွင့်အစရးကို တိထင
ွ ်သအ
ူ ားကနသ့် တ်ထားစသာ
အချိန်အတွင်းလုခံ ခုံမှုစပးထားပပီးတီထင
ွ ်မှုတစ်ခုကို ခပုလုပ်ရန်၊အသုံးခပုရန်၊
စရာင်းရန်သီးသနစ့် ပးထားစသာအခွင့် အစရးခြစ်သည်။ တီထွင်မှု မူပိုင်ခွင့်
ရထားစသာသူသည်အချို ့စသာ၊စပါင်းစပ်ြွဲ ့စည်းမှုအသစ်ခြစ်စသာ၊အသုံး င်စသာ၊
အနုပညာ၊စက်ပစ္စည်း၊ ထုတ်လပ
ု ်မှုများ၊ သို ့မဟုတအ
် ချို ့စသာ၊ အသစ်ခြစ်စသာ၊
အသုံး င်စသာ၊ တိုးတက်မမ

ှု ျားကိစ
ု တင်စရးသားခပုလုပ်သည့် သို ့မဟုတ်
ရှာစြွစတွ ရှ့ ိ ခဲ့ခခင်းရှိရမည်။
ခပည်စထာင်စုသမ္မတခမန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင်တီထွင်မှုမူပိုင်ခွင့်နှင့်ပတ်သက်စသာအ
မှုများအတွက်Burma (Myanmar) Patent and Design
Actခပဋ္ဌာန်းစပးထားသည်။တီထွင်မမ
ှု ူပိုင်ခွင့်အတွက်စပးထားစသာအချိန်ကာလမှ
36
ာ အက်ဥပစေတွင်အတိအလင်းစြာ်ခပထားချက်မှတစ်ပါး စတင်သည့်စန ့မှ ၁၆
နှစ်ခြစ်သည်။
A patent right may be infringed if any person without the
license ofthe patentee, makes, uses, exercises or vends/sells the
invention within theprescribed limits.
စပးထားစသာကာလ စည်းကမ်းသတ်အချိန်အတွင်း တီထင

ွ ်မှုမူပိုင်ခွင့်
ရသူ၏ ခွငခ့် ပုမှုမရှိဘဲလပ

ူ ုဂ္ဂိုလ်တစ်ဦးဦးက သတ်မှတ်ထားစသာအချိန်အတွင်း
ခပုလုပ်ခခင်း၊ အသုံးခပုခခင်း၊ ကျင့်သုံးခခင်း သို ့မဟုတ် စရာင်းချခခင်း
ခပုလုပ်လျှင်တီထွင်မှု မူပိုင်ခွင့်ကခ
ို ျိုးစြာက်နုိင်သည်။
Whenever there is a property trespass, the plaintiff's is entitled
toinjunction against the defendant
ပစ္စည်းတစ်ခုခုကိုစကျာ်နင်းသည့အ
် ခါတိုင်းတွင်
တရားလိုကတရားပပိုင်အားဆနက ့် ျင်၍တား ရမ်းရပိုင်ခွင့်ရှိသည်။
3.3.2 Copyright
စာစပ၊အနုပညာ၊မူပိုင်ခွင့်
A copyright is a legal and exclusive right to print and publish
book, article,work of art, etc. “Copyright” means the sole right to
produce orreproduce the work or any substantial part thereof in any
material formwhatsoever, to perform, or in case of a lecture to

37
deliver the work or anysubstantial part thereof in public, if the work
is unpublished, to publish thework or any substantial part thereof and
shall include the sole right –
စာစပအနုပညာမူပိုင်ခွင့်သည် စာအုပ်၊ စဆာင်းပါး အနုပညာလက်ရာများကို
ရိုက်ကူးထုတ်လပ
ု ်ရန်ဥပစေနှင့အ
် ညီ သီးသနအ ့် ခွင့်အစရးခြစ်သည်။ စာစပ
အနုပညာ မူပိုင်ခွင့်သည် စဆာင်ရွက်ရန်အတွက် အစရးပါစသာပုံစံခြင့် အလုပ်
သို ့မဟုတ် အစိတ်အပိုင်းတစ်စုံတစ်ရာကိုထတ

ု ်လပ
ု ်ရန် သို ့မဟုတ်
ခပန်လည်ထုတ်လပ
ု ်ရန် သို ့မဟုတ် လူထုအ ကားသင်ခန်းစာပို ့ချသည့်အလုပ်
သို ့မဟုတ် အစိတ်အပိုင်းတစ်စုံတစ်ရာကို ပို ့ချရန်အတွက် ထိအ

ု လုပ်သည်
ပုံနှိပ်ထတ
ု ်စ ခခင်းမခပုရစသးလျှင် ထိအ
ု လုပ် သို ့မဟုတ် အစိတ်အပိုင်းတစ်ရပ်ကို
ု ်စ ရန်စအာက်စြာ်ခပပါအခွင့အ
် စရးရှိသည်။
(a) to produce, reproduce, perform, or publish any translation of
thework;
ထိအ
ု လုပ်၏ဘာသာခပန်ဆိုမှုကိုထုတ်လပ
ု ်ရန်၊ခပန်လည်ထုတ်လပ
ု ်ရန်၊စဆာင်ရွက်ရ
န် သို ့မဟုတ် ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ရန်
(b) in the case of a dramatic work, to convert it into a novel or
other nondramawork;
ခပဇာတ်အနုပညာလက်ရာလုပ်ငန်းတွင်ယင်းလက်ရာများကို တ္ထ ုသို ့မဟုတ်
အခခားစသာခပဇာတ်အနုပညာလက်ရာများသို ့စခပာင်းလဲရန်။
38
(c) in the case of a novel or other non-dramatic work, or of an
artisticwork, to convert it into a dramatic work, by way of
performance in publicor otherwise;
တ္ထ ုသို ့မဟုတ် အခခားစသာခပဇာတ်မဟုတ်စသာ အနုပညာလက်ရာများ
သို ့မဟုတ် အနုပညာလက်ရာများကိုအများစရှ ့ စဆာင်ရွက်ခခင်း သို ့မဟုတ်
အခခားနည်းလမ်းခြင့်ခပဇာတ်အခြစ်စဆာင်ရွက်ရန်။
(d) in the case of a literary, dramatic or musical work, to make
anyrecord, perforated roll, cinematograph film, or other contrivance
by meansof which the work may be mechanically performed or
delivered; and toauthorize any such arts as aforesaid .
စာစပ၊ အနုပညာ၊ ဂီတ၊ လက်ရာများတွင် မှတ်တမ်းတင်ခပုလုပ်ရန်
စက်မှုနည်း ပညာခြင့်စဆာင်ရွက်မှု သို ့မဟုတ် လွှေစ

ဲ ခပာင်းမှုနည်းခြင့်
အခခားစသာခပုလုပ်ရန်နှင့်အဆိုပါအနုပညာလက်ရာတစ်စုံတစ်ရာအတွက်အထက်
ပါအတိင
ု ်းလုပ်ပိုင်ခွင့်စပးထားသည်။ မူပိုင်ခွင့်ဆိုသည်မှာစာအုပ်၊ စဆာင်းပါး၊
အနုပညာလက်ရာတို ့ကို ထုတ်စ ရန်၊ပုံနှိပ်ရန်၊ ဥပစေအရအခပည့်အ ရရှိထားစသာ
အခွင့်ခြစ်သည်။ မူပိုင်ခွင့်ဆိုသည်မှာထုတ်လုပ်ရန် သို ့မဟုတ် ခပန်လည်
ထုတလ
် ုပ်ရန် တစ်ခုတည်းစသာအခွင့်အစရးခြစ်သည်။ သို ့မဟုတအ
် စိတ်အပိုင်း
တစ်ခုခုခြစ်သည်။
For an intellectual work to be capable of protection as copyright it
isnecessary that –
39
(1) It must be innocent, အခပစ်ကင်းရမည်။
(2) It must be of a literary value. The object of the law is to protect
"auseful book". As a general rule there is no copyright in
advertisements andlavels but there is in catalogues.
စာစပတန်ဘိုးရှိရမည်။ တရားဥပစေက အသုံး၀င်စသာစာအုပ်ကို
ကာကွယ်ရန် ရည်ရွယ်ချက်ရိသ
ှ ည်။ စယဘုယျအားခြင့် စ ကာ်ခငာစာများနှင့် အမျိုး
1
အမည်ခွဲခခား စြာ်ခပသည့အ
် မှတ်အသား စက္က ူချပ် များ အတွက်မူပိုင်ခွင့်
2
မရှိစသာ်လည်း ကတ်တစလာက် များအတွက်မူ မူပိုင်ခွင့်ရှိသည်။
(3) It must be originalwas upheld in the Court of Appeal and in
both Courts it was described asone of exemplary damages.
မူလအစရးအသား၊ ခပကွက်၊ ကကွက်များခြစ်ရမည်။မူလတရားရုံးနှင့် အယူခံ
တရားရုံးက စံခပစလျာ်စ ကးအခြစ်စြာ်ခပရမည်။
The following works are the subject of copyright:-
(1) Literacy work
စာစပအနုပညာလက်ရာ
(2) Dramatic work
ခပဇာတ်
(3) Artistic work
1
Label
2
Catalogues
40
အနုပညာ
(4) Work of sculpture
ပန်းပုလက်ရာ
(5) Architectural work of art
ဗိသုကာလက်ရာ
(6) Engravings
ပုံထွင်းပန်းခတ်ခခင်း
(7) Photograph
ဓာတ်ပုံပညာ
(8) Cinematograph
ရုပ်ရှင်
(9) Plate
စ ကးစသည်ဆိုင်းဘုတ်သို ့မဟုတပ
် ုံနှိပ်ရန်သတ္တ ုခပား
(10) Lecture
သင်ခန်းစာ
3.3.3. Trade Mark
ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပ်
The law protects a man's interest in earning his living. Hence it
is the rightof every trader to require a right to trade mark.

41
ဥပစေကလူတစ်စယာက်၏ စနထိုင်ရှင်သန်မှုအစပါ်မှ ရရှိစသာ င်စငွ
အကျိုး စကျးဇူးများအစပါ်အကာအကွယ်စပးထားခခင်းခြစ်သည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့်
ကုနသ
် ယ
ွ ်မှု ခပုသူတိုင်းသည် ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပအ
် ခွင့်အစရးကို ရရှိနိုင်စသာ
အခွင့်စရး ခြစ်ပါသည်။
At Common Law, the use of trade name or mark which has
beenadopted by making it, appear that the goods sold under it are the
goods ofthat other. In Myanmar, there is no system of registration of
Trade-
အဂ်လပ
ိ ်ရးို ရာဥပစေအရ ကုန်စည်အမည် သို ့မဟုတ် ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပ်
အသုံးခပုမှုကို ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပခ် ပုလုပ်ပပီးကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပ်ခြင့် ကုနစ
် ည်ကို
စရာင်းချရန်ခြစ်သည်။ ခမန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပက

် ို မှတ်ပုံတင်
သည့စ
် နစ် မရှိစသးစပ။ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပန
် ှင့် ပတ်သက်ပပီးပိုင်ဆိုင်မှုဆိုင်ရာ
ခပဌာန်းထားစသာဥပစေလည်းမရှိစသးစပ။
So, the right of parties setting up claims to ownership of a
trade-mark must be determined inaccordance with the principles of
Common Law. The right to Trade-Marks in Myanmar is therefore
dependent upon the general principles of Commercial Law.
ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပစ
် တာင်ဆိုရန် စဆာင်ရွက်စသာအမှုသည်များကို အလိပပ်
ရိုးရာဥပစေစည်းမျဉ်းနှင့်အညီ ဆုံးခြတ်စပးသည်။ ခမန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင် ကုနအ

် မှတ်
42
တံဆိပဆ
် ိုင်ရာ အခွင့်အစရးသည်စဆာင်ရွက်မှုမှာ ကူးသန်းစရာင်း ယ်စရးဆိုင်ရာ
အစထွစထွစည်းမျဉ်းများအစပါ်တွင်တည်မှီစနသည်။
The fundamental rule is that, "one man has no right to put off
hisgood for sale as the goods of a rival trader.
အစခခခံကျစသာစည်းမျဉ်းတစ်ခုမှာလူတစ်စယာက်သည်သူ၏ကုန်စည်များ
ကိုစရာင်းချရန်အတွက်အပပိုင်အဆိုငခ် ြစ်စသာအခခားကုနသ
် ည်၏ကုနစ
် ည်ကဲ့သို ့
အတုခပုလုပ်စရာင်းချရန် လုပ်ရန်အခွင့်အစရးမရှိစပ။
The law restricts unfair competition inthe affairs of trade
business. Thus whoever commits the tort of "Passingoff" will be
liable not only to pay damages, but also an injunction will be lieto
ဥပစေက ကုနသ
် ယ
ွ ်မှုစီးပွားစရးလုပ်ငန်းများ၏ ကိစ္စရပ်များတွင်
မမျှတစသာ ယှဉ်ပပိုင်မှုများကိုတားခမစ်ထားသည်။ ကုနပ

် စ္စည်း အတုခပုလုပ်မှု
ခြစ်စသာ တရားမ နစ်နာမှုကို ကျူးလွန်သူတိုင်းသည် နစ်နာစ ကးစပးရရုံသာမက
မှာယွင်းမှုကို တားခမစ်ရန် တား ရမ်းကိုလည်း ရရှိနိုင်သည်။
ကုနအ
် တုခပုလုပ်ခခင်းကိုစအာက်ပါနည်းများခြင့်လည်းကျူးလွန်နိုင်
သည်။
တရားလိုကဲ့သို ့ ကုနစ
် ည်ကိုစရာင်းချခခင်း
43
တရားလို၏နာမည်ကိုအသုံးခပုခခင်း
တရားလို၏ကုနစ
် ည်အမည်ကိုအသုံးခပုခခင်း
တရားလို၏ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပက
် ိုအသုံးခပုခခင်း
တရားလို၏ကုနစ
် ည်များကိုအတုခပုလုပ်ခခင်း
တရားလိုထက်အရည်အစသွးနိမ့်စသာကုနစ
် ည်ကိုစရာင်းချခခင်း
မှားယွင်းစသာစ ကာ်ခငာခခင်း
The term "Trade-Mark" is defined in Section 478 of the Penal
Codeof Myanmar as follows:
ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပစ
် ါဟာရကို ရာဇသတ်ကကီးဥပစေပုေ်မ ၄၇၈ တွင်
အဓိပ္ပာယ် ြွင့်ဆိုထားပါသည်။
A mark used for denoting that goods are the manufacture
ormerchandise of a particular person is called a Trade-Mark".

44
တစ်ဦးတစ်စယာက်စသာသူ၏ ထုတ်လပ
ု ်ကုနစ
် ည်ခြစ်စ ကာင်းကို စသာ်
လည်းစကာင်း၊ အစရာင်းအ ယ် ကုနစ

် ည်ခြစ်စ ကာင်း ကိုစသာ် လည်းစကာင်း၊
အသုံးခပုစသာ အမှတ်အသားကိုကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပဟ
် ုစခါ်သည်။
The period of limitation prescribed by Section 15 of the
MyanmarMerchandise Act ,3 for prosecuting an offender under the
Penal Code forthe use of false Trade-Mark is three years from the
date of the commissionof the offence charged or one year from the
date of discovery by theprosecutor of the offence charged, whichever
is less.
Myanmar Merchandise Act ပုေ်မ၂၅ ကာလစည်းကမ်းနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍
စြာ်ခပထားသည်။ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပက
် ို မှားယွင်းစွာ အသုံးခပုမှုအတွက်
ရာဇသတ်ကကီးအရ ခပစ်မှုကျူးလွန်သူကို တရားစွဲဆိုမသ

ှု ည် ကာလစည်းကမ်း
သတ်မှာ ခပစ်မှုကို စတင်စွဲဆိုစသာ အချိန်မှစ၍ ၃ နှစ်ခြစ်သည်။ သို ့မဟုတ်
စွဲဆိုစသာခပစ်မှုနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ တရားစွဲဆို စသာသူက စတင်စတွ ရှ့ ိစသာစန ့မှ
စ၍တစ်နှစ်ခြစ်သည်။
In the case of Aung Gwan Chawn of B.Y.C. Soap factory,in
which the Court held that, although the appellant plaintiff had used
theSinger Machine Manufacturers V. Wilson, 1877. 3 App Case. 376
especially at P.391-2.per LordCairus L.C. (H.L).Trade-Mark in
dispute which is "Bandoola" long before the formation ofthe B.Y.C.

45
Company, but with his own consent, it has been permitted to beused
by that company up to the time of its dissolution without
anyinterruption for (9) years. That simply amounts to waiver of such
right touse the Trade-Mark. Hence, B.Y.C. Company will be entitled
to the right touse it as its own property. In other words it will be
taken as the property ofthe firm under section (14) of the Partnership
Act.
ဤအမှုတွင်တရားရုံးက စအာက်ပါအတိင
ု ်း ဆုံးခြတ်ထားပါသည်။
အယူခံတရား လိသ
ု ည် အခငင်းပွားမှုတွင်ပါ င်စသာ ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပခ် ြစ်စသာ
ဗန္ဓုလတံဆိပက
် ို B Y C ကုမဏ
္ပ ီမြွဲ ့စည်းမီကပင် ကာရှည်စွာအသုံးခပုခဲ့သည်။
သို ့စသာ်သူ၏ ကိုယပ

် ိုင် ဆန္ဒခြင့် ၉ နှစ် ကာ အစနှာက်အယှက် တစ်စုံတစ်ရာ
မရှိဘဲနှင့် ကုမဏ
္ပ ီ ြျက်သိမ်း သည့အ
် ချိန်အထိ ကုမဏ
္ပ ီကအသုံးခပုရန်
ခွင့်ခပုထားသည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့် B Y C ကုမဏ

္ပ က
ကုနအ
် မှတ်တံဆိပက
် ိုကိုယ်ပိုင်ပစ္စည်းကဲ့သုိ ့ အသုံးခပုခွင့်ရှိလမ
ိ ့်မည်။ အစုစပ်
လုပ်ငန်း အက်ဥပစေ ပုေ်မ ၁၄ အရ အစုစပ်လပ

ု ်ငန်းများ၏ ပစ္စည်းကဲ့သုိ ့
စဆာင်ရွက်နိုင်လမ
ိ ့်မည်။
Secondly in the case of Johny Walker & Sons Ltd. vs. U

5
ThanShwe in which case the Court considered the point that
whether anowner of a Trade-Mark in respect of a particular
5
1968 B.L.R C.C(73).
46
commodity has a right toprohibit or prevent other persons from the
use of such mark in connectionwith goods of a totally different
character.
စဂျာ်နီ ါကားနှငသ
့် ားများကုမ္ပဏီနှင့် ဦးသန်းစရွှေအမှုတွင် တရားရုံးက
သီးခခား ကုန်စည်တစ်ခုနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ ကုန်အမှတ်တံဆိပ် ပိုင်ရှင်တွင်
တားခမစ်ရန်အခွင့်အစရး ရှိသလားသို ့မဟုတ် လုးံ အသွင်ကွဲခပားစသာ
ကုနစ
် ည်များနှင့်ဆက်စပ်စနစသာ ကုနအ
် မှတ် တံဆိပ် သုံးစွဲခခင်းမှ အခခား
သူများကို တားခမစ်နိုင်သလား ဟူစသာအချက်ကို ထည့်သွင်း စဉ်းစားခဲ့သည်။
The appellant is the owner of the Trade-Mark JOHNNIE
WALKER(words) and the JONNIE WALKER striding figure
representations whichhave been used on bottles of whisky sole by
him in Myanmar. Therespondent used the words" Burmese
JOHANNIE WALKER" with thestriding figure of JOHNNIE
WALKER, on his blood Tonic bottles. TheCourt found out that the
goods are of different in character and class.Hence the appeal was
dismissed.
အယူခံသည် စဂျာ်နီ ါကား ကုနအ

် မှတ်တံဆိပပ
် ိုင်ရှင်ခြစ်သည်။
ခမန်မာ ီစကီ ပုလင်းစပါ်တွင် ထူးခခားထင်ရှားစသာ စဂျာ်နီ ါကားပုံကို
အသုံးခပုထားသည်။ တရားပပိုင် သည် စသွးစဆးပုလင်းတွင် ထူးခခား
ထင်ရှားစသာ စဂျာ်နီ ါကားပုံကို အသုံးခပုထားသည်။ တရားရုံးက ကုနစ

် ည်များ
47
သည် အသွင်သာမက အမျိုးအစားပါ ကွဲခပားစ ကာင်း စတွ ရသည်

့ ။ ထို ့စ ကာင့်
အယူခံကိုပလပ်လုက
ိ ်သည်။
We must also note that the action maintainable even though no
damage is proved, i.e. by way of –
တရားစွဲဆိုမက
ှု ို နစ်နာမှု သက်စသမခပနိုင်လျှင်စတာ်မှ
စအာက်ပါနည်းများခြင့် တရားစွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။
(1) an injunction.
တား ရမ်း
နစ်နာစ ကး သို ့မဟုတ် တရားလို၏စရွးချယ်မှုမှ အခမတ်
The first remedy is often the most important to the plaintiff. If
thedefendant's conduct is calculated to divert customers even though
no saleas occurred, an injunction will still lie to prevent the
apprehended wrong.
ပထမကုစားမှုမှာ တရားလိုအတွက် အစရးပါဆုံးခြစ်သည်။ တရားပပိုင်
၏အခပု အမူသည် စရာင်းချခခင်းမခပုလျှင်စတာင် သုံးစွဲသူကို စတွစ
လမ်းလွစ
ဲ စရန် ခပုခဲ့လျှင် မှားယွင်းမှုကို တားခမစ်နိုင်စသာ တား ရမ်း
ထုတ်စပးရသည်။
As to the second form of remedy, the plaintiff will recover
damagesfor the loss of profit which he has sustained in consequence

48
of customer'sbeing diverted from him to the defendant. In addition
he may recover forloss of business reputation and good-will of the
business.
ေုတိယကုစားမှုမှာ တရားလိုကို သူ ့ထံမှ သုံးစွဲသူ၏ ယုံ ကည်မှု
ကိုစတွစ လွဲမှားစစစသာအကျိုးဆက်စ ကာင့်ရရှိနိုင်စသာ အခမတ်၏ ဆုံးရှုံးမှု
အတွက် စလျာ်စ ကးကို ခပန်ရစစနိုင်သည်။
3.4. Invasion of Interests in Reputation
သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းနာမကိုထိပါးပပစ်မှားပြင်း
Every man has an absolute right to protect his reputation. It is a
right inrem.The wrong of defamation includes the publication of
thoughtand ideas in terms of words, pictures, gestures, music or
statues. But,basically we see that there are only two kinds of
defamation:-
လူတိုင်းသည် သူ၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းအမည်နာမအတွက် ကာကွယ်ရန်
အခွင့်အစရး အခပည့်အ ရှိသည်။ ထိအ

ု ရာသည် ပစ္စည်းဆိုငရ
် ာ စွဲဆိုမှုခြစ်သည်။
အသစရြျက်မှုနှင့် ပတ်သက်စသာ မှားယွင်းမှုတွင် စကားလုးံ စ ါဟာရများ၊
ရုပ်ပုံများ၊ စခခဟန်လက်ဟန်၊ ခပဌာန်းချက် စသည့် အစတွးအစခါ်နှင့်
အယူအဆများ ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ခခင်းများလည်း ပါ င် သည်။
(1) Libel
49
စာခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
(2) Slander
နှုတ်ခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
3.4.1 Libel
စာခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
Anything communicated in a form of a permanent character
and visible tothe eye is libel, such as books, newspapers, pictures,
waxwork effigy orstatues, mark or sign exposed to view. Moreover,
broadcasting, both radioand television and theatrical performances
which are treated aspublication in permanent form, i.e. as libel.
အပမဲတမ်းအသွင်လက္ခဏာပုံစံခြင့် တစ်စုံတစ်ခုကို ဆက်သွယ်ခဲ့ခခင်းနှင့်
မျက်စစ့နှင့် ခမင်နိုင်စသာ အရာများသည် စာခြင့်စရးသား၍ သူတစ်ပါး၏
ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်း စအာင်ခပုခခင်း ခြစ်ပါသည်။ ဥပမာ စာအုပ်များ၊
သတင်းစာများ၊ ပန်းချီများ၊ ြစယာင်းရုပ်ထ၊ု သို ့မဟုတခ် ပဌာန်းချက်၊
ခမင်စတွ နိ့ ုင်စသာအမှတ်အသား သို ့မဟုတ် လက္ခဏာများ စသည်တို ့ပါ င်သည်။
ထို ့ခပင် အသံလင

ွှေ ့်ခခင်း၊ စရေီယိုနှင် တီဗွီ၊ ဇာတ်သဘင်ကခပစြျာ်စခြမှု
တို ့သည်အပမဲတမ်းပုံစံခြင့် ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ခဲ့လျှင် စာခြင့်စရး
သား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
စာခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်းအတွက်
50
အစရးယူ စဆာင်ရွက်ရန် စအာက်ပါအချက်များကိုသက်စသခပရမည်။
မှာယွင်းစသာစွတ်စွဲချက်
(2) It is written
စာခြင့်စရးသားထားရမည်။
သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကိုညှိုးနွမ်းစစရမည်။
အများသိစစရန်စ ကခငာခခင်း
3.4.1.1. False Statement
မှားယွင်းစသာ စွပ်စွဲချက်
There is no responsibility for the plaintiff to establish the
defendant'sstatement is untrue. What plaintiff must prove is that the
statement is defamatory to him ,i.e., he has to prove that the
defendant communicatedto the third party (but not just to his wife)
words which were likely to lowerthe plaintiff in the estimation of
right thinking people. Defamation of aperson is taken to be false
until it is proved to be true. He also needs notprove any damage.

51
However if he wants to get heavy damages, he shouldonly try to
prove some loss occurred to him.
သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစသည့် စွပ်စွဲချက်တစ်ခုကို
မှားယွင်းသည့် စွပ်စွဲချက်တစ်ခုအစနခြင့် တရားလိုဘက်မှ အသာစပး၍
မှတ်ယူသည့်အစလျာက်၊ မှားယွင်း စွာစွပ်စွဲချက်ခြစ်စ ကာင်း တရားလိုတွင်
သက်စသထူရန် တာ၀န်မရှိစပ။ ၄င်းခပင် တရားပပိုင် ဟုတ်မှန်သည့်အတိုင်း
စရးသားစွပစ
် ွဲခခင်းခြစ်သည်ဟူ၍ အစထာက်အထား မခပနိုင်မခခင်း၊ စွပ်စွဲချက်
တစ်ခုကို မှားယွင်းသည့် စွပ်စွဲချက်ခြစ်သည်ဟု မှတ်ယရ

ူ စပမည်။ တစ်စုံတစ်ဦး
သည် မှာယွင်းမှန်းသိလျက်နင
ှ ့် စွပ်စွဲချက်တစ်ခုကို စရးသားထားစ ကာင်း
အစထာက် အထားများခြင့် သက်စသထင်ရှားစပါ်လွင်ပပီးပါက ယင်းစွပ်စွဲချက်
အတွက် မည်သတ
ူ စ်ဦး တစ်စယာက်ကမျှ စနာက်ထပ်စုံစမ်းစစ်စဆးရန်
မလိစ
ု တာ့စချ။ သို ့ခြစ်ခခင်းစ ကာင့် ထိအ
ု ချိန်မှစ၍ လူတိုင်းက တရားပပိုင်တွင်
မသမာစိတ်ရှိစ ကာင်းနှင့် မှားယွင်းစသာ စစ့စဆာ်မှုခြင့် အမှားကို
စွပ်စွဲစရးသားသည်ဟူ၍ ယူဆ ကသည်။ သို ့စသာ်လည်း တရားလို၏
တိုင် ကားချက်တွင်မူ စွပ်စွဲချက်သည် မှားယွင်း၍ မသမာမှုနှင့် မစစ္ဆရသစဘာမျိုး
ပါရှိစ ကာင်းများကို အဆိုခပုရမည်။ မစစ္ဆရသစဘာဆိုသည့် အနက်အဓိပ္ပာယ်မှာ
စွပ်စွဲချက်ကို တရားနည်းလမ်းမကျပဲ လူသိရှင် ကား ခြနခ့် ျီခခင်းကို ဆိုလိုသည်။
တရားပပိုင်တွင် တာ၀န်ရှိ စ ကာင်းဆုံးခြတ်ရာ၌ စစ့စဆာ်မှုမှာ အစရးပါ
အရာမစရာက်စပ။
52
3.4.1.2 Written
စာခြင့်စရးသားထားရခခင်း
The term 'libel' actually indicates something printed or written,
but alsoincludes any scandalous painting, waxwork effigy, or
symbol. A gallows atthe doorway of some person out of hatred may
be a libel upon him. In Jefferies vs. Duncombe case, the plaintiff
recovered damagesagainst the defendant for keeping in front of the
plaintiff's house, a lampburning during the daytime, there by
intending to make out the dwellinghouseof the plaintiff as a bawdy
house i.e. (brothel house).
စွပ်စွဲချက်ကို စာခြင့်စရးသား၍စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ ပုံနှိပ်စက်ခြင့်
ရိုက်၍စသာ် လည်း စကာင်း၊ ရယ်ဘွယ်စကာင်းသည့် ရုပ်ပုံများခြင့်
စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ အခခားအလား တူနည်း များ အရှက်တကွဲ
အကျိုးနဲခြစ်စစမည့်ပုံများ စရးဆွဲ၍စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ သူတစ် ပါး၏
ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစရစပမည်။ စကားစခပာအသံထက

ွ ် ရုပ်ရှင်ကားများခြင့်
လည်း သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ထိပါးညှိုးနွမ်းစစနိုင်သည်။

53
3.4.1.3. Defamatory
သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကိုညှိုးနွမ်းစစခခင်း
It is already pointed out that to be a defamatory the words must
tend tolower the plaintiff’s reputation in the estimation of right
thinking membersof the society ။
သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစရမည် ဆိုသည်မှာ
လူ ့အြွဲ ့အစည်းရှိ လူများက ထင်ခမင်ခနမ့် ှန်းမှုတွင် တရားလို၏ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာကို
နိမ့်ကျစစရန် ရည်ရွယ်စသာ စကားများကိုစခါ်သည်။
3.4.1.4 Death
စသဆုံးသူ၏ ဂုဏ်သစရကိုြျက်ခခင်း
In the Law of Torts, there are two problems arising out of
whether thecause of action still exists after the death of a person.As
to the first problem, there is a legal maxim "actio personalismortitur
cum persona" meaning; the right of action lies with the ofthe person.
တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥပစေမှာ လူတစ်စယာက်စသပပီးစနာက် တရားစွဲဆိုရန်
အစ ကာင်း စပါ်စပါက်သလားဆိုစသာ ခပဿနာနှစ်ရပ် စပါ်စပါက်သည်။
ပထမခပဿနာမှာ ဥပစေဆိုရုးိ ခြစ်စသာ actio personalis mortitur cum
persona သည် လူတစ်ဦး၏ခန္ဓာကိုယ်ခြစ်စစ၊ ဂုဏ်သစရကိုခြစ်စစ၊

54
ထိခိုက်နစ်နာမှုများတွင် ထိသ
ု က
ူ သာလျှင် အစရးယူစဆာင်ရွက်ခွငရ
့် ှိခခင်း
ခြစ်သည်။
Pictures Ltd. (1934). 50, T.L. R (The Times Report)
581Secondly, there is the problem of whether the interest of one
person in thelife of another is recognized by the law of torts so as to
afford the formersa cause of action in respect of the latter's death.
ေုတိယခပဿနာမှာအခခားသူ တစ်စယာက် ၏ဘ တွင် လူတစ်စယာက်
၏အကျိုးကို တရားမနစ်နာမှုဥပစေက အသိအမှတ်ခပု ထားလျှင် ေုတိယ
လူစသဆုံးခခင်းနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ ပထမလူမှာတရားစွဲဆိုရန် အစ ကာင်း ရှိသည်။
3.4.1.5 Publication
အများသိစစရန်စ ကခငာခခင်း
Publication is the communication of the words to at least one
person otherthan the person defamed. Publication of the defamatory
statement is anessential element of the cause of action
.Communication to the plaintif himself is not enough, for defamation
is an injury to one's reputation andreputation is what other people
think of a man, and not his own opinion ofhimself; in other words,
you cannot publish a libel of a man to himself .Itis the publication,

55
not the composition of a libel which is the actionablewrong.
Therefore publication need not be intentional.
အများသိစစရန်ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ခခင်းဆိုသည်မှာ
အသစရြျက်စသာသူတစ်ဦးမှတစ်ပါး အနည်းဆုံးလူတစ်ဦးသို ့ စကားလုးံ များခြင့်
ဆက်သွယ်စခပာဆိုခခင်း ခြစ်သည်။ အသစရ ြျက်မန

ှု ှင့်ပတ်သက်၍
စြာ်ခပချက်ကိုပံန
ု ှိပ် ထုတ်စ ခခင်းမှာ တရားစွဲဆိုရန်အတွက် အလို အပ်ဆုံးအချက
ခြစ်သည်။ တရားလိက
ု ိုယ်တိုင်သို ့ ဆက်သွယ်ခခင်းသည် မလုစ
ံ လာက်ဘဲ
သူတစ်ဦး၏ ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာကို နစ်နာမှုခြစ်စစစသာ အသစရြျက်မအ

ှု တွက်
ဆက်သွယ်ခခင်း ခြစ်သည်။ ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာသည် အခခားသူများက လူတစ်စယာက်
နှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ မည်သုိ ့ စတွးစခါ်သနည်းဟူ၍ရှိရသည်။ သူကိုယ်တိုင်နှင့်
ပတ်သက်၍ သူ၏ထင်ခမင်ချက်ကို မယူရ။ အခခားစကားလုံးနှင့်စခပာလျှင်
လူတစ်စယာက်သည် သူနှင့်ပတ်သက်စသာ စာနှင့်အသစရ ြျက်မှုကိုသက

ူ ိုယတ
် ိုင်
ု ်စ ခခင်းမခပုနိုင်။ အများသိစစရန်စာနှင့် ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ခခင်းတွင်
စာခြင့်သီကုံးစရးြွဲ ့ခခင်း မခပုလျှင် မှားယွင်းစွာ တရားစွဲဆိုမှုခြစ်သည်။ အများ
သိစစရန်စ ကခငာခခင်းမှာ ကံရွယ်ချက်ရိရ

ှ န်မလိစ
ု ပ။
6
In Cook v. Ward Case , the plaintiff told some friends a
ludicrous eventwhich is a humorous story about himself, and the
defendant published it inhis newspaper, simply for the purpose of
6
1901.2.K.B.1.
56
amusing his readers and believingthat the plaintiff would not object
the defendant was held liable.

*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် တရားလိုက မိမိ၏ရယ်စရာစကာင်းသည့် အခြစ်
အပျက်များကို ၄င်း၏ သူငယ်ချင်းအချို ့အား စခပာခပရာ တရားပပိုင်က
ယင်းအခြစ်အပျက်များကို တရားလို က ကနက ့် ွက်လိမ့်မည်မဟုတဟ

် ု
ယုံ ကည်ချက်ခြင့် သတင်းစာြတ်သူများအား စပျာ်ရွှေင်စစရန် သတင်းစာတွင်
ထည့သ
် င
ွ ်း စရးသား၍ ထုတ်စ လိုက်သည်။ တရားရုံးက တရားပပိုင်တွင်
ယင်းစရးသားချက်အတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်ဟု ဆုံးခြတ်သည်။
A business communication containing defamatory
statementsconcerning the plaintiff is communicated by the defendant
to his clerks in reasonable and ordinary course of business. This will
not amount to publication.But if a statement is false to the
knowledge of the defendant, then there isno privilege, and
publication of such statement to his clerk will not beprotected.
Ordinary negligence is no defence in publication. A personcannot
excuse himself on the ground that he published the libel by
accident,or mistake or injustice. Out of joke, or with an honest belief
in its truth. Inlibel, there is a presumption of publication, and this
*
Cook V. ward, (1830), 6 Bing, 409
57
liability for negligencecan be rebutted if the defendant can prove the
following.
(1) He did not know that it contained a libel.
(2) His ignorance was not due to any negligence on hispart.
(3) He did not know and had no reason to suppose that it was likely
tocontain defamatory matter .However publication will be justified if
it isdone in accordance of business practice.

*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် စရှ စနတစ်
့ ဦးသည် ၄င်း၏အမှုသည်၏ကိုယစ
် ား
တရားလို၏ ဂုဏ်သစရကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစမည့် စွပ်စွဲချက်များ ပါ င်သည့်
စာတစ်စစာင်ကို မိမိရုံးခန်းတွင် စာစရးအားနှုတ်ခြင့် ချစပး၍ စာစရးကလိုက်၍
စရးရသည်။ တြန်ထုိစာကို အခခားစာစရး တစ်စယာက်က စာအုပ်တစ်ခုတွင်
ကူး၍ ထည့သ
် င
ွ ်းရသည်။ တရားလိုက အသစရြျက်မှု ခြင့် တရားစွဲဆိုရာတွင်
တရားရုံးက အမှုကိစ္စများကို စဆာင်ရွက်ရာ၌ တရားပပိုင်သည် မိမိ စာစရးများနှင့်
ဆက်သွယ်စခပာဆိုရန် လိအ
ု ပ်သည့်အစလျာက် ၄င်း၏လုပ်ငန်းကို လုပ်ကိုင်
စဆာင်ရွက်ပမဲအတိုင်း လုပ်ကိုင်ခခင်းခြစ်ပပီး အမှုသည်၏အကျိုးအတွက်
ခပုလုပ်ခခင်း ခြစ်သည့်အတွက် တာ၀န်မရှိဟု ဆုံးခြတ်သည်။
*
Boxsius V. Goblet Freres, (1894), 1 Q.B., 842.
58
3.4.1.6. Newspaper Libel
သတင်းစာတွင် သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်စရးသားခခင်း
In often, there arises question in relation to charges which
appears innewspaper against public men. If such a thing happens, the
proprietor, theeditor, the printer and the publisher are liable to be
sued for defamation,either separately or jointly.
သတင်းစာတွင်သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကိုညိုှ းနွမ်းစအာင်စရးသားခခင်းမှ
ာ သတင်းစာများတွင် အများခပည်သူနှင့် ဆနက ့် ျင်၍စပါ်စပါက်လာလျှင်
ပိုင်ဆိုင်သူ၊ တည်းခြတ်သူ၊ ပုံနှိပ်သူနှင့် ထုတ်စ သူများသည်
အသစရြျက်မှုအတွက် သီးခခားစသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ပူးတွဲ၍စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း
တရားစွဲဆိုမနှင့်ဆိုင်သည်။
Thus an effective defence would be:
ထိစရာက်စသာကာကွယ်မှုတွင်
(1) Truth and public good (Exception 1. Section 499, Penal
Code)
It is not defamation to impute anything which is true
concerning any person, it be for the public good that the
imputation should be made or published. Whether or not it
is for the public good is a question of fact.

59
တစ်ဦးတစ်စယာကစသာသူနှင့် စပ်လျှင်း၍ မှန်ကန်စသာ စွပ်စွဲချက်ကို
အများခပည် သူအကျိုးအတွက် ခပုလုပ်ရန် သို ့တည်းမဟုတ် စ ကခငာရန်
သင့်သည်ခြစ်လျှင်၊ ထိစ
ု ွပ်စွဲချက်သည် အသစရြျက်မခှု ြစ်သည်မမည်။
အများခပည်သအ
ူ ကျိုးအတွက် ဟုတ်မဟုတဆ
် ိုစသာအချက်မှာ အစ ကာင်းခခင်း
ရာခပဿနာ ခြစ်သည်၊
(2) Truth and good faith on the part of the person making the
statement when it concerns public servant. (Exception 2
and 3 of Section499 Penal Code)
ခပည်သူ ့ န်ထမ်းသည် အမှန်အတိုင်း သစဘာရိုးခြင့် မိမိ၏ထင်ခမင်ချက်ကို
စြာ်ခပ ခခင်း( ခပစ်မှုဆိုင်ရာဥပစေပုေ်မ ၄၉၉ ၏ချွင်းချက် ၂ နှင့် ၃)
It is not defamation to express in good faith any opinion
whatever respecting the conduct of a public servant in the discharge
of his public functions, or respecting his character, so far as his
character appears in that conduct and further.
ခပည်သူ ့ န်ထမ်းအခြစ်ခြင့် အလုပ် တ္တ ရားစဆာင်ရွက်ရာတွင် ထိခု ပည်သူ ့ န်
ထမ်း၏ အခပုအမူနှင့် စပ်လျှဉ်း၍ စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း ၊ ထိခု ပည်သူ ့ န်ထမ်း၏
အကျင့်စာရိတ္တသည် ထိသ
ု ၏
ူ အခပုအမူ၌ ထင်စပါ်စနသည်အထိ ထိသ
ု ၏
ူ
အကျင့်စာရိတ္တနှင့် စပ်လျှဉ်း၍စသာ် လည်းစကာင်း၊ တစ်ဦးတစ်စယာက်စသာသူက
သစဘာရိုးခြင့် မိမိ၏ထင်ခမင်ချက်ကို စြာ်ခပခခင်းသည် အသစရြျက်မှု
ခြစ်သည်မမည်။
60
It is not defamation to express in good faith any opinion
whatever respecting the conduct of any person touching any public
question, and respeting his character, so far as his character appeared
in that conduct and no further.
အများခပည်သူ ့ခပဿနာဆိုငရ
် ာတစ်ဦးတစ်စယာက်စသာသူ၏အခပုအမူနှင့်
စပ်လျှဉ်း ၍လည်းစကာင်း၊ ထိသ

ု ၏
ူ အကျင့်စာရိတ္တသည် ထိသ
ု ၏
ူ အခပုအမူ၌
ထင်စပါ်စနသည်အထိ ထိသ
ု ၏
ူ အကျင့်စာရိတ္တနှင့်စပ်လျှဉ်း၍စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊
တစ်ဦးတစ်စယာက်စသာသူက သစဘာရိုးခြင့် မိမိ၏ထင်ခမင်ချက်ကို စြာ်ခပခခင်း
သည် အသစရြျက်မှုခြစ်သည်မမည်။
(3) Truth and good faith for the public good. (Exception 9 Section
499, Penal Code )
သူတစ်ပါး၏အကျိုးအတွက် အမှန်အတိုင်းသစဘာရိုးခြင့် စဆာင်ရွက်ခခင်း
( ခပစ်မှု၏ဆိုငရ
် ာဥပစေပုေ်မ ၄၉၉ ၏ချွင်းချက် ၉)
It is not defamation to make an imputation on the character of
another, provided that the imputation is made in ood faith for the
protection of the interest of the person making it, or of any other
person, or for the pubic good.
အခခားသူတစ်စယာက်၏အကျင့်စာရိတ္တကို ထိခိုက်စအာင် စွပ်စွဲရာ၌
သစဘာရိုးခြင့် မိမိ၏အကျိုးကိုစသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ သူတစ်ပါး၏အကျိုးကို

61
စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း သို ့တည်းမဟုတ် အများခပည်သ၏

ူ အကျိုးကိုကာကွယ်
စစာင့်စရှာက်ရန် စွပ်စွဲခခင်းသည် အသစရြျက်မှု ခြစ်သည်မမည်။

7
In U Saw Han vs. U Ohn Khin & 5 others Case , U Saw Han
sued theBama Khit Press proprietor U Ohn Khin and Five others for
defamationbecause an article which appeared in that newspaper
made him derogatehis reputation by using absence violent and
insulting word. Although heclaimed Kyats 200000 for damages, the
High Court (original side) awardedonly Kyats 100000.The
defendants appealed to the Appellate Court. There the court finds
thatthere was no such absence words as put up by the plaintiff, and
because thedamages awarded by the trial Court was so extremely
high as to make itentirely unreasonable having regard to the
circumstances of the case, andrefixed the amount of damages of
Kyats 3000/- U Saw Han therefore seek aspecial leave to be
Supreme Court.
*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် စလျှာက်ထားသူ ဦးစစာဟန်သည် ဗမာ့စခတ်သတင်း
စာတိုက် ပိုင်ရှင် ဦးအုံးခင်နှင့် အခခား ၄ ဦးတို ့အစပါ်၌ ဗမာ့စခတ်သတင်းစာတွင်
မိမိအား ညစ်ညစ်ညမ်းညမ်း စွပ်စွဲစရးသားထားသည့်အတွက် အသစရြျက်မှု
နှင့်စွဲဆိုပပီး စလျာ်စ ကး ၂၀၀၀၀ /ိ စတာင်းဆိုရာ တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်မူလရုံးက

7
1959.B.L.R(S.C)24.
*
ဦးစစာဟန်နှင့် ဦးအုန်းခင် (ပါ)၄၊ ၁၉၅၉ ခမန်မာခပည်စီရင်ထုံး၊ စာ-၂၄။
62
စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ ၁၀၀၀၀ ိ/- စပးစစရန် အမိနခ့် ျမှတ်ခဲ့သည်။ စလျှာက်ထားခံရ
သူများက အယူခံ၀င်ရာတွင် အယူခံရးုံ က စလျှာက်ထားသူအစပါ် သတင်းစာတွင်
ညစ်ညစ်ညမ်းညမ်း စွပ်စွဲသည်များမှာ အစခခအခမစ် လုးံ ၀မရှိစ ကာင်း
စပါ်လွင်ထင်ရှားသည်ဟု မူလရုံးဆုံးခြတ်သည့်အတိုင်းပင် ဆုံးခြတ်စသာ် လည်း
စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ ၁၀၀၀၀ /ိ -မှာ အဆမတန်များလွန်းသည်ဟု ယူဆသခြင့်
စငွ ၃၀၀ /ိ -သာလျှင် စလျာ်စ ကးအခြစ်စပးစဆာင်ရန် အမိနခ့် ျမှတ်ခဲ့သည်။
ဦးစစာဟန်က ယင်းအမိနက ့် ို မစကျနပ်သခြင့် တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်ချုပ်သို ့
အခွင့်ထူးစပးရန် စလျှာက်လွှော တင်သွင်းခဲ့ရာတွင် အယူခံရးုံ ၏အမိနက ့် ို
၀င်စရာက်မစွက်ြက်သင့်ဟု အစ ကာင်းခပ ဆိုချက်ခြင့် ဦးစစာဟန်၏
စလျှာက်လွှောကို ပယ်ခဲ့သည်။ သို ့အတွက် ဦးစစာဟန်သည် စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ ၃၀၀ /ိ -
သာရရှိခဲ့သည်။
(1) that he was innocent of any knowledge of the libel contained
inthe work disseminating by him.
သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစသည့် စရးသားချက်ပါရှိစ ကာင်း
မသိရှိခခင်း။
(2) that his ignorance was not due to any negligence on his
ownpart.
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ပါရှိခခင်းကို မသိရှိခခင်းမှာ တရားပပိုင်၏ စပါ့စလျာ့ မှုစ ကာင့်
မဟုတ် ခခင်း။
63
(4) that he did not know, and had no ground for supposing that
thenewspaper was likely to contain libelous matter, will be
excused fromliability.
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ပါရှိခခင်းကို မသိသည့အ

် ခပင် ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ပါရှရ
ိ န်
အစ ကာင်းရှိမည်ဟု လည်း ထင်ခမင်စရာအစခခအခမစ် မရှိခခင်း။
3.4.2 Slander
နှုတ်ခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
If a false and defamatory statement is conveyed by spoken
words orgestures it is slander.
Just as in the case of a libel, it must be proved that the
wordscomplained of are:
စာခြင့် သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင် စရးသားခခင်းမှာကဲ့သုိ ့ပင်
နှုတ်ခြင့် သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင် စခပာဆိုသည်ဟူ၍
စွပ်စွဲစသာ အမှုအခင်းတွင် စခပာဆိုသည့်စကားလုံးများမှာ စအာက်ပါအချက်များ
နှင့် ခပည့်စုံစ ကာင်း သက်စသထင်ရှားခပနိုင်ရမည်။
(1)false
မဟုတမ
် မှန်ခခင်း။
(2) defamatory
သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစစခခင်း

64
(3) publication
တရားပပိုင်က အများသိရှိစစရန် စ ကခငာခခင်း
(4) special damage
တရားလိုအစပါ်တွင် အထူးနစ်နာမှုရှိခခင်း
Generally, slander is actionable only on proof of special
damage. Hence we say that slander is not actionable per se. The
plaintiff must prove and plead that he has suffered special damage as
the natural and probable consequence of the publication of the
defamatory statement.
စယဘုယျအားခြင့် နှုတ်ခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း သည် အထူးနစ်နာမှုအတွက် သက်စသခပရန်သာလျှင်
ိ ်သည်။ ထို ့စ ကာင့် နှုတ်ခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
ညှိုးနွမ်း စအာင်ခပုခခင်း သည် ယင်း၏သဘာ အတိုင်း တရားမစွဲဆိုနုင

ိ ်စပ။
တရားလိုက သူသည် အသစရပျက်စစစသာ စြာ်ခပချက်နှင့်ပတ်သက်စသာ
ခြစ်နိုင်စသာ အကျိုးဆက်စ ကာင့် အထူးနစ်နာမှုခံစားရ စ ကာင်းစလျှာက်ထား
ရမည်။
65
3.4.3. Criminal Offences
ခပစ်မှု
Spoken words are actionable if they impute a crime. But there
must be the direct imputation of the offence, and must not be a mere
suggestion or statement of suspicion.
စကားလုံးခြင့်စခပာဆိုခခင်းသည် ခပစ်မှုစွပ်စွဲစခပာဆိုခခင်းခြစ်စစလျှင် တရားစွဲ
ဆိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။ သို ့စသာ် ခပစ်မှုနှင့်ပတ်သက်၍ တိုက်ရက
ို ် ခပစ်မစ
ှု ွပ်စွဲ စခပာဆိုခခင်း
ခြစ်ရမည်။ အ ကံခပုချက် သို ့မဟုတ် သံသယခြစ်စွာစြာ်ခပချက် သာလျှင်ခြစ်ရ
မည်မဟုတစ
် ပ။
8
In Ma Nu v. Ma New Case , Ma Nwe sued Ma Nu for
damages for accusing her of a witch, which in consequence made her
exclude from the society. The Court held that she is entitled to get
100/- kyats as damages.

*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် မိနုက မိနွယ်အား စုန်းမဟု စခါ်သခြင့် မိနွယ်က
တရားစွဲဆိုရာတွင် ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ စခါ်စ ါ်ခခင်းကို ကားရသူများက အမှန်တကယ်ပင်
မိနွယ်အား စုန်းမဟု ထင်ခဲ့ ကသည့်အတွက် မိနုက မိနွယ်အား စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ
၁၀ ိ/-စပးစစဟု ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
ကျူးလွန်သည်ဟူ၍ စွပ်စွဲသည့်ခပစ်မှုမှာ တရားပပိုင်အား ခန္ဓာကိုယ်နှင့်
သက်ဆိုင်စသာ အခပစ်ေဏ်စပးနိုင်သည့် ခပစ်မှုများခြစ်ရမည်။ ပုံစံအားခြင့်

8
L.B.R.Vol .V (1899).p 33.
*
Mi Nu v. Mi New, L. B. R., Vol. V, (1899), p.33.
66
လူသတ်မှု၊ လုယက်မှု၊ မုသားကျမ်းကျိန်ဆိုမှု၊ သူတစ်ပါးအိမ်ယာခပစ်မှားမှု၊ ခိုးမှု၊
စစ်တပ်တွင်း သစ္စာစြာက်စနှာက် ယှက်မှုစသည်တို ့ကို ကျူးလွန်ခဲ့သူဟု
စွပ်စွဲခခင်းမျိုးခြစ်ရမည်။
In another case of Ma Pan Yi v. Mg Pan Aung, 1 Ma Pan Yi
accused Mg Pan Aung of stealing the palm leaf inscriptions from the
monastery. For that Mg Pan Aung sued for damages claiming his
right up to the highest Court of Judiciary i.e. High Court. The High
Court held that if a person accuses another person of theft without
reasonable ground will lead to defame the reputation of that person,
for which he is liable for damages.

**
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် မပန်းရည်က စမာင်ပန်းစအာင်အား ဘုန်းကကီးစကျာင်းမှ
စပးစာများ နှင့် ထင်းများကို ခိုးယူသည်ဟု စွပ်စွဲသခြင့် စမာင်ပန်းစအာင်က
တရား လွှေတ်စတာ်အထိ အယူခံတက်ခ့ရ

ဲ ာ တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်က သူတစ်ပါးအား
ခိုးသည်ဟူ၍ သွားပုပ်စလလွှေင့် စခပာဆိုခခင်းအားခြင့် သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
ညှိုးနွမ်းစစသခြင့် စလျာ်စ ကးစပးစစဟု ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
1 Ma Pan Yi V. Mg Pan Aung U.B.R. Civil. Vol.11 (1904-06). P.I.

**
Ma Pan Yi V. Mg Pan Aung, U.B.R Civil vol. II. (1904-06) pd.
67
3.4.4. Imputation of Disease
ကူးစက်တတ်စသာစရာဂါ
Where there is an imputation, that the plaintiff is suffering
from suchinfections or contagious disease, likely, to prevent other
persons fromassociating with the plaintiff, it is actionable without
proof of specialdamage. Contagious diseases will include all
venereal disease, leprosy orplague, or any kind of skin complaint
caused by personal uncleanliness.
တရားလိုတွင် နူနာစရာဂါ၊ ကာလသားစရာဂါ၊ ပုလပ

ိ ်စရာဂါ၊
ယားယံသည့စ
် ရာဂါ အစရှိသည့် ကူးစက်ခပနပ့် ွားစစတတ်စသာ စရာဂါရှိသည်ဟု
စွပ်စွဲစခပာဆိုလျှင် သဘာ၀အား ခြင့် တရားလိုအား လူ ့အသိုင်းအ ိုင်းမှ
ြယ်ထုတ်ခခင်းခံရမည်ခြစ်သခြင့် အထူးနစ်နာမှု မခပဘဲ တရားစွဲဆိုနုိင်သည်။
3.4.5. Imputation of Unchasity or Adultery to any Woman or Girl
အမျိုးသမီးအား အကျင့်စာရိတ္တပျက်ခပားသည်ဟု စွပ်စွဲစခပာဆိုခခင်း
In the .olden days, action cannot be maintained for imputing
unchasity of awoman without proof special damage. But after the
enactment of the Slander of Women Act, 1891, words spoken or
published which imputeunchasity or adultery to any woman or girl,
the injured plaintiff can takean action without such special proof.
68
စရှးယခင်ကဆိုလျှင် အမျိုးသမီးအား အကျင့်စာရိတ္တပျက်ခပားသည်ဟု
စွပ်စွဲစခပာ ဆိုခခင်းသည် အထူးနစ်နာမှုကို သက်စသမခပနိုင်ဘဲနှင့်
တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်စပ။ သို ့စသာ် ၁၈၉၁ Slander of Women Act
ကိုခပဌာန်းပပီးစနာက် အမျိုးသမီးများ သို ့မဟုတ် မိန်းကစလးများအား
အကျင့်စာရိတ္တပျက်ခပားသည်ဟု စွပ်စွဲစခပာဆိုခခင်း သို ့မဟုတ် မယားခိုးမှုခပုခခင်းကို
စကားခြင့်စခပာဆိုခခင်း သို ့ဟုတ် ပုံနှိပ်ထတ

ု ်စ ခခင်း ခပုလျှင် ထိခိုက်နစ်နာစသာ
တရားလိုက အထူးသက်စသခပရန်မလိပ
ု ဲ တရားစွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။
9
In Maung Nyo v. Ma Te Case , the Chief Court of Upper
Myanmar decided that special damages is not essential where there is
a false charge ofunchastity. In that case the divorced husband
accused his former wife thatshe was a woman of civil or vicious
habits, and for that false imputation itwas actionable with proof of
special damage: Thus she was decreed for (25)Kyats as damages.

**
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် ကွာရှင်းပပီး လင်မယားနှစ်ဦး အမှုကိစ္စတွင်
စယာင်ကကျားက မိန်းမအား အကျင့်ပျက်ခပားစသာ မိန်းမ၊ မစကာင်းသည့မ

် ိန်းမဟူ၍
သွားပုတ်စလလွင့် စခပာသခြင့် မိန်းမက တရားစွဲဆိုရာတွင် တရားရုံးက
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ စခပာဆိုခခင်းသည် မိန်းမအား တကယ်ထခ

ိ ိုက်သခြင့် စလျာ်စ ကးစငွ ၂၅
ကျပ် စပးစစဟု ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
9
1915 L.B.R(1914-1916).p 98.
**
Nga Nyo V. Mi Ti, U. B. R. Vol. II, (1914-1916) p. 98.
69
10
In another case of Ma Pan Yi v. Mg Pan Aung , Ma Pan Yi
accused Mg Pan Aung of stealing the palm leaf and scriptions from
the monastery. For that Mg Pan Aung sued for damages claiming his
right up to the highest Court of Judiciary i.e. High Court. The High
Court held that if a person accuses another person of theft without
reasonable ground will lead to defame the reputation of that person,
for which he is liable for damages.

**
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် မပန်းရည်က စမာင်ပန်းစအာင်အား ဘုန်းကကီးစကျာင်းမှ
စပးစာ များနှင့် ထင်းများကို ခိုးယူသည်ဟု စွပ်စွဲသခြင့် စမာင်ပန်းစအာင်က
တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်အထိ အယူခံတက်ခဲ့ရာ တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်က သူတစ်ပါးအား
ခိုးသည်ဟူ၍ သွားပုပ်စလလွှေင့် စခပာဆိုခခင်းအားခြင့် သူတစ်ပါး၏ ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
ညှိုးနွမ်းစစသခြင့် စလျာ်စ ကးစပးစစဟု ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
3.4.6. Vulgar Abuse
သာမန်ဆဲစရးတိုင်းထွာခခင်း
Damages may be recovered for mere vulgar abuse, i.e. using
verbal abuse, without proof of special damage. There is a difference
between an abusivelanguage and that of insulting language။
10
U.B.R Civil vol. II. (1904-06) pd.
**
Ma Pan Yi V. Mg Pan Aung, U.B.R Civil vol. II. (1904-06) pd.
70
သာမန်ဆဲစရးတိုင်းထွာခခင်း အတွက်နစ်နာစ ကးရနိုင်သည်။ဥပမာ နှုတ်ခြင့်
ဆဲစရးတိုင်ထာွ ခခင်းတွင် အထူးသက်စသခပရန်မလိပ

ု ဲ နစ်နာစ ကးရနိုင်သည်။
abusive language နှင့် insulting language တို ့ကားတွင်ကွဲခပားမှုရှိသည်။

11
In Maung Kyaw vs. Tha Dun's Case , Maung Kyaw accused
Tha Dunof a son of a pig, son of a bitch and so on. For those
insulting words, ThaDun seeks for remedy reaching up to the High
Court. But the Court heldthat, such insulting words are normally
used by men at randomly, so thatthe plaintiff would not be entitled to
get damages.
*
အမှုတစ်ခုတွင် စမာင်စကျာ်က သာေွန်းအား အမိယုတ်သား၊
အြယုတ်သား၊ ၀က်မသားဟူ၍ ဆဲဆိုရာ သာေွန်းက တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်အထိ
တက်စရာက်ခဲ့သည်။ တရားလွှေတ်စတာ်က ဆဲစရးတိုင်းထွာခခင်းသည်
လူတိုင်းစခပာဆိုတတ်သည့် အစလ့အထခြစ် သည့အ

် တွက် ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို
မညှိုးနွမ်းစစသခြင့် သာမန်ဆဲဆိုခခင်းသာခြစ်၍ စလျာ်စ ကး မရထိက

ု ်ဟု
ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
12
But in Parvathi vs. Mannar Case , the defendant used vulgar
words,
11
L.B.R. Vol. IV. (1907-1908), p.50.
*
Mg Kyaw V. Tha Dun L.B.R. Vol. IV. (1907-1908), p.50
12
(1884), 8 Mad., 175.
71
asserting that the plaintiff was not a legal wife of her husband and
that shepossessed a bad character and also that she has been always
pushed awayby people of different places. These words of course
made her defamed,and therefore the Court decreed damages on her.

**
အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံ စီရင်ထးုံ တစ်ခုတွင် တရားပပိုင်က တရားလိုအား
၄င်း၏ခင်ပွန်း၏ တရား၀င်မယားမဟုတဘ
် ဲ အကျင့်စာရိတ္တပျက်ခပားသူခြစ်သခြင့်
အရပ်တကာက နှင်ထုတ် ခခင်းခံရသူခြစ်စ ကာင်း စွပ်စွဲစခပာဆိုသည့်အတွက်
တရားလို၌ အထူးနစ်နာမှုရှိ စ ကာင်း စပါ်လွင်စသာ်လည်း တရားပပိုင်တွင်
တာ၀န်ရှိသည်ဟု ဆုံးခြတ်ခဲ့သည်။
3.4.7. Remoteness of Damage
အလှမ်းကွာစ းစသာနစ်နာမှု
As to the remoteness of damage, the plaintiff cannot recover
damages, ifthe injury is too remote.
အလှမ်းကွာစ းစသာနစ်နာမှုခြစ်စသာစ ကာင့် နစ်နာမှုသည် အလွန်အလှမ်း
ကွာစ း လျှင်တရားလိုသည် နစ်နာစ ကးမရနိုင်။
It was decided in Chamberlain vs. Boyd's Case, 3that the
defendant was held not liable, because damage was too remote.
**
Parvathi V. Mannar, (1884), 8 Mad., 175.
72
ဤအမှုတွင်အလှမ်းကွာစ းလွန်းစသာစ ကာင့်တရားပပိုင်တွင်တာ န်မရှိဟု
ဆုံးခြတ်သည်။
It was also once held that illness resulting frommental
disturbance produced by slander is not actionable because of
itsremoteness. But nowadays in such case the plaintiff can recover
for hisinjury done by the defendant.
စနာက်တစ်ခုမှာ နှုတ်ခြင့်စခပာဆိုမစ
ှု ကာင့် ခြစ်စပါ်လာစသာ
စိတ်ပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာ စနှာက်ယှက်မမ
ှု ှ စပါ်စပါက်လာစသာ ြျားနာမှုသည်
တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်စပ၊ အလှမ်းကွာစ း လွန်းစသာစ ကာင့် ခြစ်သည်။ သို ့စသာ်
ယစန ့စခာတ်တွင် တရားလိအ

ု စပါ်တရားပပိုင် ခပုလုပ်စသာ နစ်နာမှုအတွက်
တရားပပိုင်တွင် တာ န်ရှိသည်။
3.4.8. Distinction between Libel and Slander
Libel နှင့် Slander တို ့၏ခခားနားချက်များ
A libel is a written or a printed defamation. A slander is a
spoken defamation.
Libel မှာစာခြင့်စရးသား၍ စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ ပုံနှိပ်ထုတ်စ ၍
စသာ်လည်းစကာင်း၊ အသစရြျက်ခခင်းခြစ်၍ Slander မှာ နှုတ်ခြင့်စခပာဆို၍
အသစရြျက်ခခင်း ခြစ်သည်။
73
(1) Libel is not merely a civil wrong, but also a criminaloffence for
it tends to breach the peace. Whereas slander is a civil wrongonly,
although sometimes the words are blasphemous, seditious or
obscene,or which tends to commit a crime, or contempt of Court will
amount tocriminal liability.
Libel သည် ခပစ်မှုဥပစေအရလည်းစကာင်း၊ တရားမနစ်နာမှု ဥပစေအရ
လည်းစကာင်း၊ အမှားခပုလုပ်ခခင်းခြစ်စသာ်လည်း Slander မှာမူ တရားမနစ်နာမှု
ဥပစေအရသာ အမှားခပုလုပ်ခခင်းအတွက် အစရးယူနိုင်မည်။
(2) Libel is actionable per se. i.e. actionable without proof
ofspecial damage, whereas slander, subject to certain exceptions is
onlyactionable only on proof of actual damage.
(3) Libel ခြင့်လျှင် သူတစ်ပါး၏ အခွင့်အစရးကို ချိုးစြာက်ခခင်းခြစ်သခြင့်
တရားစွဲ အစရးယူရန်အတွက် အမှန်တကယ်ခြစ်စပါ်စသာ နစ်နာမှုကို
သက်စသခပရန် မလိစ
ု ပ။
(4) In general, the original maker of a statement is not liablefor its
republication by another, but that other will responsible even
thoughhe expressly states that he is merely reproducing what he has
been toldfrom a specified source.
စယဘုယျအားခြင့် စြာ်ခပချက်ကို မူလခပုလုပ်သူသည် အခခားသူက
ု ်စ မှု အတွက်တာ န်မရှိစပ။ သို ့စသာ် ထိအ
ု ခခားသူသည်
74
သီးခခားအရင်းအခမစ် တစ်ခုမှ ခပန်လည်ထုတ်စ ခဲ့မှု ခပုလုပ်ခဲ့စ ကာင်း
အတိအလင်းစြာ်ခပလျှင်ပင်တာ န်ရှိသည်။
Key Terms
Prima-facie=စွဲချက်တင်နိုင်စလာက်စအာင်
ခမင်သာစသာအစထာက်အထားရှိသည်။
Joint-tenants=ပူးတွဲပိုင်ဆိုင်စသာစခမငှားများ
Public interest=အများခပည်သအ
ူ ကျိုး
Bona fide=ရိုးစခြာင့်စသာသစဘာ
Passing off=ကုနအ
် တုခပုလုပ်ခခင်း
Libel=စာခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
Slander=နှုတ်ခြင့်စရးသား၍သူတစ်ပါး၏ဂုဏ်သတင်းကို ညှိုးနွမ်းစအာင်ခပုခခင်း
Vulgar decease= သာမန်ဆဲစရးတိုင်းထွာခခင်း
Trespass ab initio= မူလအစကနဦးကပင်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Trespass in detinue=
့ းနိုင်စသာပစ္စည်းလက်စရာက်ရလိုမှုအတွက်စကျာ်နင်းမှု
Act of necessary=လိအ
ု ပ်သည့်အတွက် ၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း
Re-entry on Land =အိမ်စခမယာအတွင်းသို ့ ခပန်လည်၀င်စရာက်ခခင်း
Retaking of Goods= မိမိပိုင်ပစ္စည်းကို၀င်စရာက်ယူခခင်း
Abating a Nuisance= စိတ်ပငိုခငင်စနှာက်ယှက်မက

75
Remoteness of damages= အလှမ်းကွာစ းစသာနစ်နာမှု
Questions
1. Briefly mention how torts can be classified and explain how “assault”
and “battery” can be taken in action for tort in relation to the invasion of
interest in person. (Assingment)
2. Explain how action can be maintained for trespass by animals.
(Assingment)
3. What are the remedies available for the person whose land is
trespassed?
(Assingment)
4. Explain how the law protects the right of a trader to require a right to
trademark.Briefly. (Assingment)
5. What are the respective points to be proved to take an action for libel?
(Assingment)
6. Enumerate the importance of publication in an action for libel.
(Assingment)
7. Discuss the problems arising out of the charges which appear in
newspapers concerning libel. (Assingment)
8. What are the differences between “libel and slander”(Assingment)
9What are theinvasions of interests in person?(Short Question)
10. Define an assault. (Short Question)
11. What is the meaning of battery? (Short Question)
12. Express the trespass to movable property. (Short Question)

76
13. What are the defences to an action for trespass? (Short Question)
14. What is the meaning of self-defence? (Short Question)
15.What kinds of work are the subjects of copyright? (Short
Question)
16. What are the necessary points to take action for libel? (Short
Question)
17.How many kinds of defaation? Express. (Short Question)

1
Chapter 4
Negligence
4.1Standard of Care 2
4.2 Contributory Negligence 7
4.3 Volentinonfitinjuria 9
4.4 Resipsaloquitur 11
Key Terms 14
2
Chapter 4
Negligence
ပေါ့ဆမှု
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use
of ordinary care or skill towards a person or his property.
Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary prudence
taking care.
ပေါ့ဆမှုဆိုသည်မှာ ပဆာင်ရွက်ရန်တာ၀န်ရှိသည့် အပလျောက်သာမန်
အပမမာ်အမမင်ရှိသူ တစ်ဦးလုေ်ကိုင်ပဆာင်ရွက်မည့် ကိစ္စကိုမပဆာင်ရွက်မြင်း
ပ ကာင့် ပသာ်လည်းပကာင်း၊ သာမန်အပမမြှော်အမမင် ရှိသူတစ်ဦး၊
မပဆာင်ရွက်မည့် ကိစ္စကိုပဆာင်ရွက် မြင်းပ ကာင့်ပသာ်၄င်း၊ သူတစ်ေါး၏
ြန္ဓာကိုယ်ကို ပသာ်လည်းပကာင်း၊ ေစ္စည်းကိုပသာ်လည်းပကာင်း၊
ထိြိုက်နစ်နာမြင်းမြစ်သည်။
4.1 Standard of Care
ဂရုစိုက်မှုနှုန်းထား
As to the standard of care, the defendant owes a duty
of care which an ordinary mean of prudence should consider
best.
သူတစ်ဦးတစ်ပယာက်သည် ပေါ့ဆမှုအတွက်အမေစ်ရှိသည်မရှိသည်ကို
ဆုံးမြတ်ရာ၌ သာမန်အပမမာ်အမမင်ရှိသူ
3
တစ်ဦးဂရုတစိုက်လေ
ု ်ကိုင်ပဆာင်ရွက်မည့်နှုန်းထားမြင့်အကဲမြတ်ရပေမည်။1
There was also Maung Kyaw Dun vs. Ma Kyin &
Marayanan Chetty Case,occurred in Myanmar. The plaintiff failed
in his action for claiming damages, for the injury done by the
defendant's elephant.
မမန်မာနိုင်ငံတွင်မြစ်ေွားြဲ့ပသာ ပအာက်ေါအမှုတစ်ြုတွင် တရားလိက

ု
အထက်ေါ အြျေက်မျေားမမေသနိုင်သမြင့်် တရားပေိုင်တွင်ပေါ့ဆမှု မရှိနိုင်ပသာ
ပ ကာင့်တရားပေိုင်ထံမှနစ်နာပ ကးမရရှိနိုင်ပ ကာင်းပတွ ရှ့ ိရသည်။
The facts of the case were that the plaintiff's elephant was
kicked to deathby the defendant's elephant. The inferior Court
decided, he was not entitled to get2Standard of care* Mg Kyaw
Dun v. Ma Kyin & Narayanan Chetty, 2 U.B.R., 570.damages.
Thus this appeal follows. The Appellate Court pointed out that,
inclaiming damages, the plaintiff must prove the negligence of the
defendant. Inconsidering the essential factor, the Court pointed
out that the plaintiff must provethat the defendant knew that his
elephant was dangerous. The Court held that thereis no breach of
duty on the part of the defendant andthe plaintiff failed.
အမှုပ ကာင်းမြင်းရာမှာ အယူြံတရားလိုက အယူြံတရားပေိုင်၏
ဆင်ဆိုးသွမ်းတိုက်ြိုက်မှုပ ကာင့် ၄င်း၏ဆင်တွင် ဒဏ်ရာမေင်းထန်စွာ
ရရှိသည့်အတွက် ပသဆုံးသွားသမြင့် အယူြံတရားပေိုင်ထမ

ံ ှ နစ်နာပ ကး
4
ရရှိလိုပ ကာင်း တရားစွဲဆိုရာတွင် ပအာက်ရးုံ ၏အမိနက ့် ို မပကျေနေ်သမြင့်
အယူြံရးုံ တွင် အယူြ၀

ံ င်သည်။ အယူြံရးုံ က အယူြံတရားပေိုင်ထမ
ံ ှ
နစ်နာပ ကး ရရှိရန်အတွက် ဦးစွာ ေထမ၊ အယူြံတရားလိုက
အယူြံတရားပေိုင်၏ပေါ့ဆမှုပ ကာင့် ၄င်း၏ ဆင်ပသဆုံးရမြင်း မြစ်ပ ကာင်း
မေသရန်လုသ
ိ ည်။ ယင်းအြျေက်ကိုရံးု ပတာ်က စဉ်းစားဆင်မြင်ရာ တွင်
အယူြံတရားပေိုင်သည် ၄င်း၏ဆင်ဆိုသွမ်းပ ကာင်း သိရှိသည် ဆိုသည့်
အြျေက်မှာအပရးကကီးပ ကာင်း။ ယင်းအြျေက်ကိုဆင်မြင်သုံးသေ်သည့် အြါ
အယူြံတရားပေိုင်သည် ၄င်း၏ဆင်ဆိုးသွမ်းသည်ကို သိရှိသည်ဟူသည့်
အြျေက်ကို အယူြံတရားလိုက သက်ပသထင်ရှားမမေသနိုင်သည့အ

် တွက်
အယူြံ တရားပေိုင်၏ အပေါ်တွင် ၄င်း၏ဆင်ကို သာမန်ဂရုစိုက်ထိန်းသိမ်းမှု
ထက်ေို၍ ဂရုစိုက်ထိန်းသိမ်းရန် တာ၀န်မကျေ ပရာက်ပ ကာင်း။
သာမန်ဂရုစိုက်ထိန်းသိမ်းမှု လစ်ဟင်းမြင်းမရှိပ ကာင်းကိုလည်းပအာက်ရုံးတွင်
အယူြံတရားလိုကိုယ်တိုင်ကအယူြံတရားပေိုင်သည် ၄င်းတွင်ရှိပသာ
အမြားဆင်မျေားကဲ့သို ့ေင် အမြင်းမြစ်ေွားသည့် ဆင်၏လည်ေင်းနှင့် ပမြပထာက်
မျေားတွင် ပြါင်းပလာင်းနှင့်ပမြကျေင်းမျေား တေ်ဆင်ထားပ ကာင်းကို ၀န်ြံ
ထွက်ဆိထ
ု ားသည်ကို ပတွ ရှ့ ိလိုက်ရသည့်အတွက် အယူြံတရားပေိုင်၏
ပေါ့ဆမှုမပေါ်လွင် သမြင့် အယူြံလာွှ ကိုေလေ်လုက

ိ ်သည်။
In order to establish negligence as a cause of action under
the law of torts, a plaintiff must prove that:
ပေါ့ဆမှုပမမာက်ရန်တရားလိုသည်ပအာက်ေါြျေက်မျေားကိုသက်ပသမေရမည်။
5
1. The defendant has duties to exercise was negligent a
reasonable care and skill.
တရားပေိုင်သည်သင့်ပလျော်ပသာသတိဝိရိယကျွမ်းကျေင်မှုမြင့်
ပဆာင်ရွက်ရန်တာဝန်ဝတ္တ ရားရှိသည်။
တာဝန်တ္တရားသည်တရားလိုအတွက်သာမြစ်သည်။
3. The defendant breached that duty by failing to conform to
the required standardof conduct.
တရားပေိုင်သည် သတိဝိရိယကျွမ်းကျေင်မှုနှင့် ပဆာင်ရွက်ရန်
ေျေက်ကွက်သည်။
4. The defendant's negligent conduct was the cause of the harm
to thePlaintiff.
တရားပေိုင်သည်မိမိတာဝတ္တ ရားမျေားကိုမပဆာင်ရွက်မြင်းပ ကာင့်တရား
လိသ
ု ည်တိုက်ရက
ို ်နစ်နာသည်။
5. The plaintiff was, in fact, harmed or damaged due to the
failure ofperformance the duties.
အလုေ်ဝတ္တ ရားကိုပဆာင်ရွက်ရန်ေျေက်ကွက်မြင်းပ ကာင့်ဆုံးရှုံးရမည်။
The plaintiff must therefore prove on a balance of
probabilities. There is aBacon's Maxim: CausaCausans (the
immediate cause) and CausaCausata(the cause of the thing
causing is the cause of the effect), which means "he does the
6
firstwrong shall answer for all consequential damages" and "the
damages must be thelegal and natural consequence of the
wrongful act". There are three kinds of damage, namely, injury to
the person, damage to property and pure financial loss. The mere
fact that the damage suffered was unlikely to occur does not
relieve the defendant of liability if his conduct was unreasonable.
တရားလိုသည် မြစ်နိုင်ပြျေရှိမှုကိုြျေိန်ဆမြင်းမြစ်ပ ကာင်း သက်ပသ
မေရမည်။ Bacon၏ဆိုရိုးတွင် CausaCausans အနီးဆုံးအပ ကာင်းအရ
CausaCausansသည်အနီးဆုံးအပ ကာင်းရင်းပ ကာင့် မြစ်ရပသာအပ ကာင်း
ရင်းမြစ်ရသည်ဟုဆို၏။ အဓိေ္ပယ်မှာအားလုံးပသာ ဆက်နွယ်ေျေက်ဆီးမှုမျေား
အတွက် ထိသ
ု မူ ေုသည့်ေထမမှားယွင်းမှုမြစ်သည်။ထို ့ပနာက် ပလျော်ပ ကးသည်
ဥေပဒနှင့် အညီမြစ်ရမည်။ မှားယွင်းပသာအမေုအမူ၏ သဘာဝအကျေိုး
ရလဒ်မြစ်သည်။ ထိြိုက်နစ်နာပစမှုသံးု မျေိုးရှိသည့်အနက် ၄င်းတို ့မှာလူကို
ထိြိုကန
် စ်နာပစမြင်း၊ ေစ္စည်းကိုထြ
ိ ိုက် နစ်နာပစမြင်းနှင့်ပငွပ ကးဆုံးရှုံးမှု
သက်သက်တို ့မြစ်သည်။ တရားပေိုင်၏အမေုအမူသည်ကျေုိ းပ ကာင်း ဆီပလျော်မှု
မရှိြဲ့လျှင် တာဝန်ရှိမှု ကိုပလျော့ေါးသက်သာမှုမရှိပသာနစ်နာဆုံးရှုံးမှုမြစ်သည်။
There are two competing views as to the test of remoteness
of consequence:
ဤပနရာတွင် အကျေုိ းသက်ပရာက်မှုအလှမ်းကွာပဝးမြင်းကို စမ်းသေ်ရန်
အမမင် နှစ်မျေိုး ရှိသည်။

7
1. Consequences are too remote if a reasonable man would not
have foreseen them.
(၁)အကျေိုးသင့်အပ ကာင်း သင့်စဉ်းစားြျေင့်ြျေိန်နိုင်ပသာသူ တစ်ပယာက်က
ြနမ့် ှန်း မြင်းမမေုနိုင်လျှင်ထုအ

ိ ကျေုိ းသက်ပရာက်မသ
ှု ည်အလွန်ပဝးကွာသည်။
2. The defendant will be liable for all the direct consequences
of his act, suffered by the plaintiff whether a reasonable man
would have foreseen them or not.
(၂)တရားပေိုင်သည် အကျေုိ းသင့်အပ ကာင်း သင့်စဉ်းစားြျေင့်ြျေိန်နိုင်သည်မြစ်ပစ
စဉ်းစားြျေင့်ြျေိန်နိုင်မြင်းမရှိသည်မြစ်ပစ၊ တရားလိုြံစားရပသာသူ၏ နစ်နာ
ဆုံးရှုံး မှုအတွက် အားလုံးပသာအမေုအမူသည် တိုက်ရက

ို ်အကျေိုးသက်ပရာက်မှု
မျေားရှိလျှင် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။
4.2 Contributory Negligence
ပထာက်ကူပေါ့ဆမြင်း
More than one person has acted negligently to create an
injury. The defendant can raise defenses like contributory
negligence that reduce or eliminate his liability. A plaintiff whose
own negligence was a contributing cause of her injury was barred
from recovering compensation from a negligent defendant.
တရားပေိုင်၏ပေါ့ဆမှုကို ပရှာင်တိမ်းရန် အြွင့အ

် ပရးရှိေါလျေက်
တရားလိုသည် ပရှာင်တိမ်းရန် ပေါ့ပလျော့မြင်းသည် တရားပေိုင်သည်မိမိတာဝန်

8
ဝတ္တ ရားမျေားကို မပဆာင်ရွက်မြင်းတွင် တရားလို၏ပထာက်ကူပေါ့ဆမြင်း
ေါဝင်သည်။
For example, a driver negligently drove his car at an
excessive speed and nearly reached a situation resulting in a
collision. The plaintiff, a passenger was afraid of becoming an
accident and he jumped from the car. Thus, both did negligence
contributed to the accident. Under the doctrine of contributory
negligence, the plaintiff was able to recover compensation from
the defendant because of evading the accident and meeting with
other danger.
တရားပေိုင်ကားပမာင်းသမားတစ်ဦးသည် ပေါ့ပလျော့စွာ ပမာင်းနှင်မြင်း
ပ ကာင့်အမှန်မပတာ်တဆမြစ်မည့်အပမြအပနသို ့ ပရာက်သည်တွင် တရားလို
သည် ကားပေါ်တွင် ဆက်လက်စီးပေီး အန္တရာယ်ပတွ ရမည့

့ အ် စား ကားပေါ်မှ
ြုန်ဆင်း၍ ဒဏ်ရာရသည်။ ဤကိစ္စမျေိုးတွင်တရားလိုသည် ကားပေါ်မှာ
ဆက်လက်စီးမြင်းမှ မြစ်ပေါ်မည့်အန္တရာယ်ကို ပရှာင်တိမ်းပေီးအမြား အန္တရာယ်
မျေိုးကို ရင်ဆိုင်မြင်းမှမြစ်သမြင့် ကားပမာင်းသမား တရားပေိုင်ထမ

ံ ှ ပလျော်ပ ကး
ရထိက
ု ်ြင
ွ ့်ရှိသည်။
Hence a plaintiff whose acts contributed to his damage is
now no longer altogether defeated, but merely had his damages
proportionately reduced to the extent to which he was at fault. The
Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act1945 was enacted to

9
cover all the cases arising out of contributory negligence on land.
The Act clearly applies the principle on which the Maritime
Convention Act1911 was based. Section 1(1) provides for the
apportionment of damages, andSection 1(3) incorporates the law
relating to apportionment of liability between joint tort feasors,
that mean persons who commit or were guilty of a tort, where the
responsibility of each party should be assessed separately.
"Damage" is defined in Section 4, to include loss of life and
personal injuries which also includes the loss of property.
သာမန်အားမြင့်တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင်တရားလိုသည်ပထာက်ကူပေါ့ပလျော့
လျှင်ပလျော်ပ ကးရရန် တရားမစွဲနိုင်ပေ။ သို ့ပသာ် The Law Reform
(Contributory Negligence) Act ၁၉၄၅ကို မေဌာန်းပေီးပနာက်
တရားလိုသည် ပထာက်ကူပေါ့ပလျော့ပသာ်လည်း ပလျော်ပ ကး ပတာင်းဆို
နိုင်သည်။ သို ့ပသာ် တရားလို၏ပေါ့ပလျော့မှုကို အပထာက်အထား မေုပေီး
တရားရုံးက ပလျော်ပ ကးကို သင့်ပလျော်သလိပ

ု လျှာ့၍ ပေးသည်။ ပလျော်ပ ကး
ပငွတွင် ကိုယြ
် န္ဓာကိုထိြိုက်မြင်းနှင့်အသက်ဆုံးရှုံးမြင်းတို ့ေါဝင်သည်။
4.3 Volentinonfitinjuria
သပဘာတူညီြျေက်အရထိြိုက်နစ်နာမြင်းမြစ်လျှင်အမေစ်မရှိ
The Latin Maxim "Volentinonfitinjuria" which means "no
injury is done to one who consents"

10
သပဘာတူညီြျေက်အရ ထိြိက
ု ်နစ်နာမြင်းမြစ်လျှင် အမေစ်မရှိကို ဆိုလိုသည်၊
The Plaintiff accepted a lift from the Defendant knowing
that he was very intoxicated. The Defendant crashed causing the
Plaintiff a lot of damage. She was said to have given clear consent
because the dangers were very obvious.
တရားလိုသည်အရက်မးူ ပနပသာ ကားပမာင်းသမားပမာင်းပသာ
ကားကိုသလ
ိ ျေက်နှင့်တက်စီးသည်။ ကားသမားမူးမြင်းပ ကာင့် ကားတိုက်
မှုမြစ်သည်။ ကားပမာင်းသမားပသသည်။ တရားလိုမှာဒဏ်ရာရသည်။
တရားလိုသည် ပလျော်ပ ကးပငွရလိပ

ု ကာင်း ပသသူကားပမာင်းသမား၏
မယားကိုတရားစွဲသည်။တရားပေိုင်းမျေားက votenti non fit injuria
နစ်နာမည်ကိုသိလျေက် မိမိသပဘာအပလျောက် လက်ြံသူသညပလျော်
ပ ကးမရနိုင်ဟု ထုပြျေသည်။ ဤထုပြျေြျေက်မျေိုးသည် အလွန်ထူးမြားပသာ
အမှုမျေိုးတွင် သာလက်ြံပြျေသည်။ ဤအမှုမှာအလွန်ထးူ မြားပသာ အမှုမဟုတ။်
ကားပမာင်းသမား အရက်မူးပသာပ ကာင့်သာမြစ်သည်။ ကားပမာင်းသမား
သည်ပေါ့ပလျော့သည်။ တရားလိုသည်တရားလိုကားပမာင်းသမား၏ဇနီးထံမှ
ပလျောပ
် ကးရထိက
ု ်သည်ဟုဆုံးမြတ်လုက
ိ ်သည်။
11
4.4 Resipsaloquitur
ထင်ရှားပနပသာအြျေက်
The maxim Resipsaloquitur means "the thing speaks for
itself".
မူလအားမြင့်ထင်ရှားပနပသာအြျေက်၊သူ ့အတိုင်းထင်ရှားပနသည့အ
် ြျေက်၊အထူး
သက်ပသထူရန်မလိထ
ု င်ရှားပနသည့အ
် ြျေက်မြစ်သည်။
Byrne V. Boadle (1863) 2 H. &. C. 722.Byrne (P) was
struck by a barrel falling from a window as he walked past
Boadle’s (D) flour shop and sustained serious personal injuries. A
witness testified that he saw the barrelfall from Boadle’s window
but had not seen the cause. Byrne did not present any other
evidence of negligence by Boadle or his employees. Boadle
moved for a non-suit on the grounds that Byrne had presented no
evidence of negligence. The court granted the motion and plaintiff
obtained a rule nisi. The Court of Exchequer found in favor of
Byrne and reversed. Boadle appealed.
Liability for negligence can lie solely on account of the type
of accident that occurred, without direct evidence of negligence.
တရားလိုသည်တရားပေိုင်၏ ဆိုင်ပရှ မှ့ မြတ်သွားစဉ် တရားပေိုင်၏
ဒုတယ
ိ အထေ်မေူတင်းပေါက်မှ ဂျေုံပသတ္တ ာတစ်လံးု လွင့်ထွက်လာသည်။ တရား
လိအ
ု ပေါ် ကျေပေီးဒဏ်ရာရပစသည်။ ဂျေုံပသတ္တ ာသည်ပေါ့ပလျော့မှု မရှိဘဲ
12
ဒုတိယထေ်မှ အလိအ
ု ပလျောက်ဒတ
ု ိယထေ်မှ မကျေနိုင်။ တရားလိုကတရားပေိုင်
ပေါ့ပလျော့ပ ကာင်းတရားပေိုင်၏ အလုေ်သမားမျေားကိုသက်ပသပြါ်ရန်လည်း
မမြစ်နိုင်သည့်ကိစ္စမြစ်သည်။ ယြုကဲ့သို ့မြစ်ရသည်မှာ အလိအ

ု ပလျောက်
မြစ်သည်မဟုတ၊် တရားပေိုင်၏ပေါ့ဆမှုပ ကာင့်် မြစ်ရပ ကာင်းပေါ်လွင်
ထင်ရှားပနသည်ဟုစီရင်ဆုံးမြတ်သည်။
Stone V.Bolton (1949) 2 All.E.R. 851.On 9 August 1947,
during a game of cricket against the Cheetham 2nd XI at
Cheetham Cricket Ground in Manchester, a batsman from the
visiting team hit the ball for six. The ballflew out of the ground,
hitting the claimant, Miss Stone, who was standing outside her
house in Cheetham Hill Road, approximately 100 yards (91 m)
from the batsman. The club had been playing cricket at the ground
since 1864, before the road was built in 1910.
However, the court held that an accident of this sort called
for an explanation, and that the defendants were aware of the
potential risk. On that basis, applying the legal maxim of resipsa
loquitur, the defendants were found negligent. The defendants
appealed to the House of Lords. The House of Lords found that
there was no negligence, although most considered it a close call
based on whether the reasonable person would foresee this as
anything more than an extremely remote risk.

13
ကရိကတ်ေွဲတွင်ကရိကတ် ပဘာလုံးသည်လမ်းမကကီးပေါ်တွင် ရေ်ပန
ပသာတရားလိုအားထိြိုက်ပေီး အနာတရမြစ်ပစသည်။ ကရိကတ်အသင်းသည်
ကရကတ်အတွင်းမှ ပဘာလုံးပကျော်လန
ွ ်ပေီးမသွားရန် ကာကွယ်မှုမေုလုေ်
ထားရန် တာဝန်ရှိသည်။ ထိတ

ု ာဝန်ေျေက်ကွက် ပေါ့ပလျော့သည်ဟုယူဆရမည်။
ပလျော်ပ ကးပေးရန် ဆုံးမြတ်သည်။
Stansbie v. Troman [1948] 2 K.B. 48, 51-52, a decorator
failed to secure a household he was decorating, resulting in a
burglary while he was absent; it was found he owed a duty to the
house hold owner to adequately secure the premises in his
absence.
အိမ်ကိုမေင်ဆင်ပနပသာ ကန်ထရိုက်တာတစ်ဦးသည်အိမ်ရှင်မျေားမရှိြိုက်
အိမ်တ ြါးကိုမေိတ်ဘဲ အိမ်မှထက

ွ ်သွားသည်။ သူြိုးဝင်ြိုးသည်။ ကန်ထရိုက်
တာ ပေါ့ပလျော့သည်ဟု ယူဆရသည်။ ကန်ထရိုက်တာက ပလျော်ပ ကးပေးရမည်
ဟုဆုံးမြတ်သည်။
Austin V. Great Western Railway (1867) 2.Q.B.442.A
travelling case, decided in 1867, the defendant company was held
liable in respect of injuries caused to a child over the age of three
years while travelling with its mother, who had omitted to take a
ticket for it. The defendant company appealed on the ground that
the plaintiff was not lawfully a passenger, it being alleged that
there had been concealment equivalent to fraud.

14
ကပလး၏မိြင်သည် မိမိအတွက် သာမီးရထားလက်မတ

ှ ်ယူပေီး
လက်မှတ် ယူရသည့သ
် ံးု နှစ်ပကျော်ပကျော် ကပလးအတွက်လက်မှတ် မယူဘဲ
မီးရထားတက်စီးသည်။ တရားလိုမိြင်မှာမီရထားကုမ္ပဏီကိုလိမ်လည်ရန်
ရည်ရွယ်ြျေက်မရှိမီ ရထားအလုေ်သမားမျေားကလည်း ကပလးကိုမစစ်၊
မီးရထားမပတာ်တဆမြစ်မှုတွင် ကပလးဒဏ်ရာရသည်။ မိြင်ကရထား
ကုမဏ
္ပ ီကိုတရားစွဲသည်။ မီးရထားကုမ္ပဏီအလုေ်သမားမျေားသည် ကပလးကို
မစစ်ပဆး၍ပေါ့ပလျော့သည်။ပလျော်ပ ကးပငွပေးရမည်ဟုဆုံးမြတ်သည်။
Key Terms
A man of ordinary prudence= သာမန်အပမျှာ်အမမင်ရှိသူတစ်ဦး
Standard of care = ဂရုစိုက်မှုနှုန်းထား
Res ipsa loquitur= သပဘာတူညီြျေက်အရထိြိုက်နစ်နာမြင်း
Causacausans= အနီးစေ်ဆုံးအပ ကာင်းအရင်း
Causacausatas=
အနီစေ်ဆုံးအပ ကာင်းအရင်းပ ကာင့်မြစ်ရပသာအပ ကာင်းအရင်း
Eliminate= ြယ်ထုတ်သည်။
Compensation= ပလျော်ပ ကး
Approximately= ြနမ့် ှန်းပမြ
Responsibility= တာဝန်
Separately= သီးသန ့်
Intoxicate= မူးရစ်ပစသည်။
15
Burglary= ညဉ့်အြျေိန်ပြာက်ထွင်းမှု
Exercise Questions
1. Define “Negligence” and explain briefly the ingredients to
constitute negligence. (Assignment)
2. Give brief statement on the standard of care. (Assignment)
3. What is meant by contributory negligence? (Assignment)
4. What is “Res ipsaloquitur’? Give your answer with leading
cases.(Assignment)
5. Define “Negligence”.(Short Question)
6. Explain the maxim “causacausata”. (Short Question)
7. Express the meaning of Latin Maxim “volenti non fit
injuria” with case. (Short Question)
8. Describe the meaning of Latin Maxim “resispa loquitur” with

case. (Short Question)
1
Chapter 5
Nuisance
5.1 Public Nuisance 2
5.2 Private Nuisance 8
5.3 Remedies 10
Key Terms 11
2
Chapter 5
Nuisance
1
သူတစ်ပါးကိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစမှု
သူတစ်ပါးကိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်းတွြ် ှေစ်မျိုး ှေစ်စားရှေိသည်။
(1) Public Nuisance
အများငပည်သက
ူ ိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်း ှေြ့်
တစ်ဦးတစ်နယာက်တည်းကိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်းတို ့ငြစ်သည်။
5.1 Public Nuisance
အများငပည်သူကိုန ာှေ က်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်း

5
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar, defines
ရာဇသတ် က ကီ း ဥပနေပု ေ ် မ ၂၆၈အရအများငပည် သ ူ န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် မ ှု ှေ ြ ့ ် ပ တ် သ က
်၍နအာက် ပ ါအတိ ု ြ ် း ငပဌာန် း ထားသည် ။
"A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act
or is guilty of illegal omission which causes any common
injury, danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in
1
Nuisance
3
general who dwell or occupy property in the vicinity, or which
must necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger or
annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any
public right.
တစ် ဦ းတစ် န ယာက် န သာသူ သ ည် အများငပည် သ ူ က ိ ု နသာ် လ ည် း
နကာြ် း ၊ အနီ း အပါးတွ ြ ် န နထိ ု ြ ် န သာ၊ သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် အိ မ ် ယ ာပစ္စ ည ် း
လက် ရ ှေ ိ င ြစ် န သာ သူ တ ိ ု ့ကိ ု လ ည် း နကာြ် း ၊ တူ ည ီ သ ည့ ် န စ် န ာမှု က ိ ု
ငြစ် န စနသာ၊ သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် တူ ည ီ သ ည့ ် န ေးကိ ု ငြစ် န စနသာ
သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် တူ ည ီ သ ည့ ် စ ိ တ ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် မ ှု က ိ ု ငြစ် န စနသာ
ငပုလု ပ ် မ ှု က ိ ု င ြစ် န စ၊ ထိ ု က ဲ ့ သ ိ ု ့နသာဥပနေ ှေ ြ ့ ် မညီ သ ည် ့ ပ ျက် က ွ က ် မ ှု ငြစ် န စ
ငပုလျှြ် သ ိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် ငပည် သ ူ ့အြွ ြ ့ ် အ နရးကိ ု သ ု ံ း စွ ဲ ရ န် အြါအြွ ြ ် ့
ကကုံ နသာသူ အ ား မြျွတ် မ လွ ဲ န စ် န ာနစရမည် င ြစ် န သာ၊ သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ်
ဟန တ ့် ားနစရမည် င ြစ် န သာ၊ သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် နေးနရာက်
နစရမည် င ြစ် န သာ သိ ု ့တည် း မဟု တ ် စိ တ ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် န စရမည် င ြစ် န သာ၊
ငပုလု ပ ် မ ှု က ိ ု င ြစ် န စ၊ ထိ ု က ဲ ့ သ ိ ု ့နသာ ဥပနေ ှေ ြ ့ ် မ ညီ သ ည့ ် ပျက် က ွ က ် မ ှု က ိ ု
ငြစ် န စငပုလျှြ် ၊ ထိ ု သ ူ သ ည် အ များငပည် သ ူ န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် မ ှု က ိ ု က ျူးလွ န ် သ ည်
မည် ၏ ။
A common nuisance is not excused on the ground that it
causes some convenience or advantage."

4
အများငပည် သ ူ က ိ ု န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြြ် း ငြြ့ ် ၊ ထိ ု သ ိ ု ့န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြြ် း
သည် သက် သ ာမှု က ိ ု န သာ် လ ည် း နကာြ် း ၊ အကျိ ု းနကျးဇူ း ကိ ု လ ည် း နကာြ် း
ငြစ် န စသည် ဟ ု အနကကာြ် း ငပနစကာမူ ၊ ငပည် သ ူ ့န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် မ ှု သ ည်
အငပစ် မ ှေ က ြ် း လွ တ ် ြ ွ ြ ် ့ ရ ှေ ိ သ ည် မ ဟု တ ် ။
Section 133 to 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code of

6
Myanmar , therefore provide for the actions to be taken by the
judicial authorities to,remove such public nuisances.
ငမန် မ ာ ိ ု ြ ် ြ ံ ၏ ငပစ် မ ှု ဆ ိ ု ြ ် ရ ာကျြ့ ် ထ ု ံ း ဥပနေပု ေ ် မ ၁၃၃မှေ ၁ ၄၄အထိ အ ဆိ ု
ပါန ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် န စမှု က ိ ု ြ ယ် ရ ှေ ာ းရန် အ တွ က ် တ ရားစီ ရ ြ် အ ာဏာပိ ု ြ ် မ ျာ
းကအနရးယူ န ဆာြ် ရ ွ က ် မ ှု အ တွ က ် င ပဌာန် း ထားသည် ။
If there be any kind of nuisance at a public place, which
include also property belonging to the State, camping grounds,
and grounds left unoccupied for sanitary or recreative
purposes, actions can be taken by the State and in disobedience
will be liable for penalties provided in the Penal Code. i.e.
Sec, 269-294 (A).
ိ ု ြ ် ြ ံ န တာ် ပ ိ ု ြ ် ပ စ္စ ည ် း လည် း ရှေ ိ င ပီ း နလ့ က ျြ့ ် နရးစြန် း နငမ၊
ကျန် း မာသန ရ ့် ှေ ြ ် း နရးအတွ က ် နငမလွ တ ် သ ိ ု ့မဟု တ ် အ ပန် း နငြရန်
ရည် ရ ွ ယ ် ြ ျက် အ တွ က ် အများငပည် သ ူ ှေ ြ ့ ် သက် ဆ ိ ု ြ ် န သာနနရာတစ် ြ ု တ ွ ြ ်
သူ တ စ် ပ ါးကိ ု န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် ငြိ ု ငြြ် န စမှု င ြစ် လ ျှြ် ိ ု ြ ် ြ ံ န တာ် မ ှေ အနရးယူ

5
ိ ု ြ ် င ပီ း မလိ ု က ် န ာပါက Penal Code တွ ြ ် ပ ု ေ ် မ ၂၆၉-၂၉၄ (က)၌ နြာ် င ပ
ထားနသာငပစ် ေ ဏ် က ျြံ ရ န် တာဝန် ရ ှေ ိ သ ည် ။
In order that an individual may have a right to take civil
အကယ်၍လူတစ်ဦးတစ်နယာက်တည်းက တရားစွဲဆိုလလ
ို ျှြ် ထိသ
ု က
ူ နအာက်ပါ
အြျက်များကိုငပဆို ုိြ်ရမည်။
(1) The plaintiff must show that he has suffered a particular
injury or damage beyond that which is suffered by the public
at large.
မိမိအားသူတစ်ပါးထက်ထြ
ိ ိုက်နစ်နာမှုရှေိနကကာြ်း လူသွားလမ်းမကကီးကို
ပိတ်ပြ် တားဆီးသည့က
် ိစ္စမျိုးတွြ် လူအများနစ်နာသည် ထက်မိမိတွြ်
ပိုမိုနစ်နာမှုရှေိနကကာြ်း။
(2) Such injury must be direct. If a certain way is obstructed,
but another is left open, then there will be no cause of action.
နစ်နာမှုသည်သယ
ွ ်ဝိုက်သည် နစ်နာမှုမျိုးမဟုတ်ေဲ၊ တိုက်ရက
ို ်နစ်နာမှု
မျိုးငြစ်ရမည်။ လူသွားလမ်းမတစ်ြုအား ပိတ်ပြ်တားဆီးထားနသာ်လည်း
အငြားလမ်း တစ်ြုမှေ သွားလာ ိုြ်လျှြ် တိုက်ရက

ို ်နစ်နာမှုမဟုတန
် ပ။
နစ်နာမှုသည်ပျက်နပျာက်လွယ်နသာ နစ်နာမှုမျိုးမဟုတေ
် ဲ မယ်မယ်ရရ
နစ်နာမှု မျိုးငြစ်ရမည်။
6
7
Section 91 of the Civil Procedure Code of Myanmar
provides for the suits relating to public matters, especially with
regard to public nuisance as follows:
ငမန် မ ာ ိ ု ြ ် ြ ံ ၏ တရားမကျြ့ ် ထ ု ံ း ဥပနေပု ေ ် မ ၉၁(၁)တွ ြ ် အများငပည်
သူ တ ိ ု ့ ှေ ြ ့ ် သက် ဆ ိ ု ြ ် သ ည့ ် အ နကကာြ် း ကိ စ ္စ မ ျား ှေ ြ ့ ် စ ပ် လ ျှဉ် း နသာ
ကိ စ ္စ ရ ပ် မ ျားအတွ က ် ငပဌာန် း ထားသည် ။
"In the case of a public nuisance the Attorney-General, or
two or more persons having obtained the consent in writing of
the Attorney-General: may institute a suit though no special
damage has been caused: for a declaration and injunction or
for such other relief as may be appropriate to the

8
circumstances of the case.
အများငပည် သ ူ စ ိ တ ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် မ ှု င ြစ် န စသည့ ် အမှု မ ျိ ု းတွ ြ ် ထ ိ ြ ိ ု က ် န စ် န ာမှု
အထူ း တလည် မ ရှေ ိ သ ည့ ် တိ ု ြ ် န အာြ် ိ ု ြ ် ြ ံ န တာ် န ရှေ ့နနြျုပ် က ငြစ် န စ၄ြ် း ၏
ြွ ြ ့ ် င ပုလက် မ ှေ တ ် စာရရှေ ိ သ ူ ှေ စ ် ဦ း သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် ှေ စ ် ဦ းထက် ပ ိ ု သ ူ တ ိ ု ့က ငြစ် န စ၊
မမတ် ဟ နကကငြာြျက် ှေ ြ ့ ် တ ားဝရမ် း အတွ က ် ၊ သိ ု ့မဟု တ ် အမှု အ နငြအနနအရ
အငြားသြ့ ် န လျာ် ရ ာသက် သ ာြွ ြ ့ ် အ တွ က ် အ မှု စ ွ ဲ ဆ ိ ု ြ ွ ြ ့ ် ရ ှေ ိ သ ည် ။

9
In the case of Soltau v. De Held, the nuisance was that
of the noise. The plaintiff resided in a house next to a Roman
Catholic Chapel of which the defendant was the priest and the
7
Chapel bell was rung at all hours of day and night. It was held
that the ringing was a public nuisance, and the plaintiff was

*
အမှုတစ်ြုတွြ် တရားလို သည်ကက်သလစ် ေုရားရှေိြိုးနကျာြ်း ှေြ့်
ကပ်လျက် အိမ်တွြ်နနထိုြ်သူငြစ်ငပီးတရားငပိုြ်မှော ေုရားရှေိြိုးနကျာြ်းမှေ
ေုန်းကကီးငြစ်သည် ေုရားရှေြ
ိ ိုး နကျာြ်းမှေနြါြ်းနလာြ်းကိုနန ့နရာညပါ
အဆက်မငပတ် တီးသည့အ
် တွက် တရားစွဲဆိုငြြ်းငြစ်ရာ တရားရုံးက
ယြ်းကဲ့သုိ ့နန ့နရာ ညပါအဆက်မငပတ် နြါြ်းနလာြ်း တီးငြြ်းသည်
လူအများကိုန ှောက်ယှေက် ငြိုငြြ်နစနသာကိစ္စငြစ်နသာ်လည်း တရားလို၏
အိမ်သည် ေုရားရှေိြိုးနကျာြ်းနေး၌ ကပ်လျက်တည်ရှေိသည်ငြစ်၍ အများ
ထက်ပိုမို၍ထိြိုက်နစသည့အ
် တွက် နြါြ်းနလာြ်းတီးငြြ်းကို ရပ်တနန့် စသည့်
တားငမစ် မိနက ့် ို ထုတ်နပးြဲ့သည်။
In another leading case of the Mortgage Bank of India vs.

10
AhmedbhoyHabibbhoy, the plaintiffs were the owners of a
building containing a large number of rooms which are
supposed to be rented. But, because the defendants who were
the owners of an adjacent cotton mill have created such a mill,
certain rooms in the building remained unlit, because of the
noise and smoke of the mill.
*
Soutau V. De Held, 1851, 2 Sim N.S., 133.
8
**
အမှုတစ်ြုတွြ်လည်း တရားလိုသည် အိမ်ြန်းများကိုြှေားစားရန် အတွက်
အိမ်ြန်းများြွဲ ့၍ အနဆာက်အဦးတစ်ြုနဆာက်လုပ်ထားသည်။ ယြ်းအနဆာက်
အဦး ှေြ့် ကပ်လျက်ဝါဂွမ်းစက်ရတ

ုံ စ်ရလ
ုံ ာ၍ နဆာက်သငြြ့်စက် သံများဆူညံငြြ်း၊
ဝါဂွမ်းြတ်များ လွြ့်စြ်ငြြ်း ှေြ့်မီးြိုးများ ငပနလ့် ြ

ွ ့်ငြြ်းတို ့အတွက်အိမ်ြန်း
အများအငပားကို ြှေားရမ်း နနထိုြ်မည့် လူများမရှေိကကနပ။ ထို ့နကကာြ့်တရားလိုက
စက်ရပ
ုံ ိုြ်ရှေြ်အား တရားစွဲဆိုရာ တရားလိုအားနစ်နာနကကးနပး၍
နနာက်နနာြ်တွြ် စက်ရုံမှေအသံများ၊ အမှိုက်များ ှေြ့်မီးြိုးများပိုမထွက်နစရန်
တရားရုံးကတားငမစ်မိန ့် ထုတ်ဆြ့န
် ပးြဲ့သည်။
5.2 Private Nuisance
တစ်ဦးတစ်နယာက်တည်းကိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်း
wrongful acts causing or allowing the escape of deleterious things
into another's land , for example, water, smoke, smell, fumes, gas ,
noise, heat, vibrations, electricity, disease-gems, animals and
vegetation.
တစ်ဦးတစ်နယာက်အား န ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစမှုများမှော အလြ်းနရာြ် ှေြ့်
နလတို ့ကို တားဆီး ပိတ်ပြ်သည့်ကိစ္စရပ်များ၊ အြိုးအနြွ ၊့ အနံ ့အသက်၊ ဓာတ်နြွ ၊့
**
The Land Mortgage Bank of India V. AhmedbhoyHabibhoy and KesowramRamanand, 1883, 8
Bom., 35.
9
ဆူညံသံများ၊နရ၊အညစ်အနထး၊အပူရှေိန်၊လျှပ်စစ်၊နရာဂါပိုးများ၊သစ်ပြ်၊သီး ှေံ ှေြ့်တိ
ရ စ္ဆာန်များသူတစ်ပါး၏၀ြ်းငြံအတွြ်းသို ့ငပနလ့် ြ
ွ ့်၀ြ်နရာက်ငြြ်းတို ့ငြစ်သည်။
4
In NgaMyatHmwe vs. Nga Yi &MiKywe Case, the
storage of water for the agricultural land of the appellant wa s
led out by the respondents and in consequence the appellant's
agricultural land has been totally destroyed. There was no
evidence as to the total destroy of that land was due to the lack
of water. But the Court held that the respondents have actually
infringed the legal right of the appellant and therefore liable to
pay K.40, as damages.

*
အမှုတစ်ြုတွြ် အယူြံတရားလိုက၄ြ်း၏စိုက်ပျိုးြြ်းသို ့နရးသွြ်းရန်အတွ
က်နရသိုနလှောြ်ထားသည်ကိုအယူြံတရားငပိုြ်ကနရများနြာက်ပစ်သည့်
အတွက်နစ်နာနကကးနြွ ၈ဝိ/-ရရှေိရန်တရားစွဲဆိုရာတွြ် အယူြံတရားငပိုြ်ကနရ
နြာက် ထုတ်ငြြ်းမှော အယူြံတရားလို၏စာရြ်းြှေား၏သနောတူညီြျက်ငြြ့်
နြာက်ထုတ်ပစ် ငြြ်းငြစ်သငြြ့် အယူြံတရားလိုတွြ် နစ်နာမှုမရှေိနကကာြ်း
ငပန်လည်၍ြုြံသည်။ နအာက်ရးုံ များကအယူြံတရားလို၏ စွဲဆိုြျက်ကိုပယ်ြျြဲ့ရာ
အယူြံတရားလိုက ေုတိယ အကကိမ်အယူြံ၀ြ်ရာတွြ် အယူြံရးုံ ကအယူြံ
တရားငပိုြ်သည်အယူြံတရားလို၏ နငမမှေနရများနြာက်ြျငြြ်းမှော မှေားယွြ်းသည့်
လုပ်နဆာြ်ြျက် ငြစ်သည်။ အယူြံတရားလိ၏

ု နတာြ်းဆိုြျက်မှော ယြ်းကဲ့သို ့
*
NgaMyat.HmweV.Nga Yi &MiKywe, 2 U.B.R., (1904-06), .9
10
အယူြံတရားငပိုြ်က ၄ြ်းနရနလှောြ်ထား သည်ကို နြာက်ြျပစ်သည့်အတွက်
၄ြ်း၏ စိုက်ပျိုးြြ်းများနသကုနန
် သာ နကကာြ့်နစ်နာနကကး ရရှေိရန်ငြစ်
သည်။အယူြံတရားလို၏စိုက်ပျိုးြြ်းသည် နရမရရှေိသငြြ့်နသကုန်သည်ဟု
တတ်တတ်အပ်အပ် မနငပာဆို ိုြ်နသာ်လည်း အယူြံတရားငပိုြ်၏
လုပ်နဆာြ်ြျက်မာှေ အယူြံတရားလို၏ အြွြ့်အနရးကိုြျိုးနြာက်ငြြ်း
ငြစ်သည့်အတွက် အယူြံတရားလို အား နစ်နာနကကးနြွ ၄ဝိ/-
နပးနစဟုဆုံးငြတ်ြဲ့သည်။
5.3 Remedies
ကု စ ားြွ ြ ် ့ မ ျား
တစ်ဦးတစ်နယာက်တည်းကိုန ှောက်ယှေက်ငြိုငြြ်နစငြြ်းအတွက် ကုစားမှုမှော
ငြိုငြြ်နစသည့် အငပုအမူကိုြယ်ရှေားပစ်ငြြ်း၊
(2) Damages and
နစ်နာနကကးနပးနစငြြ်း ှေြ့်၊
(3) Injunction
တားငမစ်မိနထ့် တ
ု ်ငြြ်းတို ့ငြစ်သည်။
11
Key Terms
Nuisance=သူ တ စ် ပါးကိ ု န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် န စမှု
Private
nuisance=တစ် ဉ ီ း တစ် န ယာက် တည် း ကိ ု န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် န စငြြ် း
Obstruction=အတားအဆီ း
Annoyance=စိ တ ် အ န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် န ပးသည့ ် အ ရာ
Convenience=အဆြ် န ငပမှု
Public nuisance=အများငပည် သ ူ က ိ ု န ှေ ာ က် ယ ှေ က ် င ြိ ု ငြြ် န စငြြ် း
Remedies=ကု စ ားမှု
Abatement of nuisance=ငြိ ု ငြြ် န စသည့ ် အ ငပုအမူ က ိ ု ြ ယ် ရ ှေ ာ းငပစ် င ြြ် း
Injunction=တားငမစ် မ ိ န ့်
Guilty=အငပစ် ရ ှေ ိ န သာ
Disobedience=လိ ု က ် န ာရန် ပ ျက် က ွ က ် မ ှု
Public place=အများငပည် သ ူ ဆ ိ ု ြ ် ရ ာနနရာ
Questions
1. Explain briefly “public nuisance” with relevant
cases.(Assignment)
2. What are the public nuisances in which an individual may have
a right to take civil action? (Assignment)

12
3. What kinds of nuisance are there? (Short Question)
4. Write a note on public nuisance. (Short Question)
5. Express the meaning of private nuisance. (Short Question)
6. What are the remedies for nuisance? (Short Question)

1
Chapter 6
Personal Disabilities
6.1 Who Cannot Sue 2
6.1.1 Convict 3
6.1.2 Alien Enemy 4
6.1.3 Married Women 5
6.1.4 Corporation 7
6.1.5 Child 8
6.1.6 Bankrupt 9
6.2 Who cannot be sued 9
6.2.1 Sovereign 10
6.2.2 Ambassadors 11
6.2.3 Public Officials 12
6.2.4 Infants and Lunatics 12
6.2.5 Married Women 13
6.2.6 Corporation 16
Key Terms 18
2
Chapter 6
တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်းမခြုနိုင်သူများ
In tort, there are persons who have no right to sue and
also persons who cannot be sued. It is discussed about
personal disabilities concerning tort cases.
သာမန်အားခြင့် လူတိုင်းတွင် တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုနိုင်ြွင့်ရှိသည့်နည်း
တူ မိမိ၏မှားယွင်းခြုလုြ်မိ၍ သူတစ်ြါးတွင် နစ်နာမှုရှိလျှင်လည်း
တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုခြင်းြံရပြမည်။ သို ့ပသာ် အြျို ့ပသာြုဂ္ဂိုလ်များသည်
တရားမနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြုနိုင်ဘဲ အြျို ့ပသာြုဂ္ဂိုလ်များသည် တရာမ
နစ်နာမှု ကျူးလွန်ပသာ်လည်းထိုြုဂ္ဂိုလ် များကိုတရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြုနိုင်သည်
များ ရှိကကသည်။
6.1 Who Cannot Sue
တရားနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်းမခြုနိုင်သူများ
To deal with those persons who cannot sue, such
persons may be mentioned as follows: -
ပအာက်ြါြုဂ္ဂိုလ်များသည် တရားမနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြုနိုင်သမ

ူ ျား
ခြစ်ကက သည်။
(1) Convict
ခြစ်ဒဏ်ကျြံပနရပသာ အကျဉ်းသမား
3
(2) Alien enemy
ရန်သူနိုင်ငံခြားသား
(3) Married women
အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးများ
(4) Corporation
တစ်စည်းတစ်လံးု တည်းြွဲ ့စည်းထားပသာ အြွဲ ့အစည်း
(5) Child
ကပလးသူ င ယ်
(6) Bankrupt
လူ မ ွ ဲ စ ာရင် း ြံ ထ ားသူ
6.1.1 Convict
ခြစ်ဒဏ်ကျြံပနရပသာ အကျဉ်းသမား
One must aware of the fact that a convict when
undergoing a sentence, cannot sue for an injury to his

3
property, or for recovery of debt. At Common Law, a
convict has the right to sue for any personal wrongs done to
him, such as assaults, or slander.
ခြစ်ဒဏ်ကျြံပနရပသာ အကျဉ်းသမားများသည် ြစ္စည်းနှင့်ြတ်သက်၍
တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြုနိုင်ပသာ်လည်း မိမိ၏ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာကိုထြ

ိ ါးပစာ်ကားခြင်း
ြံရြါက တရားစွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။
4
6.1.2 Alien Enemy
ရန်သူနိုင်ငံခြားသား
An alien enemy cannot sue in his own right. An alien
enemy is one whose State or sovereign is at war with the
sovereign of other, or one who, whatever his nationality is
voluntarily resident or carries on business in an enemy's
country.
ရန်သူနိုင်ငံခြားသားဆိုသည်မှာ မိမိနိုင်ငံနှင့်စစ်မက်ခြစ်ပနပသာ နိုင်ငံ၏
နိုင်ငံသား သို ့မဟုတ် မည်သည့်နိုင်ငံသားြင် ခြစ်ပစကာမူ ရန်သန

ူ ိုင်ငံတွင်
ပနထိုင်လျက်ရိသ
ှ ည်ကို ဆိုလသ
ို ည်။
In England, an alien enemy, unless he resides in
England by the licence of the Queen, cannot sue in Quee n's
Courts. He can, however, be sued and can defend an action
and, if the decision goes against him, he will have the right
to appeal.
အဂဂလန်နိုင်ငံတွင် ရန်သန
ူ ိုင်ငံခြားသားများ တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်
ြွင့်မရှိ။ သို ့ပသာ် ဘုရင့်အုြ်ြျုြ်မှုပအာက်တွင် ပနထိုင်လျက်ရိပ

ှ သာ ရန်သူ
နိုင်ငံခြားသား များသည် တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုြွင့်ရှိသည်။
In India, also alien enemies residing in India with the
Government's permission, can use. In Myanmar, under the
provision of section 83 of the Code of Civil Procedure, such

5
an alien enemy can sue only with the permission given by

4
the Head of the State .
အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံတွင် အစိုးရ၏ြွင့်ခြုြျက်အရ ပနထိုင်လျက်ရိပ

ှ သာ ရန်သူ
နိုင်ငံခြားသားများသည် တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုနိုင်ြွင့်ရှိပသာ်လည်း အစိုးရ၏
ြွင့်ခြုြျက် မရဘဲ အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံတွင် ပနထိုင်လျက်ရိသ

ှ ူများ သို ့မဟုတ် နိုင်ငံခြား
တိုင်းခြည်တွင် ပနထိုင်လျက်ရိကှ ကသည့် ရန်သူနိုင်ငံခြားသား များသည်
တရားမနစ်နာမှု စွဲဆိုနိုင်ြွင့် မရှိကကပြ။
6.1.3 Married Women
အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးများ
In the eye of law, husband and wife are taken to be
oneself. Thus neither spouse can sue for tort against
themselves.
လင်မယားနှစ်ဦးကို ဥြပဒရှု ့ပဒါင့်မှ တစ်ဦးတည်းဟုအခမင်ရှိသည်။
ထို ့ပကကာင့် ၄င်းတို ့ အြျင်းြျင်း တစ်ဦးနှင့်တစ်ဦး တရားမနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်း
မခြုနိုင်ကကပြ။
In the olden days in England, a married woman could
not sue for tort to her property, unless her husband was
joined as plaintiff, but at present the Law Reform Married
Women and Tort-feasors Act 1935 and the Law Reform

6
(Husband and Wife) Act 1962 put married women in almost
exactly the same position as their unmarried sisters.

2
အဂဂလန်နိုင်ငံရိုးရာဥြပဒ အရ အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးတစ်ဦးသည်
၄င်း၏ ြင်ြွန်းနှင့် ြူးတွဲခြင်းမခြုဘဲ တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်ပြ။ သို ့ပသာ် ၁၈၈၂

3
ြုနှစ်နှင့် ၁၉၃၅ ြုနှစ်တွင် ခြဋ္ဌာန်းပသာ အက်ဥြပဒများ အရ သူမ
တစ်ဦးတည်းတရားမနစ်နာမှုများ စွဲဆို နိုင်လာကကသည်။
Although, the wife cannot sue her husband for tort, she
can sue husband relatives.
မယားကလင်ကို တရားမနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြုနိုင်ပသာ်လည်းလင်
ပယာက်ျား နှင့် ြတ်သက်သူများကိုမူ တရားစွဲဆိုြုင

ိ ်ြွင့်ရှိသည်။
5
In Smith v. Moss Case, the husband after attending a
party drove back to home, but dropped mother first at her
house and then to his home. In putting the car into the
garage, which is next door to his house, and with his
negligence, accident has occurred and the wife was injured.
For that she sued her mother-in-law, for damages on the
ground that the mother-in-law was the owner of the car and
her husband as the agent. The Court decreed her damages.
2
Common Law
3
Married Women's Property Act, 1882 &The Law Reform Married Women and Tortfeasors)
Act, 1935.
7
*
အမှုတစ်ြုတွင် လင်ခြစ်သူက ကားပမာင်း၍ ြါတီတစ်ြုမှ ခြန်လာရာ
မိြင် ခြစ်သူကိုအရင်လုက
ိ ်ြို ့ပြီး ကားကိုမိမိအိမ်နှင့် ကြ်လျက်ရှိကားရုံးတွင်းသို ့
သွင်းရန် ပမာင်းလာရာ လင်ခြစ်သူ၏ ပြါ့ပလျာ့မှုပကကာင့် ထိြိုက်မှုခြစ်
သခြင့က
် ားပြါ်တွင် ြါ လာသူမယားမှာ ဒဏ်ရာရရှိသွားသည်။ ယင်းအတွက်
မယားက ပယာက္ခမခြစ်သူသည် ကားြိုင်ရှင်ခြစ်၍ မိမိ၏လင်မှာ ၄င်းမိြင်၏
ကိုယ်စားအခြစ် ကားပမာင်းရသူခြစ်သခြင့် ကိုယ်စားလှယ်၏ပြါ့ ဆမှုအတွက်
ြိုင်ရှင်တွင် တာ၀န်ရှိသည့အ
် တွက် ကားြိုင်ရှင်ထမ
ံ ှ ပလျာ်ပကကးရလိပ
ု ကကာင်း
ပလျှာက်ထားရာ ပယာက္မထံမှ ပလျာ်ပကကးရရှိြဲ့သည်။
6.1.4 Corporation
တစ်စည်းတစ်လံးု တည်းြွဲ ့စည်းထားပသာ အြွဲ ့အစည်း
Although a corporation may sue for libel, it is
affecting property of business, but not affecting personal
reputation. Therefore it cannot file a suit for libel charging
the corporation with corruption, because it is only the
individuals who can be guilty of such an offence and not the
corporation in its corporate capacity.
တစ်စည်းတစ်လံးု တည်း ြွဲ ့စည်းထားပသာ ပကာ်ြိုပရးရှင်းတစ်ြုသည်
ြစ္စည်း သို ့မဟုတ် လုြ်ငန်းနှင့်ြတ်သက်၍ မှားယွင်းမှုများအတွက် တရား
စွဲဆိုနိုင်ပသာ်လည်း ြုဂ္ဂိုလ်စွဲခြစ်ပသာ မှားယွင်းမှုြုံစံအားခြင့် လာဘ်စားမှုနှင့်
*
Smith V. Moss, 1940, 1 K.B., 424.
8
ြတ်သက်သည့် စွြ်စွဲပရးသားြျက်အတွက်ကို မူကားတရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြု
နိုင်ပြ။
6.1.5 Child
ကပလးသူ င ယ်
Whether a minor can sue in respect of a pre-natal

6
injury to himself, there is a decision made in the Irish Case.
In that case the mother of that child was injured in a railway
accident, and the child was born deformed. The infant
claimed £ 1,030 for damages, but the Court held that for
7
such injury the infant could not maintain an action .
ကပလးသူငယ်တစ်ဦးသည် ၄င်းမိြင်၀မ်းတွင်းရှိစဉ် နစ်နာမှုအတွက်

**
တရားမစွဲ ဆိုနုင
ိ ်။ အမှုတစ်ြုတွင် ကိုယ၀
် န်ပဆာင်အမျိုးသမီး တစ်ဦးသည်
မီးရထားခြင့် ြရီးသွားစဉ် မီးရထားတိုက်မှု ခြစ်သခြင့် အထိတ်တလနခြစ်

့်
သွားသည့်အတွက် ကပလးမျက်နာှ ခမင်သည့်အြါ ရုြ်ြျက်ဆင်းြျက် ကပလး
ငယ်ကို ပမွးြွားသည်။ ပမွးြွားသည့် ကပလးအပနခြင့် မီးရထားကုမဏ

္ပ ီထမ
ံ ှ
နစ်နာပကကးပတာင်းဆိုရာ အမိ၀မ်းတွင်းရှိစဉ် ခြစ်ြွားြဲ့သည့် ကိစ္စအတွက်
ကပလးငယ်အပနခြင့် တရားစွဲဆိုြင
ွ ့် မရှိဟုဆုံးခြတ်ြဲ့သည်။ ကပလးပမွးြွား
ပြီးပနာက်မှ ခြစ်ြွားသည့က
် ိစ္စအတွက်ကိုမူ အနီးကြ်ဆုံးမိတ်ပဆွမှ တစ်ဆင့်
ကပလးငယ်ကိုယ်စားတရားစွဲဆိုနုင
ိ ်သည်။
**
Walker v. Great Northern Railway Co. of Ireland, 1890, 28, L.R. Ir. 69.
9
6.1.6 Bankrupt
လူ မ ွ ဲ စ ာရင် း ြံ ထ ားသူ
A right of action in respect of a tort which results in
injuries mainly to the person of the bankrupt does not pass
to the trustee. But in case of right of action which results in
injuries mainly to the estate of the bankrupt passes to the
trustee.
လူမွဲစာရင်းြံထားသူတွင် ြစ္စည်းနှင့်ြတ်သက်၍ တရားမနစ်နာမှု မစွဲ
ဆိုနုင
ိ ်ပြ။ ၄င်း၏ ြစ္စည်းနှင့်ြတ်သက်၍ နစ်နာမှုများအတွက် ပ ကးရှင်များ၏
အကျိုးပကျးဇူး အလို ့ငှာ ရုံးက ြနအ ့် ြ်ထားပသာ ြစ္စည်းထိန်းအရာရှိက တရား
စွဲဆိုနိုင်သည်။
6.2 Who cannot be sued
တရားမနစ်နာမှုစွဲဆိုခြင်းမြံရနိုင်သူများ
Now, in dealing with those persons who cannot be sued
in tort, it may be mentioned as follows:-
(1) Sovereign
အြျုြ်အြျာနိုင်ငံအာဏာြိုင်
(2) Ambassadors
သံ တ မန် မ ျား

10
ခြည်သူ ့၀န်ထမ်းအရာရှိများ
ကပလးသူ င ယ် မ ျားနှ င ့ ် သ ူ ရ ူ း များ
(5) Married Women
အိ မ ် ပ ထာင် ရ ှ င ် အ မျိ ု းသမီ း များ
(6) Corporation
တစ် စ ည် း တစ် လ ု ံ း တည် း ြွ ဲ စ

့ ည် း ထားပသာအြွ ဲ အ
့ စည် း
6.2.1 Sovereign
အြျုြ်အြျာနိုင်ငံအာဏာြိုင်
There is an English maxim, that "the king can do no
wrong”, so that the Crown or the sovereign is always
exempted to be sued in tort as well as in criminal matters.
But in the year 1947, when the Crown Proceedings Act
came into force, this immunity in tort was put to an end. So
that, snow the Crown shall be liable in tort committed by
itself or be liable for the torts committed by its servants.
၁၉၄၇ ြုနှစ်မတိုင်မီက အဂဂလန်နိုင်ငံတွင် ဘုရင်/ဘုရင်မများသည်
အမှားကို မခြုလုြ်နိုင်ဟူသည့် အပခြြံမူတစ်ရြ် ရှိြဲ့သည့်အတွက်
ဘုရင်/ဘုရင်မများကို တရားမစွဲဆိုနိုင်ပြ။ ၁၉၄၇ ြုနှစ်တွင်ခြဋ္ဌာန်းပသာ

11
*
အက်ဥြပဒအရ အြျို ့အြျက် အလက်များမှအြ နိုင်ငံအာဏာြိုင်များအား
ိ ်သည်ဟု သတ်မှတ်ြဲ့သည်။
6.2.2 Ambassadors
သံ တ မန် မ ျား
An ambassador who is acting as the Head of State to
which he represents, enjoys diplomatic immunities, unless
he waives his privilege, he cannot be sued in tort. This
privilege therefore prevails only to the extent of the term of
his employment. So, when his office has been terminated, he
will become liable. This immunity extends also to his family
member as well as to the servants or suits.
နိ ု င ် င ံ အ ြျင် း ြျင် း သံ တ မန် န ည် း ခြင့ ် အဆက် အ သွ ယ ် ခ ြုကကရာတွ င ်
ယင် း သံ တ မန် မ ျားသည် မ ိ မ ိ တ ိ ု ့၏ နိ ု င ် င ံ က ိ ု က ိ ု ယ ် စ ားခြုသူ မ ျား ခြစ် က က၍
သံ တ မန် ကင် း လွ တ ် ြ ွ င ့ ် ရ ရှ ိ က ကသည် ။ သံ တ မန် န ှ င ့ ် သ ံ တ မန် အ ြွ ဲ ဝ

့ င် မ ျား
အား တရားစွ ဲ ဆ ိ ု ြ ွ င ့ ် မ ရှ ိ ပ ြ။ သံ အ မတ် က ကီ း ကိ ု ယ ် တ ိ ု င ် က နစ် န ာမှု
ခြုလု ြ ် လ ျှင် ၎ င် း ကိ ု ပစလွှ တ ် ြ န အ ့် ြ် သ ည့ ် ၎င် း နိ ု င ် င ံ ၏ အြျုြ် အ ြျာ
အာဏာြိ ု င ် က ကင် း လွ တ ် ြ ွ င ့ ် က ိ ု ရု ြ ် သ ိ မ ် း ပြးရမည် ။
*
The Crown Proceedings Act, 1947.
12
6.2.3 Public Officials
ခြည်သူ၀န်
့ ထမ်းအရာရှိများ
Public officials are not liable to be sued in tort in their
representative character for torts committed by them or by
their subordinates.
ခြည့်သူ၀န်ထမ်း အရာရှိများသည် အစိုးရက ၄င်းတို ့အား အစိုးရဋ္ဌာန
များတွင် အစိုးရ၏ကိုယ်စားလှယ်အခြစ် ပဆာင်ရွက်ရန် တာ၀န်အသီးသီး
ပြးအြ်ခြင်း ြံရသူများခြစ်ကကသည်။ သို ့ခြစ်ပသာပကကာင့် ၄င်းတို ့သည်
မိမိတို ့၏ အစိုးရလုြ်ငန်းဌာန ကိစ္စအရြ်ရြ်ကို ပဆာင်ရွက်ကကသည့အ

် တွက်
မည်သတ
ူ စ်ဦးတစ်ပယာက်ကမျှ ၄င်းတို ့ပဆာင်ရွက်ပသာ အစိုးရလုြ်ငန်း
နှင့်ြတ်သက်၍ ၄င်းတို ့အား တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း မခြု နိုင်ပြ။
6.2.4 Infants and Lunatics
ကပလးသူ င ယ် မ ျားနှ င ့ ် သ ူ ရ ူ း များ
Infants and lunatics are regarded as incapable of being
reasoning properly. So they are usually exempted from,
legal liabilities. Generally, infancy is no bar to a suit for
damages claiming against an infant. But when the intention,
knowledge, malice or some other condition of the state of
mind of the wrong doer is essential, extreme youth may
afford a defense.
13
တရားမနစ်နာမှုတွင် နစ်နာမှုခြုသည့် ကပလးအား လူကကီးတစ်ပယာက်
ကဲ့သုိ ့ အပရးယူနိုင်သည်။ သို ့ပသာ် ကပလး၏ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်၊ အသိဉာဏ်၊
မသမာမှုများ မှားယွင်းသူ၏ စိတ်အပခြအပနများသည် နစ်နာမှုခြုလုြ်ခြင်း၏
အပကကာင်းရင်းများ ခြစ်ပနြါက နစ်နာမှုခြုသူ၏ အရွယ်ငယ်လွန်းသည့်
အြျက်သည် ၄င်းအား အကာ အကွယ်ပြး ပြသည်။
As regards the acts done by the lunatics, unsoundness
of mind is not in itself a ground of exemption of liability in
tort.
သာမန်အားခြင့် စိတ်ပြါ့သွြ်သည့် သူရူးများသည် မိမိတို ့ခြုလုြ်မှု
အတွက် သူတစ်ြါးအားနစ်နာပစြါက တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း ြံရပြမည်။ သို ့ပသာ်
ယင်းကဲ့သုိ ့ ခြုလုြ်ရာတွင် ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်မရှိ၊ မသမာစိတ်မြါလျှင်မူကား
တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်းြံရမည် မဟုတ် ပြ။
6.2.5 Married Women
အိ မ ် ပ ထာင် ရ ှ င ် အ မျိ ု းသမီ း များ
At Common Law, a husband was liable to be joined
with his wife in all actions for torts committed by her during
the subsistence of the marriage. This liability still exists in
the Married Women's Property Act 1882.

14
အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးတစ်ဦးသည် အဂဂလိြ်ရးို ရာဥြပဒအရ သူမ
ခြုလုြ်ြဲ့ပသာ မှားယွင်းသည့က
် ိစ္စများအတွက် သူမ၏ပယာက်ျားနှင့် ြူးတွဲ၍
သာ တရားစွဲ ဆိုခြင်း ြံရပြမည်။
This injustice has been abolished by the enactment of
the 1935 Law Reform (Married Women and Tort-feasors
Act). Section 3 of this Act provides that the husband of
married women is not, by reason only of his being her
husband, 15 liable in respect of any such tort.
၁၉၃၅ ြုနှစ်တွင် ခြဋ္ဌာန်းပသာအိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးများသည်

1
ခြင်ဆင် ပရးဆွဲသည့် အက်ဥြပဒ အရ အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးတစ်ဦး
တည်းသည် တရားမနစ်နာမှုအတွက် တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း ခြုနိုင်သည့်အခြင် တရား
စွဲဆိုခြင်းလည်းြံရပြမည်။ မယားခြစ်သူ၏ မတရားမှုအတွက် လင်ပယာက်ျား
ခြစ်သူသည် ြူးတွဲ၍တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်းပသာ်လည်းပကာင်း၊ တရားစွဲဆိုြံရခြင်း
ပသာ်လည်းပကာင်း ြါ၀င်မည် မဟုတ် ပြ။
According to the Married Women's Property Act, 1882,
when spouses embark litigation with each other in order to
settle disputes arising out of the property, particularly upon
the breakup of their marriage, if necessary the husband may

18
be required to vacate or leave the matrimonial home.
1
Law Reform (Married Women and Tortfeasors) Act, 1935.
15
၁၈၈၂ ြုနှစ်တွင် ခြဋ္ဌာန်းြဲ့ပသာ အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင်အမျိုးသမီးများ ြစ္စည်း

2
ဆိုငရ
် ာအက်ဥြပဒ အရမူ အိမ်ပထာင်ရှင် အမျိုးသမီးတစ်ဦးအား
လင်ပယာက်ျားနှင့် ြူးတွဲခြင်းမခြုဘဲ ၄င်း၏ မတရားမှုအတွက် တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း
မခြုလုြ်နိုင်ြဲ နစ်နာပကကးကို ၄င်းသီးခြားြိုင်ြစ္စည်းမှ ပတာင်းဆိုနုင

ိ ်သည်။
သို ့ပသာ်လည်း မတရားမှုသည် မယားနှင့် တိုက်ရက

ို ်သက်ဆိုင်သည့က
် ိစ္စ
မဟုတြ
် ါ က လင်မယားနှစ်ဦး ပြါင်းသင်းပနထိင
ု ်စဉ်အတွင်း
မယား၏ကျူးလွန်သည့် မတရားမှုအတွက်ကိုမူ လင်ပယာက်ျားသည်
မယားနှင့်ြူးတွဲ၍ တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း ြံရပြမည်။
Under our Myanmar Customary Law the property
rights of a Myanmar Buddhist Couple is based on the
principle of tenants in Common and not that of joint tenants.
Thus, when a spouse dies the other spouse inherits the whol e
19
estate of the deceased spouse. They are not to be taken as
partners when conducting business separately. But, when
certain loan has been taken for the benefit of the joint family
business, the wife will be liable for the debt contracted by

2
her husband .
ခမန်မာ့ဓပလ့ထံးု တမ်းဥြပဒအရ ခမန်မာဗုဓ္ဒဘာသာ လင်မယား၏
ြစ္စည်းဆိုငရ
် ာ အြွင့်အပရးသည် ြူးတွဲြိုင်ဆိုင်သူများ မဟုတဘ
် ဲ
အတူြိုင်ဆိုင်သူများခြစ်သည့် မူသပဘာတရားအပြါ် အပခြြံြါသည်။
2
Married Women's Property Act, 1882.
16
ထို ့ပကကာင့် အိမ်ပထာင်ဘက် တစ်ဉီးပသ ဆုံးလျှင် ကျန်ရစ်သူသည်
ကွယ်လန
ွ ်သွားပသာ အိမ်ပထာင်ဘက်၏ အပမွြစ္စည်း အားလုံးကို
အပမွဆက်ြံြွင့်ရှိသည် ၎င်းတို ့ကို သီးခြားစီးြွားပရး လုြ်ပဆာင်ပနစဉ် တွင်
အစုရှယ်ယာဝင်အခြစ် မသတ်မှတ်နိုင်ပြ။ သို ့ပသာ်မိသားစု၏
ြက်စြ်စီးြွားပရး လုြ်ငန်း၏အကျိုးအခမတ်အတွက် ပြျးပငွယူပသာအြါ
မယားခြစ်သူအပနခြင့် သူမ၏ ြင်ြွန်းြျုြ်ဆိုြဲ့ပသာ ပြျးပငွအတွက်
တာဝန်ရှိသည်။
The wife cannot sue her husband for partition of
property which they attain during the substance of their
marriage, i.e (LetthetPwa Property ), when their marriage tie
still subsist.
မယားခြစ် သ ူ သ ည် ၎င် း တိ ု ့၏ ထိ မ ် း မမားလက် ထ ပ် မ ှု တည် မ မဲ န ေစဉ်
တွ င ် ရရှ ိ ထ ားနောပစ္စ ည ် း ။ ဥပမာ လက် ထ ပ် ပ ွ ာ းပစ္စ ည ် း ကိ ု ခွ ဲ န ေနပး
နစရေ် အတွ က ် မိ မ ိ ၏ လင် န ောက် ျ ားကိ ု တရား မစွ ဲ န ိ ု င ် န ပ။
6.2.6 Corporation
တစ် စ ည် း တစ် လ ု ံ း တည် း ြွ ဲ စ

့ ည် း ထားပသာအြွ ဲ အ
့ စည် း
The principle governing the responsibility of a
principal for the acts of its agents shall govern the liability
of a corporation for the acts of its agents. So a corporation

17
can be held liable for a tortious act arising from an activity
beyond the powers of the corporation. i.e. (ultra-vires).
ကိ ု ယ ် စ ားလှ ယ ် ၏ ခြုလု ြ ် မ ှု အ တွ က ် အကကီ း အကဲ တ ွ င ် တာဝန် ရ ှ ိ
သည့ ် မူ သ ပဘာတရားသည် ကိ ု ယ ် စ ားလှ ယ ် မ ျား၏ ပဆာင် ရ ွ က ် မ ှု
အတွ က ် ပကာ် ြ ိ ု ပရးရှ င ် း တစ် ြ ု ၏ တာဝန် ရ ှ ိ မ ှု က ိ ု လ ည် း အသု ံ း ခြုရသည် ။
ထိ ု ့ပကကာင် ့ ပကာ် ြ ိ ု ပ ရး ရှ င ် း တစ် ြ ု သ ည် အာဏာအရ ပဆာင် ရ ွ က ် ၍
လု ြ ် ပ ဆာင် မ ှု ပကကာင့ ် နစ် န ာမှု အ တွ က ် တာဝန် ရ ှ ိ သ ည် ဟ ု ဆု ံ း ခြတ် သ ည် ။

23
But in Poultal vs. London S.W.Ry.Co. case, a station
master arrested the plaintiff for non-payment of the freight
in respect of his horse. Because the defendant Railway
Company, his employers, were empowered by statute to
arrest passengers for non-payment of fares, but for no other
reasons, the Court held that the station master was acting
outside the scope of his employment, and that the defendants
were therefore not liable.

*
အမှုတစ်ြုတွင် မီးရထားကုမ္ပဏီများသည် ြါလီမန်ကခြဋ္ဌာန်းထားပသာ
ဥြပဒ အရ လက်မှတ်မြါဘဲ ရထားြိုးစီးသူများကို သက်ဆိုင်ရာအရာရှိများက
ြမ်းဆီး နိုင်သည်။ တရားလိုသည် မီးရထားပြါ်တွင် ခမင်းတစ်ပကာင်ကို
တန်ဆာမခြုလုြ်ဘဲ တင်ပဆာင်လာရာ မီးရထားရုံြိုင်က တန်ဆာမဲ့
တင်ပဆာင်လာသည့အ
် တွက် တရားလိုအား ြမ်းဆီးသည်။ အမှန်စင်စစ်
ြါလီမန် အက်ဥြပဒက ခြဋ္ဌာန်းထားြျက်အရ မီးရထားလက်မှတ်မြါဘဲ

*
Poulton V. London & S.W. Railway Co. 1867, L.R., 2 Q.B., 534.
18
ြိုးစီးသူကိုသာ ြမ်းဆီးနိုင်၍ တန်ဆာမခြုလုြ်ဘဲ ကုနတ

် င်လာသည့်
ြရီးသည်ကက
ို ား ြမ်ဆီးနိုင်ြွင့်မရှိပြ။ ထို ့ပကကာင့် မီးရထားရုံြိုင်သည်
မီးရထားကုမ္ပဏီ၏ ညွှန်ကကားြိုင်းပစသည့် ရည်ရွယ်ြျက်အတိုင်း
ပဆာင်ရွက်ခြင်း မဟုတ်ပသာပကကာင့် မီးရထားရုံြိုင်က တရားလိုအား
မြမ်းဆီးနိုင်သခြင့် ပလျာ်ပကကးပြးရပလသည်။
Key Terms
Convict=ခြစ်ဒဏ်ကျြံပနရပသာအကျဉ်းသား
Alien enemy=ရန်သူနိုင်ငံခြားသား
Bankrupt=လူမွဲစာရင်းြံယူထားပသာသူ
Ambassadors=သံတစ်မန်များ
Sovereign =အြျုြ်အြျာအာဏာြိုင်
Public officials=ခြည်သူ ့ဝန်ထမ်းအရာရှိများ
Liability=တာဝန်ရှိမှု
Corruption=အဂတိလုက
ိ ်စားမှု
Terminate=ရြ်စဲသည်။အဆုံးသတ်သည်။
Litigation=တရားစွဲဆိုခြင်း
Matrimonial=ထိမ်းခမားလက်ထြ်ခြင်း နှင့်ဆိုငပ
် သာ၊ အိမ်ပထာင်ခြုခြင်း နှင့်
ဆိုငပ
် သာ
19
Questions
1 What do you understand by the statement “who cannot
sue”? Explain briefly.(Assignment)
2 What do you understand by the statement “who cannot be
sued”? Explain briefly. (Assignment)
3 Enumerate the persons who cannot sue in tort.
(Short Question)
4. Who are the persons who cannot be sued in tort?
(Short Question)
5. What is meant by infants and lunatics in tort?
(Short Question)
1
Chapter 7
Vicarious Liability
7.1 By Ratifying or Authorizing a Particular Act of Another 3
7.2 The Presence of Particular Relationship 4
7.2.1 Master and Servant 5

7.2.2 Principal and Agent 7
7.2.3 Company and Directors 9
7.2.4 Firm and Partners 9
7.2.5 Guardian and Ward 10
Key Terms 11
2
Chapter 7
Vicarious Liability
1
သူတစ်ပါးအတွက် တာ၀န်ယူခြင်း
Vicarious Liability means that one person takes or supplies

1
the place of another so far as liability is concerned . It can be said
that vicarious liability is based on the social convenience and

2
through justice, and therefore based on public policy.
တာ၀န်ရှိမှုနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ လူတစ်ဦးက အခြားသူတစ်ဦး၏ နေရာတွင်
၀င်၍ တာ၀ေ်ယူခြင်း၊ ခြည့်စွမ်းနေးခြင်းဟု အဓိေ္ပာယ်ရသည်။ ထို ့န ကာင့်
သူတေါး အတွက် တာ၀ေ်ယူခြင်းသည် လူမှုနရးဆိုငရ

် ာ အဆင်နခေလွယ်ကူမှု
နေါ်မူတည်၍ တရား မျှတမှုရသည်အထိ တာ၀ေ်ယူခြင်းခြစ်သည်။
A person may be liable in respect of wrongful act or
commission of another in three ways:-
သူတစ်ပါး၏ လွှမ
ဲ ှားစွာဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းဆ ကာင့်ခြစ်ဆစ၊ ဆောင်ရွက်ရန်ရှိ
သည် ကို မဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းဆ ကာင့်ခြစ်ဆစ သူတစ်ဦးတစ်ဆယာက်အဆပါ်တွင်
ဆအာက်ပါ နည်းလမ်းသုံးမျိုးအားခြင့် တာ၀န်ကျဆရာက်တတ်သည်။
(1) By ratifying or authorizing a particular act of another
အတည်ခပုခြင်းအားခြင့် တာ၀န်ရှိခြင်း
(2) The presence of particular relationship
အထူးေက်ေံမမ
ှု ျားမှ ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့်ကိစ္စအတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိခြင်း
(3) By abetting the tortious acts committed by the others.
1
Vicarious Liability
3
4
အားဆပးကူညီခြင်းခြင့် တာ၀န်ရှိခြင်း
7.1 By Ratifying or Authorizing a Particular Act of Another
အတည်ခပုခြင်းအားခြင့် တာ၀န်ရှိခြင်း
(1) Such ratification must be done with full knowledge of
its consequences.
အတည်ခပုသူသည် မိမိအတည်ခပုသည့်ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်သည် တရားမ
နစ်နာမှုခြစ်ဆစသည့် ဆောက်ရွက်ြျက်ခြစ်သည်ကို သိလျက်နင

ှ ့် အတည်ခပု
ဆ ကာင်း ခပသနိုင်ရမည်။
(2) Further more such an act must be done on behalf of the
principal.
မူလဆောင်ရွက်သသ
ူ ည် ဆောင်ရွက်စဉ်အြါက မိမိ၏အကကီးအကဲ
ကိုယ်စား ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းခြစ်ရမည်။
(3) an act which is illegal and void is incapable of
ratification
တရားမ၀င်ပျက်ခပယ်သည့် ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်များကိုအတည်မခပုနိုင်
Thus, a ratification of a tort by the principal will not free the
agent from his responsibility to third parties.
အကကီးအကဲက အတည်ခပုသည့် ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်အတွက် မူလ
ဆောင်ရွက်သည့် ကိုယ်စားလှယ်အား တတိယလူပုဂ္ဂိုလ်အဆပါ်တာဝန်ရှိမှုတွင်
4
Liability by abetment
4
တရားမနစ်နာမှုမှ လွတ် ကင်းဆစမည် မဟုတ်ဆပ။
7.2 The Presence of Particular Relationship
အထူးေက်ေံမမ
ှု ျားမှ ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့်ကိစ္စအတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိခြင်း
ဆအာက်ဆြာ်ခပသူများသည် တစ်ဦးနှင့်တစ်ဦး အထူးေက်ေံမှုရှိသူများ ခြစ် က
သည်။
သြင်နှင့်အဆစြံ
ပိုင်ရှင်နှင့်လွတ်လပ်သည့် ကန်ထရိုက်တာ
အကကီးအကဲနှင့်ကိုယ်စားလှယ်။
ကုမဏ
္ပ ီနှင့် ဒါရိုက်တာလူကကီးများ။
ကုနဘ
် က်လစ
ူ ုနှင့် ြက်စပ်လပ
ု ်ကိုင်သူများ။
အုပ်ထန
ိ ်းသူနှင့်အုပ်ထိန်းြံသူ။
5
7.2.1 Master and Servant
သြင်နှင့်အဆစြံ
The doctrine of liability of the master for the acts of his
servant is entirely based on the maxims:
သြင်နှင့်အဆစြံနှစ်ဦး ေက်ေံရာမှ ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့်ကိစ္စအတွက်
တာ၀န် ရှိခြင်းကို ဆအာက်ပါ အဆခြြံမူနှစ်ရပ်ခြင့် သတ်မှတ်ထားသည်။
အကကီးအကဲသာလျှင် တာ၀န်ရှိပါဆစ
(2) quifacitperaliumfacitperse. (He who does an act through
another is deemed in law to do it himself.)
သူတစ်ပါးမှတေင့် ကိစ္စတစ်ြုြုကိုဆောင်ရွက်လျှင် မိမိကိုယ်တိုင်ဆောင်

1
ရွက်ခြင်းပင်ခြစ်သည်။
The Master would be completely liable for the wrongs done
by his servants or slaves; such idea was changed when that idea of
liability only where there has been command or consent on the
part of the master of the servant's wrong.
အထက်ပါမူနှစ်ရပ်အရ အကကီးအကဲ၏အမိနခြင့ ့် ် အကကီးအကဲ၏လုပ်ငန်း
ကို ဆောင်ရွက်စဉ်အတွင်း အဆစြံ၏ခပုလုပ်မှုဆ ကာင့် ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့် ကိစ္စရပ်
များအတွက် အကကီးအကဲတွင်တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။
1
He who does an act through another does it himself
6
A servant may be defined as any person employed by
another to do work for him on the terms that he, the servant is to
be subject to the control and directions of his employer in respect

3
of the manner in which his work is to be done .
မိမိအားအလုပ်တစ်ြုဆောင်ရွက်ရန် ြိုင်းဆစထားဆသာ ကာလအတွင်း
တရားဥပဆဒနှင့်အညီ အမိနဆ့် ပးခြင်းကို အြိုးအြရ၍ခြစ်ဆစ၊ မရဘဲခြစ်ဆစ၊
တစ်စုံတစ်ဆယာက်ဆသာသူအတွက် ဆောင်ရွက်ဆပးရန် မိမိအလိအ

ု ဆလျာက်
သဆဘာတူ လျှင်ထုသ
ိ ူကို အဆစြံဟုဆြါ်သည်။
13
As an example, in Daw Aye May's Case, while a
workman was about to leave the premises of his employer after
the going for the stoppage of work, he died of the injury occurred
by the falling of the bale of paper which was unloading in that
premise. The Court held that the death of the workman was
occurred within the course of employment and the claim for
compensation was admitted. So under to the Workmen's
Compensation Act, if personal injury is caused to a workman by
accident arising out of and in the course of employment his
employer shall be held liable to pay compensation.
အလုပ်သမားတစ်ဦးသည် အလုပ်ပပီးေုံး၍ ခပန်သွားရာ အလုပ်ရှင်
၏ဥပစာမှ ထွက်ြွာြျိန်တွင် ထိဥ

ု ပစာအတွင်း ကုန်တင်ကုန်ြျလုပ်ဆနဆသာ
စက္က ူထုပ်ခပုတ်ကျ၍ ဆသေုံးြဲ့သည်။ တရားရုံးက ထိအ

ု လုပ်သမား
7
ဆသေုံးခြင်းသည် အလုပ်ြျိန်အတွင်း ခြစ်၍ ဆလျာ်ဆ ကးဆပးြဲ့သည်။
အလုပ်သမားဆလျာ်ဆ ကးဥပဆဒအရ အလုပ်ြျိန်နှင့် အလုပ်မှဆပါ်ထွက်လာဆသာ
ဒါဏ်ရာရမှုအတွက် ဆလျာ်ဆ ကးဆပးရန် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။
7.2.2 Principal and Agent
အကကီးအကဲနင
ှ ့်ကိုယစ
် ားလှယ်
(1)Those employed to perform services in connection with
the affairs of the employer, and over whom the employer has
control in the performance of those services.
ကိုယ်စားလှယ်က အလုပ်ရှင်၏ လုပ်ငန်းကို ဆောင်ရွက်ဆနစဉ်
အတွင်းတွင် အလုပ်ရှင်သည် ကိုယ်စားလှယ်၏ လုပ်ဆောင်ြျက်များအဆပါ်
ထိန်းြျုပ်ခြင်း ခပုနိုင် သည်။
(2)Those who do work for another but who are not
controlled by the employers in their conduct in the performance of
that work. Usually such work will be carried out in pursuance of a
contract, and such persons in tort are styled "Independent
Contractor".
အခြားသူအတွက် အလုပ်လပ
ု ်ဆပးသူသည် လုပ်ငန်းဆောင်ရွက်ရာ၌
အလုပ်ရှင်က ထိန်းြျုပ်ခြင်းမခပုနိုင်သူခြစ်သည်။ များဆသာအားခြင့် ပဋိညာဉ်
တစ်ြုကို နဆာင်ရွက်ရာတွင်လတ
ွ ်လေ်နသာ ကေ်ထရိုက်တာကဲ့သုိ ့ တာ၀ေ်
ရှိသည်၊
8
An employer may be vicarious liable for the torts committed
by his servants, but he is not liable for the acts of those who are
his independent contractors.
အကကီးအကဲ၏အမိနခြင့ ့် ် အကကီးအကဲ၏လုပ်ငန်းကို ဆောင်ရွက်စဉ်
အတွင်းအဆစြံ၏ ခပုလုပ်မှုဆ ကာင့် ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့် ကိစ္စရပ်များအတွက်
အကကီးအကဲတွင် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။ သို ့ရာတွင် သူ၏ လွတ်လေ်နသာ ကေ်ထရိုက်
တာများ၏အခေုအမူများအတွက်တာဝေ်မရှိနေ။
Hence so as to make principal liable for the acts done by the
agent two conditions must be fulfilled.
အကကီးအကဲအဆပါ်တွင် ကိုယစ
် ားလှယ်၏ဆောင်ရွက်မမ
ှု ှ ဆပါ်ဆပါက်
သည့် နစ်နာမှုအတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိဆစရန် ဆအာက်ပါအြျက် နှစ်ြျက်လအ

ို ပ်သည်။
(1) The wrong done by the agent must be within the course of
employment.
နစ်နာမှုသည် ကိုယစ
် ားလှယ်က ၄င်းအားလွှဲအပ်ထားသည့် လုပ်ငန်းကို
ဆောင်ရွက်ဆနစဉ်အတွင်း ခြစ်ဆပါ်ဆစမှုခြစ်ရမည်။
(2) If such a wrong is occurred by using the excuse authority
empowered on the agent, and that such an act has been
subsequently ratified the employer.
အကယ်၍ နစ်နာမှုသည် ကိုယစ

် ားလှယ်၏ ဆောင်ရွက်ပိုင်ြွင့်ထက်
ဆကျာ်လန
ွ ်၍ ဆောင်ရွက်သည့အ
် တွက် ဆပါ်ဆပါက်သည့်နစ်နာမှုခြစ်လျှင် ယင်း
9
ဆောင်ရွက်ြျက်ကို ဆောင်ရွက်ရန် အကကီးအကဲက ကိုယ်စားလှယ်အား လွှအ

ဲ ပ်
ထားဆ ကာင်း သို ့မဟုတ် အတည်ခပုပပီးဆ ကာင်း ခပသနိုင်မည်။
7.2.3 Company and Directors
ကုမဏ
္ပ ီနှင့် ဒါရိုက်တာလူကကီးများ
The principles of the law of agency apply to companies,
which are consequently liable for the wrongs done by their
servants in their course of employment. Note only Directors are
personally liable for any tort committed by themselves, but also
for the torts committed by others under their direction or
supervision.
အကကီးအကဲနှင့် ကိုယ်စားလှယ်တို ့၏ တာ၀န်ရှိမှုအဆခြြံမူများအတိုင်း
ကုမဏ
္ပ ီ ၏အဆစြံများ၏ ဆပါ့ဆလျာ့မှုနှင့် နစ်နာဆစမှုများအတွက် တတိယ
လူများအဆပါ် ကုမ္ပဏီတွင် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။ ဒါရိက

ု ်တာ လူကကီးများသည်
ကုမဏ
္ပ ီ၏အကျိုးအတွက် ခြစ်ဆစကာမူ ကိုယ်တိုင်ဆသာ်လည်းဆကာင်း၊
သူတစ်ပါးအား ညွှန် ကား၍ဆသာ် လည်းဆကာင်းနစ်နာမှုများ ခပုလုပ်မှုများ
အတွက် ၄င်းတို ့ ကိုယ်တိုင်တွင် တာ၀န် ရှိသည်။
7.2.4 Firm and Partners
အစုစပ်လပ
ု ်ငန်းနှင့် ြက်စပ်လပ
ု ်ကိုင်သူများ
Under Section 18 of Partnership Act (1932) each and every

10
partner of the firm is the agent of each other and is jointly and
severally liable for the acts of the firm done by them. Although
they can make agreement in limiting their liabilities and rights, but
they cannot escape from giving compensation to the third party,
arising out of the fraud of any partner.
အစုစပ်လပ
ု ်ငန်းတစ်ြုသည် ြက်စပ်ပါ၀င်သူ တစ်ဦး၏ လုပ်ငန်း
လုပ်ကိုင်စဉ်အတွင်း နစ်နာမှုခပုလုပ်ခြင်းအတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။
ြက်စပ်ပါ ၀င်သတ
ူ စ်ဦးသည် အခြားြက်စပ် ပါဝင်သူတစ်ဦး၏ ဆောင်ရွက်
ြျက်အတွက် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။ ြက်စပ် ပါ၀င်သူတိုင်းသည် လုပ်ငန်း
ဆောင်ရွက်ရာတွင် ြက်စပ်ပါ၀င်သူတစ်ဦး၏ ဆပါ့ေမှု သို ့မဟုတ် လိမ်လည်မှု
တို ့ဆ ကာင့် တတိယလူတွင် ေုံးရှုံးနစ်နာမှု ဆပါ်ဆပါက်ပါက တတိယလူသို ့
ဆလျာ်ဆ ကး ဆပးရန် တာ၀န်ရှိသည်။
7.2.5 Guardian and Ward
အုပ်ထန
ိ ်းသူနှင့် အုပ်ထိန်းြံသူ
Guardians are not personally liable for the tortious acts done
by their minors under their charge. But they can sue for personal
injuries done to the minors by the third parties on their behalf.
အုပ်ထန
ိ ်းသူများသည် ၄င်းတို ့အုပ်ထန
ိ ်းဆနဆသာ အရွယ်မဆရာက်ဆသး
သူတို ့ခပုလုပ်သည့် နစ်နာမှုများအတွက် ပုဂ္ဂိုလ်အားခြင့် တာ၀န်မရှိဆပ။ သို ့ဆသာ်

11
အုပ်ထန
ိ ်းသူများသည် အရွယ်မဆရာက်ဆသး သူတို ့၏ ကိုယ်ပိုင်အြွင့် အဆရး
နစ်နာခြင်း အတွက် ၄င်း တို ့ ကိုယစ

် ားတရားစွဲေိုနိုင်သည်။
Key Terms
Vicarious liability= သူတစ်ပါးအတွက်တာဝန်ယူခြင်း
Wrongful act= မတရားခပုလုပ်ဆသာအခပုအမူ
Tortuous acts= တရားမနစ်နာမှုဆခမာက်ဆသာ
Master and servant= သြင်နှင့်အဆစြံ
Employers= အလုပ်ရှင်
Independent Contractor= လွတ်လပ်ဆသာကန်ထရိုက်တာ
Principal and agent= အကကီးအကဲနှင့်ကိုယ်စားလှယ်
Company and director= ကုမ္ပဏီနှင့်ဒါရိက

ု ်တာလူကကီးများ
Firms and partners= ကုန်ဘက်လူစုနှင့်ြက်စပ်လပ

ု ်ကိုင်သူများ
Guardian and wards= အုပ်ထန

ိ ်းသူနှင့်အုပ်ထိန်းြံသူ
Respondeantsuperior= လက်ဆအာက်ြံ သို ့မဟုတ် ငယ်သားခြစ်သူ
ခပုမူဆောင်ရွက် ြျက်အတွက် အကကီးအကဲခြစ်သူ၌တာဝန်ရှိခြင်း
Qui facit per alium facit per se= သူတစ်ပါးမှတေင့်ကိစ္စတစ်ြုြုကို
ဆောင်ရွက်လျှင်မိမိကိုယ်တိုင်ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်း
During the course of employment= လုပ်ငန်းြွင်အတွင်း
Personally liable=ပုဂ္ဂိုယ်အားခြင့်တာဝန်ရှိမှု
12
Exercise Questions
1. What do you understand by the term “vicarious liability”,
and mention the grounds on which a person can be made
liable for damage done by others?(Assignment)
2. What are the particular relationship regarding vicarious
liability? Discuss on relationship between master and
servant.
(Assignment)
3. How may vicarious liability be defined under the following
relationships? Write briefly. (Assignment)
(a) Company and Directors
(b) Firm and Partners
(c) Guardian and Ward (Assignment)
4. How may vicarious liability defined under the following
relationships? Write briefly.
(a) Principal and agent
(b) Company and Directors
(c) Guardian and Ward (Assignment)
5. Describe the liability of master for servant. (Short Question).
6. Describe the liability of infants and lunatics. (Short Question)
7. What is the meaning of “vicarious liability”? (Short Question)

13
8. What are the particular relationship regarding vicarious
liability? (Short Question)

Law of Tort
Dr Tin May Htun

Professor/ Head
Law Department
YUDE
1
TORT means TWISTED OR WRONG
Three elements of Tort
1- Legal duty
2- Breach of duty by failing to conform his or
her behavior accordingly
3- Injury or loss as a direct result of the
defendant's breach
2
The major purposes of tort law
1. compensate the Injured party

2. deter wrongdoing
3. prevent others from resorting to self
help
4. encourage good conduct / socially
responsible behavior.
3
Criminal Law Civil Law
-Plaintiff is the state (e.g., - Plaintiff is private party
-State v. U Hla) (e.g., U Ba v. U Mya)
-Guilty or Not Guilty - Liable or Not Liable
-Guilty verdict results in - Liability results in
prison sentence paying damages (i.e.,
money)
-Prosecution must prove - Plaintiff only needs a
guilt beyond a reasonable preponderance of
doubt. evidence (i.e., 51% or
more)
Ref: According to Introduction to Torts, Greg Albert and

4
Miles E. Hawks
Unlike actions for breach of contract, tort actions are
not dependent upon an agreement between the
parties to a lawsuit.
Unlike criminal prosecutions, which are brought by

the government, tort actions are brought by private
citizens.
5
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A
TORT AND A CRIME
• A crime is public /community wrong that
gives rise to sanctions usually designated in
a specified code. A tort is a civil ‘private’
wrong.
• Action in criminal law is usually brought by
the state or the Crown. Tort actions are
usually brought by the victims of the tort.
• The principal objective in criminal law is
punishment. In torts, it is compensation
6
TORT AND A CRIME
• Differences in Procedure:
– Standard of Proof
• Criminal law: beyond reasonable
doubt
• Torts: on the balance of probabilities
7
THE AIMS OF TORT LAW
• Loss distribution/adjustment: shifting losses
from victims to perpetrators
• Compensation: Through the award of
(pecuniary) damages
–The object of compensation is to
place the victim in the position he/she
was before the tort was committed.
• Punishment: through exemplary or punitive
damages. This is a secondary aim.
8
INTERESTS PROTECTED IN TORT
LAW
• Personal security
–Trespass
–Negligence
• Reputation
–Defamation
• Property
–Trespass
–Conversion
• Economic and financial interests 9
In economic affairs, tort law provides remedies for
businesses that are harmed by the unfair and
deceptive trade practices of a competitor.
In the workplace, tort law protects employees from

the intentional or negligent infliction of
emotional distress.
Tort law regulates the environment, providing

remedies against both individuals and businesses
that pollute the air, land, and water to such an extent
that it amounts to a nuisance.
10
Damnum sine injuria
• This maxim means that no action will lie if there is
actual loss or damage but there has no infringment
of legal right.
• as noted earlier tortious liability arises out of a
breach of duty primarily fixed by law.
• thus breach
• of a legal duty or infringement of a legal right is
the essential condition for arising of liability in
torts.
• if it have a mill and my neighbour build another
mill,where by the profit of my mill is diminished,.
11
Injuria sine damno
•The maxim injuria sine damno means that if a
•private right is infringed, the plaintiff will have a
cause of action even through the plaintiff has not
suffered, any actual loss or damage thus according
to this maxim ,what is necessary is the infringment
of a legal right and not the proof of actual loss or
damage. Injuria means infringement of a right
conferred by law , and damnum means actual
damage or loss.
•An illustrative case on the maxim of injuria sine
damno is Ashby v. white. 12
Volenti non fit injuria
• One of the recognised general defences to liability
in tort is that the plaintiff cosented or assented to
the doing of act which caused harm to him ,the
defendant would not be liable. This is known as
volenti non fit injuria or leave and licence.the
question of application of the maxim may arise
only if it is established that a tort has been
committed by defendant. to layman a person who
has consented to the infliction of damage on
himself should not be heard to complian
thereafter.
13
Trespass, Defamation, Libel, Slander
Causation is an element common to all three

branches of torts:
intentional tort, negligence, and strict liability.
1- Intentional tort
Assault, Battery, Trespass, False Imprisonment,
Invasion of privacy, Conversion, Misrepresentation,
and Fraud.
2- Negligence
3- Strict Liability, or liability without fault
(Product Liability)
14
WHAT IS TRESPASS?
• Intentional or negligent act of D
which directly causes an injury to the P
or his /her property without lawful
justification
• The Elements of Trespass:
–fault: intentional or negligent act
- injury must be direct
–injury* may be to the P or to his/her property
- No lawful justification
15
INJURY IN TRESPASS
• Injury = a breach of right, not necessarily
actual damage
• Trespass requires only proof of injury not
actual damage
16
SPECIFIC FORMS OF TRESPASS
TRESPASS
PERSON PROPERTY
BATTERY
ASSAULT
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
17
BATTERY
• The intentional or negligent act of D
which directly causes a physical
interference with the body of P
without lawful justification
• The distinguishing element: physical
interference with P’s body
18
THE INTENTIONAL ACT IN
BATTERY
• No liability without intention

• The intentional act = basic wilful act
+ the consequences.
19
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
• The intentional or negligent act of
D which directly causes the total
restraint of P and thereby confines
him/her to a delimited area without
lawful justification
• The essential distinctive element is
the total restraint
20
Intentional Torts
• Invasion of Privacy
personal and fundamental right protected by constitution
• Trespass
entry into realty of another without permission.
• Conversion
depriving of property.
• Interference with contractual relations
encourage to breach.
• Fraud
intentional misrepresentation of a material fact relied on
and causes injury.
21
Negligence
Negligence is carelessness that results in harm =
injury or damage.
Negligence differs from intentional torts in that the
actions are not caused by someone deliberately
wishing to cause harm
Intentional torts, by contrast, are matters such as
assault, false imprisonment, defamation, etc.
Plaintiff is owed a duty of care

Defendant breached duty of care
Plaintiff suffered resulting harm or loss
22
Donoghue v. Stevenson
•Ginger beer-decomposing snail-P has shock-
gastroenteritis
•No privity of contract between P and D. Issue was
whether D owed P a duty
•Dicta of Lord Atkin
•You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or
omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be
likely to injure your neighbour. Who then in law is my
neighbour? The answer seems to be persons who are
closely and directly affected by my act that I ought
reasonably to have them in mind to the acts or
omissions 23
• The Modern Requirements for the Duty of Care
Jaensch v. Coffey (1984) per Deane J. p587-8
•
•A duty situation would arise from the following
combination of factors
•A reasonable foreseeability of real risk of injury to
P either as an identifiable individual or a member of
a class of persons
•The existence of proximity between the parties with
respect to the act or omission
24
DAMAGES
False imprisonment is actionable per se

The failure to prove any actual financial loss
does not mean that the plaintiff should recover
nothing. The damages are at large. An
interference with personal liberty even for a
short period is not a trivial wrong. The injury to
the plaintiff's dignity and to his feelings can be
taken into account in assessing damages
(Watson v Marshall and Cade )
25
The Issue of Compensation
• Adequate compensation: (Wengarin Pty Ltd v Byron
Shire Council [1999] NSWSC 485)
– the diminished market value of the servient land
– associated costs that would be caused to the owner
– loss of amenities such as peace and quite
– where assessment proves difficult, the court may
assess compensation on a percentage of the profits
that would be made from the use of the easement
26
Joint and Several Tortfeasor
• Definition— according to Salmond “where the same
damage is caused to a person by two or more wrongdoer
those wrongdoers may be either joint or independent
tortfeasors”.
• This happens in commission of three classes of case-
namely ,agency ,vicarious liability and common action.
• Brook v. Bool.
• nature of liability- if a tort is commited jointly by a number
of person each is responsible severally as well as jointly
with each and all the other for the whole ammount of the
damage caused by them and the extent of the participation
of each of them in the commission of the tort is
immaterial.the position is differentin case of independent
tortfeasor
27
Malicious Prosecution
• The term Malicious prosecution is probably not
very appropriate because the word prosecution
has a wider meaning than in criminal law and
,conversely not all proceeding which are
technically prosecution are capable of founding
an action for malicious prosecution malicious
bankruptcy and liquidation proceeding: malicious
arrest: and malicious execution against property:
malicious civil proceeding and abuse of the
process of the court.
28
ACTS OF CONVERSION
• Misdelivery
• Unauthorized dispositions in any
manner that interferes with P’s title
constitutes conversion
29
DETINUE
• Detinue: The wrongful refusal to
tender goods upon demand by P who
is entitled to possession It requires a
demand coupled with subsequent
refusal (General and Finance
Facilities v Cooks Cars (Romford)
30
DAMAGES IN CONVERSION AND DETINUE
• In conversion, damages usually take the form of

pecuniary compensation
• In detinue, the court may in appropriate circumstances
order the return of the chattel
• Damages in conversion are calculated as at the time of
conversion; in detinue it is as at the time of judgment
31
Duty of care is proved through legal
obligations
For example, if a mechanic neglects to tighten
the bolts on a repair of a car, causing a
subsequent accident or injury, the plaintiff (the
driver) is owed a duty of care, and the defendant
(the mechanic) has breached their duty of care
A breach of duty of care can only be determined

(through negligence) by examining the expected
standard of care
32
Strict(Product) Liability
• Responsible on an absolute basis.
• Dangerous activities
• Producers are liable for their products.
• Without this concept it would be difficult to
prove negligence.
33
Causation
First, a tort must be the cause in fact of a particular

injury.
Second, plaintiffs must establish that a particular tort

was the proximate cause of an injury before
liability will be imposed.
34
Proximity
• Jaensch v. Coffey (1984)

Car accident-spouse goes to hospital to see injured
partner-suffers shock from what she sees and hears of
husband’s condition-action against D who caused
accident-Proximity-Duty
Gala v. Preston (1991) (Duty relationship between

parties engaged in an illegal enterprise-No proximity-
No duty)
35
Nagle v. Rottnest Island Authority (1993)
P injured while diving into a rocky pool- pool
promoted and operated by D-Proximity, Duty
upheld
Held: the board, by encouraging persons to
engage in an activity, came under a duty to take
reasonable care to avoid injury to them and
the discharge of that duty... require that they be
warned of any foreseeable risks of injury
associated with the activity so encouraged
36
When duty, breach, and proximate cause have
been established in a tort action, the plaintiff may
recover damages for the pecuniary losses
sustained.
The measure of damages is determined by the
nature of the tort committed and the type of injury
suffered.
Damages for tortious acts generally fall into one of
four categories:
1- damages for injury to person, 2- damages for
injury to personal property, 3- damages for
injury to real property, and 4- punitive damages.
37
Who Cannot Sue

(1) Convict
(2) Alien enemy
(3) Married women
(4) Corporation
(5) Child
(6) Bankrupt
38
Who Cannot be Sued

(1) Sovereign
(2) Foreign Sovereigns.
(3) Ambassadors
(6) Married Women
39
NECESSITY
• The defence is allowed where an
act which is otherwise a tort is
done to save life or property:
urgent situations of imminent
peril
40
Defences
• Prescription.
• Grant.
• Statutory authority. Inevitable.
• Ignorance of state of affairs.
• Contributory negligence.
• Act of trespassers.
41
Urgent Situations of Imminent
Peril
• The situation must pose a threat to life or
property to warrant the act: Southwark
London B. Council v Williams
• The defence is available in very strict
circumstances R v Dudley and Stephens
• D’s act must be reasonably necessary and not
just convenient Murray v McMurchy
–In re F
–Cope v Sharp
42
INSANITY
• Insanity is not a defence as such to
an intentional tort.
• What is essential is whether D by
reason of insanity was capable of
forming the intent to commit the tort.
(White v Pile; Morris v Marsden)
43
INFANTS
• Minority is not a defence as such in
torts.
• What is essential is whether the D
understood the nature of his/her
conduct
• (Smith v Leurs; Hart v AG of
Tasmania)
44
Vicarious Liability
• Imposing liability on one party for the actions

of another
• Generally someone labeled a principal and the
other is the agent/employee
45
Liability for Wrongs committed
by Others
• (1) By ratifying or authorizing a particular

act of another
• (2) The presence of particular relationship
• (3) By abetting the tortious acts committed
by the others.
46
The Presence of Particular
Relationship
• (1) Master and Servant
• (2) Employer and Independent Contractor
• (3) Principal and Agent
• (4) Company and Director
• (5) Firm and Partners
• (6) Guardian and Ward
47
• Definition of within scope of employment
• Difference between independent contractor
and employee
• Master liable for torts of servants when
servants outside scope of employment
• Master not liable for torts of independent
contractor
• END
48
Law of Tort
(for PGDL)
Dr Tin May Htun
Professor/ Head
Law Department
YUDE
1
Nature & Definition of Tort
The Tort is of French origin.

The root is ‘Tortum’ in Latin which means ‘twist’
. It implies a conduct which is ‘tortious’ ,
or, twisted.
The equivalent word in English is “Wrong”.
In Roman it is “delict”
There is a Latin maxim; "ubi jus ibi remedium"
which means,
“where there is a right, there is a remedy”.
(1) Right in rem (2) Right in personam

Right in rem means rights which are susceptible of
being infringed by and causal intruder.
Rights in personam are rights which create a link

exclusively between one person, or group of persons
and other and are therefore susceptible of being
infringed only by that other person or group of
persons. 3
Three Elements of Tort
1- Legal duty
2- Breach of duty by failing to conform his or
her behavior accordingly
3- Injury or loss as a direct result of the
defendant's breach
Example: A who is the driver of B’s car knocks
down C through his rash and negligent driving.
Though, A has breached the duty fixed by law, his
master B will become liable n an action initiated by
C in court under the law of tort.
4
A ‘Wrong’ can be civil or criminal. Tort belongs to the
category of civil wrongs. In the case of a civil wrong, the
injured party institutes civil proceedings against the
wrongdoer and the remedy is damages. The injured party is
compensated by the defendant for the injury caused to him
by another party.
Whereas, in the case of a criminal wrong, the State brings
criminal proceedings against the accused, and the remedy is
not compensation. Punishment is provided to the
wrongdoer.
In a case where the act results in both civil as well as
criminal wrong then both the civil and criminal remedies
would concurrently be available.
5
Purpose of Civil Proceedings
(1)Recovery of debt,
(2) Restitution of property,
(3) Specific performance of contract,
(4) Recovery of damages for an injury committed of,
(5) To issue injunction for stopping the wrongful
conduct.
6
Criminal Law Civil Law
-Plaintiff is the state (e.g., - Plaintiff is private party
-State v. U Hla) (e.g., U Ba v. U Mya)
-Guilty or Not Guilty - Liable or Not Liable
-Guilty verdict results in - Liability results in
prison sentence paying damages (i.e.,
money)
-Prosecution must prove - Plaintiff only needs a
guilt beyond a reasonable preponderance of
doubt. evidence (i.e., 51% or
more)
Ref: According to Introduction to Torts, Greg Albert and

Miles E. Hawks 7
Tort Contract
- Right in rem is violated - Breach of Duty (right in
personam)
- Victim is compensated for - Victim is compensated for
unliquidated damages liquidated damages as the
terms of the contract
-There is no contract - Privity of contract
between the parties
- Liability results in - Liability results in
paying damages (i.e., paying damages (i.e.,
Money) money)
- Tort applies even in case - where a contract is void
where a contract is void. E.g.. there is no compensation
A minor may be liable in tort.
-Motive is relevant in some - Motive is immaterial in
8
Tort like malicious prosecution contract
Unlike actions for breach of contract, tort actions are
not dependent upon an agreement between the
parties to a lawsuit.
Unlike criminal prosecutions, which are brought by

the government, tort actions are brought by private
citizens.
9
TORT AND A CRIME
• A crime is public /community wrong that
gives rise to sanctions usually designated in
a specified code. A tort is a civil ‘private’
wrong.
• Action in criminal law is usually brought by
the state or the Crown. Tort actions are
usually brought by the victims of the tort.
• The principal objective in criminal law is
punishment. In torts, it is compensation
10
TORT AND A CRIME
• Differences in Procedure:
– Standard of Proof
• Criminal law: beyond reasonable
doubt
• Torts: on the balance of probabilities
11
THE AIMS OF TORT LAW
• Loss distribution/adjustment: shifting losses
from victims to perpetrators
• Compensation: Through the award of
(pecuniary) damages
–The object of compensation is to
place the victim in the position he/she
was before the tort was committed.
• Punishment: through exemplary or punitive
damages. This is a secondary aim.
12
Ingredients and Basic Factors to constitute a
Tort
According to Salmond, “Just as the criminal law
consists of a body of rules establishing specific
offences, also the law of torts consists of a body of
rules.
(1) Legal wrong
(2) Legal damage
(3) Legal remedy
13
(1) Legal wrong
Every wrongful act which the law recognizes

as legal, an injured party may have the right to
compensate for the damage done to him.
14
(2) Legal damage
In order to prove an action for tort, the plaintiff
has to prove that there was a wrongful act, an
act or omission by the defendant which
through its breach of a legal duty led to the
violation of a legal right vested in the plaintiff.
So, there must be violation of a legal right of a
person and, if it is not, there can be no action
under law of torts.
15
Public rights (Example: Public peace, Public safety )
Private rights
(1)Right in rem (Example: Right to property, Right to
reputation)
(2)Right in personam (Example : Rights of parties to a
Contract)
In the case: Ashby v White (1703) 2 Ld. Raym. 938

A returning officer was held liable in damages for wrongfully
refusing to take the plaitiff’s vote at an election.
Wherever there is an infringement of a private legal right,

there arises a possibility of a damage. “Ubi jus ibi remedium”,
Where there is a damage, there must be a remedy.
16
(3) Legal Remedy
The plaintiff must have entitled to get a legal remedy.
Tort, being a civil wrong or injury comes under the
category of wrongs for which the remedy is a civil
action for damages. But other remedies can be
obtained also such as injunction, specific restitution of
a chattel, i.e. any moveable property and where a
plaintiff's land has been wrongfully taken up by the
defendant, he can claim not only for damages, but also
for the recovery of the land itself.
In Ashby v White, £5 was awarded as damages, which
is nominal. Usually in all cases of Injuria sine damnun
nominal damages are awarded. 17
Ashby v White, (1703) 2 Lord Raym 938.
In this leading case, the defendant, a returning officer,
wrongfully refused to register a duly tendered vote of the
plaintiff, a legally qualified voter, at a parliamentary election
and the candidate for whom the vote was tendered was
elected, and no loss was suffered by the rejection of the vote,
nevertheless
Holt, C.J, while holding that action lay, said “If a man has a
right, he must of necessity have a means to vindicate and
maintain it and a remedy if injured in the exercise or
enjoyment of it; and indeed it is a vain thing to imagine a
right without a remedy; want of right and want of remedy are
reciprocal.”
In this case the returning officer has acted maliciously and
18
was held liable.
Injuria sine damno
•The maxim injuria sine damno means that if a
•private right is infringed, the plaintiff will have a
cause of action even through the plaintiff has not
suffered, any actual loss or damage thus according
to this maxim ,what is necessary is the infringment
of a legal right and not the proof of actual loss or
damage. Injuria means infringement of a right
conferred by law , and damnum means actual
damage or loss.
•An illustrative case on the maxim of injuria sine
damno is Ashby v. white. 19
Damnum sine injuria
• This maxim means that no action will lie if there is
actual loss or damage but there has no infringment
of legal right.
• As noted earlier tortious liability arises out of a
breach of duty primarily fixed by law.
• Thus breach of a legal duty or infringement of a
legal right is the essential condition for arising of
liability in torts.
• If it have a mill and my neighbour build another
mill,where by the profit of my mill is diminished.
20
Volenti non fit injuria
• One of the recognised general defences to liability
in tort is that the plaintiff consented or assented to
the doing of act which caused harm to him ,the
defendant would not be liable. This is known as
volenti non fit injuria or leave and licence.
• The question of application of the maxim may
arise only if it is established that a tort has been
committed by defendant. To layman a person who
has consented to the infliction of damage on
himself should not be heard to complain thereafter.
21
NECESSITY
The defence is allowed where an act which is otherwise a
tort is done to save life or property: urgent situations of
imminent peril.
In some cases, although damage has been done intentionally,
the defendant will not be liable if he has acted under
necessity to prevent a greater evil. This exception of
necessity is based on the maxim; salus populi est suprema
lex which means "the interest and security of the people is
the supreme law".
(1) Private Necessity - Leigh vs. Gladstone,
1909,26.T.L.R.139. Div: Ct.
(2) Public Necessity - Dewey vs. White, 1827, Mood and
M.56.
Basic Factors to constitute a Tort
(1) Damage
(2) Motive
(3) Malice
(4) Intention
(1) Damage
The difference between the terms "damage" and "damages".
Tortious liability always depends on the nature of the damage
suffered by the injured party.
plaintiff.
awarded by the court for the pecuniary loss suffered by the
23
plaintiff.
DAMAGES

The failure to prove any actual financial loss does not
mean that the plaintiff should recover nothing. The
damages are at large. An interference with personal
liberty even for a short period is not a trivial wrong.
The injury to the plaintiff's dignity and to his
feelings can be taken into account in assessing
damages
Damages are classified in several ways: such as Nominal,
Real, Compensatory, aggravated and exemplary.
Normal damages are a small sum of money, and are
recoverable only in the torts which are actionable per se. If a
certain right is invaded the law presumes damage and an
action will lie even though no damage at all has in fact been
suffered by the plaintiff. Nominal damages are awarded in
cases of trespass, whether to land, goods, or the person, and
also in the case of libel and in certain cases of slander, for
example unchastity of woman. The damages awarded in
cases where there is injury without a loss, like the act of
trespassing.
In Ashby v White, £5 was awarded as damages, which is
nominal.
25
Real damages are those which are assessed and awarded as
compensation for damage actually suffered by the plaintiff.
Thus, for example, damage must be proved in an action of
negligence, public nuisance.
Ordinary or Compensatory damages are awarded as

compensation for, and are measured by, the material loss
suffered by the plaintiff. Substantial or ordinary damages
are awarded where it is necessary to fairly compensate the
plaintiff for the injury he has in fact sustained.
While arriving at the amount of compensation, courts will
regard not only the pecuniary losses suffered, but also, the
social disadvantage resulting from the wrong, mental pain
and suffering, etc.
26
Aggravated Damages The court at its discretion, tends to
increase the compensation when it finds the manner of
commission of tort when it is intentional, and with malice.
Such increased compensation is called aggravated damages.
However, this is not to be confused with exemplary damages.
Exemplary Damages Exemplary damages are essentially
different from ordinary damages. The object of damages is in
fact to compensate. The object of exemplary damages is to
punish and deter. Sometimes, the gravity of offence may be
so severe, that the court may choose to set out an example to
others as a warning. In such cases the damages awarded are
disproportionately high . In London vs. Ryder, 1953. 2.
Q.B.202.
Besides monetary compensation self-help, injunction and
specific restitution are also available.
27
(2) Motive
It means that which makes a person act in particular way. It signifies the
reason for conduct. Thus, motive can be properly used to describe the
emotion which prompts the defendant to commit the act; for example,
rage, hatred or jealousy. The exercise by a person of a legal right does
not become illegal because the motive of action is improper or
malicious. Bradford Corporation vs. Pickles. 1985. A.C. 587. H.L.
(3) Malice
Malice means the evil-motive. In earlier times malice = "harmfulness" .
It may signify doing an act willfully without just cause or excuse. It is
also defined as "improper motive", an intention to injure, or want of
honest belief in the truth of the statement. The House of Lords in White
vs. Mellin, 1895. A.C. 154 at P. 160.held that either an intention to injure
or knowledge of the falsity of the statement would be enough.
28
INTERESTS PROTECTED IN TORT
LAW
• Personal security
–Trespass
–Negligence
• Reputation
–Defamation
• Property
–Trespass
–Conversion
• Economic and financial interests 29
In economic affairs, tort law provides remedies for
businesses that are harmed by the unfair and
deceptive trade practices of a competitor.
In the workplace, tort law protects employees from

the intentional or negligent infliction of
emotional distress.
Tort law regulates the environment, providing

remedies against both individuals and businesses
that pollute the air, land, and water to such an extent
that it amounts to a nuisance.
30
Three different categories of Tort
b. Invasion of interests in property.
Invasion of interests in intangible property.
a. Invasion of Interests in Person (Trespass to the person)
(i) Assault
(ii) Battery
(iii) False imprisonment
b . Invasion of interests in property
Trespass to Movable Property
(2) Trespass to conversion.
(3) Tort of detinue  
31
Trespass to Movable Property
Invasion of Interests in Intangible Property
32
Causation is an element common to all three
branches of torts:
intentional tort, negligence, and strict liability.
1- Intentional tort
Assault, Battery, Trespass, False Imprisonment,
Invasion of privacy, Conversion, Misrepresentation,
and Fraud.
2- Negligence
3- Strict Liability, or liability without fault
(Product Liability)
33
WHAT IS TRESPASS?
• Intentional or negligent act of D
which directly causes an injury to the P
or his /her property without lawful
justification
• The Elements of Trespass:
–fault: intentional or negligent act
- injury must be direct
–injury* may be to the P or to his/her property
- No lawful justification
34
INJURY IN TRESPASS
• Injury = a breach of right, not necessarily
actual damage
• Trespass requires only proof of injury not
actual damage
35
SPECIFIC FORMS OF TRESPASS
TRESPASS
PERSON PROPERTY
BATTERY
ASSAULT
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
36
BATTERY
• The intentional or negligent act of D
which directly causes a physical
interference with the body of P
without lawful justification
• The distinguishing element: physical
interference with P’s body
37
THE INTENTIONAL ACT IN
BATTERY
• No liability without intention

• The intentional act = basic wilful act
+ the consequences.
38
FALSE IMPRISONMENT
• The intentional or negligent act of
D which directly causes the total
restraint of P and thereby confines
him/her to a delimited area without
lawful justification
• The essential distinctive element is
the total restraint
39
Intentional Torts
• Invasion of Privacy
personal and fundamental right protected by constitution
• Trespass
entry into realty of another without permission.
• Conversion
depriving of property.
• Interference with contractual relations
encourage to breach.
• Fraud
intentional misrepresentation of a material fact relied on
and causes injury.
40
DAMAGES

The failure to prove any actual financial loss
does not mean that the plaintiff should recover
nothing. The damages are at large. An
interference with personal liberty even for a
short period is not a trivial wrong. The injury to
the plaintiff's dignity and to his feelings can be
taken into account in assessing damages
41
The Issue of Compensation
• Adequate compensation: (Wengarin Pty Ltd v Byron
Shire Council [1999] NSWSC 485)
– the diminished market value of the servient land
– associated costs that would be caused to the owner
– loss of amenities such as peace and quite
– where assessment proves difficult, the court may
assess compensation on a percentage of the profits
that would be made from the use of the easement
42
Joint and Several Tortfeasor
• Definition— according to Salmond “where the same
damage is caused to a person by two or more wrongdoer
those wrongdoers may be either joint or independent
tortfeasors”.
• This happens in commission of three classes of case-
namely ,agency ,vicarious liability and common action.
• Brook v. Bool.
• nature of liability- if a tort is commited jointly by a number
of person each is responsible severally as well as jointly
with each and all the other for the whole ammount of the
damage caused by them and the extent of the participation
of each of them in the commission of the tort is
immaterial.the position is differentin case of independent
tortfeasor
43
Malicious Prosecution
• The term Malicious prosecution is probably not
very appropriate because the word prosecution
has a wider meaning than in criminal law and
,conversely not all proceeding which are
technically prosecution are capable of founding
an action for malicious prosecution malicious
bankruptcy and liquidation proceeding: malicious
arrest: and malicious execution against property:
malicious civil proceeding and abuse of the
process of the court.
44
ACTS OF CONVERSION
• Misdelivery
• Unauthorized dispositions in any
manner that interferes with P’s title
constitutes conversion
45
DETINUE
• Detinue: The wrongful refusal to
tender goods upon demand by P who
is entitled to possession It requires a
demand coupled with subsequent
refusal (General and Finance
Facilities v Cooks Cars (Romford)
46
DAMAGES IN CONVERSION AND DETINUE
• In conversion, damages usually take the form of

pecuniary compensation
• In detinue, the court may in appropriate circumstances
order the return of the chattel
• Damages in conversion are calculated as at the time of
conversion; in detinue it is as at the time of judgment
47
Negligence
Negligence is carelessness that results in harm =
injury or damage.
Negligence differs from intentional torts in that the
actions are not caused by someone deliberately
wishing to cause harm
Intentional torts, by contrast, are matters such as
assault, false imprisonment, defamation, etc.
Plaintiff is owed a duty of care

Defendant breached duty of care
Plaintiff suffered resulting harm or loss
48
Donoghue v. Stevenson
•Ginger beer-decomposing snail-P has shock-
gastroenteritis
•No privity of contract between P and D. Issue was
whether D owed P a duty
•Dicta of Lord Atkin
•You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or
omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be
likely to injure your neighbour. Who then in law is my
neighbour? The answer seems to be persons who are
closely and directly affected by my act that I ought
reasonably to have them in mind to the acts or
omissions 49
• The Modern Requirements for the Duty of Care
Jaensch v. Coffey (1984) per Deane J. p587-8
•A duty situation would arise from the following

combination of factors
•A reasonable foreseeability of real risk of injury to
P either as an identifiable individual or a member of
a class of persons
•The existence of proximity between the parties with
respect to the act or omission
50
Neglience
Duty of care is proved through legal
obligations
For example, if a mechanic neglects to tighten the
bolts on a repair of a car, causing a subsequent
accident or injury, the plaintiff (the driver) is
owed a duty of care, and the defendant (the
mechanic) has breached their duty of care
A breach of duty of care can only be determined
(through negligence) by examining the expected
standard of care
51
Contributory Negligence
For example, a driver negligently drove his car at an
excessive speed and nearly reached a situation
resulting in a collision. The plaintiff, a passenger was
afraid of becoming an accident and he jumped from
the car. Thus, both did negligence contributed to the
accident. Under the doctrine of contributory
negligence, the plaintiff was able to recover
compensation from the defendant because of evading
the accident and meeting with other danger.
52
Volentinonfitinjuria" which means "no injury is done
to one who consents".
Resipsaloquitur means "the thing speaks for itself".
Byrne V. Boadle (1863) 2 H. &. C. 722.
53
Strict(Product) Liability
• Responsible on an absolute basis.
• Dangerous activities
• Producers are liable for their products.
• Without this concept it would be difficult to
prove negligence.
54
Causation
First, a tort must be the cause in fact of a particular

injury.
Second, plaintiffs must establish that a particular tort

was the proximate cause of an injury before
liability will be imposed.
55
Proximity
• Jaensch v. Coffey (1984)

Car accident-spouse goes to hospital to see injured
partner-suffers shock from what she sees and hears of
husband’s condition-action against D who caused
accident-Proximity-Duty
Gala v. Preston (1991) (Duty relationship between

parties engaged in an illegal enterprise-No proximity-
No duty)
56
Nagle v. Rottnest Island Authority (1993)
P injured while diving into a rocky pool- pool
promoted and operated by D-Proximity, Duty
upheld
Held: the board, by encouraging persons to
engage in an activity, came under a duty to take
reasonable care to avoid injury to them and
the discharge of that duty... require that they be
warned of any foreseeable risks of injury
associated with the activity so encouraged
57
When duty, breach, and proximate cause have
been established in a tort action, the plaintiff may
recover damages for the pecuniary losses
sustained.
The measure of damages is determined by the
nature of the tort committed and the type of injury
suffered.
Damages for tortious acts generally fall into one of
four categories:
1- damages for injury to person, 2- damages for
injury to personal property, 3- damages for
injury to real property, and 4- punitive damages.
58
Nuisance
(1) Public Nuisance
Public Nuisance
Section: 268 of the Penal Code of Myanmar,5 defines public
nuisance as follows:
"A person is guilty of a public nuisance who does any act or is
guilty of illegal omission which causes any common injury,
danger or annoyance to the public or to the people in general
who dwell or occupy property in the vicinity, or which must
necessarily cause injury, obstruction, danger or annoyance to
persons who may have occasion to use any public right.
Soltau.vs. eHeld
59
Private Nuisance
wrongful acts causing or allowing the escape of deleterious
things into another's land , for example, water, smoke, smell,
fumes, gas , noise, heat, vibrations, electricity, disease-gems,
animals and vegetation.
NgaMyatHmwe vs. Nga Yi &MiKyweCase
Remedies
1- Abatement
2- Damages
3- Injunction
60
Who Cannot Sue

(1) Convict
(2) Alien enemy
(3) Married women
(4) Corporation
(5) Child
(6) Bankrupt
Corporation (Unregistered)/(Scope of Agent)
But defamation, deceit, malicious prosecution,
61
Who Cannot be Sued

(1) Sovereign
(2) Foreign Sovereigns.
(3) Ambassadors
(6) Married Women
It is a general principal that all persons have
capacity to sue and are liable to be sued. It is
subject to certain limitation under the law of torts.
62
NECESSITY
• The defence is allowed where an
act which is otherwise a tort is
done to save life or property:
urgent situations of imminent
peril
63
Defences
• Prescription.
• Grant.
• Statutory authority. Inevitable.
• Ignorance of state of affairs.
• Contributory negligence.
• Act of trespassers.
64
Urgent Situations of Imminent
Peril
• The situation must pose a threat to life or
property to warrant the act: Southwark
London B. Council v Williams
• The defence is available in very strict
circumstances R v Dudley and Stephens
• D’s act must be reasonably necessary and not
just convenient Murray v McMurchy
–In re F
–Cope v Sharp
65
INSANITY
• Insanity is not a defence as such to
an intentional tort.
• What is essential is whether D by
reason of insanity was capable of
forming the intent to commit the tort.
(White v Pile; Morris v Marsden)
66
INFANTS
• Minority is not a defence as such in
torts.
• What is essential is whether the D
understood the nature of his/her
conduct
• (Smith v Leurs; Hart v AG of
Tasmania)
67
Vicarious Liability
• Imposing liability on one party for the actions

of another
• Generally someone labeled a principal and the
other is the agent/employee
68
Liability for Wrongs committed
by Others
• (1) By ratifying or authorizing a particular

act of another
• (2) The presence of particular relationship
• (3) By abetting the tortious acts committed
by the others.
69
The Presence of Particular
Relationship
• (1) Master and Servant
• (2) Employer and Independent Contractor
• (3) Principal and Agent
• (4) Company and Director
• (5) Firm and Partners
• (6) Guardian and Ward
70
• Definition of within scope of employment
• Difference between independent contractor
and employee
• Master liable for torts of servants when
servants outside scope of employment
• Master not liable for torts of independent
contractor
71
END
72
1. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each
other, is ---------- .
an agreement
a contract
an offer
an acceptance
2. An offer must be distinguished from an ----------- to treat, by which a person

does not make an
offer but invites another party to do so.
advertisement
invitation
acceptance
3. ------------ can be addressed to a single person, to a specified group of persons,

or to the world at
large.
An offer
An acceptance
An advertisement
4. The general rule is that a postal acceptance ---------- when the letter of
acceptance is posted.
takes effect
does not take effect
5. An offer ---------- at any time before its acceptance.

may be revoked
may not be revoked
6. The revocation must be communicated to the -----------.

offeror
offeree
7. Consideration is something of value which is given for a -----------.

promise
promiser
promiser
8. A court may restrain a party from committing a breach of contract by --------- .
frustration
injunction
termination
9. An order for ---------- will compel the addressee to fulfill the terms of a contract.
injunction
10. A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is nothing whatever to show
what kind of oil
was intended. The --------- is void for uncertainty.
agreement
contract
acceptance
proposal
11. Agreements by way of wager are --------- and to suit shall be brought for
recovering anything
alleged to be won on any wager.
valid
invalid
void
voidable
12. An agreement enforceable at law is a ---------- .

enforceable acceptance
accepted offer
approved promise
contract
13. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each
other, is an ----------
.
agreement
contract
offer
acceptance.
14. An agreement not enforceable by law --------- .

is stated to be valid
is stated to be void
is stated to be voidable
is stated to be illegal.
15. If the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent the proposal is
said to have been -
----------- .
accepted
agreed
provisionally agreed
tentatively accepted.
16. A proposal when accepted becomes --------- .

promise
agreement
contract
none of the above.
17. Promises which form the consideration or part thereof, for each other -------- .
acceptances for different proposals
agreements
reciprocal promises
consideration.
18. Every promise or set of promises forming the consideration for each other ------
----- .
reciprocal promise
contract
agreement
none of the above.
19. --------- comes first in a valid contract

Enforceability
Acceptance
Promise
Proposal.
20. .-------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each
other, is an agreement.
agreement
promise
offer
proposal
21. Where an offer is un-communicated there can be ---------.

no contract
contract
deed
agreement
22. The acceptance must be absolute and ----------.

unqualified
qualified
quality
qualification
23. ---------- must have an economic value in order for it to be valid in a contractual
context.
Consideration
Agreement
Contract
24. Contracts containing a guarantee must be in writing.

Yes
No
25. A breach of contract is not technically a failure to perform the contract in

accordance with the
strict terms.
Yes
No
26. Repudiation means giving up the agreement and considering the contract to be
at an end due to
the breach committed by the other side.
Yes
No
27. An agreement enforceable by law is a_______.

promise
contract
28. A proposes by letter, to sell a house to B at a certain price. In this case, the
communication of the proposal is ________ when B receives the letter (A’s
letter).
complete
incomplete
29. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The communication of the
acceptance is
complete:___________, when the letter is posted.
as against A
as against B
30. A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind,
_______ make a
contact when he is of unsound mind.
may
may not
31. A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a certain price. A dies
before the day.The
contract _______enforced by A's representative.
can be
cannot be
32. A, B and C are under a joint promise to pay D Ks 3,000. C is unable to pay
anything.A _______
entitled to receive Ks. 1.500 from B.
is
is not
33. In a case of alternative promises, one branch of which is legal and the other
illegal, the legal
branch alone ________ enforced.
can be
cannot be
34. MaungBa , a tradesman, leaves goods at U Mya's house by mistake. But treats
the goods as his won, he ______ bound to pay Maung Ba for them.
is
is not
35. A _________ is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the liability of

a third person in
case of his default.
Contract of Indemnity
takes effect
37. A ------------ is a false statement of fact made by one party to another, which
induces the other
misrepresentation
38. The terms of a contract must be ---------- in nature.

positive.
Negative
39. If the plaintiff can show that damages are inadequate, then the court may grant
his claim for -------
----- .
injunction
40. ------------ will be inadequate where the plaintiff cannot get a satisfactory
substitute.
Damage
Damages
41. The court does not grant ----------- unless it can give full relief to both parties.
injunction
42. ------------ are obligations which though not contracts technically give rise to
relations which look
like those created by contracts.
Quasi-contracts
Contract
Treaty
43. -------- are obligations which though not contracts technically, give rise to
relations which
resemble those created by contracts.
quasi-contract
contract
agreement
deed
44. Where a contract is broken, the injured party can take actions for the injury
sustained by the ------
---- of contract.
discharge
breach
Waive
45. --------- is an order of the Court ordering the breached party to perform the
contract.
injunction
compensation
damages
46. An agreement without consideration is void but there are ------- exceptions to
this rule.
two
three
47. Promises which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each
other are called ------
----- .
reciprocal promises
cross offers
conditional offer
conditional promises.
48. Offer as defined is ----------- .
communication from one person to another
suggestion by one person to another
willingness to do or abstain from doing an act in order to obtain the assent of other
thereto
none of the above.
49. An agreement enforceable by law ------------ .

a valid contract
an illegal contract
void contract
a voidable contract.
50. Which is correct

proposal + acceptance = promise
promise + consideration = agreement
agreement + enforceability = contract
all the above.
51. .-------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each
agreement
promise
offer
proposal
52. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the lost
dog amounts to a ----
-----.
general offer
offer
specific offer
proposal
53. Where an offer is un-communicated there can be ---------.

no contract
contract
deed
agreement
54. Contracts signed by drunks, the mentally ill, the insane can all be declared void
by a court of law.
Yes
No
55. When one person signified to another his willingness to do or to abstain from
doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or
abstinence, he is said to make
___________ .
a proposal
an acceptance
56. Every person shall be deemed to have attained his majority when he shall have
completed the age of __________in Myanmar.
eighteen years
twenty one years
57. A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind,
_______ make a contact when he is of unsound mind.
may
may not
58. A, B and C are under a joint promise to pay D Ks 3,000. C is unable to pay
anything.A _______
entitled to receive Ks. 1.500 from B.
is
is not
59. ________ is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent

another, in dealing with
third persons.
A principal
An "Agent"
takes effect
61. An informal exchange of promises can be as binding and legally valid as a
written contract.
Yes
No
62. --------- are remedies for breach of contract.

Damages and specific performance
Damages, injunction
63. --------- is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to forbear,

where a contract is
about to be broken by a party to the contract.
damages
compensation
injunction
64. Contract of indemnity is one of the --------- contracts.

specific
special
vague
65. Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and therefore -----
----.
void
voidable
valid
invalid
66. An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is ---------.

void
voidable
valid
invalid
67. An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be ---------

void
voidable
valid
invalid
68. --------- must be communicated to the person who made the offer.
acceptance
proposal
offer
agreement
69. The contract may be formed orally, by parties agreeing the terms on the
telephone.
Yes
No
70. An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the
parties thereto, but
not at the option of the other or others, is___________.
a voidable contract
a void contract
71. A statutory company _______ enter into a contract out of its memorandum
cannot
can
72. Every agreement by which any one is restrained from exercising a lawful
profession, trade or
business of any kind is to that extent ______.
void
valid
73. An offer may be accepted by ---------- .

conduct
email
mail
74. An informal exchange of promises can be as binding and legally valid as a

written contract.
Yes
No
75. Where damages are deemed inadequate, the court may make an order for -------
--- which will
compel the party in breach to fulfil the terms of a contract.
compensation
injunction
76. Void agreement signifies ----------- .

agreement illegal in nature
agreement not enforceable by law
agreement violating legal procedure
agreement against public policy.
77. Under the Contract Act promisor is the ----------- .

person who accepts the proposal
person who makes the promise
person to whom the proposal is made.
78. The person making the proposal is called the ---------.

promissory
promisee
acceptor
promise
79. The person accepting the proposal is called the ---------.

promissor
promise
acceptor
promise
80. A person who is interested in the payment of money which another is bound by
law to pay, and
who therefore pays it, _______entitled to be reimbursed by the other.
is not
is
81. In estimating the loss or damage arising from a breach of contract means which
existed of remedying the inconvenience caused by the non- performance of the
contract ________taken into account.
must be
must not be
82. The two elements of an agreement are:

Both
83. Such agreements are -------------- which do not give rise to legal consequences.
social agreements
84. Torts or civil wrongs obligations -------------- in nature, but are enforceable in a
court of law.
are not contractual
85. The Latin maxim of--------------means that a specific person and not against the
world at large.
Rights in personam
86. All agreements are -------------- if they are made by competent to contract.
Contracts
87. To be valid and legally binding, ------------- must be met.
5 conditions
88. An agreement is composed of elements --------------.

offer and acceptance
89. Certain agreements which have been -------------- illegal or void by the law.
not expressly declared
90. The meaning of the agreement must be certain or capable of being made certain
.Otherwise the agreement -------------.
will not be enforceable at law.
91. A particular type of contract is required by law -----------.

to be in writing
92. A particular type of contract must comply with the necessary formalities as to -
-------------, if necessary.
writing and registration and attestation
93. A void agreement is ----------- ab initio, i e from the beginning

Void
94. An express contract ,the terms of a contract -------------- (written or spoken).

95. It ------------- which is imposed on a party who is required to perform it.

is legal obligation
96. ---------- must have an economic value in order for it to be valid in a contractual
context.
Consideration
97. ------------ is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made

with the intention
that it is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it is addressed.
An offer
98. ------------- may be made expressly by words or by conduct.

An offer
99. ------------ must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, by which a person

does not make an offer but invites another party to do so.
A promise
100. Once ------------ has been accepted, the parties have an agreement.
An offer
101. The ---------- must provide the consideration.

Contract
102. Many social arrangements do not amount to ----------- because they are not
intended to be legally binding.
Consideration
103. Many domestic arrangements, such as between husband and wife, or between
parent and child, lack force because ---------- did not intend them to have legal
consequences.
the parties
104. ---------- is committed when a party, without lawful excuse, fails or refuses to
perform what is
due from him under the contract, or performs defectively, or incapacitates himself
from performing.
105. ----------- is the remedy by which one party the injured party is released from
his obligation to perform because of the other party's defective or non-
performance.
106. ------------ means where a party disables himself from performing.

Impossibility
107. A misrepresentation may be ----------- which made by a person who had no

reasonable grounds to believe that it was true.
Fraudulent
108. ------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.

Damages
109. The terms of a contract can be divided into -------------- .

express terms and implied terms
110. In a contract for the sale of goods, it is ----------- that the goods will be of a
certain quality and, if sold for a particular purpose, will be fit for that purpose.
an express term
111. In negligent cases the injured party may claim ------------.

Damages
112. ------------- is clear and absolute refusal to perform, which includes conduct
showing the party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.
his obligation to perform because of the other party's defective or non
performance.

Fraudulent
115. There are multiple remedies available once ---------- has been proved.
Misrepresentation
116. In fraudulent misrepresentation cases there is an automatic right to ------------.

Indemnity
117. Torts or civil wrongs obligations -------------- in nature, but are enforceable in
a court of law.
are not contractual
118. The --------------must be supported by consideration on both sides.

Agreement
119. -------------, the terms of a contract may be inferred from the conduct of the
parties or from thecircumstances of the case.
An express contract
120. ------------- are strictly not contracts as there is no intention of parties to enter
into a contract.
Quasi contracts
121. Responsibility of finder of goods, Liability of person to whom money ---------

----.
122. ------------ is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made

with the intention that it is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it
is addressed.
An offer
123. ------------- is a final and unqualified expression of assent to the terms of an
offer.
A promise

Contract
performance.
Repudiation
126. A misrepresentation may be ----------- which is made knowingly, without

belief in its truth or recklessly.
Fraudulent

Fraudulent
128. A misrepresentation may be ------------ which made in the wholly innocent

belief that it was true.
Innocent
129. A contract may contain terms which are not ----------- stated but which are
implied, either because the parties intended this, or by operation of law, or by
custom or usage.
Expressly
130. ---------- is committed when a party, without lawful excuse, fails or refuses to
perform what is due from him under the contract, or performs defectively, or
incapacitates himself from performing.
131. ------------- is clear and absolute refusal to perform, which includes conduct
showing the party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.
Termination

innocent
Misrepresentation

Damages
135. ------------ means the court may order payment for expenses necessarily
incurred in complying with the terms of the contract.
Indemnity
136. In fraudulent misrepresentation cases there is an automatic right to ------------.

Damages
137. Section 2(b) defines promise in these words: “When the person to whom the
proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal ----------------.
is said to be proposal
138. Smuggling or murdering a person, ------------ at law.

can be enforceable

Agreement
140. The object of the agreement ------------.

must not necessary to be lawful
141. A particular type of contract is required by law -----------.

oral or in writing
142. An express contract ,the terms of a contract -------------- (written or spoken).

143. -------------- arises when a promise is given in exchange for a promise in

return.
Unilateral contract
144. Responsibility of finder of goods, Liability of person to whom money ---------

----.
145. ---------- only may enforce the terms of the agreement.
The parties to the contract
146. ------------- may be made expressly by words or by conduct.

An offer
147. ------------ must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, by which a person

does not make an offer but invites another party to do so.
A promise

Contract
custom or usage.
Expressly

Indemnity
151. Many terms which are ----------- in law have been put into statutory form.
express and implied
152. ------------ means where a party disables himself from performing.

Impossibility
Misrepresentation

Damages
custom or usage.
Expressly
156. In a contract for the sale of goods, it is ----------- that the goods will be of a
certain quality and, if sold for a particular purpose, will be fit for that purpose.
an express term

Indemnity
performance.
A breach of contrac

Innocent
160. The consent of the parties to the agreement have ---------------.
162. The terms of the agreement should be -----------.

163. An agreement to do an act impossible in itself -------------.

is void
164. A contract is an agreement giving rise to ---------- which are enforced or

recognised by law.
Promises
165. Substantial failure to perform is any defect in ----------- must attain a certain
minimum degree of seriousness to entitle the injured party to terminate.
Misrepresentation

promissor
promisee
acceptor
promise.
dog amounts to a -----
----.
general offer
offer
specific offer
proposal

communicated
uncommunicated
valid
void
169. Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance of ------ the terms.
two
some
one
all
170. -------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.
proposal
offer
agreement
promise
171. B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is --------- as against B

when the telegram is
dispatched, and as against A when it reaches him.
incomplete
complete
valid
invalid
172. Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of ----------- according
to Myanmar law.
16
17
18
173. A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief that a particular debt is
barred by the law of
limitation, the contract is --------.
valid
voidable
not voidable
invalid
174. If both of the contracting parties have not yet performed what with agreed to
do under the contract,
the contract is ---------.
not discharged
discharged
performed
not performed
175. --------- are obligations which though not contracts strictly, give rise to
relations which resemble
those created by contracts.
Quasi-contract
Contract
Agreement
Deed

Damages, injunction

specific
special
vague
178. The fundamental basis of contract law is the --------- of the contracting parties.
agreement
consideration
179. The rule of law is that where an offer is required by statute to be in writing,
then also the acceptance must be --------- in order for the offer to become a
contract binding on both parties.
in writing
not in writing
180. For a person to be bound to a contract, he must seriously ---------- to create

legal obligations.
intend
consider
181. Generally, a contract is an --------- between two or more persons to do a

particular act or abstain
from doing a particular act.
treaty
contract
agreement
182. The --------- to enter into a contract can also be considered one of the
principles of contract law.
quality
quantity
capacity
183. A contract is an agreement, creating and defining the obligation between-------

.
properties
parties
possessions
184. A contract is an --------- enforceable at law made between two or more

persons by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearances on the
part of others.
treaty
contract
agreement
185. Every contract requires ----------.

consideration
consequence
contemplation
186. An --------- is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent

another, in dealing with third persons.
principal
agent
bailor
sub-agent
187. Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to
be ---------.
implied promise
express promise
promise
agreement
188. ----------- under mistake of fact or mistake of law is called void agreement.
Agreement
Contract
Communication
189. The offer must be made at ---------- time and place.

specific
proper
normal
190. To form a ---------, the first essential element is a proposal which is made by
one person and
accepted by another.
promise
agreement
contract
191. Every promise or every set of promises forming the ----------- for each other is
an “agreement”.
communication
consideration
contract
192. An act done by a person in ignorance of -------- does not amount to

performance of the condition
of the proposal.
proposal
offer
acceptance
communication of the
proposal is -------- when B receives the letter.
not complete
complete
incomplete
194. The parents of the minor may not attest a contract and the --------- only may
attest on behalf of
the minor.
possession
guardian
ownership
195. The Parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their
respective ------------.
communications
promises
contracts
196. Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such
promisors before -
-----------.
proposal
performance
communication
197. Rights and liabilities of finder of goods are subject to the same responsibility
as a -------.
bailor
bailee
indorsee
198. A contract of ----------- is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the

liability of a third
person in case of his default.
agency
indemnity
guarantee

It is not a factor
It is a factor
200. The ---------- of an agent is to use all reasonable diligence in communicating

with his principal.
duty
right
201.The person making the proposal is called the ---------.

(a)promissor
(b)promisee
(c)acceptor
(d)promise

(a)promissor
(b)promise
(c)acceptor
(d)promise.
203. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for
each other, is an ---------.
(a)agreement
(b)acceptance
(c)proposal
(d)offer
204.-------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each
(a)agreement
(b)promise
(c)offer
(d)proposal
(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
206. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the

lost dog amounts to a ---------.
(a)general offer
(b)offer
(c)specific offer
(d)proposal
207.Every offer must be ---------.

(a)communicated
(b)uncommunicated
(c)valid
(d)void
208.Where an offer is uncommunicated there can be ---------.

(a)no contract
(b)contract
(c)deed
(d)agreement
209.The acceptance must be absolute and ----------.

(a)unqualified
(b)qualified
(c)quality
(d)qualification
(a)acceptance
(b)proposal
(c)offer
(d)agreement
211.Acceptance of the proposal means the acceptance of ------ the terms.

(a) two
(b)some
(c)one
(d) all
212.Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words , the promise is

said to be ---------.
(a)implied promise
(b)express promise
(c)promise
(d)agreement
213. --------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.
(a)proposal
(b)offer
(c)agreement
(d)promise
214. In order to become an ---------, there must be communication of

proposal and acceptance. (a)offer
(b)promise
(c)agreement
(d)contract
215. B revokes his acceptance by telegram. B's revocation is --------- as

against B when the telegram is dispatched, and as against A when it
reaches him.
(a)incomplete
(b)complete
(c)valid
(d)invalid
216. An agreement enforceable by law is a ---------.
(a) proposal
(b)contract
(c)acceptance
217. --------- communication would include telephone message.

(a) Oral
(b)Written
(c) Printed
to Myanmar law.
(a) 16
(b)17
(c) 18
219. If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to do under
the contract, the contract is----------------.
(a) discharged
(b) breached
(c) waived
220.Insolvency of a party to a contract ---------- the contract.

(a) discharges
(b) breaches
(c) Waives
221. ------------ are obligations which though not contracts technicallygive rise to
relations which look like those created by contracts.
(a) Quasi-contracts
(b) Contract
(c) Treaty
222. Where a contract is broken, the injured party can take actions for the injury
sustained by the ---------- of contract.
(a) discharge
(b) breach
(c) Waive

(a) Damages and specific performance
(b)Damages, specific performance and injunction
(c) Damages, injunction

(a) specific
(b) special
(c) vague
225. An agreement without consideration is void but there are ------- exceptions to
this rule.
(a) two
(b) three
(c) four
226. Tort is the name of civil wrongs (not being merely breaches of contract) for
which there is a remedy by action in courts of common law jurisdiction by
(a)Dr.Ba Han
(b) Underhill
(c) Lord Denning
(d) Oxford Dictionary
227. ---------means crooked or twisted conduct, as opposed to which is straight or

right for individual who suffer personal injury, death or physical damage to or loss
of property caused by an act or omission which might be international, accidental
or caused by negligence.
(a) Legal wrong
(b) Legal damages
(c) Legal damage
(d) Legal remedy
228. The third and the last ingredient of tort is that the plaintiff must have entitled
to
get a--------.
(a)Legal wrong
(b)Legal damages
(c)Legal damage
(d)Legal remedy
229. ---------means the loss or grief or harm suffered by the plaintiff.

(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
230. Every man is presumed to intend and to know the natural and ordinary
consequences of his acts, which means the following one.
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c) Intention
(d) Motive
231. ---------can be properly used to describe the emotion which prompts the
defendant to commit the act.
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
232. To throw water at a person is an assault but if any drops fall upon him, it is
----------.
(a) battery
(b) assault
(c) false imprisonment
(d) attempted battery
233. A license is ---------that it shall be lawful for the licensee to enter upon
the land of the licensor or to do some other act in relation thereto which
would otherwise be illegal.
(a)an agreement
(b) a deed
(c)a certificate
(d)a convention
234. Actionable----------consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or
skill towards a person or his property.
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(c)contributory negligence
(d)breach of duty
235. Under the doctrine of ---------, the plaintiff was able to recover
compensation from the defendant because of evading the accident and
meeting with other danger.
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(d)breach of duty
236. A person is guilty of ---------- who does any act or is guilty of illegal
omission which causes any common injury, danger or annoyance to the
public.
(a)public nuisance
(b)private nuisance
(c)assault
(d)battery
237. One must aware of the fact that a --------- when undergoing a sentence,
cannot sue for an injury to his property, or for recovery of debt.
(a)convict
(b) alien enemy
(c) married women
(d) corporation
238. An ------- is one whose State or sovereign is at war with the sovereign
of other, or one who, whatever his nationality is voluntary resident or
carries on business in an enemy's country.
(a)convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
239. A corporation ---------for libel .It is affecting property of business, but
not affecting personal reputation.
(a)may sue
(b)may not sue
(c)may be sued
(d)may not be sued
240. Public officials are not liable ------- in tort in their representative
character for torts committed by them or by their subordinate.
(a)to sue
(b)to be sued
(c)may sue
(d)may be sued
241. To constitute a tort there are ingredients as follows:
(a)legal wrong, damage and remedy
(b) legal wrong and remedy
(c) legal wrong and damage
242. Injuria sine damnois -----------.

(a)damage without wrong
(b)wrong without damage
(c)without wrong and damage
243. Torts can be classified into invasion of interests in --------------.

(a) personand property
(b) propertyand reputation
(c) person, property and reputation
244. Volenti non fit injuria means that no injury is done to one who
consentssuch as -----------.
(a) dancing
(b) walking
(c) motor racing
245. Nuisance is consist of -----------.
(a) public nuisance
(b) private nuisance
(c) public nuisance and private nuisance
246. If his legal interest is injured, he cannot sue by himself, but can do so only
through a next-friend or guardian respectively.
(a) yes
(b) no
247. No Court can entertain an action against a foreign sovereign.

(a) yes
(b) no
248. An ambassador can be sued in tort.

(a) yes
(b) no
249. The law of torts is concerned with the redress of wrongs or injuries by means
of a civil action brought by the victim.
(a) yes
(b) no
250.If A says in conversation with “B” that he would sell his house will not
amount to an “offer” or ---------.
(a)promissor
(b)promisee
(c)proposal
(d)promise
251. “A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose of making a

contract if, at the time when he makes it, he is --------- of understanding.
(a)incapable
(b)able
(c)unable
(d)capable
252. -------- is defined as “Two or more persons are said to consent when
they agree upon the same thing in the same sense”.
(a)free consent
(b)consent
(c)coercion
(d)fraud
253.A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief that a particular

debt is barred by the law of limitation, the contract is not voidable.
(a)valid
(b)voidable
(c)not voidable
(d)invalid
254. In order to be a valid contract, the agreement must not be expressly

declared to be void.
(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)not voidable
(d)not void
255. If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to
do under the contract, the contract is ---------.
(a)not discharged
(b)discharged
(c)performed
(d)not performed
256.--------- are obligations which though not contracts technically, give rise
to relations which resemble those created by contracts.
(a)quasi-contract
(b)contract
(c)agreement
(d)deed
257.--------- is an order of the Court ordering the breached party to perform
the contract.
(a)injunction
(b)compensation
(c)specific performance
(d)damages
258. --------- is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to

forbear, where a contract is about to be broken by a party to the contract.
(a)specific performance
(b)damages
(c)compensation
(d) injunction
259. An --------- is a person employed to do any act for another, or to

represent another, in dealing with third persons.
(a)principal
(b)agent
(c)bailor
(d)sub-agent
260.The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is

called the ---------.
(a)sub-agent
(b)agent
(c)principal
(d)bailor
261. Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and

therefore ---------.
(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
262. A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is nothing whatever
to show what kind of oil was intended. The --------- is void for uncertainty.
(a)agreement
(b)contract
(c)acceptance
(d)proposal
263. Agreements by way of wager are --------- and to suit shall be brought
for recovering anything alleged to be won on any wager.
(a)valid
(b)invalid
(c)void
(d)voidable

(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
265. At Common Law, a husband was ------- to be joined with his wife in
all actions for tort committed by her during the subsistence of the
marriage.
(a)not liable
(b)liable
(c)not liability
(d)liability
266.One person takes or supplies the place of another so far as liability is

concerned with the following one.
(a)liability
(b)vicarious liability
(c)tortious liability
(d)joint liability
267.The --------would be completely liable for the wrongs done by his
servants or slaves.
(a)master
(b)principal
(c)director
(d)guardian
268.An employer may be ------- for the torts committed by his servants, but
he is not liable for the acts of those who are his independent contractors.
(a)liable
(b)vicarious liable
(c)not liable
(d)not vicarious liable
269.Not only directors are personally liable for any-------- committed

themselves, but also for the torts committed by others under their direction
of supervision.
(a)crime
(b)tort
(c)wrong
(d)damage
270.The Latin Maxim 'ubjjusibiremedium' is the basic factor to be noted

that, it means that “if there is a right, then there is a --------”.
(a) relief
(b) remedy
(c) damages
(d)compensation
271.Not all civil injuries are torts. No civil injury is to be classified as a tort,
unless the appropriate remedy is an action for --------.
(a)relief
(b) remedy
(c)damages
(d)compensation
272.In ------, the action is brought by the injured party.
(a) crime
(b) breach of contract
(c)tort
(e) wrong
273. A ------right is a privilege granted by the sovereign power, securing to

the inventor for a limited time.
(a)patent
(b) copyright
(c)trademark
274.Liability for ------- can lie solely on account of the type of accident that
occurred, without direct evidence of negligence.
(a) nuisance
(b) negligence
(c)damage
(d)compensation
275.Contract Law is the fundamental --------legal subject.

(a) business
(b) religious
276.Contract law explains the basis of what makes up a contract.

(a) Yes
(b) No
277.If a person sells you a second hand car and tells you that he has owned it and it
later turn out that it has been owned by 10 people. What are your --------?
(a) remedies
(b) response
278.A contract is an agreement usually between two persons giving rise to ---------
on the part of both persons which are enforced or recognised by law.
(a) obligations
(b) rights
279.Generally speaking, an agreement is made when one person accepts an -------
made by the other.
(a) offer
(b) consideration
280.The fundamental basis of contract law is the --------- of the contracting parties.
(a) agreement
(b) consideration
281.The law of contract consists of a number of limiting principles, subject to

which
the parties may create ----------- for themselves.
(a) rights and obligations
(b) obligations
(c) rights
282.The parties to a contract, in a sense, make the law for themselves.

(a) Yes
(b) No
283.An offer may be made to an individual, or a group of persons, or to the world

at
large. Offers to purchase real property are ----------, containing the exchange of
mutual promises.
(a) unilateral
(b) bilateral
284.The rule of law is that where an offer is required by statute to be in writing,

then
also the acceptance must be --------- in order for the offer to become a contract
binding on both parties.
(a) in writing
(b) not in writing
285.Consideration must be of real value, but it does not have to be money.

(a) Yes
(b) No
286.For a person to be bound to a contract, he must seriously ---------- to create
legal
obligations.
(a) intend
(b) consider
287.A void contract is one which is deemed at law never to have existed.
(a) Yes
(b) No
288.Voidable contracts are the ones made when one of the parties is an infant or a
minor or under the majority age.
(a) Yes
(b) No
289.An illegal contract is one which is made for an illegal purpose, and which is
therefore always void such as, contracts to commit a crime or tort.
(a) Yes
(b) No
290.If the representation is innocent, the party can sue for rescission of the
contract.
In the case of negligent or fraudulent misrepresentation, the affected party ---------
for damages as well.
(a) can sue
(b) cannot sue
291.A tort ------- is prosecuted by the victim or the victim's survivors.

(a) suit
(b) proceeding
292.In a tort action the proper plaintiff is the person injured by the------------.
(a) wrongdoer
(b) third party
293.Where several persons are injured by a tort, any one of them ----------- without
joining the other injured parties.
(a) may sue
(b) may not sue
294.Where there is more than one plaintiff, one or more of them ----------- by the
others to appear, plead, or act for them in any proceeding.
(a) may be authorized
(b) may authorize
295.Tort is a branch of --------- law.

(a) private
(b) public
296.False imprisonment is that a person is --------- confined without legal

authority.
(a) intentionally
(b) unintentionally
297.A public nuisance is an reasonable interference with the public's right to

property such as public health, safety, peace or convenience.
(a) Yes
(b) No
298.A private nuisance is simply a violation of one's use of quiet enjoyment of

land.
(a) Yes
(b) No
299.Causacausansmeans an --------- and effective cause in law of torts

(a) gradual
(b) immediate
300. ---------- is the omission to do something which a reasonable and prudent man
would not do.
(a) Negligence
(b) Remoteness of damage
(c) Vicarious liability
301.The -------- depends upon the ability to appreciate that unreasonable conduct
might hurt or harm others.
(a) strict liability
(b) breach of the duty of care
(c) duty of care
302. Tort is a civil wrong for which the remedy is ------- and is part of what is
called
the law of obligations.
(a) Demurrages
(b) Damage
(c) Damages
303. One must aware of the fact that a --------- when undergoing a sentence, cannot
sue for an injury to his property, or for recovery of debt.
(a)convict
(b) alien enemy
(c) married women
(d) corporation
304. An ------- is one whose State or sovereign is at war with the sovereign of
other,
or one who, whatever his nationality is voluntary resident or carries on business in
an enemy's country.
(a)convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
305. A corporation ---------for libel .It is affecting property of business, but not
affecting personal reputation.
(a)may sue
(b)may not sue
(c)may be sued
(d)may not be sued
306. Public officials are not liable ------- in tort in their representative character for
torts committed by them or by their subordinate.
(a)to sue
(b)to be sued
(c)may sue
(d)may be sued
307. To constitute a tort there are ingredients as follows:

(a)legal wrong, damage and remedy
(b) legal wrong and remedy
(c) legal wrong and damage
308. Injuria sine damnois -----------.
(a)damage without wrong
(b)wrong without damage
(c)without wrong and damage
309. Torts can be classified into invasion of interests in --------------

(a) personand property
(b) propertyand reputation
(c) person, property and reputation
310. Volenti non fit injuriameans that no injury is done to one who consentssuch as
-
----------.
(a) dancing
(b) walking
(c) motor racing
311. Business agreements are created with an intention to create legal obligation
with the ------ who are entered in to that agreement.
(a) properties
(b) policy
(c) parties
312. The basic concepts of law of ----- include the terms such as ‘negligence”,
‘duty
of care’, ‘breach of the duty of care’ ‘damage’ ‘loss’ and ‘injury’ ‘strict liability’,
‘vicarious liability’ ‘remoteness of damage’.
(a) contract
(b) crime
(c) tort
313. Nuisance is consist of -----------.

(a) public nuisance
(b) private nuisance
(c) public nuisance and private nuisance
314.If A says in conversation with “B” that he would sell his house will not
amount
to an “offer” or ---------.
(a)promissor
(b)promisee
(c)proposal
(d)promise
315. “A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose of making a contract if,
at the time when he makes it, he is --------- of understanding.
(a)incapable
(b)able
(c)unable
(d)capable
316. -------- is defined as “Two or more persons are said to consent when they
agree
upon the same thing in the same sense”.
(a)free consent
(b)consent
(c)coercion
(d)fraud
317.A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief that a particular debt is
barred by the law of limitation, the contract is not voidable.
(a)valid
(b)voidable
(c)not voidable
(d)invalid
318. In order to be a valid contract, the agreement must not be expressly declared
to
be void.
(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)not voidable
(d)not void
319. If both of the contracting parties have performed what with agreed to do under
the contract, the contract is ---------.
(a)not discharged
(b)discharged
(c)performed
(d)not performed
320.--------- are obligations which though not contracts technically, give rise to
relations which resemble those created by contracts.
(a)quasi-contract
(b)contract
(c)agreement
(d)deed
321.--------- is an order of the Court ordering the breached party to perform the
contract.
(a)injunction
(b)compensation
(c)specific performance
(d)damages
322. --------- is used as a means of enforcing a contract or a promise to forbear,

where a contract is about to be broken by a party to the contract.
(a)specific performance
(b)damages
(c)compensation
(d) injunction

(a)principal
(b)agent
(c)bailor
(d)sub-agent
324.The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called the --
-
------.
(a)sub-agent
(b)agent
(c)principal
(d)bailor
325.Not all civil injuries are torts. No civil injury is to be classified as a tort,
unless the appropriate remedy is an action for --------.
(a)relief
(b) remedy
(c)damages
(d)compensation
326.In ------, the action is brought by the injured party.

(a) crime
(b) breach of contract
(c)tort
327. A ------right is a privilege granted by the sovereign power, securing to the

inventor for a limited time.
(a)patent
(b) copyright
(c)trademark
328.Liability for ------- can lie solely on account of the type of accident that
occurred, without direct evidence of negligence.
(a) nuisance
(b) negligence
(c)damage
(d)compensation
329. Agreements in restraint of trade are contrary to public policy and therefore ---
--
----.
(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
330. A agrees to sell to B "a hundred tons of oil". There is nothing whatever to
show
what kind of oil was intended. The --------- is void for uncertainty.
(a)agreement
(b)contract
(c)acceptance
(d)proposal

(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
332. At Common Law, a husband was ------- to be joined with his wife in all
actions
for tort committed by her during the subsistence of the marriage.
(a)not liable
(b)liable
(c)not liability
(d)liability
333.One person takes or supplies the place of another so far as liability is

concerned
with the following one.
(a)liability
(b)vicarious liability
(c)tortious liability
(d)joint liability
334. An employer may be ------- for the torts committed by his servants, but he is
not liable for the acts of those who are his independent contractors.
(a)liable
(b)vicarious liable
(c)not liable
(d)not vicarious liable
335.Not only directors are personally liable for any-------- committed themselves,
but also for the torts committed by others under their direction of supervision.
(a)crime
(b)tort
(c)wrong
(d)damage
336.The Latin Maxim 'ubjjusibiremedium' is the basic factor to be noted that, it

means that “if there is a right, then there is a --------”.
(a) relief
(b) remedy
(c) damages
(d)compensation
337. A contract is an agreement usually between two persons giving rise to ---------
on the part of both persons which are enforced or recognised by law.
(a) obligations
(b) rights
338.The fundamental basis of contract law is the --------- of the contracting parties.
(a) agreement
(b) consideration
339. The law of contract consists of a number of limiting principles, subject to

which the parties may create ----------- for themselves.
(a) rights and obligations
(b) obligations
(c) rights
340.An offer may be made to an individual, or a group of persons, or to the world

at
large. Offers to purchase real property are ----------, containing the exchange of
mutual promises.
(a) unilateral
(b) bilateral
341.The rule of law is that where an offer is required by statute to be in writing,

then
also the acceptance must be --------- in order for the offer to become a contract
(a) in writing
(b) not in writing
342.In a tort action the proper plaintiff is the person injured by the------------.
(a) wrongdoer
(b) third party
343.Where several persons are injured by a tort, any one of them ----------- without
joining the other injured parties.
(a) may sue
(b) may not sue
344.Where there is more than one plaintiff, one or more of them ----------- by the
others to appear, plead, or act for them in any proceeding.
(a) may be authorized
(b) may authorize
345.Tort is a branch of --------- law.

(a) private
(b) public
346.False imprisonment is that a person is --------- confined without legal

authority.
(a) Intentionally
(b) unintentionally
347 .Generally, a contract is an --------- between two or more persons to do a

particular act or abstain from doing a particular act.
(a) treaty
(b) contract
(c) agreement
348.The --------- to enter into a contract can also be considered one of the
principles
of contract law.
(a) quality
(b) quantity
(c) capacity
349.By entering in to a contract, it creates legal --------- between the parties.

(a) obligation
(b) power
(c) entity
350. A contract provides certain rights to the --------- to do a particular task.

(a) properties
(b) parties
(c) possessions
351. To treat an agreement as a contract, it must have legal------- .

(a) obligation
(b) power
(c) entity
352. According to Lord Denning , Tort means :The Province of tort is to allocate --
--
------- for injurious conduct.
(a)responsibility
(b)duty
353. In ----------, the duties are created by operation of law, but the contractual
dutymay be said to spring from agreement of the parties.
(a) contract
(b) tort
354.In tort, the wrongdoer is to ------------ the injured party, i.e., he has to
paydamages for the injury he has done.
(a)damages
(b)compensate
(c)remedy
355. In tort, the Court would not take into consideration the intention of the
wrongdoer. i.e., whether the wrong is done --------------, if there is an invasion of a
legal right, the Court will give remedy to the injured party.
(a) no intention
(b) intention
(c) intentionally or not
356. An award of damages may serve to ------------- the plaintiff and to deter the
defendant and other from similar conduct in the future.
(a)remedy
(b)compensate
(c)damages
357. To pull away a chair from a person as a practical joke is probably an assault,
but when he falls to the ground it becomes a ------------.
(a)no battery
(b)battery
(c)assault
358.Pointing a loaded pistol is an assault. But if the pistol is not loaded, it would be
------------.
(a)no assault
(b)assault
(c)battery
359. The maxim Resipsaloquitur means --------------.

(a) no injury is done to one who consents
(b)"the thing speaks for itself".
360. A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes ----------- when it

ceases to be enforceable.
(a) valid
(b) void
(c)invalid
dog amounts to a ----------.
(a) general offer
(b) specific offer
362. To be a ----------, there must be a valid communication of offer and a valid

communication of acceptance.
(a) valid contract
(b) valid proposal
(c)acceptance
363. In respect of communication there is an important point which is “when does

the action of ------------- be completed.”
(a) offer
(b) communication
(c) acceptance
364. B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by post. The communication of the
acceptance is -------------.
(a) complete
(b) incomplete
365. An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the
acceptance is ---------- as against the acceptor, but not afterwards.
(a) incomplete
(b) complete
366. If the proposor prescribes that the acceptance must be made through the
medium of post office, there is no acceptance if it is done by --------.
(a) written
(b) oral
367.A person of unsound mind is incompetent to contract. The law as regard to

minors is equally applicable to persons of-------------.
(a) unsound mind
(b) sound mind
368. “The performance of any ---------- may be made in any manner, or at any
time,
which the promisee prescribes or sanctions.”
(a) offer
(b) promise
(c)acceptance

(a)promissory
(b)promisee
(c)acceptor
(d)promise
370 The person accepting the proposal is called the ---------.

(a)promissor
(b)promisee
(c)acceptor
(d)promise.
371. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for
each other, is an ---------.
(a)agreement
(b)acceptance
(c)proposal
(d)offer
372.-------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each
(a)agreement
(b)promise
(c)offer
(d)proposal

(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
374. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of the

lost dog amounts to a ---------.
(a)general offer
(b)offer
(c)specific offer
(d)proposal

(a)communicated
(b)uncommunicated
(c)valid
(d)void

(a)no contract
(b)contract
(c)deed
(d)agreement

(a)unqualified
(b)qualified
(c)quality
(d)qualification
(a)acceptance
(b)proposal
(c)offer
(d)agreement
(a) two
(b)some
(c)one
(d) all
380.Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words , the promise is

said to be ---------.
(a)implied promise
(b)express promise
(c)promise
(d)agreement
(a)proposal
(b)offer
(c)agreement
(d)promise

proposal and acceptance.
(a)offer
(b)promise
(c)agreement
(d)contract
reaches him.
(a)incomplete
(b)complete
(c)valid
(d)invalid
(a) Dr.Ba Han
(b) Underhill
(c) Lord Denning

right for individual who suffer personal injury, death or physical damage to or loss
of property caused by an act or omission which might be international, accidental
or caused by negligence.
(a) Legal wrong
(b) Legal damages
(c) Legal damage
(d) Legal remedy
to
get a--------.
(a)Legal wrong
(b)Legal damages
(c)Legal damage
(d)Legal remedy

(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c) Intention
(d) Motive
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
----------.
(a) battery
(b) assault
391. A license is ---------that it shall be lawful for the licensee to enter upon
the land of the licensor or to do some other act in relation thereto which
would otherwise be illegal.
(a) an agreement
(b) a deed
(d)a certificate
(c)a convention
392. Actionable----------consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or

skill towards a person or his property.
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(d)breach of duty
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(d)breach of duty
394. A person is guilty of a ---------- who does any act or is guilty of illegal
omission which causes any common injury, danger or annoyance to the
public or to the people in general who dwell or occupy property in
vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury obstruction, danger or
annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right. This
paragraph is the following one section.
(a)public nuisance
(b)private nuisance
(c)assault
(d)battery
395. One must aware of the fact that a --------- when undergoing a sentence,
cannot sue for an injury to his property, or for recovery of debt.
(a)Convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
(d) Corporation
396. An ------- is one whose State or sovereign is at war with the sovereign
of other, or one who, whatever his nationality is voluntary resident or
carries on business in an enemy's country.
(a)convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
397. A corporation ---------for libel .It is affecting property of business, but

not affecting personal reputation.
(a)may sue
(b)may not sue
(c)may be sued
(d)may not be sued
(a)to sue
(b)to be sued
(c)may sue
(d)may be sued

promissor
promisee
acceptor
promise.
dog amounts to a ---------.
general offer
offer
specific offer
proposal

communicated
uncommunicated
valid
void
two
some
one
all
403. -------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.
proposal
offer
agreement
promise
404. B revokes his acceptance by telegram B's revocation is--------- as against B

when
the telegram is dispatched, and as against A when it reaches him.
incomplete
complete
valid
invalid
to Myanmar law.
16
17
18
406. A and B make a contact grounded on erroneous belief that a particular debt is
barred by the law of limitation, the contract is --------.
valid
voidable
not voidable
invalid
407. If both of the contracting parties have not yet performed what with agreed to
do under the contract, the contract is ---------.
not discharged
discharged
performed
not performed
408. --------- are obligations which though not contracts strictly, give rise to
relations which resemble those created by contracts.
Quasi-contract
Contract
Agreement
Deed

Damages, injunction

specific
special
vague
411. The fundamental basis of contract law is the --------- of the contracting parties.
agreement
consideration
412. The rule of law is that where an offer is required by statute to be in writing,
then also the acceptance must be --------- in order for the offer to become a contract
in writing
not in writing
413. For a person to be bound to a contract, he must seriously ---------- to create

legal obligations.
intend
consider
414. Generally, a contract is an --------- between two or more persons to do a

particular act or abstain from doing a particular act.
treaty
contract
agreement
415. The --------- to enter into a contract can also be considered one of the
principles
of contract law.
quality
quantity
capacity
416. A contract is an agreement, creating and defining the obligation between-------

.
properties
parties
possessions
417. A contract is an --------- enforceable at law made between two or more
persons by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearances on the
part of
others.
treaty
contract
agreement
418. Every contract requires ----------.

consideration
consequence
contemplation

principal
agent
bailor
sub-agent
420. Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to
be ---------.
implied promise
express promise
promise
agreement
421. ----------- under mistake of fact or mistake of law is called void agreement.
Agreement
Contract
Communication
422. The offer must be made at ---------- time and place.

specific
proper
normal
423. To form a ---------, the first essential element is a proposal which is made by
one person and accepted by another.
promise
agreement
contract
424. Every promise or every set of promises forming the ----------- for each other is
an “agreement”.
communication
consideration
contract
425. An act done by a person in ignorance of -------- does not amount to

performance of the condition of the proposal.
proposal
offer
acceptance
communication of the proposal is -------- when B receives the letter.
not complete
complete
incomplete
427. The parents of the minor may not attest a contract and the --------- only may
attest on behalf of the minor.
possession
guardian
ownership
428. The Parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their
respective ------------.
communications
promises
contracts
429. Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such
promisors before ------------.
proposal
performance
communication
430. Rights and liabilities of finder of goods are subject to the same responsibility
as
a -------.
bailor
bailee
indorsee
431. A contract of ----------- is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge the

liability of a third person in case of his default.
agency
indemnity
guarantee

It is not a factor
It is a factor
433. The ---------- of an agent is to use all reasonable diligence in communicating

with his principal.
duty
right

(a)promissor
(b)promisee
(c)acceptor
(d)promise

(a)promissor
(b)promise
(c)acceptor
(d)promise.
436. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration
for each other, is an ---------.
(a)agreement
(b)acceptance
(c)proposal
(d)offer
437-------- which form the consideration or part of the consideration for

each other, is an agreement.
(a)agreement
(b)promise
(c)offer
(d)proposal

(a)void
(b)voidable
(c)valid
(d)invalid
439. An advertisement in a newspaper offering a reward for the finder of

the lost dog amounts to a ---------.
(a)general offer
(b)offer
(c)specific offer
(d)proposal

(a)communicated
(b)uncommunicated
(c)valid
(d)void

(a)no contract
(b)contract
(c)deed
(d)agreement
(a)unqualified
(b)qualified
(c)quality
(d)qualification
(a)acceptance
(b)proposal
(c)offer
(d)agreement
(a) two
(b)some
(c)one
(d) all
445.Proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words , the promise

is said to be ---------.
(a)implied promise
(b)express promise
(c)promise
(d)agreement
(a)proposal
(b)offer
(c)agreement
(d)promise

proposal and acceptance.
(a)offer
(b)promise
(c)agreement
(d)contract

reaches him.
(a)incomplete
(b)complete
(c)valid
(d)invalid
(a) Dr.Ba Han
(b) Underhill
(c) Lord Denning

right for individual who suffer personal injury, death or physical damage to or
loss of property caused by an act or omission which might be international,
accidental or caused by negligence.
(a) Legal wrong
(b) Legal damages
(c) Legal damage
(d) Legal remedy
to get a--------.
(a)Legal wrong
(b)Legal damages
(c)Legal damage
(d)Legal remedy

(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c) Intention
(d) Motive
(a)Damage
(b)Malice
(c)Intention
(d)Motive
----------.
(a) battery
(b) assault
456. A license is ---------that it shall be lawful for the licensee to enter

upon the land of the licensor or to do some other act in relation thereto
which would otherwise be illegal.
(a) an agreement
(b) a deed
(d)a certificate
(c)a convention
457. Actionable----------consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care

or skill towards a person or his property.
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(d)breach of duty
(a)damage
(b)negligence
(d)breach of duty
459. A person is guilty of a ---------- who does any act or is guilty of

illegal omission which causes any common injury, danger or annoyance
to the public or to the people in general who dwell or occupy property in
vicinity, or which must necessarily cause injury obstruction, danger or
annoyance to persons who may have occasion to use any public right.
This paragraph is the following one section.
(a)public nuisance
(b)private nuisance
(c)assault
(d)battery
460. One must aware of the fact that a --------- when undergoing a
sentence, cannot sue for an injury to his property, or for recovery of debt.
(a)Convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
(d) Corporation
461. An ------- is one whose State or sovereign is at war with the

sovereign of other, or one who, whatever his nationality is voluntary
resident or carries on business in an enemy's country.
(a)convict
(b) Alien enemy
(c) Married women
462. A corporation ---------for libel .It is affecting property of business,

but not affecting personal reputation.
(a)may sue
(b)may not sue
(c)may be sued
(d)may not be sued
(a)to sue
(b)to be sued
(c)may sue
(d)may be sued
Short Questions
1.. What do you understand by the term disqualification to contract?

A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her
own law to which he or she is subject. For example, in England, a
married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority of
her husband.
For example:
(1) A statutory company cannot enter into a contract out of its
memorandum
In Myanmar, the capacity of a woman to contract is not
affected by her marriage either under Myanmar Customary Law .It
is also the same in Hindu or Mohammedan Law.
2. What is the meaning of silence?

The proposor cannot impose upon the acceptor the
penalty that in the event of his silence, he would be deemed to
have accepted.
"Omission" would include such conduct or forbearance on
one's part that the other person takes it as his willingness or
assent. Omission would not mean silence.
3. Define the term death of promisers with illustration?

Promises bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such
promisors before
performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Illustration
(a) A promises to deliver good to B on a certain day on payment of Ks.1,000. A
dies before the day
described. A's representatives are bound to deliver the goods to B, and B is bound
to pay the
Ks.1,000 to A's representatives.
But when personal skill qualification is involved in the performance of the
contract, the
contractual relations are put an end by the death of promisor.
4.. What are the liabilities of finder of goods?

A person who finds goods belonging to another and takes them into his custody is
subject to the
same responsibility as a bailee.
5.. How many kinds of requirements are there for quantum meruit? Express.
It means that the rights and liabilities to an implied (quasi) contract are the same as
if they entered
into contract themselves. The principle of Quantum meruit is closely associated
with the law relating
to quasi-contract. Where a building contractor does "extra work" over and above
the work mentioned
in the contract, he would be entitled to be paid at the market rate for such extra
work.
6. Under Section 2(h)of Contract Act, 1872, how many distinct parts are
required ? Express.
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides that "A Contract is an
agreement enforceable
by law".
"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free
consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful
consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby
expressly declared to be void. Nothing here in contained shall
affect any law in force in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar,
by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the
presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of
documents.”
7. How many types of promise are there? Define the term implied promised.
There are two type of promise, they are Express and Implied Promise.
implied promised
In so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise
than in words, the promise is said to be implied.[Section 9]
8. What do you understand by the term disqualification to contract?

A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her
own law to which he or she is subject. For example, in England, a
married woman cannot enter into contract without the authority of
her husband.
Section 28
10. Define the meaning of damages ?

In every breach of contract the injured party is entitled to
damages. Damages are given by way of restitution and
compensation only, but not as a punishment , the agreed party can,
therefore, recover the actual loss caused to him.
11. What do you understand by the term the mistake of fact ? Express with
conditions.
Agreement is void where both parties are under mistake as to
matter of fact essential to the agreement.
Explanation
An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing which forms the subject-matter of
the agreement is
not to be deemed a mistake as to a matter of fact. (S20)

Section 28
13. What is the meaning of executed consideration?

promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing,
or does or abstain from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing, something,
such act or
abstinence or promise is called a
consideration for the promise"
14. U Phyu accepts U Ni's proposal by a letter sent by post. Is the

communication of the acceptance
complete or not?
Yes, the communication of the acceptance complete.
15. Enumerate the persons who cannot sue in tort.
To deal with those persons who cannot sue, such persons may be mentioned as
follows: (1) Convict
(2) Alien enemy
(3) Married women
(4) Corporation
(5) Child
16. How many rules as to appropriation of payments ? Express.

Section 59
“Where a debtor, owing several distinct debts to one person,
makes a payment to him, either with express intimation or under
circumstances implying that payment is to be applied to the
discharge of some particular debt, the payment, if accepted, must
be applied accordingly.”
Section 60
“Where the debtor has omitted to intimate and there are no other
circumstances indicating to which debt the payment is to be
applied, the creditor may apply it at his discretion to any lawful
debt actually due and payable to him from the debtor, whether its
recovery is or is not barred by the law in force for the time being
as to the limitation of suits.”
Section 61
“Where neither party any appropriation the payment shall be
applied in discharge of the debts in order of time, whether they are
or are not barred by the law of limitation of suits. If the debts are
of equal standing, the payment shall be applied in discharge of
each proportionately.”
17. What do you understand by the term the thing must be done lawfully?
There are three conditions to establish a right of action under this
section, such as:-
gratuitously: and,
(iii) The person for whom the act is done must enjoy the benefit
of it.
Section 70 provides for the third kind of quasi - contract as follow:-
“Where a person lawfully does anything for another person, or
delivers anything to him, not intending to do so gratuitously, and such
other person enjoys the benefit there of, the latter is bound to make
compensation to the former in respect of , or to restore, the thing so
done or delivered.”
18. What is the definition of voidable contract?

An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the
parties thereto, but not
at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract.
19. U Maung Maung supplies the wife and children of U Aung Aung , a
lunatic, with necessaries
suitable to their condition in life. Can U Maung Maung entitle to be
reimbursed from U Aung's property?
Yes, U Maung Maung can entitle to be reimbursed from U Aung's property.
Because, U Maung Maung supplies the wife and children of U Aung Aung, a
lunatic, with
necessaries suitable to their condition in life U Maung Maung is entitled to be
reimbursed from U
Aung Aung's property.
Claim for necessaries supplied to persons incapable of contracting, or on his
account.
Reimbursement of person paying money due by another in payment of which he is
interested.
Thus, U Maung Maung can entitle to be reimbursed from U Aung's property.

(1)the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by information of the person
making it, of that
21. What is the definition of contingent contract?

Contingent contract is defined in Section 31 as "a contract to do or not to do
something if some
event, collateral to such contract, does or does not happen".
22. Define the meaning of obligations of parties to perform contracts.

Section 37
“The Parties to a contract must either perform, or offer to perform, their respective
promises, unless
such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of this Act, or
of any other law.”
23. U Ba promises to deliver good to U Mya on a certain day on payment of

Ks.1,00000. U Ba dies before the day described. U Ba's representatives are
bound to deliver the goods to U Mya, and Does U Mya bound to pay the
Ks.1,00000 to U Ba's representatives?
U Mya bound to pay the Ks.1,00000 to U Ba's representatives. Because Promises
bind the representatives of the promisors in case of the death of such promisors
before performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Thus, U Mya bound to pay the Ks.1,00000 to U Ba's representatives.
24. "Ni Ni" agrees to buy a picture by a dead painter and two rare China
vases, and "Phyu Phyu" also agree to sell them. May "Ni Ni" compel "B" ?
No, "Ni Ni" may not compel "B". A dead painter promises to paint a picture for Ni
Ni by a certain day, at a certain price. A painter dies before the day. The contract
cannot be enforced by painter's
representative or by Ni Ni. For Phyu Phyu, Promises bind the representatives of
the promisors in case of the death of such
promisors before performance, unless a contrary intention appears from the
contract.
So, "Ni Ni" may not compel "B".
25. Maung Maung without Mi Mi's authority lends Mi Mi's money to Thu
Thu. Afterwards Mi Mi accepts interests on the money from Thu Thu. Can
Mi Mi's conduct implies a ratification of the loan?
Yes, Mi Mi's conduct can implies a ratification of the loan. Section 199, “A person
ratifying any
unauthorized act done on his behalf ratifies the whole of the transaction of which
such act formed a
part.”
So, Mi Mi's conduct can implies a ratification of the loan.
26. How many kinds of misrepresentation? Express.

(1)the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by information of the person
making it, of that
(2)any breach of duty which, without an intent not deceive, gains an advantage to
the person
committing it, or any one claiming under him, by misleading another to his
prejudice or to the
prejudice of any one claiming under him.
(3) causing, however innocently, a party to an agreement to make a mistake as to
the substance of the
thing which is the subject of the agreement.
27. Define the term the disqualification to contract.

A person may be disqualified from contracting by his or her own law to which he
or she is subject.
For example, in England, a married woman cannot enter into contract without the
authority of her
husband.

Section 21
“A contract is not voidable because it was caused by a mistake as to any law in
force in the Union of
Myanmar, but a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union of Myanmar has the
same effect as a
29. What is omission from modes of communication? "

The communication of proposals, the acceptance of
[Section (3)]
30. What is the mistake of law?

Section 21
“A contract is not voidable because it was caused by a mistake as to any law in
force in the Union of
Myanmar, but a mistake as to a law not in force in the Union of Myanmar has the
same effect as a
31. What kinds of remedies are there for breach of contract?

contract, namely:-
(i) Damages
(iii) An injunction

33.Write a short note on quasi-contract.

34. Define a tort.

Tort has been made to define tort but not in success. Dr. Ba Han, a learned person
and a former
Professor Emeritus of Law, Yangon University, defined "tort" as:
Tort is the name of civil wrongs (not being merely breaches of contract) for which
there is a remedy by action
in courts of common law jurisdiction.
Underhill, defined "tort" as: An act or omission which independent of contract is
authorized by law and
results either in the infringement of same absolute right, to which another is
entitled or in the infliction upon
him of some substantial loss of money, health or material comfort beyond that
suffered by the rest of the
public, and which infringement or infliction of loss is remediable by action for
damages.
35. What are the liabilities of finder of goods?

According to the Section 168 of the Contract Act, a person who finds goods
belonging to another and take
them into his custody is entitled to retain the goods against the owner until, he
receives such compensation
for trouble and expenses voluntarily incurred by him to preserve the goods and find
out the owner, but he has
no right to sue.
He can, however sue the owner where the owner has offered a specific reward for
return of the goods lost and
may retain the goods until he receives it.
Moreover, he is entitled to its possession as against everyone except the true
owner.
36. What is the meaning of agent?

“An "Agent" is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent
another, in dealing with third
persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called
the “principal”.”
37. Describe the meaning of “damages”?
"Damage" means the loss or grief or harm suffered by the plaintiff. It can be seen
clearly that "a person who
on purpose or carelessly injuries another contrary to law in his life, body, health,
freedom, property, or other
right is liable to compensate that other for the resulting damage".
"Damages" on the other hand means such compensation awarded by the court for
the pecuniary loss suffered
by the plaintiff. An award of damages may serve to compensate the plaintiff and to
deter the defendant and
other from similar conduct in the future.
38. What is the meaning of self-defence?

A trespass may be excused as having been done in self-defence. Hence noone can
be held liable for trespass
if he entered another's property actingunder self-defence.

In Section 2(b) of Contract Act, when the person to whom the proposal is made
signifies his assent thereto,
the proposal is said to be 'accepted' A proposal, when accepted.( As to when
communication of acceptance
becomes complete) becomes a "promise".
40. What are the basic factors to constitute a valid control.

There are the basic factors which are essentials to constitute a valid contract, such
as:
1. Agreement
4. Lawful consideration and lawful object
5. Void agreement
6. Where writing, attestation or registration in accordance with law.
Under section 2(h) of the Contract Act 1872 provides that "A Contract is an
agreement enforceable by
law".
41. What are the defences to an action for trespass?

(1) Prescription
(2) Leave and Licence
(4) Distress
(5) Act of Necessity
(6) Self-defence
Negligence
Actionable negligence consists of the neglect of the use of ordinary care or skill
towards a person or his
property. Such are should be observed by a man of ordinary prudence taking care.
42. What is the meaning of battery?

Battery is the intentional application of force to another person. He whoshoots and
wounds another
To pull away a chair from a
person as a practical joke is probably an assault, but when he falls to the ground it
becomes a battery.
43. What are the remedies for nuisance?

(2) Damages and
(3) Injunction

MM Law 6103-Q (JJ)

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ကို ပြီးယာ က်ဴတိုရီရယ္ေမးခြန္း

1."Consideration must not be ----------- , immoral or opposed to the public policy."

3. A promise to pay a time-barred debt must be ------------ .

5.A contract includes ------- an agreement

6.An agreement may be ---------- include a contract

7.Every contract contains ----------- .

8.An agreement which is required to be stamped will be --------- if it is n ot stamped at all.

10. A minor --------- himself by a contract. Cannot bind

15. ------------ damages consist of a small token award.

18. ---------- may be prohibitory or mandatory.

22."On acceptance of proposal, proposer is called as ---------- ."

24.----------- can be a beneficiary.

28. Mistake should be essential to the __________.

30.There are __________ relating to the devolution or joint liabilities.

A contract may be discharged by impossibility.

37.What is the definition of bailment and describe the duties of a bailor?

“A bailment is the delivery of goods by one person

Bailor Duty to disclose

Debt is a contract. Promise to pay time-barred debt [Section 25(3)

A person untruly representing himself to be the

"A person with whom a contract has been entered into

Estoppel of a principal is dealt with in Section 237 which

40.Define the term the disqualification to contract.

A person may be disqualified from contracting by his

(1) A statutory company cannot enter into a contract out of

(2) An alien enemy is incompetent to contract.

In Myanmar, the capacity of a woman to contract is

such goods are used.

3. ------------------ includes their state or condition.

upon the same thing in the same sense".

of consideration in sale transaction.

7. -------------- and acceptance are the two basic elements of contract.

a. proposal b.offer c. agreement d. promise

resemble those creasted by contracts.

a. Quasi-contract  b. Contract c. Agreement d. Deed

a. Damages and specific performance  b.Damages, specific performance and injunction

a. Agreement  b. Contract c. Communication

a. agreement b. promise /  c. offer d. proposal

a. acceptance/  b. proposal c. offer d. agreement

a. proposal /  b. offer c. agreement d. promise

14. ---------------- communication would include telephone message.

a. Oral/  b. Written c. Printed

intention that is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it is addressed.

make an offer but invites another party to do so.

to perform because of the other party's defective or non-performance.

21. ------------------- means where a party disables himself from performing.

22. ----------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.

party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.

obligation to perform because of the other party's defective or non-perfomance.

the circumstances of the case.

intenion that it is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it is addressed.

because of the party's defective or non-performance.

party is unwilling, even though he may be able, to perform.

32. -------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.

complying with the terms of the contract.

35. ----------------- only may enforce the terms of agreement.

The parties to the contract

36. ------------- may be made expressly by words or by coduct.

make an offer but invites another party to de so.

38. ---------------- means where a party disables himself from performing.

39. -------------------- can be sought for all cases of misrepresentation.

to perform because of the other party's defective or non-performance.

41. -------------- is aborder term than a contract.

43. ------------ communication would include telephone message.