Effect of the dopant location and the number of Bragg mirrors on the

performance of superlattice infrared photodetectors

Pedro Henrique Pereira˚:§ , Germano Maioli Penello;§ , Mauricio Pamplona Pires;§ ,
Manfred Helm: , Harald Schneider: , Patricia Lustoza Souza˚§
˚ LabSem/CETUC, Pontifícia Universidade Católica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
: Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum-Dresden-Rossendorf, Dresden, Germany
; Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
§ DISSE, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Nanodispositivos Semicondutores

pedro.hpereira@cetuc.puc-rio.br

Abstract—We have investigated the influence of the position
of the dopants and the number of Bragg mirrors in the confine-
ment of localized states in the continuum of a InGaAs/InAlAs
superlattice with a structural defect. The potential profile of
the conduction band of the superlattice was determined by
self-consistently solving the Schrödinger-Poisson equations. The
influence of these parameters was analyzed by the oscillator
strength of the optical transition between the ground state and
the first localized state in the continuum. The best location for
the dopants is in the structural defect quantum well, for which
an oscillator strength of 0.25 was obtained. It is found that two
Bragg mirrors are enough to confine the first localized state in
the continuum without decreasing the oscillator strength of the
optical transition from the ground state.
Index Terms—Quantum Well, Superlattice, Intersubband tran-
sition, photodetector, self-consistent solution.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Recently, InGaAs/InAlAs superlattice infrared photodetec-
tors (SLIPs) attracted much attention because of their ad-
vantages over the Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors
(QWIPs), such as low thermal excitation, anomalous parity,
detection energy not limited by the material band offset, dual
mode operation, room temperature operation and more degrees
of freedom for tuning the transition energy [1]–[6].
The heterostructure is based on a superlattice with a struc-
tural defect. Such structural defect consists of one quantum
well of the superlattice with its thickness different from the
others. A proper choice of each superlattice‘s layer thickness
creates the localized states in the continuum [7]. The quantum
wells and quantum barriers act as a Bragg mirror for electrons
in these confined states. The superlattice infrared photodetec-
tors based on symmetric or asymmetric superlattices may give
rise to striking effects, such as parity anomaly [2] and leaky
electronic states [5], respectively.
It should be noted that the number of Bragg mirrors and
the location of the dopants change the band structure of
the superlattice and, therefore, should influence the device
performance. Two important parameters to assess the device
performance are the detection energy and oscillator strength of
the optical transition. They are determined by self-consistently
978-1-7281-1909-0/19/$31.00
2019
c IEEE
solving the Schrödinger-Poisson equations for the conduction
band.
We present a careful investigation of the effect of the
location of the dopants and the number of Bragg mirrors on
the band structure of the superlattice with a structural defect.
The Schrödinger and Poisson equations were solved self-
consistently to obtain the electronic structure of the conduction
band. The transition energy between the ground state and the
first localized state in the continuum and its oscillator strength
are used as an evaluation parameters for each studied case.
The location of the dopants in the superlattice considerably
modifies the band structure and directly changes both the
detection energy and the oscillator strength.
II. THE SELF - CONSISTENT METHOD
The employed calculation method consists of solving self-
consistently the Schrödinger-Poisson equations. Considering
the position-dependent effective mass and non-parabolic band
approximations [8], the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation
is [9]
h̄2 d
ˆ ˙
1 d
´ ψpzq ` V pzqψpzq “ Eψpzq, (1)
2 dz ˚
m pz, Eq dz
where h̄ is the reduced Planck’s constant, ψpzq is the wave-
function, E is the energy, m˚ pz, Eq is the energy-position-
dependent effective mass and V pzq is the potential caused by
the material band offset, Vband pzq, and the dopants, Ve pzq,
given by
V pzq “ Vband pzq ` Ve pzq. (2)
The one-dimensional Poisson equation is
d d
pzq Ve pzq “ ´e2 ρpzq, (3)
dz dz
where pzq is the position-dependent dielectric constant and
Ve pzq is the electrostatic potential. The charge density ρpzq is
given by
` ˘
ρpzq “ npzq ´ Nd` , (4)
where Nd` is the ionized donor concentration and npzq is the
electron density
ÿ 2
npzq “ Ni |ψi pzq| , (5)
i potential profile of the conduction band in the direction of
where i is the number of bound states, and Ni is the electron
occupation for each state given by
kB T m˚ ” pEF ´Ei q{kB T
ı
Ni “ ln 1 ` e , (6)
πh̄2
where, kB is Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, Ei is
the eigenenergy and EF is the Fermi energy.
The Schrödinger and Poisson equations were solved using
the Split-Operator [10] and finite element [9] methods, respec-
tively. The self-consistent method can be summarized in five
steps, which are;
1 - Solve the Schrödinger equation for the potential due to
the material band offset to obtain the eigenstates;
2 - With the eigenstates, solve the Poisson equation to obtain
the potential due to the dopants;
3 - Solve the Schrödinger equation considering the complete
potential, the material band offset and the dopants;
4 - Calculate the energy difference of step 1 and step 3, and
compare it with the tolerance, we choose tolerance of 10´8 ;
5 - If this difference is greater than the tolerance, return to
step 1 until the energy difference is below the tolerance.
Once the self-consistent potential profile and eigenstates
are obtained, the absorption spectrum are calculated using the
Fermi’s golden rule
ÿ f1n Γ
αpEq “ ” ı, (7)
2
n 2π pE ´ En q ` 41 Γ2
where Γ is the linewidth of the Lorentzian function and f1n
is the oscillator strength, given by
2m˚
f1n “ z |ψn y|2 ,
pEn ´ E1 q|xψ1 |p (8)
h̄2
where E and |ψy are the eigenenergy and eigenstate, respec-
tively, where the subscripts 1 and n refer to the ground and
nth states, in that order [11].
III. R ESULTS
The reference superlattices for this study are the symmetric
[2] and asymmetric SLIPs [5]. The structural defect quantum
well has a thickness of 2.5 nm. The Bragg mirror is formed
by quantum wells of 2.0 nm and barriers of 7.0 nm. The n-
dopants considered in all simulations is 2.5 ˆ 1018 cm´3 . We
will explore the effect of the position of the dopants and the
number of quantum wells of the Bragg mirror in the symmetric
and asymmetric superlattices. The oscillator strengths for the
transitions between the fundamental state in the structural
defect quantum well and the first and second localized states
in the continuum will be used as an evaluation parameter for
all investigated cases.
A. The symmetric superlattice with the n-doped structural
defect quantum well
The superlattice consists of one n-doped structural defect
quantum well and five Bragg mirrors on each side. The
growth superimposed with the electron probability density at
null bias can be seen in Fig. 1(a). The ground state, blue line,
is localized in the structural defect quantum well. The first
and second localized states in the continuum are highlighted
by black and green lines, respectively. The potential created
only by the dopants can be seen in the inset, as a red line.
The potential energy over the structural defect quantum well
decreases by 2 meV. The comparison between the calculated
absorption spectrum for the self-consistent potential and for
the material band offset potential, black and blue lines, re-
spectively, is presented in Fig. 1(b). The absorption spectrum
presents two energy peaks, one at 300 meV and another around
440 meV. These energy peaks are related to optical transitions
between the ground state and the first and second localized
states in the continuum, respectively. The calculated absorption
spectra are almost equal, a small decrease by 1.25 meV in the
first energy peak is observed. The oscillator strengths are 0.28
and 0.09, respectively.
f = 0.09
f = 0.28
= 1.25 meV
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Potential profile of the conduction band of the symmetric
superlattice with the structural defect superimposed with probability density
of the states. The band structure was solved self-consistently considering the
central quantum well n-doped with 2.5 ˆ 1018 cm´3 . Inset: The electrostatic
potential due to dopants in the structural defect quantum well, red line. (b)
Comparison between the calculated absorption spectra considering the self-
consistent potential, blue line, and only the material bandoffset potential, black
line. The absorption spectrum presents two energy peaks at 300 meV and
around 440 meV. The oscillator strength of each peak energy is 0.28 and
0.09, respectively.
B. The modulation-doped asymmetric superlattice
The asymmetric superlattice consists of five Bragg mirrors
to the left, the structural defect quantum well, and one Bragg
mirror to the right. The barriers surrounding the structural
defect quantum well is be n-doped in three configurations:
in the left barrier, in the right barrier, and in both barriers.
The positions of the dopants can be seen in the inset of Figs.
f = 0.05
2(a)-(c)-(e).
In Figs. 2(a)-(b) the band structure and the absorption
f = 0.04
spectrum for the n-doped quantum barriers surrounding the
structural defect quantum well are presented. The band struc-
ture is considerably changed due to the dopants (brown line),
creating a sawtooth-like potential around the structural defect
quantum well. This perturbation changes the Bragg mirror
(a) (b)
condition and, consequently, the leaky electronic states. The
oscillator strengths dropped to 0.04 and 0.07, respectively. f = 0.07
The band structure and absorption spectrum for the case of
the left n-doped quantum barrier can be seen in Figs. 2(c)-(d). f = 0.03

The potential due to the dopants has a step function format for
the Bragg mirror to the right of the structural defect quantum
well (brown line). The changes in the potential affect the Bragg
mirror condition for the leaky electronic states. In this case,
the oscillator strengths are 0.03 and 0.07, respectively.
(c) (d)
The band structure and the absorption spectrum for the case
of the right n-doped quantum barrier can be seen in Figs.
f = 0.06
2 (c)-(d). As expected, the dopant potential is again a step
function giving rise to oscillator strengths equal to 0.08 and
0.07, respectively. f = 0.08

This drastic change in the potential generated by the dopants

is related, besides its position, to its thickness. In this section,
we consider quantum barrier, 7.0 nm thick, entirely doped.
C. Effect of the number of Bragg mirrors in the superlattice (e) (f)

The confinement of the localized states in the continuum

depends directly on the number of Bragg mirrors which form
the superlattice. The structural defect quantum well is n-doped.
The band structure of the superlattice with one and five Bragg
mirrors and the electron probability density are shown in Figs.
3(a)(b). For the superlattice with one Bragg mirror, the wave
function of the localized states in the continuum (green and
black lines) are partially confined. For the superlattice with
five Bragg mirrors, the localized states in the continuum are
now completely localized. In Fig. 3(c) the oscillator strength
as a function of the number of Bragg mirrors is presented. The
oscillator strength for the transition to the first localized state
in the continuum starts at 0.15 and reaches its highest value of
0.25 with two Bragg mirrors, while for the oscillator strength
for the second localized state, it starts at 0.05 and saturates
around its highest value of 0.10 for four Bragg mirrors.
The asymmetry in the superlattice gives rise to leaky elec-
tronic states in the continuum. Keeping the left side of the
structural defect fixed with five Bragg mirrors, the number of
Bragg mirrors on the right is varied from one to five. The band
structure of the superlattice with one and five Bragg mirrors
on the right superimposed with the electron probability density
can be seen in Figs. 4(a)-(b). The oscillator strength for the
first leaky electronic state, Fig. 3(c), starts at 0.21 and the
maximum value of 0.25 is reached for two Bragg mirrors.
The black cross and the gray square seen inFig. 4(c)
represent the experimental oscillator strength of the lowest
transition energy (between the ground state and the first local-
ized state) obtained by the measured absorption spectra of the
Fig. 2. Effect of the doped region of the asymmetric superlattice on the band
structure and absorption spectrum. (a)-(b) For the modulation-doped structural
defect quantum well. (c)-(d) For the n-doped left barrier. (e)(f) For the n-doped
right barrier.
asymmetric and symmetric superlattices [2], [5], respectively.
The experimental oscillator strength of the symmetric super-
lattice is 0.28 ˘ 0.01, 12% higher than the theoretical value.
For the asymmetric superlattice, the experimental oscillator
strength is 0.17 ˘ 0.02, 19% lower than the theoretical
prediction.
IV. C ONCLUSION
In conclusion, a detailed study of the effect of the dopant
location and the number of Bragg mirrors in the localized
states in the continuum in InGaAs/InAlAs superlattices with a
structural defect was presented. The band structure was self-
consistently solved. Each situation studied was evaluated via
the oscillator strength for the transitions between the ground
state and the first localized state in the continuum. The location
of the dopants dramatically changes the Bragg mirror condi-
tion required for the localized states in the continuum. The
position of the dopants at the structural defect is the one that
least alters the band structure and, consequently, the optical
transition’s oscillator strength. In the symmetric superlattice
with an n-doped structural defect, the first localized state in the
continuum needed at least two Bragg mirrors for the saturation
 of the oscillator strength, whereas for the second localized
state in the continuum four Bragg mirrors are required. The
leaky electronic state is created with the asymmetric super-
lattice with only one Bragg mirror. The oscillator strength
of the optical transition to the first localized state in the
continuum is 0.25, while for the first leaky electronic state
is 0.21. The theoretical values of the oscillator strength of the
asymmetric and the symmetric superlattices are compared to
the experimental values and a good agreement is obtained.
(a) (b) The self-consistent analysis of the band structure plays an
important role in the development/performance of superlattice
.
infrared photodetectors.
. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
. The authors would like to thank CAPES foundation, CNPq,
FAPERJ, and FINEP for the financial support.
.

.
R EFERENCES
1 Penello, G. M., Degani, M. H., Maialle, M. Z., Pires, M. P., and
.
Souza, P. L., “Photocurrent calculation of intersubband transitions to
(c)
.
continuum-localized states in gaas/algaas multiquantum wells for mid-
infrared photodetector,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 49,
no. 9, pp. 747–752, 2013.
2 Penello, G. M., Degani, M. H., Maialle, M. Z., Kawabata, R. M.,
Fig. 3. Effect of the number of Bragg mirrors on the location of the localized Micha, D. N., Pires, M. P., and Souza, P. L., “Exploring parity anomaly for
states in the continuum. (a) One Bragg mirror around the defect quantum dual peak infrared photodetection,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics,
well. (b) Five Bragg mirrors around the defect quantum well. (c) Oscillator vol. 52, no. 12, pp. 1–6, 2016.
strength of the optical transition between the ground state in the structural 3 Guerra, L., Penello, G., Pires, M., Pinto, L., Jakomin, R., Mourão, R.,
defect quantum well and the first and second localized states in the continuum Degani, M., Maialle, M., and Souza, P., “Detecting infrared radiation
as a function of the number of Bragg mirrors. beyond the bandoffset with intersubband transitions,” IEEE Photonics
Technology Letters, vol. 28, no. 15, pp. 1641–1644, 2016.
4 Pereira, P., Penello, G., Pires, M., Sivco, D., Gmachl, C., and Souza, P.,
“Asymmetric superlattice quantum well infrared photodetector,” in 2017
32nd Symposium on Microelectronics Technology and Devices (SBMicro).
IEEE, 2017, pp. 1–3.
5 Penello, G. M., Pereira, P. H., Pires, M. P., Sivco, D., Gmachl, C., and
Souza, P. L., “Leaky electronic states for photovoltaic photodetectors
based on asymmetric superlattices,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 112,
no. 3, p. 033503, 2018.
6 Pereira, P. H., Penello, G. M., Pires, M. P., Sivco, D., Gmachl, C.,
and Souza, P. L., “High performance dual-mode operation asymmetric
superlattice infrared photodetector using leaky electronic states,” Journal
of Applied Physics, vol. 125, no. 20, p. 204501, 2019.
7 Capasso, F., Sirtori, C., Faist, J., Sivco, D. L., Chu, S.-N. G., and
(a) (b) Cho, A. Y., “Observation of an electronic bound state above a potential
well,” Nature, vol. 358, no. 6387, pp. 565–567, 1992.
8 Nelson, D., Miller, R., and Kleinman, D., “Band nonparabolicity effects
. in semiconductor quantum wells,” Physical Review B, vol. 35, no. 14, p.
7770, 1987.
.
9 Harrison, P. and Valavanis, A., Quantum wells, wires and dots: theoretical
.
and computational physics of semiconductor nanostructures. John Wiley
& Sons, 2016.
. 10 Degani, M. H. and Maialle, M. Z., “Numerical calculations of the quantum
states in semiconductor nanostructures,” Journal of Computational and
. Theoretical Nanoscience, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 454–473, 2010.
11 Schneider, H. and Liu, H. C., Quantum well infrared photodetectors.
.
Springer, 2007.
(c)
.

Fig. 4. Comparison of the number of Bragg mirrors to the right of the defect
quantum well, holding five Bragg mirrors to the left of the structural defect
quantum well. (a) One Bragg mirror to the right. (b) Five Bragg mirrors to the
right. The oscillator strengths as a function of the number of Bragg mirrors.